MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO FACULTY OF EDUCATION Department of English Language and Literature Young Learners and Teenagers Analysis of their Attitudes to English Language Learning Diploma thesis Brno 2011 Supervisor:Author: Mgr. Nadda VojtkovBc. Eva Loukotkov Announcement I hereby declare that I have worked on this diploma thesis on my own and that I used only the sources listed in the bibliography section. Brno, 6 April 2011 Bc. Eva Loukotkov Prohlen Prohlauji, e jsem tuto diplomovou prci zpracovala samostatn a pouila jen prameny uveden v seznamu literatury. V Brn, dne 6. dubna 2011 Bc. Eva Loukotkov Acknowledgements IwouldliketoexpressmygratitudeandthankstoMgr.NaddaVojtkovfor herkindhelp,wordsofencouragementandvaluableadvicethatsheprovidedtome during my work on this diploma thesis. Brno, 6 April 2011 Bc. Eva Loukotkov Annotation Thisdiplomathesisdealswithyoungandteenagelearners.Particularly, it analysestheirattitudestowardsEnglishlanguagelearning.Thetransitionfrom the lowertotheupper-primaryschoolgradesusuallymarksabreakingpointwhenthe adolescencebeginsandthelearnersattitudeschange.Therefore,thethesisfocuses on thetargetgroupofteenagersandinvestigateshowtheirattitudesandinterest in learning English change. The introductory section provides a theoretical background tothestudiedphenomenon.Theauthordiscussesthecharacteristicsofbothyoung and teenagelearners.Theissueisexaminedfromthedevelopmentalpsychologypoint of view as well. In addition, methodology advice on how to approach and teach the two respectivegroupsisincludedaswell.Thepracticalpartofthisdiplomathesisgives the account of a case study that was conducted at a primary school. The practical survey provides a constructive analysis of the changing attitudes in primary school learners. Key wordsattitudes to learning, developmental psychology, teenagers, young learners, motivation Anotace Tato diplomov prce je zamena na mlad a dospvajc ky zkladnch kol. Zabvsezejmnaanalzoujejichpstupukuenanglickhojazyka.Pechod z prvnhonadruhstupezkladnkolyjeastooznaovnjakozlomovokamik, kdy zan obdob dospvn a postoje k se mn. Proto se prce zamuje na clovou skupinudospvajcchkazjiuje,jaksejejichpostojeazjemovukuanglitiny mn.Autorkasevvodnstivnujecharakteristicejakmladch,takdospvajcch k.Problematikajezkoumnatakz pohleduvvojovpsychologie.Uveden je rovnmetodickpstupk vucetchtodvouvkovchskupin.Prakticksttto diplomov prce pojednv o ppadov studii, kter byla provedena na zkladn kole. Praktickvzkumkonstruktivnanalyzujemncsepostojeknadanzkladn kole. Klov slovamlad koln vk, motivace, pstup k uen, star koln vk, vvojov psychologie Table of contents INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 7 1. THEORETICAL PART ............................................................................................. 9 1.1. Young Learners................................................................................................................................. 10 1.1.1. Definition and characteristics of young learners ......................................................................... 10 1.1.2. The development of childrens thinking and understanding ........................................................ 12 1.1.3. Teaching young learners .............................................................................................................. 13 1.1.4. Using games in teaching young learners ..................................................................................... 18 1.2. Teenage Learners .............................................................................................................................. 21 1.2.1. Definition of teenage learners ...................................................................................................... 21 1.2.2. Young teenagers and features of adolescence ............................................................................. 21 1.2.3. Physical changes .......................................................................................................................... 22 1.2.4. Psychological changes ................................................................................................................. 24 1.2.5. Social changes ............................................................................................................................. 25 1.2.6. Teenage relation to family and peers ........................................................................................... 26 1.2.7. Teenage relation to school ........................................................................................................... 28 1.2.8. Thinking skills ............................................................................................................................. 30 1.2.9. Teenagers learning potential ...................................................................................................... 31 1.3. Teaching Teenagers .......................................................................................................................... 33 1.3.1. Teacher-teenager relationship ...................................................................................................... 33 1.3.2. Appropriate teaching methods for teenagers ............................................................................... 35 1.3.3. Relevant topics for teenagers ....................................................................................................... 37 1.3.4. Teenagers and music ................................................................................................................... 37 1.3.5. Teenagers and game-like activities .............................................................................................. 38 1.3.6. Teenagers and entertainment ....................................................................................................... 38 1.3.7. Class knowledge and cross-curricular education ......................................................................... 38 1.3.8. Group and project work with teenagers ....................................................................................... 39 1.3.9. Role-play and movement with teenagers ..................................................................................... 40 1.3.10. Humour, variation and pace with teenagers ............................................................................... 40 1.3.11. Teenage learner responsibility and autonomy ........................................................................... 41 1.3.12. Teenagers and technology ......................................................................................................... 42 1.3.13. Discussing and debating activities with teenagers ..................................................................... 43 1.3.14. Teenagers and discipline ........................................................................................................... 43 2. PRACTICAL PART ................................................................................................. 45 2.1. Case Study ......................................................................................................................................... 46 2.2. Analysis and Interpretation of the Questionnaire Data ................................................................ 47 2.2.1. Comparison of attitudes ............................................................................................................... 48 2.2.2. Young learners............................................................................................................................. 58 2.2.3. Teenage learners .......................................................................................................................... 59 2.3. Analysis and Interpretation of the Focus Group Interview .......................................................... 76 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................. 79 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................... 82 INTERNET SOURCES ................................................................................................ 84 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... 86 LIST OF GRAPHS ..................................................................................................... 103 7 Introduction Generally,therehasbeenagrowinginterestintheteachingofyounglearners. However, teenagers make a large proportion of all learners of English as well. It is the age of students that represents a major factor in teachers decisions about what and how toteach.Therefore,itisobviousthatsuccessfullearninghappenswhenteachersare able to address the needs of a particular age group. Oneofthemostcommonbeliefsisthatteachingteenagersisadifficulttask. Many English teachers would probably agree that it is hard to establish a good learning atmosphereinateenageclassroom.Itisalsowidelyagreedthatteenagersareless motivated than other groups of learners. Thetransitionfromthelower-primarytotheupper-primaryschoolgrades generally represents a breaking point. At this stage, children start entering the period of adolescence and their attitudes to school change. While young children, especially those up to the age of ten, show enthusiasm for learning, young teenagers usually lose interest in learning.Thisphenomenonisrecognizedasaveryimportantfactoraffectingboth teachingandlearningatprimaryschools.Sinceprimaryschoolteachersare permanently facing problems related to this issue, it is worth examining.Thisdiplomathesisfocusesonprimaryschoollearnersandtheirattitudesto learningEnglish.Inparticular,itaimstoinvestigatethechangesintheinterestin learning English, when young learners enter upper-primary grades. The thesis is divided into the theoretical and practical part.The theoretical part provides the background information for the practical part of thisthesis.Firstly,itpresentsthedefinitionsandcharacteristicsofbothyoungand teenagelearners.Itdescribestheirlearningpotential,motivationandattitudestowards schoolandlearningEnglish.Sincedevelopmentalpsychologyiscrucialfor understanding how to effectively approach these two age groups, the issue is examined from this point of view as well.Secondly, the theoretical part includes methodology advice on how to teach both young and teenage learners with regard to changes that they are undergoing. It intends todefinepossiblereasonswhyyoungteenagersloseinterestinlanguagelearningand howteacherscandealwiththisproblem.Furthermore,thetheoreticalpartfocuseson the possibilities of enhancing learner motivation. 8 Thepracticalpartofthisdiplomathesisgivestheaccountofacasestudy. It provides a constructive analysis of the problem of changing attitudes in teenagers at a particularprimaryschoolinBrno.Theinvestigationwasdonespecificallywiththe intentiontofindouthowtheyounglearnersattitudesandinterestinlearningchange whentheyenterupper-primarygrades.Further,thecasestudyfocusedonthecurrent situation in the target group of young teenagers. It aimed to describe and illuminate the issues discussed in the theoretical part from the practical point of view.Finally,thisdiplomathesisreportsontheoutcomesofthesurveyandprovides a conclusion on the studied phenomenon. 9 1. Theoretical Part Thetheoreticalpartaimstoprovidebackgroundinformationforthepractical survey of this diploma thesis. It is divided into three subchapters.Thefirstonefocusesonyounglearners.Itpresentsthedefinition,specific characteristicsandlearningpotentialofthisagegroup.Teachingmethodology appropriate for young learners is discussed as well. Thesecondsubchapterdealswithyoungteenagers.Itdefinesthisagegroup and describes the period of adolescence from the developmental point of view. Further, teenageattitudestoschoolarediscussedwithregardtophysicalandpsychological changes that they are undergoing.Finally,thethirdsubchapterdiscussesindetailhowtoteach,motivateand approach young teenagers in order to reach their full learning potential. 10 1.1. Young Learners This chapter focuses on young learners. It aims to provide their characteristics and describe their learning potential. It also deals with basic developmental theories that are importanttounderstandinordertoteachthisagegroupeffectively.Furthermore,the chapterprovidesmethodologicalrecommendationsabouthowtoteachandapproach younglearnerssoastoreachthebestlearningresults.Finally,thelastsubchapter discussesgames,whichrepresentasubstantialcomponentofteachinglanguage to young learners. 1.1.1. Definition and characteristics of young learners Generally, it is difficult to give precise age range of this learner group. However, young learners are usually considered to be pupils between six to ten or eleven years of age. Since there are great differences between pupils at the beginning of their schooling and older children, for the purposes of this diploma thesis I shall work with the group of younglearnersbetweentheagesofeighttoten.Thisagegroupiscommonly represented in the third, fourth and fifth primary grades, which are also target grades for this diploma thesis practical survey. Theseyoungchildrengenerallydisplayanenthusiasmforlearninganda curiosityabouttheworldaroundthem(Harmer,ThePracticeofEnglishLanguage Teaching 82). Brumfit agrees that they tend to be keen and enthusiastic learners. This ismainlybecauseofthefactthattheydonothaveinhibitionsaboutlearningwhich older children and teenagers often bring to school (5).Harmer says that young learners are able to respond to meaning even if they do notunderstandthemeaningofindividualwords(ThePracticeofEnglishLanguage Teaching 82). Halliwell mentions the childrens ability to grasp the general meaning as well.Sheexplainsthatintonation,gestures,facialexpressions,actionsand circumstanceshelpyounglearnerstotellwhattheunknownwordsorphrasesmean. Thisgeneralmessage-interpretingskillisalreadyhighlydevelopedinprimaryschool children.Apartfromthisabilitytoperceivemeaning,younglearnersalsoshowgreat skill in using their new limited language resources creatively and meaningfully (3-4).Itisverycommonthatyounglearnersfrequentlylearnindirectlyratherthan directly. Harmer explains this phenomenon saying that, they take in information from all sides, learning from everything around them rather than only focusing on the precise 11 topictheyarebeingtaught.Theirunderstandingcomesnotjustfromexplanation,but alsofromwhattheyseeandhearand,crucially,haveachancetotouchandinteract with (The Practice of English Language Teaching 82).Harmeralsomentionsthatyounglearnersfindabstractconceptssuchas grammarrulesdifficulttograsp(ThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching82). Halliwelldevelopsthispointfurther.Sheclaimsthatthechildrenscapacityfor consciouslearningofformsandgrammaticalpatternsisstillrelativelyundeveloped (6).However,incontrasttothisweaknessinlearning,theypossessanenormous instinct for indirect way of learning (Halliwell 6).Whendiscussingyounglearners,expertsagreethattheirattentionand concentrationspanisveryshort.Harmersaysthatwiththeirlimitedattentionspan, unless activities are extremely engaging, they can get easily bored, losing interest after ten minutes or so (The Practice of English Language Teaching 82).Among otherdominantfeatures of young learners belongs theirinstinct for fun and play. Halliwell says that children take great pleasure in finding and creating fun in what they do (3). I think that this is also the reason why they are usually so enthusiastic and positive about learning. Young children love to play, and learn best when they are enjoying themselves. But they also take themselves seriously and like to think that what theyaredoingisrealwork(ScottandYtreberg3).Infact,whenteachingyoung learners,game-likeactivitiesindeedarerealwork.Sincegameshaveacentralrolein teachingyounglearners,thistopicisdealtwithseparatelyinchapterUsinggamesin teaching young learners. ScottandYtrebergfurtherclaimthateighttotenyearoldsarealreadyableto discern between fact and fiction (3). However, Halliwell mentions that they still delight inimaginationandfantasywhich,similarlytogames,hasaveryconstructivepartto play in the language classroom (7). It is worth realizing that the adult real world and the childs world are not the same (Scott and Ytreberg 3). Halliwell explains that reality for young learners still includes imagination and fantasy as well (7). Finally, young children indulge in talking. Especially, they are keen to talk about themselves. They respond well to learning that uses themselves and their own lives as maintopicsintheclassroom(Harmer,ThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching 82). 12 1.1.2. The development of childrens thinking and understanding It is generally agreed that the way of teaching young learners largely depends on theirdevelopmentalstage.Therefore,goodprimarypracticeshouldbebasedonthe knowledge and understanding of theories of child development, the ways in which they learnlanguagesandstudiesofclassroomconditionswhichpromoteforeignlanguage learning (Brewster 1-2).Thissubchapterprovidesbriefoverviewoftheoriesthatdealwiththeway childrendevelop.Inspiteofthefactthatsometheoriesaresignificantlydifferent,I believethattheysetarightbackgroundfortherecommendationsabouthowtoteach young learners in general. Varioustheorieshavedescribedthewaythatchildrendevelop.Vygotsky stressedtheroleofsocialinteractionindevelopment.Particularly,theroleofanadult guidance or collaboration with more capable peers that help a child who has entered the zone of proximal development and is ready to learn new things (Shorrocks 271).According to both Erikson and Maslow, childrens development is closely bound up in their confidence and self-esteem. In other theory, Feuerstein suggested that childs cognitivestructuresareinfinitelymodifiablewiththehelpofamodifier,whichis similartoVygotskystheory(Harmer,ThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching 82). However, Jean Piagets study of childrens intellectual development is probably the most influential in educational theory. He suggested that children start at the semi-motorstage,andthenproceedthroughtheintuitivestageandtheconcrete-operational stagebeforefinallyreachingtheformaloperationalstagewhereabstractionbecomes increasingly possible (Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching 82).According to Piaget, children between seven to eleven years of age belong to the concrete operational stage. During this stage, children begin to understand the concept ofconservation.FromthePiagetianperspective,conservationmeansthatchildren realise that quantities remain the same, even if they are placed in containers of different shapes and sizes (J. Lewis).A central idea of Piagets theory is that of adaptation. He defines intelligence as adapting to the world. According to Piaget, two kinds of process are at workto bring thisadaptationabout(Shorrocks262).Hetalksabouttheprocessofassimilation, wherepreviousexperienceprovidesaframeworkintowhichthenewonecanbe integrated.Then,thereistheprocessofaccommodation,whichincludestheextended 13 knowledgeofconceptsthatallowchildrentorecognizeandinterpretnewinformation nexttime.Assimilationandaccommodationprocessesworkinacomplementaryway with each other to give organisation to our ever-growing knowledge and understanding (Shorrocks 263).Piagetsviewalsostronglyadvocatesachild-centredapproachtoteaching.A child-centred curriculum and methodology is widely recognized and applied in modern practicewherethechildrensneedsandinterestsareparamount.Nowadays,thereisa concern for the education of the whole child, including their moral, physical, emotional and intellectual growth (Brewster 3-4).Phillips summarizes that, As a general rule, it can be assumed that the younger the children are, the more holistic learners they will be (7). 1.1.3. Teaching young learners Basedonthedescriptionofyounglearnerscharacter,dispositions,and developmentaltheoriesdiscussedintheprevioussubchapters,thischapterpresents generalmethodologicalapproachesappropriateforthisagegroup.Itrecommends effectiveteachingstrategiesthatworkbestforyounglearnerswithregardtothe specifics of this age group. Itisimportant,whendiscussingyounglearners,totakeaccountofchanges whichtakeplacewithinthisvariedandvaryingagespan(Harmer,ThePracticeof EnglishLanguageTeaching82).Thebasicchangesthatinfluenceclassroom methodology are as follows: young children are learning how to cope with school life, learning to become literate and continue to develop concepts (Brewster 2).Oneofthemostcommonbeliefsaboutlanguagelearningandtheageisthat youngchildrenlearnfasterandmoreeffectivelythananyotheragegroup.However, thisclaimhasbeenconsiderablydisputed,becausethegeneralevidenceisunclear (Brumfit6-7).Variousstudiespointtothefactthatolderlearnersandteenagersmake more progress in language learning and are often more effective learners than the young ones. Nonetheless, research has shown that children who learn a new language early haveafacilitywiththepronunciationwhichissometimesdeniedtoolderlearners (Harmer,ThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching81).Usually,youngchildren are able to reproduce accent very accurately. Therefore, I think that the implications for 14 teachersofyounglearnersareextensive.Teachersshouldbetrueprofessionalsand competentusersoftheforeignlanguagetoprovideyounglearnerswithqualityinput. Harmercommentsthattheteacherspronunciationreallymattershere,precisely becauseyounglearnersimitateitincrediblywell(ThePracticeofEnglishLanguage Teaching 83). It was already mentioned that the physical world is dominant for young learners andtheyunderstandbestthroughsenses.Particularly,itisimportanttoemploysenses ofhearing,touchandvisionintoteaching.Therefore,Halliwellmentionsthatteachers shouldmakefulluseofgesture,intonation,demonstration,actionsandfacial expressions to convey the meaning parallel to what they are saying (4).What concerns classroom language, it is advisable to speak English as much of the time as possible, because young learners are unlikely to have many opportunities to hear English outside of the classroom. However, Scott and Ytreberg claim that it is up totheteacherstodecidehowmuchmothertonguetheyuse.Yet,theypointoutthat mime,acting,puppetsandanyothermeansshouldbefrequentlyusedtogetthe meaning across when speaking English (Scott and Ytreberg 18). Itisagreedthatappealingtosensesalwayshelpspupilstolearn.Scottand Ytrebergsaythatmostactivitiesforyounglearnersshouldincludemovementand involvesenses.Teachersneedtohaveplentyofobjectsandpicturestoworkwithand demonstrate what they want the pupils to do (Scott and Ytreberg 5). Phillips stresses the importanceofillustrationaswell.Shementionsthat,forexample,vocabularyisbest learntifthemeaningofthewordisillustratedbyapicture,actionorarealobject. Words that are used in relevant contexts fix better in childrens minds (Phillips 74). With young learners, demonstration is vital for successful teaching. Ellis advises thatteachersshouldexplainanddemonstrateattheboardthetasksthattheywant children to do at the tables. For example, when using a worksheet, it can be stuck on the board.Aboveall,shealsomentionsflashcardsasanexcellentaidforexplanationand presentation (Ellis). ScottandYtrebergalsothinkthatteachersneedtouseschoolandtheir surroundingstothefull(5).Harmermakessomeconclusionsaboutwhataclassroom for young learners should look like. First of all, it should be bright and colourful, with enoughroomfor different activities tobe taking place. It shouldbe taken into account thatpupilswouldbeworkingingroupsindifferentpartsoftheroom(Harmer,The Practice of English Language Teaching 83).15 Phillipsagreesthatphysicalorganisationoftheclassroomisimportant.Ideal classroomwouldhaveanareaofeasilymovabledesksandchairs,anopenspacefor actionsongsandgames,aquietareaforself-studyorreadingandaplacewhere childrensworkcanbedisplayed(Phillips10).Halliwellsummarisesthatclassrooms foryounglearnersarenottheoneswherethechildrenspendalltheirtimesittingin still rows or talking only to the teacher (18). Young learners respond to language according to what it does or what they can do with it, rather than treating it as a sophisticated game or abstract system (Phillips 7). Generally, methodology recommended for this age group emphasises learning by doing, problem solving and involving frequent use of work in small groups (Brewster 4).Harmer also suggests that teachers should lead young learners to work in groups sinceithelpsthemdevelopgoodandaffectiverelationships(ThePracticeofEnglish LanguageTeaching83).Phillipsclaimsthatchildrenmightatfirstfinditdifficult, becauseworkingingroupsmaybenewforthem.However,teacherscanstartwith controlledactivitiesandmakethemfreerwhenchildrendeveloptheabilitytotake responsibility and work without constant supervision (Phillips 10). ScottandYtrebergagreethatyounglearnersshouldbegroupedfrequently. However,theywarnthatgenuinecooperativegroupworkisusuallyachievedaftera longprocessanditistruethatsomepupilsworkbestalone(6).Theysaythat groupworkshouldnotbeattemptedbeforethechildrenareusedtoworkinginpairs first.Whengroupworkisgenerallyintroduced,mixedabilitygroupsshouldalternate withgroupsformedaccordingtoability.Teachersshouldbealsoawarethatsome pupils simply do not like each other, which is usually the problem with eight to ten year olds,anditisunlikelythattheywillworkwelltogether(15-17).Ontheotherhand, Children shouldnotbeallowed to choose their groups, partly because this takesa lot oftime,butmainlybecauseitusuallymeansthatsomeoneisleftout(Scottand Ytreberg 17).Apartfromthese,Phillipsstatesotherbasicpointsthatteachersofyoung learners should bear in mind. First of all, the activities should be simple enough for the learners to understand what is expected of them. Obviously, the tasks should fall within theirabilitiesandbeachievableaswell.However,atthesametimetheyneedtobe sufficiently stimulating so that learners feel satisfied with their work. Further, she points outtothefactthatactivitiesforyounglearnersshouldbelargelyorallybased.They shouldtakeuplargeproportionofclasstime,whilewrittenactivitiesshouldbeused 16 sparingly,becauseyounglearnersareoftennotproficientinthemechanicsofwriting yet (Phillips 7).Itisagreedthat,Agoodprimaryclassroommixesplayandlearninginan atmosphereofcheerfulandsupportiveharmony(Harmer,ThePracticeofEnglish LanguageTeaching83).Childrenlovediscoveringthingsandrespondwelltobeing asked to use their imagination. Halliwell thinks that teachers should stimulate childrens creative imagination so that they want to use the language to share their ideas (7).In general, young learners benefit from puzzle-like activities, making or drawing things,games,physicalmovementandsongs.Bycomparisonwithyounglearners, youngteenagerslikeactivitiesbuiltarounddialogues,question-and-answeractivities andmatchingexercisesmost(Harmer,ThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching 82-83). Phillipsfurtheraddstotalphysicalresponseactivities,tasksthatinvolve colouring,cutting,andsticking,simple,repetitivestories,andsimple,repetitive speaking activities that have an obvious communicative value (7).It is obvious that for the two age groups of learners different tasks are enjoyable andchallengingenough.Ithinkthatitisimportanttoprovidetherespectivelearner groupswithsuitableactivitiesandapproachthemdifferently.Forexample,teachers should be careful not to overwhelm young learners with grammar explanations. On the otherhand,teenagersshouldbechallengedbyothertasksthantheyusedtobeatthe lower-primary grades.Authorsalsoagreethatgoodteachersshouldprovideyounglearnerswith enjoyablelearningexperiences.Phillipsexplainsthatifanactivity isenjoyable,itwill bealsomemorable.Childrenwillhaveasenseofachievementwhichwilldevelop motivationforfurtherlearning.Thiscyclicalprocessgeneratesapositiveattitude towards learning English, which is perhaps one of the most valuable things that primary teachers can transmit to children (Phillips 8). Sinceattentionandconcentrationspansareshortinyounglearners,varietyis necessary.Holdensaysthat,childrencannotconcentrateononethingforalong period.Lessonsshould betherefore divided into a series of activities lasting no longer thanfiveortenminutes(qtd.inBrewster7-8).Otherauthorsusuallysuggestthat activities for eight to ten year olds should be changed every ten minutes or more, since their concentration span increases as they grow older.17 However,ScottandYtrebergpointoutthatvarietyintheclassroomshould include not onlythe varietyof activities, butalso the variety of pace, organisation and voice (5-6). It is also important to help children to feel secure and content in the classroom. Security is not an attitude or an ability, but it is essential if we want our pupils to get themaximumoutofthelanguagelessons(ScottandYtreberg10).Younglearners benefit from knowing the rules and being familiar with the situation. Therefore, teachers shouldcreatesystems,routinesandorganizeandplantheirlessonsthoroughly(Scott and Ytreberg 6).Ellisagreesthatitisimportanttoestablishroutines.Forinstance,singinga familiarsongatthebeginningofalessonensuresthat,everyonestartsthelesson feelingconfidentandattentive(Ellis).Toconclude,childrenrespondverywellto familiar situations and activities. They like to repeat stories, rhymes or songs. Young learners also respond strongly to music and rhythm. They are more easily able to learn a chant or a song than a spoken text. Therefore, music and rhythm should beanessentialpartoflanguagelearningforyounglearners.Songs,rhymesorchants makeitmucheasiertoimitateandrememberthelanguagethanwordswhichareonly spoken. They are good to teach children the sounds and rhythm of English, to reinforce structuresandvocabulary,ortobeusedastotalphysicalresponseactivities.Besides, children absorb much of the learning content unconsciously, so music can be also used as a background while children are working quietly on another task (Phillips 100). ScottandYtrebergalsoemphasisetheimportanceoflistenandrepeat exercisesthatgivethepupilsachancetoexperiencethesounds,stress,rhythmand intonation. When done in combination with movements or with objects or pictures, this type of activity also helps to establish the link between words and meaning (Scott and Ytreberg 27). Moreover, rhymes are repetitive and have an element of fun and playing with the language. Teachers should allow young learners to play with the language, let them talk nonsenseand experiment withwords and sounds.Playing withthe languagethis way isverycommoninfirstlanguagedevelopmentandisaverynaturalstageinthefirst stages of foreign language learning too (Scott and Ytreberg 5, 27). Lastbutnotleast,teacherattitudestoyounglearnersareessential.Twitchell warnsthatteachersshouldbecarefulaboutnottalkingdowntochildren.Ofcourse, when teaching children, teachers are more animated, more visibly enthusiastic and more 18 physically active. However, that doesnotmeanthat teachers should not treat them as intelligent,thoughtfulpeople,justwithaslightlymoresimplifiedvocabulary (Twitchell Teaching Children). ScottandYtrebergpointoutthatteachersneedtoappeartolikeallthepupils equally.Thisisveryimportant,becauseyounglearnershaveaverykeensenseof fairness (9). It is also true especially for young children that they keep their enthusiasm andfeelsuccessful,ifteacherspraisethemforwhattheydo(3).Harmeragreesthat younglearnersneedapprovalfromtheteachertofeelpositiveaboutlearning.Healso mentionsthattheneedforindividualattentionisverytypicalofyounglearners(The Practice of English Language Teaching 82). 1.1.4. Using games in teaching young learnersItisgenerallyagreedthatgames,playandfunelementshelpchildrentoenjoy languagelessonsandseeEnglishlearningasrewarding.Thischapterfocusesonthe roleofgame-likeactivitiesinteachingyounglearners.Itaimstodescribethe importance of play and how children benefit from it. Sincechildrennaturallywanttoplay,gamescanbeverymotivating.In pedagogical discussion of motivation for foreign language learning in general, emphasis isoftenputonsometimesconflictingforcesofextrinsicandintrinsicmotivation.For theyounglearner,motivationderivingfromfactorsoutsidetheclassroom,suchas parentalandsocialattitudes,islikelytobeweakerthanthatcreatedbyeventsinthe classroomitself.Childrenneedtobeinvolvedandevenexcitedinordertolearn effectively (Khan 144). It is a commonplace that young children learn better through play or at least can beinducedtogoalongwithteachingthatistemperedbyfunactivities(Rixon33). Theactivitiesthatinvolveplayandenjoymentare,forexample,singing,chanting rhymes,solvingpuzzles,drawing,colouringandmodel-making.Essentialarealso word, board and other types of games. Fun activities operate at the most humble level of endeavourandhelpchildrengaincommandofpre-fabricatedchunksoflanguage (Rixon35).Eventhoughmanylanguagepracticegamesmaybedrill-like,theystill have an element of fun and competition (Rixon 35). Scott and Ytreberg point out that, Playing games in the classroom develops the abilitytoco-operate,tocompetewithoutbeingaggressive,andtobeagoodloser 19 (85). Muijs and Reynolds say that, Play is important, and can help develop childrens receptive and expressive language, as well as their skills at joint planning, negotiation, problem-solving, and goal seeking (179).Halliwell advocates the use of games because they set up real tasks for children. Worthwhile and interesting things to do provide young learners with occasions for real language use and let their subconscious mind work on the processing of language while theirconsciousmindisfocusedonthetaskofplayingthegame.Inthisway,games represent a very effective opportunity for indirect learning (6). Khan says that, It is a principle of communicative approaches to ELT that task-basedactivitiesenhancelearning.Inlanguagelearning,task-basedactivitiesarethose whichstimulateeffectiveuseoflanguagebutinvolvenoconsciousanalysisof language (144). Games may be seen as tasks. If they successfully engage the learners attentionasaproperchildrensgameshould,thenlearningwillbesupported(Khan 145).It would be wrong to think that games are only important because they are fun. Apartfrommotivationalfactor,thatwasalreadymentioned,theyareusefulpartly because the fun element creates a desire to communicate and partly because games can createunpredictability(Halliwell5).Thelanguagethatisdemandedbygame-like activitiesisusuallyunpredictableandencourageschildrentoconstructlanguage actively for themselves. Since childrens desire to talk is huge, teachers should let them usethelanguagecreativelytoencourageacquisition,whichleadstospontaneousand therefore more fluent use (Halliwell 5-8).Scott and Ytreberg mention the childrens ability to absorb the language through playandotherenjoyableactivitiesaswell.Theyclaimthathowgoodpupilsareina foreign language does not depend on whether they have learnt the grammar rules or not. Very few young learners are able to cope with grammar as such, even at the age of ten or eleven. They may be very aware and clear about the foreign language, but they are not usually mature enough to talk about it (Scott and Ytreberg 6). That is why teaching of young learners should include only the barest minimum of grammar that is taught as grammar (6).To conclude, in young learners, absorbing game-like activities should become a solidpartofteaching.Theseactivitieshelpinternalizeandacquireanewlanguage. However,manydimensionsneedtobetakenintoconsiderationforselectingand organizing games. Games, that should form an important part of a teachers repertoire, 20 needtobeusedconsideratelyandtheirfocusshouldmatchparticularsyllabusesand curricula. Moreover, it is important to remember that teachers need to provide learners withbothfluencyandaccuracy.Thatiswhyinprimarypractice,teachersshould carefully balance the conscious focus on grammar with game-based procedures aimed at indirect learning. 21 1.2. Teenage Learners This chapter looks into the nature of teenagers. It includes the definition of this agegroupandprovidesthedescriptionoftheircharacter.Itdiscussesdevelopmental stages in adolescence and some ways to understand the complexities of teenagers. Both physicalandpsychologicalchangesinteenagersaredescribed.Furthermore,this chapter focuses on teenage attitudes towards school and learning English with regard to changes that they are undergoing. 1.2.1. Definition of teenage learners Most authors agree that a teenager is defined to be a young personbetween the ages of approximately twelve and nineteen. According to G. Lewis most experts further divide this age range into three distinct subgroups: young teenagers, aged 12-14 middle teenagers, aged 14-17 late teenagers, aged 17-19 Youngteenagersrepresentalearnergroupwithspecialcharacteristics(6).J. Lewis mentions that children enter adolescence between sixth and eighth school grade. These teenagers are undergoing physical and social changes, which are more prominent and evident than in middle and late teenagers. Moreover, early adolescence is the most difficult phase in the life of an individual (Early Adolescents).These are the reasons why, for the purposes of this thesis, I shall work with the firstgroupoflearnerscalledyoungteenagers.Theycommonlyattendseventhand eighthprimarygrades,whichalsorepresentatargetgroupchosenforthepractical survey of this diploma thesis. 1.2.2. Young teenagers and features of adolescence Teenagelearnersareoftenlabelledasdifficult,undisciplined,restlessand problem students. Despite their bad reputation I agree with G. Lewis who says that, the things that can make teenagers difficult are often the very same attributes that can make working with them so enriching (6). 22 G.Lewisemphasisesthatyoungteenagersareundergoingdramaticchangesin every aspect of their live (6).J. Lewis opinion corresponds and he points out the need tounderstandthereasonsbehindteenagerssuddenchangesinattitudestowards learning and changes in behaviour in general.I think as well that to understand how to approach teenagers, it is very important toknowwhatischaracteristicforthisagegroup.Therefore,thissubchapterclosely focusesondistinctivefeaturesofadolescencewhichareparticularlyphysical, psychologicalandsocialchanges.Furthermore,teenagerelationstofamily,peersand school are discussed. Last but not least, this chapter deals with development of thinking skills in teenagers and their learning potential. 1.2.3. Physical changes Physicalchangesarethemostobviousonesthatyoungteenagersare undergoing.Inattemptingtodiscussadolescence,J.Lewiswarnsthattheterms adolescenceandpubertyareoftenconfusedandwronglyusedassynonyms.He explainsthatpubertyreferstothephysiologicalchangesconnectedwiththesexual maturationofachild,whileadolescencemeansthestagefrompubertytoadulthood. Puberty then determines the onset of adolescence. Therefore, adolescence can occur as earlyasnineyearsofageinsomechildren.Duringtheperiodofadolescence,rapid physicalandsexualdevelopmentischaracteristic.G.Lewissaysthatindividual childrengothroughthesechangesatdifferentspeed.Generallyspeaking,girlsare maturing faster than boys at this age (7). Testosterone in males and estradiol in females play asignificant role in pubertal development. The average agefor sexualmaturation is 12.5 years for boys and 10.5 years for girls (Adolescence Development). Sexualmaturationinmaleadolescentsischaracterisedbythegrowthofbody hair, both pubic and armpit. The most observable is the growth of chest and facial hair, whichlooklikeadarkshadowabovetheupperlip.Malesvoicechangesaswell. Becausethelarynxgrows,thevoicestartstodeepen.Nocturnalemissionsmayoccur becausespermproductionincreases.Lastbutnotleastfeaturetomention,isthe physical strength which reaches its peak (J. Lewis). Likewiseinmaleadolescents,sexualmaturationinfemaleadolescentsis characterized by the growth of both pubic and armpit hair. The most obvious change is observable in breasts development. The hips start to round and menstruation appears as 23 well. However, at its beginning after puberty, it may be irregular up to a year or two (J. Lewis). G.Lewisexplainsthatthesesuddenandconsiderablechangesmaketeenagers very sensitive to their appearance. Therefore, their position in school society and hence theirlevelofself-esteemandself-confidencearecloselytiedtohowtheylook(G. Lewis 7).MarieVgnerov,renownedexpertindevelopmentalpsychology,exploresthis issueingreaterdetail.Sheviewstheperiodofadolescenceasatransitionbetween childhoodandadulthood.Shealsosaysthatthemostprominentisthephysical maturation,whichisrelatedtosexualmaturation.Thechangingappearanceofa teenager is then an impulse to change in their approach to self-image. Vgnerov points out that many changes in teenagers are primarily determined biologically. It is important torealisethatphysicalappearanceisasignificantpartofidentity.Thisisthereason why teenagers respond to physical changes very sensitively (209-211). Physical change can subjectively represent very different values. Some teenagers maybeproudoftheirmaturation,whileothersmayfeelashamedforit.Teenagersin adolescenceappearintheprocessofachangeofbodilyproportions.Sinceevery personalityissociallyrepresentedbythephysique,thesechangesareundoubtedly relatedtochangesinbehaviourofpeoplearoundateenager.Reactionsofadultsand peerscanbevariedandtheylogicallyaffectteenagersself-image(Vgnerov211-212).Ibelievethatthisissueisveryrelevant inteachersapproach towardsteenagers. Teachersshouldkeepinmindthatteenagersareverysensitiveabouttheirchanging appearance and they should act accordingly.Vgnerovalsomentionsthatphysicalandpsychologicalmaturationcan proceed at different pace. If the physical maturation process is faster than psychological one,teenagershaveoftendifficultiesincopingwiththeupcomingphysicalchanges. Shealsostatesthatearlymaturationisusuallymoredemandingforgirlsthanitisfor boys (212-213). Physicalattractivenesshasitsownvalue.Itiswellknownthatattractive teenagers can reach better social status and are better accepted in peer groups.It is sex thatplaysanimportantparthere.Inboys,fromthesocialpointofview,growthand muscledevelopmentiscommonlywellaccepted,becausesocialprestigeatthisageis stilldeterminedbyphysicalstrength.Ontheotherhand,ingirls,secondarysexual characteristicsbecomemoremarkedthaninboysandareperceivedbyadultsas 24 qualitativechanges.Parentsareusuallyafraidthattheirdaughterswillbecome prematurely sexually active and thus their reactions may be negative (Vgnerov 212). Vgnerovalsowarnsthatifteenagersdonotfindthemselvesattractive,itcan influencetheirfurtherdevelopmentandhierarchyofvalues.Generally,itisgirlswho suffer from being discontented with their appearance. Teenage girls often think that they areoverweightwhencomparedtomodelswhichoftenrepresentacontemporaryideal ofbeauty.Inadolescence,theirbodystartstotakeshapeswhicharefarfrom proportionsofmodels.Thatiswhysuchsocio-culturalstereotypesputpressureon teenage girls. It results in the fact that girls are constantly worried about how they look (213-214).Ithinkthatfortheteacherstobeabletoaddressthespecificneedsoftheir teenage students, it is very helpful to know and understand this background. From what ismentionedinthissubchapter,itisobviousthatphysicalchangesareclosely interconnectedwithchangesinpersonalitytraits,inbehaviourandconsequentlyin attitudestowardsschool.Thefollowingsubchapterwillcontinuetodiscuss psychological changes in adolescence. 1.2.4. Psychological changes Asitwasalreadymentioned,teenagersareundergoingcomplexchangesinall theaspectsoftheirpersonality.J.Lewisexplainsthatadolescentmaturationisa developmentalphasewherechildrenhavetoestablishtheirownbeliefs,values,and whattheywanttoaccomplishoutoflife.Teenagersareconstantlyandrealistically appraising themselves. Because of this, they are often labelled as being extremely self-conscious.However,J.Lewisclaimsthat,theself-evaluationprocessleadstothe beginningoflong-rangegoalsetting,emotionalandsocialindependence,andthe making of a mature adult. G. Lewis agrees that the most important thing for teenagers isthemselves.Hespeaksaboutnaturalegocentrismwhichispairedwithalotof emotion (6-7). Vgnerov concurs with the emotionality of teenagers as well. She clarifies that itishormonalchangesthatbringaboutvacillationofemotionalstate.Thismakes teenagersunstableandtheytendtoreactover-sensitivelyeventonormalstimuli. Vgnerov also points out that teenagers are becoming more introverted, vulnerable and 25 egocentric(214).Youngteenagerswillfeelthatnobodyunderstandsthembecause they feel nobody has ever felt the way they do (G. Lewis 7). Erikson understands adolescence as a phase of search and development ofown identity. According to Erikson, there are eight psychosocial crises throughout ones life-span. Of these crises, he proposes that the identity formation is the task of adolescence (J. Lewis).Vgnerov adds that in the process of development of own identity, the notion of groupidentityisverysignificant.Importantpartoftheidentityisformedbya professionalrolewhichateenageraimstoachieve.AccordingtoVgnerov,thereis also reflected teenagers identification with family and their set of values (251). Therefore,thenextsubchapterdealswithteenageridentityandtheirplacein society. 1.2.5. Social changes J.Lewismentionsthatyoungteenagersbecomemoreadventuresomeand experimentwithdifferentideas.Hepointsoutthat,thisplaysanimportantrolein finding ones relations to oneself, groups and opposite sex.Undoubtedly,youngteenagerswanttobelongtoagroup.Asitwasmentioned above,groupsareveryimportantmeansofestablishingidentityandbuildingup confidence.J.Lewisspeaksabouttheclashbetweenteenagersownsetofvaluesand the set which is promoted by parents and other adult figures.Friendshipsandpeergroupsstarttostronglyinfluenceteenagers,whoassert their independence by gettingaway from parents and finding new role models.Young teenagers find comfort and identity in youth culture (G. Lewis 7). In my opinion, this is reflected for example in exclusive friend groups, cliques, fad fashion and music, which isusuallycentraltoteenagelives.Obviously,problemsarisewhensometeenagersdo notreadilyfitin.BothVgnerovandG.Lewismentionteenagelearnerswhoare physically or socially awkward. These can often feel isolated and lonely. In some cases they can even become victims of bullying and abuse.Certainly,youngteenagershavediscoveredtheoppositesex,butthegirl-boy divideisstillevident.Youngteenagersstillseekforsame-sexfriendsandmovein same-sex groups (G. Lewis 7).26 Vgnerov emphasises the importance of friendship for young teenagers. In this uneasyperiodoflife,friendshipprovidestheconfidence,safety,trust,understanding and a possibility to share feelings, experience or opinions. In middle teenagers, this is to acertainextentsubstitutedbypartnershipinacouple.Youngteenagersonlybeginto experiment with their sexual role in the form of first loves (248-252). However, it is true that dating becomes very important and groups and crowds become more heterogeneous and heterosexual (Adolescence Development). 1.2.6. Teenage relation to family and peersConcerning social changes in adolescence, it was already mentioned that friends andasenseofbelongingtoagrouprepresentcrucialissues.Thissubchapteraimsto explain the role of family and peers in teenage lives. Majority of authors agree that teenagers self-dependence and responsibility for their lives start to be more apparent and they are becoming more autonomous.Teenagersdonotwanttobeliketheirparentsandtheytrytodiffer.Theyfeel thisneedfordifferentiation,becausetheynolongerseetheirparentsaswiseand omnipotent.Itischaracteristicthatteenagersareverycriticaloftheirparentsandare notrespectingtheirparentalauthority.Youngteenagersaremuchmorecriticalthan lower-primary children. Nevertheless, they can express appreciation as well. What they valuemostarehonesty,trustworthinessandcourage.Teenagersappreciatemainly authentic actions, not verbal expressions and unfulfilled promises (Vgnerov 237-252).Youngteenagersnowneedtomakedecisionsanddevelopadegreeof independence. This newly-found independence often comes with new privileges. These new privileges often whet the young teens appetite for more, creating potential conflict between parentsandteachers(G. Lewis7). G. Lewismentions that parentsand other adults begin to talk to teenagers at more even level (7). However, Vgnerov claims that parentsgivethemmoredutiesbutnotmorerights(239).Teenagersinsistthatthey havegrownenoughtobeselfindependentwhileparentsstillnotprovideample freedom (Early Adolescents). Ithinkthatthetopicofresponsibilityandrightsisveryimportantfactorin designingalanguagecourseforteenagers.ChapterLearnerresponsibilityand autonomy discusses this issue further.27 Vgnerov concludes that on the one hand, parents find teenagers old enough to takeonmoreresponsibilities.Butontheotherhand,parentsstillkeepthemina subordinate childs role, which often causes conflicts (237-241).Theseconflictsdonotmeanthatparentadolescentrelationshipisabout tobreakdown.Itonlymeansrelationshipnegotiationsandthatparents needtoincludeadolescentsinmakingdecisionsandsettingrulesthat affecttheirlivesandsharereinswiththem.Infamilies,whereparents and adolescents are trapped in distressed relationships, there is emotional coldness,frequentangryoutburstsanddisagreements,unresolved conflictsandwithdrawalfromfamilylife;teensareathighriskfor various psychological and behavioural problems. (Coping up with Peer Pressure) Vgnerov agrees that teenagers detach themselves from their family. However, thisemancipationdoesnotmeanthatemotionalconnectionsarebroken.Theyarejust beingchanged.Parentsarelosingtheirprivilegepositionandtheirauthoritybecomes rather formal (237-252). G.Lewisseesteenagersaswaveringbetweenindependenceandaneedfor security.Teenagers orientate themselvesfrom family toother socialgroups. It ispeers whoarebecomingnewinformalauthorities(3-8).Vgnerovsupportsthisstatement. Sheclaimsthatteenagersaredetachingfromthevaluesystemoftheirfamily. Subsequently,socialnormsthataresetbytheirpeersarebecomingveryimportant. Teenagersoftenprioritizepeernormsoverfamilyandschoolnorms.Shefurther explainsthatfamilykeepsyoungteenagersinsubordinateposition,butpeersare helpingthemtogetoutoftheinferiorchildsposition.Peergroupthenservesasa support for new identity (243-250). Peer pressure is one of the most important elements during teenage years. Much research has shown that peer pressure has a much greater impact on teenage behaviour than any other factor. During adolescence, teenagers spend much of their time with their friends.Theinteractionisdirect,andmuchmorepowerfulthantheinfluenceof teachers and other authority figures (Peer Pressure).Peer pressure tends to have more of an effect on teenage children with low self-esteem. If a child feels compelled to fit in, they may do things that go against his or her beliefs simply to be part of the group. Thus, peer pressure may lead to experimentation 28 withdrugsandalcohol,sex,skippingschool,andotherhigh-riskbehaviour(Peer Pressure). Teenagers are exposed to the groups which have unique traits, norms, cultures or valuesystems.Nevertheless,someauthorsstatethatpeerpressureisnotalways negative.Forexample,ifteenagersgetintothecompanyofgoodfriends,theybenefit fromthedevelopmentofapositiveattitude,teamwork,andhealthyvalues(Peer Pressure Activities). However, the chances of peer pressure having adverse effects are always much greater and need to be guarded against (Peer Pressure in Teenagers). 1.2.7. Teenage relation to school Inadolescence,theroleofapupilisbeingchangedaswell.Teenagersusually understand this role as a necessity that is of no avail. School performance often loses its original significance, because teenagers perceive it as a value important for adults. They do not want to learn and become more knowledgeable. Primarily, they only do not want toget into troubles. Concerningschool,teenagers tend toavoidhard work, unlessit is reallynecessary.Thecurriculumatupper-primaryschoolbecomesmoredifficultand incomprehensible.Teenagersdeprecateit,becauseitstrengthenstheirpersonal insecurity (Vgnerov 233-237). Rendlsresearchhasshownthat50%ofseventhgradepupilsstudyforlessons onlywhentheyexpecttestsandexaminations(qtd.inVgnerov234).Theydonot accept the curriculum, since they find it unfamiliar and unclear.Even though, thinking skillsofteenagersaredeveloping,someofthemarenotabletomanagethegiven curriculum. Vgnerov gives the following reasons: formal deficiency (incomprehensible teacher explanation, things that they do not understand accumulate and continuity is broken, etc.) emotional barriers caused by negative expectations lowerintellectualcompetence,whichdoesnotsufficeforsuccessful management of more complex theories (235). Experts agree that transition from the lower-primary to the upper-primary school gradesgenerallyrepresentsabreakingpoint.Youngteenagersusuallylackintrinsic motivationtolearn.Hendrystatesthatmajorityofteenagepupilsdonotperceivethe work at school as intrinsically interesting or rewarding (4-16). He explains that, despite 29 differing attitudes and viewpoints among pupils, school isuniversally seen in a strictly instrumentalway(16).Hefurthermentionsthat,schooliscommonlyregardedas compulsory submission to an unwelcome discipline (Hendry 16). Its purpose is to train pupils for work, or perhaps even just to get them through examinations which stand as a barrier to the type of work they wish to enter.Vgnerovagreesandsaysthattheattitudetoschoolischangingduring adolescence and good marks do not represent the aim any more, but are rather becoming instrumentsenablingthemtoreachanoccupationtheywant.Thatisthereasonwhy theirmotivationtolearnisinfluencedbytheirfutureprofessionalanticipation. Thereforestudentspersonalprospectsarereflectedintheirattitudestoschool. Teenagersatupper-primarygradesdifferintheseanditgraduallybecomesclearwho willcontinueintheirstudiesandwhowillserveanapprenticeship(Vgnerov233-237).Hargreaves suggests that there are three variables important to school success. It is the teachers conception of the pupils ability, the pupils own conception of his or her own ability, and whether or not the pupil regards the teacher as a partner (qtd. in Hendry 10). Asitwasalreadymentioned,teenagersareverycriticalofparents. Nevertheless,thecriticismrelatestoallauthorities,includingteachers.Teenagersdo notacceptteachersdecisionsandopinionsunconditionally.However,theyconfront teachersopinionswithinthepeers ratherthan directlywithteachers. Thiscriticismof teachersisanaturalmanifestationofteenagers.Theydonotrecogniseformal authorities and the superior teacher role ceases to be a taboo. Teenagers recognise only whattheylookupto,whatimpressesthemandwhattheyappreciate.Iftheyaccept teacherasanauthority,itissobecauseofteacherscharacterandbehaviour,not because his or her authority is confirmed by an institution (Vgnerov 233-237). Rendlclaimsthatteenagersappreciateateacher,whodoesnotproclaimhisor hersuperiorpositionandauthority.Inateacher,theyvalueagoodsenseofhumour, abilitytounderstandpupilsandlastbutnotleastteachersefforttolistentotheir opinions (qtd. in Vgnerov 234).Vgnerovalsoemphasisesthatteenagersneedteacherstobestable,bothin keeping to their promises and rules, and in their emotional state as well. She warns that moody,capriciousandnervousteacherscausetenseatmosphereandconflictsstartto 30 pileup(237).Hendryalsomentionsthatteenagersoftencomeintoconflictwith teachers who are domineering and treat them like kids (15).Tosumup,teenagerspreferteacherswhocankeepcontrol,havenofavourites and are fair. Teenage pupils like teachers who give interesting lessons, show interest in pupils as individuals and do not patronize them. 1.2.8. Thinking skills Expertsagreethatinadolescencethecognitiveskillsaregreatlydeveloping.J. Lewissaysthatexplainingthepsychologicaldevelopmentofteenagersisdifficultdue tothelackofempiricalresearchandthegreatvarietyofteenagebehaviouralmodes. However,developmentalpsychologytheoriesareconsideredveryusefulin understanding teenagers. These theories demonstrate sequential patterns of development andalsoroughlyestimatetheagesatwhichteenagersshouldshowparticular developmentalcharacteristics(J.Lewis).Thatiswhysomesignificant theorieswillbe explored to characterize teenagers development in the area of cognition. JeanPiagetslifeworkoncognitivedevelopmentisthemostcompleteand widely used theory, which focuses on how children develop intellectually. According to Piaget,childrenbetween11to15yearsofagebelongtotheformaloperationalstage. Heexplainsthatadolescentsbecomelessegocentric.Thatmeanstheyunderstandthat noteveryoneseesthingsinthesamewayastheydo.Teenagersarealsobeginningto reason deductively and apply logic to reach solutions (J. Lewis). Asmentionedabove,J.Piagetdescribestheadolescenceastheformal operational stage. Pupils move from the concrete level of thinking to the ability to think hypothetically.Vgnerovexplainsthedifferencebetweenyoungpre-adolescent children and teenagers. The first want to know and understand the world as it is. While the second typically need to think about what the world could or should be like (217).G.Lewisagreesthatyoungteenagersabilitytothinkabstractlyisoneofthe most marked changes in the transition from childhood to adolescence. Young teenagers begin to understand the complexity of world and they try to analyze what they see (8). J. Lewissaysthat,youngteenagerstesthypothesesandthinkcriticallyaboutabstract ideasandconcepts(8).However,hepointsoutthattheyarestillrelatively inexperiencedandtendtothinkthattheyhavefiguredthingsout.Theiropinionsare 31 usuallyverystrongandthenewly-foundabilitytohypothesizeoftenresultsinseeing theories as facts (8).Vgnerovdevelopsthisstatementfurther.Sheclaimsthatteenagersoften considertheirwayofthinkingasexceptionalandpowerful.Theymaygetthefeeling thateverythingcanbesolvedeasily.Whatregardsteenagersradicalopinions, Vgnerov understands these as protection against insecurity (216-222).Nevertheless, during adolescence they realise that there is not only one answer to everyquestion,onesolutiontoeveryproblemandthateverythingisnotonlyblackor white. When they are discussing morals and ethics, this new ability to reason is evident and they are more tolerant than pre-adolescent children (G. Lewis 7-8).Piagetagreesthatadolescentscancommunicatetheirpositiononcomplex ethical issues and discuss abstract terms without difficulty. They can also systematically deduceorconclude(PiagetsTheoryofCognitiveDevelopment).Vgnerov mentions this fact that teenagers reason systematically as well. She points out that they are able of creating hypotheses and by the means of systematic steps they are capable of verification ordisproving. She further says that they are able tocombine and integrate their thoughts (218). G.Lewistalksaboutotherfeaturethatdistinguishesteenagersfromlower-primaryagechildren.Youngteenagershavealongerconcentrationspan.Therefore, theycanfocusonasingleprojectforthewholelessonandtheydonotrequirea constant change of activity as younger pupils do (7). 1.2.9. Teenagers learning potential Englishlanguageteachersandmethodologyexpertsagreethatteenagersarea difficult age group to teach. Teaching them often signifies a daunting challenge for most ofteachers.However,teenagersmaywellbethemostexcitingstudentsofall (Harmer,ThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching83).AccordingtoG.Lewis recentstudieshavesuggestedthattheteenageyearsmaybethetimewhenstudents learn languages fastest and most efficiently (6). He says that childlike playfulness and an adult-like reasoning ability to think critically and hypothesize combine to establish a balance between acquisition and learning which is not always available to learners at other ages (G. Lewis 6). Yu shares this opinion and says that apart from pronunciation, 32 teenagersseemtobefarbetterlearnersthanyoungeronesinmostaspectsof acquisition (53).Reviewingtheliteratureonthissubject,variousstudiesshowthatteenagers makemoreprogressthanyoungerlearners.Secondlanguageacquisitionresearchhas confirmedthatteenagersareatanidealagetolearn.Harmersuggeststhatthereason may be connected with their increased cognitive abilities which allow them to benefit frommoreabstractapproachestolanguageteaching(ThePracticeofEnglish Language Teaching 81).PennyUrconcludesthatteenagershavegreaterlearningpotentialthanyoung learners, but they are considerably more difficult to manage and motivate (290). LouannePiccoloalsomentionsthatittakeslongertoestablishatrusting relationshipwithteenagersbutonceteachersfindtherightbalanceofrespectand authority, teaching teenagers can be a rewarding and fulfilling experience. 33 1.3. Teaching Teenagers Urclaimsthatanimportantsourceofguidanceabouthowtoteachteenagers successfullyisworksondevelopmentalpsychology(290).Therefore,basedonthe understanding of psychology of teen age, which was discussed so far, this chapter aims todiscusshow toteach andapproach young teenagers. Itfocuses on how teachers can ensuresuccessfullearningdespitethefactthatteenagersaregenerallyconsidered difficult to please. 1.3.1. Teacher-teenager relationship Firstofall,itisimportant,whenteachingteenagers,tobuildupagood relationshipwiththem.Manyauthorsbelievethatthequalityoftheteacher-teenager relationship is the key to success in teaching. G. Lewis emphasizes that one of the main factorsinaccessing teenagersis respect and tolerance for them (3). Urinfers from her surveythat,mostadolescentsmayprefertheirteacherstovalueandrespectthem rather than to be their friends (293).The generalopinion is thatacademic closeness isacceptable between teachers andteenagersbutnotfriendshipclosenesswhichisregardedwithsuspicionand derision(Piccolo).G.Lewissupportsthisopinion.Hesaysthatteachersshouldnot playteenagerstogetclosertothemortoappearcool.Instead,theyshouldalways rememberthattheyarerepresentingauthorityandkeepthisdistinctionclear.Despite teenrebelliousness,teachersarestilltheauthorityfiguresandtheyshouldmakeclear thattherespecttheyshowtoteenagestudentsmustbereturnedbackintheformof appropriate classroom behaviour (5-9).Generallyspeaking,authorsagreethatteachersshouldbefriendlybutnot students friends.Piccolo further mentions that, teenagers try out different identities and like their teachers to identify them as individuals with their own ideas. Majority of authors is of the same opinion. For example, Harmer says that adolescence is bound up with a search foridentityandaneedforself-esteem.Teenagersthenneedtofeelgoodabout themselves and prefer teachers who value them. A teenager gives quite self-explanatory conclusionwhenaskedaboutwhatqualitiesmakeagoodteacher(Harmer,The PracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching83).Hearguedthatagoodteacheris someone who knows our names (Harmer, How to Teach English 26).34 Lindstrombergagreesthatknowingstudentsnamesmakesabigdifference, particularlyifteachersusenameswhengivingpositivefeedback.Hegivesthe followingadviceonhowtobuildfoundationsofaqualityrelationship.Learn everyones name as fast as possible (Lindstromberg 13).Toestablishagoodteacher-teenagerrelationship,thereisageneralagreement that teachers need to show that they are interested in their students. However, Twitchellmentionsthatteachersshouldnotapproachandgettoknowteenagersonlywiththe ideathatitwillmaketheteachingeasier.Teachersshouldreallybeinterestedintheir teenage students and show that they are truly important for them. Twitchell warns that teenagers are quite intelligent when it comes to spotting a fake. Teachers who in fact do notcareabouttheirteenagersshouldre-considerteachingtheminthefirstplace (Twitchell Teaching Teenagers).Asmentionedearlier,sinceteenagersaresensitivetohypocrisyandinsincerity teachersshouldnotpretendtobesomeoneelseinordertoaccessthem.Teenagers welcome honesty and it is advisable for teachers to be themselves. Twitchell thinks that teachers should be open about their past failures or weaknesses (Teaching Teenagers). I believe that if teachers occasionally share some private stories and thus reveal more of theirlifeoutsidetheclassroom,itcanhelptoestablishagoodrapportandincrease interest level as well.Lindstrombergsaysthatitisveryimportantthatteacherstreatteenagersfairly. Asteenagersaresensitiveaboutissuesoffairness,teachersshouldconsiderwhether theyareevenlydividingpositivefeedbackandattentioningeneral.Healsopointsout thatteachersshouldanswerquestionsclearlyandrespectfully.Teachersreactionsare crucial.Ifareplyseemsdismissive,perfunctoryorunclear,itcanhaveapowerful, negative effect on teenagers attitude (19). Itisalsoadvisablethatteacherstrytofindoutabouthowtheycomeacrossto their students. They should reflect on their verbal and non-verbal behaviour and notice iftheyhaveanyunconscioushabitsthatdistractorirritatestudents,becauseteenage onescanbeveryintolerantofthese.Otheradvicehegivestoteachersistoavoid sarcasm.Teacherswhousesarcasmtendtoruinallhopeofworkingconstructively with any student they turn it on (Lindstromberg 20). 35 1.3.2. Appropriate teaching methods for teenagers Theemotionalnatureofteenagers canrepresentanadvantageintheirlearning. Harmerexplainsthatoncetheyareengaged,theyexpresspassionatecommitmentto whatthey are doing(The Practice of English LanguageTeaching 83). It istherefore the task of teachers to provoke student engagement with material which is relevant and involving (Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching 84). Inadditiontochoosingactivitieswithpotentialtobeinterestinganduseful, teachersshouldmaketheirlessonssuccess-oriented.Sincenothingbuildsmotivation likesuccess,teachersshoulddesignorchoosetaskswhichseteveryoneachievable aims (Lindstromberg 9). PuchtaandSchratzclaimthatproblemswithteachingteenagerspartlyresult fromtheteachersfailuretobuildbridgesbetweenwhattheywantandhavetoteach andtheir studentsworldsof thought and experience (4).They advocate thatteachers needtolinklanguageteachingmorecloselytostudentsinterests.Teachingmaterial shouldbedesignedwithtopicsthatteenagerscanreactandrelateto.Teenagersare often much less motivated to learn than adults. Puchta explains that it is so because the goalsseemmuchmoredistanttothemandthereforelessmotivating.Puchtaand Schratzpromotecommunicativelanguageteachinginteenagers.Theyclaimthat teenagerstypicallyhavealowawarenessofthesocialskills.Thatiswhyeffective communicativelanguagelearningissuitableforthem.Itfosterslanguageabilityand social skills simultaneously (1-5). In their view,processinteachingandlearningisprincipallyamatterofthequalityof communicationbetweenteacherandstudentsand,especially,between students.Iftheparticipantsarebeingbothfrankandconsiderate, independentyetcooperative,andarespeakingwillinglyand comprehensiblytoparticularlistenersaboutthingsthatmattertothem both, then the quality of communication is high (Puchta and Schratz 3). Puchtaandotherauthorsareinfavouroftheuseofhumanisticteachingin teenagers. In a humanist classroom, students should be emotionally involved in learning andfeelgoodaboutthemselves.Thekeyideaisthatsuccessfullearningtakesplace whenstudentsareengagedandemotionallyopentonewlanguage.Inhumanist approach, learning a language is as much an issue of personal identity, self-knowledge, 36 feelingsandemotionsasitisaboutlanguage(Harmer,ThePracticeofEnglish Language Teaching 59).Piccolosupportstheideathatlanguageneedstobeconnectedcloselyto students lives and interests. Teenagers look for meaning and significance in relation to their own lives in what they are taught (Piccolo).She states that teachers should take advantage of this and personalise their lessons with regard to what is going on in lives of their students at the moment.KevinThompsonstressestheimportanceofpersonalisationaswell.Hethinks thatwhenteacherspresentnewlanguagetoteenagestudents,itisimportanttogive them an opportunity to use this language to say something interesting about themselves. Lindstrombergdevelopsthisideabysayingthat,Amajormeansofmaintaining interestisuseofactivitieswhichrequireandencouragestudentstousethetarget language for communication of interesting messages (7). G.Lewisagreesthatteachersshouldaskquestionsaboutstudents.Especially young teenagersare at thecentreof their own attention and teachers shouldgive them opportunities to express their opinions (10). Piccolo agrees that most teenagers are quite self-centred. They love to talk about themselves and their opinions which are often very strong.Theycanbequiteemotionalaswellandprovidedthesubjectisofadirect relevancetotheirlives,theyhavealwaysanopiniononagivenmatter.Therefore,if teacherschallenge themwithrelevantactivities that promote thinking, they canexpect all-consuming discussions and impassionate interest (G. Lewis 5).A creative teacher may organise activities like sharing journal entries or writing newspaperarticlesforanewspaperstudentshavecreatedthemselves.Thisallows students to express themselves freely and talk endlessly about a topic they are interested in (Piccolo).Ithinkthereareotherwayshowtomakeuseofteenagersneedtoshare. Contemporaryteenagersaresurroundedbymediaandinformationtechnology.For examplecontributingtoaclassroomblogwouldgivethemopportunitytoexpress themselves and share their ideas with others. I believe that information technology and Internetarequiteappealingtoteenagers.AchapterTeenagersandtechnologydeals with this issue in greater detail. 37 1.3.3. Relevant topics for teenagers Generally, teenagers like to be seen as cool and up to date.Lindstromberg says that it is wise to try to discover what topics are of current interest to teenage group and includetheminthelessons(7).Itisrecommendedtobringinsuchtopicsofinterest fromareaslikeIT,sport,entertainment,mediaandEnglish-speakingculturesthatare personally relevant to teenage learners (Anderson).Nevertheless, it may take a lot of effort on the part of the teacher to keep up to date with technology and the events that may interest teenagers. However, it is vital for getting and keeping teenagers attention (Piccolo). I agree that teachers should identify andexploitstudentsinterestsasmuchaspossibleintheclassroom.Itisobviousthat teachersarenotteenagersanymore.Nonetheless,theycanshowaninterestinteen culture. Treat teen ideas with respect (G. Lewis 9). 1.3.4. Teenagers and music Itseemsthatallteenagersareinterestedinmusicandlikelisteningtopop songs.Itmaybeabroadgeneralization,buton thewhole teachershavefoundittobe true. Due to the fact that majority of popular song lyrics is in English, it can be a source for highly motivating activities.JoannaBuddenthinksthatteenagersappreciateifteachersmakeefforttofind out what they like listening to. To get this information, students can make class surveys tofindoutthetopfavouritebandsorsingers.Therearemanypossibilitieshowto exploitlanguageinsongs.ItiseasytofindlyricsontheInternetandteenagers themselves can be involved in creating listening activities with their favourite songs. Apart from this, Budden also mentions that background music can create a nice atmosphereintheclassroom.Sheplaysmusicsoftlywhenstudentsareworkingin groups and allows the class vote for the type of music they want to listen to. I agree that ifteachersaccepttheirmusic,itcanimprovemotivationleveloftheclass.Teenagers know a lot about music and are always willing to tell teachers all about it. That is why it can be used as a perfect information gap (Budden).However, especially when dealing with popular music, opinions of different peer groupscansometimescomeintoconflict.Therefore,teachersshouldbeawareofthis danger and be prepared to cope with the tough situations that may arise. 38 1.3.5. Teenagers and game-like activities Generally speaking, teenagers are rather competitive, they like to win and show off.Therefore,expertsinmethodologyadvisetoincludegamesintoteaching. Lindstromberg agrees that activities with game-like elements are usually very good for provokinginterest.Suchelementsareforexampleadegreeofcompetitionandagoal whichconcernssomethingotherthangettingthelanguageright.Anexampleofthis typeofgoalisspottingasmanydifferencesbetweentwopicturesaspossiblewithina time limit, or solving a brainteaser (Lindstromberg 7).Andersonsummarizes,Gamescanprovidenotonlypurposefulcontextsin whichtouselanguagebuttheyalsostimulateinteraction,providecompetitionandare fun as long as rules are clear and clearly followed by all participants. 1.3.6. Teenagers and entertainment Every student prefers interesting and entertaining lessons but it is impossible to make all lessons fun, since some subject matter is boring by nature (Piccolo). Twitchell thinksthatmanyteachersmakethemistakeofthinkingthattheymustkeepteenagers entertainedinordertokeepthemattentive.However,heclaimsthatteenagersare alreadysurroundedbyentertainment.Consequently,teacherscannotcompetewith television,movies,videogamesandotherformsofamusement.Heexplainsthat teenagers are as eager for entertainment as they are for meaning and significance. And thus teachers should address the latter (Twitchell Teaching Teenagers).Piccolosaysthateventhoughteenagersaregenerallyinfavouroffun,they realisethatlearningtakesaneffort.Puchtaconcludesthatalllessonscanberefined. Evenifthetopicsinthecurriculumaremundaneandnotinspiring,theycanbemade interesting and relevant (2). 1.3.7. Class knowledge and cross-curricular education Teenagersknowalotaboutvarioustopicsandateachershouldtapintotheir interests and passions for class content (Piccolo). Anderson agrees that some teenagers havealmostencyclopaedicknowledgeofaparticularfield.Hesuggeststhatteachers shouldletindividualstudentsbringtheiroutsideinterestsandknowledgeintothe classroom through cross-curricular work (Anderson).39 G.LewisstatesthatithasbeenonlyrecentlythatEFLteachersbeganto recognizethebenefitsofusingsubject-areacontentintheirforeignlanguage classrooms.ThegoalistolearnEnglishthroughcontentandtheprioritystillremains language development (11). G. Lewis adds that teachers should, encourage students to becomeprecisecritical thinkers and tolink their language studyto other areas of their education (6). 1.3.8. Group and project work with teenagers Manyauthorsmentionthatgroupworkisappropriateforvariousreasons. Teenagersaremoreindependentandreadily engageingroupwork.However,itneeds tobemonitoredcloselybecauseyoungteenagersoftenregressintomorechildlike behaviourand fool around which isnaturalpart of showingofftotheir classmates (G. Lewis 8). Piccolo thinks that even though some teenagers may be quite self-conscious, they need relationships and peer interaction.Itwasmentionedbeforethatteenagersarediscoveringandbuildingup relationshipswithothers.Andersonadvocatesgroupworksinceitallowsindividuals tointeractwithdifferentclassmatesinalessstressful,collaborativeatmosphere.I agree that group work contributes to group dynamics and is very beneficial. However, I believethatteachersneedtobecarefulaboutdividingstudentsintogroups.Itwas discussedalreadythatyoungteenagersstilltendtojoinsame-sexgroups.Inmy opinion, teachers should bear this in mind and be sensitive when planning a group work. They should try to become familiar with the friendship structure in a teenage class and organize them accordingly so as to prevent any melodramas.Nevertheless,teambuildingactivitiesshouldnotbeexcludedfromteaching teenagers. Such activities should be integrated into language lessons, since they provide teenagers with needed guidance and help to foster the community relationships.G. Lewis says that it is useful to promote group work and collaborative learning by the means of class projects (6). Anderson also values project work, because it offers eachindividualachancetousetheirindividualtalenttodosomethingpersonally meaningfulandmotivatingwiththelanguagetheyarelearning.Theresultingposters andothervisualsmaybedisplayedintheclassroom,justasteenagersdecoratetheir rooms at home (Anderson). 40 1.3.9. Role-play and movement with teenagers Despitethefactthatsometeenagersmightbeshyforactingoutinthe classroom,authorsagreethatrole-playingandactingactivitiesrepresentteaching methods suitable for teenagers.Piccolosaysthatrole-playsofferteenagerspossibilitytoexpressthemselves freely.Role-playingallowsthemtoventtheirfeelingsinasafewayasitcanbe perceivedasjustarolethatastudentisplayingandnottheirtrueselves(Piccolo). Andersonsupportsthisstatementbysayingthatrole-playactivitiesallowteenagersto express different feelings behind non-threatening, face-saving masks.Andersonfurthermentionstheimportanceofmovementduringlessons. Lindstrombergagreesandstatesthat,Periodicopportunitytomoveabout,oratleast stand and move, is highly beneficial to students in this age range and can contribute to keeping interest up (7). 1.3.10. Humour, variation and pace with teenagers Lindstrombergmentionsotherfeaturesofinterestinglessonsforteenagers. Particularly,hespeaksabouthumourandoccasionalsurprisesthatcanhelpkeep students interested andpaying attention (7). Andersonsuggests that to include humour andsurpriseinthelessons,teacherscanusevarietyofdifferentwarmers,startersand fillers to change the pace and enliven the organisation of lessons.Piccolo continues that lessons for teenagers should be quick-paced. She explains thatteenagersdonothavealongattentionspanforasingletopicunlessvariousshort activities are used with a quick pace.Lindstrombergagreesthatteachersshouldplanvariedlessons.Hesaysthat manyyoungteenagerslackperseveranceandthepowerofconcentrationwhich underlieanabilitytofinishlongtasksallinonego(16).Teenagersareproneto boredom,tendtoberestless,impatientandeasilydistracted.Thesepredictable tendencies can be helped by good lesson planning (Lindstromberg 16).Manyteenagestudentsfinditeasiertoconcentrateduringthefirst15or20 minutesofalesson.Therefore,thisisoftenthebesttimeforintensiverevieworany challenging exercise on new material. Without regular changes of pace, concentration maysagdeeplyaroundthemiddleofalesson.Thiscouldbeagoodtimeforabrief spellofmovementormusicorotherrespitesfromsedentarybrainwork 41 (Lindstromberg 17). Since towards the end of a lesson concentration may be increasing again, it is a suitable time to review the new material covered near the beginning of the lesson (Lindstromberg 17). More tasks should be included for any given lesson than would be if the lesson was planned for older teenagers or adults. The tasks should be varied too not just in topic or skill and language focus but in many other ways as well (Lindstromberg 16). Forinstance,atdifferentstagesofthelessondifferentaimsshouldbefocusedon. Studentsshouldsometimesworkindividually,atothertimesinpairsorgroups,and fromtimetotime,theyshouldtrycooperationwithnewpartners.Sometimesthey should work at their desks and at other times they can stand at the board in the front or move around. Last but not least, quiet study-like tasks should be balanced with activities that have game-like character (Lindstromberg 16). Lindstromberg also points out that transitions from one task to another should be planned carefully because swift and smooth transitions often prevent possible boredom (16).Hefurthermentionsthatteenagestudentsneedtobekeptfruitfullyoccupied. Studentswhohaveanytendencyatalltobecomeunrulyaremostlikelytodosoif they are not on task (Lindstromberg 18). Teachers should make sure at all times that everyonehasbeenassignedausefultask(orsetoftaskoptions)whichiswithintheir level of competence (Lindstromberg 18). 1.3.11. Teenage learner responsibility and autonomy Growingupinvolvestakingresponsibilityforonesacts.Manyauthorsagree thatteenagestudentsshouldbemaderesponsiblefortheiractions.G.Lewissaysthat youngteenagersstrivetobeindependentandwantmoreresponsibility(7-9).Asa teacher,youmustgivethemresponsibility,orelsetheymaybeoffendedand withdraw(G.Lewis7).However,hewarnsthatitwouldbeequallyproblematicto treat them as adults because they still need some guidance (7).That is why he suggests tograntthemtheresponsibilitytogetherwithalltherightsandobligationsitimplies. Studentsshouldbeawarethattheyareaccountablebothfortheirworkandtheir behaviour (9). It is advisable to negotiate rules with the teenagers. If they have input, they will also understand that they need to hold to the decisions that have been made. It may be 42 worthdrawingupacontractwithstudents.Therewouldbelistedagreedrightsand responsibilities (G. Lewis 9). Lindstromberg emphasises the importance of student involvement in framing the class rules as well. A basic procedure is to bring a list of suggested rules to the class as a proposalandinvitediscussion,especiallyonthereasonsforeachrule.Someteachers find it helpful to let students formally sign the contract. Consequences for violating the rules should be drafted as well (13-14). Takingoverresponsibilityinschoolmeansresponsibilityforoneslearning. Anderson suggests to introduce measures of learner autonomy. Individual choice can be helpfulforteenagersaswell(Anderson).Itisrecommendedtoinspirestudentsto becomeautonomouslearnersandeducatethemabouteffectivelearningstrategies (Lindstromberg 144). G.Lewispointsoutthatteenagersshouldbeinvolvedinsettingclassgoals. Teachers may negotiate syllabuswiththem and allow them tomakesuggestions about howtoconductactivities.Brainstormingisagoodmeanstocombinestudentsideas withteachersexpectationsandpre-requisitesfortheclass.G.Lewisfurthermentions that students should be given choices (10). 1.3.12. Teenagers and technology Thesedays,technologyhasanenormousimpactonallaspectsofteenagelife whichsimplycannotbeignored(G.Lewis10).Theaccesstoinformationputs teenagersmoreincontroloftheirlives.Whilemanyyounglearnersareexposedto computers and have mastered the technology. It is in early teenage years that they begin tointeractautonomouslywiththemediumandunderstanditstruepower.The implications for teaching are extensive (G. Lewis 10). Todaysteenagerisusedtoexploratorylearning.Thislevelofindependence needstobeextendedtoactivitiesinthelanguage-learningclassroom(G.Lewis10). Teachersshouldencourageautonomousanddiscoverylearningthroughtechnology usage in the lessons. Email, chat, instant messaging, blogs and social networks provide teenagerswithopportunitiestospeaktheirmindsandsupportaccuracyandfluencyin the language classroom (G. Lewis 10-11). 43 1.3.13. Discussing and debating activities with teenagersTeenagestudentsfrequentlysaytheywanttodiscussordebateissuesthatare ofgenuineinteresttothem.Thismustpartlybesobecausetheideaofdiscussingand debating issues of consequence is in tune with teenage idealism (Lindstromberg 191). Teenagersalsodesiretoexperimentwithadult-likewaysofrelatingtoothers. Discussionanddebateareveryadultinitsnature.Furthermore,Lindstromberg emphasises that learning to debate reinforces personal development in teenagers (192). Discussion is a valuable means for social integration, since teenagers learn to be abletoworkbothindependentlyandaspartofateam.Forsuccessfuldiscussingand debating,theyneedtolistentootherswell,followrulesandshowrespectforother participants.Debatersareobligedtolearnhowtomaintainself-controlandbe courteous in any discussion (Lindstromberg 192).Discussingactivitiesalsodevelopintellectualandstudyskillsinteenagers. Debaters must be able to generalize, understand an assertion as a whole, recognise key termsandknowhow toconstructand state arguments.Moreover, discussions improve verbal-self-expression. Through discussion and debate teenagers learn to speak fluently and confidently, stick to a topic and generally be relevant. They must be able to deliver their ideas effectively and challenge or defend positions (Lindstromberg 192-193).Teenagers psychological development includes the evolution of values through moralreasoning.Therefore,teachersshouldguideteenagemoralreasoningthrough groupdiscussion.Teenagersshouldbeprovidedwithhypotheticaldilemmaswhere studentscanexploretheirfeelingsandopenlydiscusstheirviewpoints.Throughtheir discussions,adolescentsbecomemoreawareoftheirpowertomakechoicesand decisions about their lives (J. Lewis).

1.3.14. Teenagers and discipline Previouschaptersaimedtodiscusshowtoapproachteenagerstobesuccessful in teaching and to prevent discipline problems from occurring.However,ifaproblemoccurs,teachersshouldnottakethingstoopersonally. Lindstrombergexplainsthatwhenteenagersarerudetoteachers,itismostlikely becauseteachersrepresentauthorityingeneral.Bythetimeteenagersarefifteenor sixteen years old, only a few have a perfect understanding of the norms of civility (21). Whenastudenthassaidsomethingthatisoutoforderorthingsseemtobeaboutto 44 gettenseforanyreason,itmaybebesttomakeahumorousremark,tochangethe subject or move on to a new activity (Lindstromberg 21).Frostrecommendstoremaincalmandavoidpersonalconfrontation.Itis difficult at times to maintain calmness in the face of aggression or rudeness. However, teachersshouldrememberthat losingtheir temperorshoutingat astudentwillsimply make them weaker. In the classa teacher would lose authority in frontof the students. Talkingtoastudentinone-to-onesituationafterthelessonusuallyputsteacherin controlagain(Frost).Lindstrombergagreesthatteachersshouldavoidgettingdrawn intoaconflictinfrontofthewholeclass.Instead,theyshouldprovidestudentswith face-saving solutions. If needed, talk privately with the problem student (21-22). Frostalsopointsoutthatteacherslosecredibilityandrespectiftheydonot followwhattheyhavepromised.Itisthereforeimportantnottoissueemptythreats about disciplinary actions. 45 2. Practical Part Thepracticalpartofthisthesisgivestheaccountofacasestudy,whichwas carriedoutataprimaryschoolinBrno.Thepracticalsurveyfocusedontheissues described in the theoretical part.Particularly,theaimwastoprovideaconstructiveanalysisoftheattitudesof primary learners towards both school and learning English. The investigation was done specificallywiththeintentiontofindouthowtheinterestinlearningchangeswhen young learners enter upper-primary grades.Thischapterreportsonthecurrentsituationinthetargetgroupofyoung teenagers and presents the findings of the practical study.Finally, this part of the diploma thesis analyses the outcomes of thesurvey and suggestssuitablewaysofimprovementfortheactualcaseattheparticularprimary school. 46 2.1. Case StudyThepracticalsurveywasconductedinMarch2011inordertoclosely investigate theissueof primarylearnersattitudestolearningEnglish.Iwasinterested whetherthetheoreticalfindingsofthisdiplomathesisactuallyapplyinachosen context, and to what extent.Therefore,thepurposeofthissurveywastosystematicallyinvestigate an individualcase.Particularly,Ihavedecidedtocarryoutacasestudyatprimary school Masarova 11, Brno. For the purposes of this diploma thesis, a case study method of research was chosen because its results tend to be qualitative and illuminative rather than conclusive (Wallace 47).Thestudywasdonebythemeansofquestionnairesandfocusgroupinterview since,forthistypeofresearch,thisappearedtobethemostsuitablecombinationof methods for collecting the relevant information. Wallace mentions that the technique of interviewtendstobemorequalitativeandheuristic,whilequestionnairestendtobe quantitativeandmoreeasilygenerateconclusivefindings(47).Therefore,thesetwo methodswereappliedbothtogetanewinsightintotheparticularproblemandto discover something about the problem that we were not aware of before. Firstly,basedonlearnersopinions,thesurveygivesanaccountofthepresent situationattheprimaryschoolMasarova11.Itaimstodescribeandilluminatethe problem of changing attitudes to school and learning English in teenagers. The focus is placed on the idea that the transition from the lower to the upper-primary grades marks the breaking point when the learners attitudes change. Secondly,thesurveyanalysesthecollecteddataandtriestodefinepossible reasonswhyyoungteenagersloseinterestinlanguagelearning.Thestudyaimsto noticeweakpointsbothinteachingandlearningthatcouldbeimprovedinorderto make these processes more effective and successful. Finally, the practical part provides conclusion on the studied phenomenon. 47 2.2. Analysis and Interpretation of the Questionnaire Data Drnyeiarguesthateventhoughquestionnaireshaveadvantagesofbeing efficient for example in terms of researcher time and effort, they have also some serious limitations(9-10).Particularly,questionnairesinherentlyinvolvequitesuperficialand relatively brief engagement with the topic on the part of the respondent (14).Inmyopinion,primaryschoollearnersmightbeunmotivatedtorespondand consequentlyeasilypronetomisinterpretormisreadthequestions.Additionally, especially young learners might have some literacy problems and feel overwhelmed by the task.Drnyei also mentions social desirability or prestige bias, which isa significant drawbackofquestionnairesingeneral.Itisanaturalhumantendencytopresent ourselvesinagoodlightandrespondentsdonotalwaysprovidetrueanswersabout themselves.Sincequestionnaireitemsareoftentransparentandrespondentscanquite easilyguessthedesirableorexpectedanswers,theyprovidetheseanswersinsteadof the true ones (Drnyei 12). To conclude, because of the possible disadvantages mentioned above, that could badlyinfluencethevalidityofthedata,questionnairesurveywascombinedwith personal focus group interview to get more detailed, exploratory and qualitative nature of information. In the case study there were involved two questionnaires. The first one, designed for young learners, was filled in by ninety respondents belonging to the lower-primary school grades. Particularly, twenty-seven pupils from the third grades, fifty pupils from the fourth grades and thirteen pupils from the fifth grades. I believe that this proportion of research sample represents best the target group of young learners. Theotherquestionnairewasdesignedforyoungteenagers.Atotalofseventy-sevenpupilsofupper-primarygradeswasresponding.Particularly,forty-twoeighth graders and thirty-five seventh graders were involved in the survey. The target group of you