les sanctions economiques en droit international economic

ACADEMIE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL DE LA HAYEHAGUE ACADEMY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

Lessanctions economiques

en droit international

EconomicSanctions in International

Law

PUBLIE SOUS LA DIRECTION DE EDITED BY

LAURA PICCHIO FORLATILINOS-ALEXANDRE SICILIANOS

2004

MARTINUS NIJHOFF PUBLISHERSLeiden/Boston

TABLE DES MATIERES

CONTENTS

Avant-propos — Foreword xxxm

IntroductionLes rapports des directeurs d'etudes 1

IntroductionThe Reports of the Directors of Studies 1

Chapitre 1 — Chapter 1SANCTIONS INSTITUTIONNELLES ET CONTRE-MESURES : TENDANCES RECENTES . 3

Section 1. Introduction 3Section 2. Unite et diversite du phenomene sanctionnateur 6

Par. 1. Les convergences entre sanctions institutionnelles et contre-mesures 6A. Quant au fondement 6B. Quant aux finalites 13

Par. 2. Les divergences entre sanctions institutionnelles et contre-mesures 17A. Quant ä la nature des rapports crees: rapports «horizontaux» et

rapports «verticaux» 17B. Quant au degre d'objectivite des qualifications juridiques prea-

lables 19C. Quant ä la portee des reactions: facultes, droits ou obligations ? 22

Par. 3. Les cas hybrides 25A. La projection du relationnel sur l'institutionnel 26B. La projection de l'institutionnel sur le relationnel 31

Section 3. Codification et renouveau du regime des « sanctions» . . . . 34Par. 1. Les vicissitudes de la codification des contre-mesures 34

XIV TABLE DES MATIERES — CONTENTS

A. Les contre-mesures face aux violations «ordinaires» 35i) Les destinataires des contre-mesures 35

ii) L'effet suspensif et la reversibilite des contre-mesures . . . 37iii) La qualite pour reagir 40iv) Les conditions procedurales 46v) La condition de proportionnalite 50

vi) Les obligations non soumises ä des contre-mesures 53B. Les contre-mesures face aux violations « graves » 56

Par. 2. La revision necessaire des sanctions economiques de l'ONU . 61

A. La recherche de l'efficacite 62i) L'affinement de l'enonce des sanctions 63

ii) L'amelioration du contröle de la mise en ceuvre des sanc-tions 68

iii) La prise en compte des interets des Etats «tiers » 73

B. L'«humanisation» des sanctions 77

i) Les sanctions ciblees 77ii) La systematisation des derogations humanitaires 82

iii) L'applicabilite des principes du droit humanitaire 84Par. 3. Vers une convergence des regimes des sanctions et des contre-

mesures? 87A. Les conditions de declenchement 87B. Les limites 90

Section 4. Conclusion 95

Chapitre 2 — Chapter 2

THE LEGAL CORE OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC SANCTIONS 99

Section 1. Introduction 99Para. 1. Foreword 99Para. 2. The exercise of economic sovereignty to the detriment of

other States' interests in international law 100Para. 3. Customary limitations to the exercise of economic sovereignty 103

Section 2. The role of international economic sanctions in the interactionbetween international law and municipal law 105Para. 1. The legal framework of international economic sanctions . . 105

A. Sanctions and measures 105B. An underlying principle difficult to explicitly refer to 109C. Why economic sanctions? 113D. The connection between international economic sanctions,

domestic law and foreign policy 116E. The potential conflict between extraterritorial jurisdiction instru-

mental to economic sanctions and the allegiance due to Statesother than the sanctioning States 117

F. Political independence versus domestic jurisdiction 119G. International economic sanctions as provisional measures . . . . 121H. International economic sanctions: towards a new approach to

the link between States and their nationals 124I. . . . and between States and their agents 126J. On the borderline between human rights protection and humani-

tarian Standards: extraterritorial jurisdiction 127K. The partial overlap between human rights and humanitarian law 130L. Humanitarian law, core human rights and economic sanctions . 132

TABLE DES MATIERES — CONTENTS XV

Para. 2. Economic sanctions and centralized measures: their place in afunctional approach to secondary rules 134

A. Unilateral sanctions and centralized measures as complementaryingredients of an effective international legal system 134

B. International law-determining 137C. The distinction between rule-making inherent in international

economic sanctions and law-determining 140D. Common interests . . 143

(i) Classic general international law 144(ii) Treaty law 144

E. Treaty protection of common interests 144F. Economic sanctions between treaty protection and impairment

of common interests 147G. The protection of common interests as a new frontier of general

international law 149H. Widening the ränge of sanctioning States: the fate of State

crimes 153I. The interplay of international law-determining with the protec-

tion of common interests 155J. Interactions between law-determining and economic sanctions

within the framework of international organizations 157K. The United Nations record in the field 160L. The protection of common interests shrinks, some acquisitions

survive 161M. The role of positive sanctions within the framework of second-

ary rules 164N. Testing grounds for international positive sanctions 168

Para. 3. The normative element inherent in international economicsanctions 170

A. In search of the normative component of international sanctions 170B. Secondary rule-making through international bodies 172C. The outcome of the search 175D. The secondary rule-making element of international economic

sanctions 177E. Resolutions of international bodies as pertaining to the normative

component of economic sanctions 179F. Economic sanctions in the United Nations security system and in

the WTO and other international organizations 181

Para. 4. International economic sanctions in domestic law: their inter-action with private international law 184

A. The incorporation or transformation of international economicsanctions in the sanctioning States' domestic law: is it reallyneeded? 184

B. The incorporation or transformation of compulsory economicsanctions in domestic law 186

C. The impact of authorized or recommended sanctions on the allo-cation of powers between, and within, international organiza-tions and Member States 187

D. The role of administrative versus legislative bodies in trans-posing international sanctions into domestic law: an exampledrawn from EC law 190

E. The reflection in domestic law of the link between customarylaw and economic sanctions 192

F. The role left to the judiciary in the sanctioning States 193

XVI TABLE DES MATIERES — CONTENTS

G. The incorporation of international economic sanctions in themunicipal law of the target State 198

H. The relevance of international economic sanctions for conflict-of-laws purposes 199

Section 3. Conclusions 201Para. 1. The transnational and supranational dimensions 201Para. 2. International economic sanctions vis-ä-vis peremptory norms 203Para. 3. The legal component of international economic sanctions . . 203Para. 4. Sanctions and measures 204Para. 5. Prospects at international-law level 204Para. 6. International permissive sanctions in municipal law 206Para. 7. Enduring features of international economic sanctions . . . . 207

Premiere partieLe regime des sanctions 209

Part IThe Sanctions Regime 209


LE DROIT DES NATIONS UNIES ET LES LIMITES AU POUVOIR DE SANCTION DUCONSEIL DE SECURITE 211

Section 1. Introduction 211Section 2. Les limites statutaires 217

Par. 1. Les limites par rapport aux buts et principes des Nations Unies 217A. Le respect des droits de l'homme et des libertes fondamentales 218

i) La port6e de l'obligation du Conseil de securite de respec-ter les droits de l'homme 218

ii) Les droits de l'homme ä respecter 222B. Le respect du droit ä l'autodetermination 225C. L'obligation de reglement des differends et le pouvoir de sanc-

tion 228Par. 2. Les limites institutionnelles 231

A. Le pouvoir de contröle de la Cour internationale de Justice . . . 231B. Le contre-pouvoir de l'Assemblee generale 234

i) Les pouvoirs de recommandation de l'Assemblee genörale . 235ii) L'examen des rapports annuels du Conseil de securite . . . 238

Section 3. Les limites tirees de la pratique de 1'Organisation 243Par. 1. Les limites dans la decision d'imposer les sanctions 244

A. Les limites dans la constatation des situations de Particle 39de la Charte 244

i) L'absence de definition dans la Charte des trois situationsde l'article 39 244

ii) Les limites entourant le pouvoir de constatation du Conseilde securite 245

B. L'amenuisement de la marge d'appreciation du Conseil de secu-rite par la mise en place d'un Systeme d'evaluation des effetsdes sanctions 247

i) La grande avancee de l'idee de preevaluation des sanctionsä imposer 247

TABLE DES MATIERES — CONTENTS XVII

ii) Un corollaire: l'evaluation periodique des sanctions encours 250

iii) A la recherche des bases juridiques des principes d'evalua-tion 2511) L'obligation de «due diligence» 2512) Le principe de proportionnalite 253

Par. 2. Les limites dans le choix des mesures ä imposer 256A. Par le concept de « sanction ciblee » 256

i) La pratique du Conseil de securite en matiere de sanctionsciblees 256

ii) Le concept de «sanction ciblee» et son influence sur lapratique du Conseil de securite 257

B. Sur la base de la pratique des derogations humanitaires aux sanc-tions 258

i) La pratique du Conseil de securite en matiere de deroga-tions humanitaires 2591) Les exemptions humanitaires 2592) Les exceptions humanitaires 260

ii) Le Conseil de securite est-il tenu de prevoir des deroga-tions humanitaires ? 261

C. Par le respect du champ de competence du Conseil de securite'tel que defini dans la Charte 264

Par. 3. Les limites dans la levee des sanctions 267A. Le silence de la Charte quant aux conditions de levee des sanc-

tions et ses consequences 267B. Les Solutions avancees pour lier le Conseil de securite dans la

levee des sanctions 269i) La clarification et la precision des objectifs des sanctions . 269

ii) L'imposition de sanctions limitees dans le temps 270Section 4. Conclusion 274


THE NORMATIVE ELEMENT INHERENT IN ECONOMIC COLLECTIVE ENFORCEMENTMEASURES : UNITED NATIONS AND EUROPEAN UNION PRACTICE 279

Section 1. Introduction 279Section 2. Enforcement measures decided by the United Nations Secu-

rity Council 282Para. 1. Enforcement measures under the United Nations Charter . . 282Para. 2. The normative powers of the Security Council 286Para. 3. Enforcement measures imposed by the Security Council . . . 289Para. 4. Enforcement measures recommended (or authorized) by the

Security Council 294Section 3. Enforcement measures adopted by the Council of the Euro-

pean Union against third States 296Para. 1. Enforcement measures within the CFSP framework and under

the EC Treaty 296Para. 2. "Independent" restrictive economic measures 302Para. 3. Enforcement measures adopted on the basis of a Security

Council resolution 304Section 4. Concluding remarks 307

XVIII TABLE DES MATIERES — CONTENTS


RESORT TO ECONOMIC SANCTIONS BY NOT DIRECTLY AFFECTED STATES . . . . 309

Section 1. Introduction 309Section 2. Codifying Community measures 315Section 3. Reactions under the United Nations Charter 325

Para. 1. Decisions by the Security Council 325Para. 2. Recommendations by the Security Council 329Para. 3. Problematic issues 331Para. 4. Regional arrangements or agencies 339

Section 4. Solidarity under treaty Systems 343Para. 1. Solidarity owed as an Obligation erga omnes partes 347

A. The 1948 Genocide Convention 347B. The 1949 Geneva Conventions 350C. The 1966 United Nations Covenant on Civil and Political

Rights 354D. The 1993 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the

former Yugoslavia 356Para. 2. Solidarity owed erga omnes 358

Section 5. Community measures outside formal institutional framework 360

Para. 1. A gross breach of a treaty 361A. Measures by certain Western countries against Iran (1980) . . . 361B. Collective measures against the Soviet Union (1983) 362

Para. 2. Acts of aggression 362A. United States sanctions against the Soviet Union (1980) . . . . 362B. Collective measures against Argentina (1982) 364C. Collective measures against Iraq (1990) 365

Para. 3. Arms proliferation, terrorism 365A. Canadian sanctions against Japan and European Community

(1977) 365B. United States sanctions against Iraq (1980) 366C. United States sanctions against Iran and Libya (1996) 366

Para. 4. Genocide, violations of human rights, violations of demo-cratic values 368A. Sanctions by the United States against Uganda (1978) 368B. Sanctions by certain Western countries against Poland and the

Soviet Union (1981) 369C. United States sanctions against South Africa (1986) 370D. United States sanctions against Cuba (1992 and 1996) . . . . . 371E. Collective sanctions against Burma/Myanmar 374F. Collective measures against Yugoslavia (1998) 375

Section 6. In conclusion 376


LA PROPORTIONNALITE DANS LE CADRE DES CONTRE-MESURES ET DES SANC-TIONS — ESSAI DE CLARIFICATION CONCEPTUELLE 379

Section 1. La notion de proportionnalite 379Par. 1. L'idee de proportionnalite 379Par. 2. Le concept juridique de proportionnalite 383

A. La proportionnalite comme adequation . 383

TABLE DES MATIERES — CONTENTS XIX

B. La proportionnalite comme necessite 384C. La proportionnalite comme mise en balance (proportionnalite au

sens etroit) 385Par. 3. Le voisinage de la proportionnalite 386

A. Proportionnalite et reciprocite 386B. Proportionnalite et equivalence 387C. Proportionnalite et arbitraire/abus de droit 388

Par. 4. Le pluralisme de la proportionnalite 389Section 2. La proportionnalite dans les contre-mesures 391

Par. 1. La jurisprudence 391Par. 2. La pratique etatique 398Par. 3. Les travaux de la Commission du droit international 402Par. 4. La doctrine 407Par. 5. Les criteres pour mesurer la proportionnalite 410

A. Les facteurs principaux 411i) Le facteur quantitatif: les effets du fait illicite . 411ii) Le facteur qualitatif: la gravite de l'acte illicite 419

iii) Le facteur teleologique: la finalite des contre-mesures . . . 421B. Les facteurs secondaires 424

i) Les «questions de principe» 425ii) La nature du rapport juridique 425

iii) L'existence de sanctions institutionnelles 426C. Considerations finales 426

Par. 6. La proportionnalite positive et negative (proportionnalite/dis-proportionnalite) 427

Par. 7. Fragmentation du principe de proportionnalite en une serie denormes prohibitives autonomes ? 432

Par. 8. Problemes particuliers 434Section 3. La proportionnalite dans les sanctions du Conseil de securite 438

Par. 1. Distinction entre contre-mesures et sanctions 438Par. 2. Les modalites de l'application de la proportionnalite aux sanc-

tions 439Section 4. Conclusion 443


UNILATERAL MEASURES AS A MEANS OF FORCIBLE EXECUTION OF WTORECOMMENDATIONS AND DECISIONS 445

Section 1. Preliminary remarks 445Section 2. The legal nature of WTO recommendations and decisions . . 449Section 3. The applicability of customary law to the relations governed

by the WTO agreements 451Section 4. The degree of specificity of WTO law in the field of State

responsibility 458Para. 1. The limits to the right of "contracting-out" 459Para. 2. Explicit and implicit derogations from the general regime

of State responsibility 461Section 5. The limits to the right to adopt unilateral countermeasures

derived from the existence of an applicable and institutionalized dis-pute settlement mechanism 465

Section 6. Final remarks 474

XX TABLE DES MATIERES — CONTENTS


ECONOMIC SANCTIONS AGAINST HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS 477

Section 1. Introduction 477Section 2. The unilateral enforcement of human rights norms 479

Para. 1. The nature of economic sanctions 480Para. 2. The lawfulness of economic sanctions 482

A. The economic liberty of States 483B. The internal affairs of States 486C. The erga omnes obligations of States 489D. International crimes 492E. The proportionality of unilateral economic sanctions 496

Para. 3. The right to impose unilateral sanctions 499Section 3. The multilateral enforcement of human rights norms 502

Para. 1. The jurisdiction to impose multilateral economic sanctions . . 502Para. 2. The United Nations Organization 504Para. 3. Regional organizations 508Para. 4. Ad hoc multilateral measures 509

Section 4. Humanitarian restrictions on economic sanctions againsthuman rights violations 510Para. 1. The economic liberty of individuals 511Para. 2. Economic sanctions härm innocents 512Para. 3. Preserving the means of subsistence 513

Section 5. The appropriateness of economic sanctions against humanrights violations 515Para. 1. The effectiveness of economic sanctions . 516Para. 2. Uneven enforcement of economic sanctions 517Para. 3. The expressiveness of economic sanctions 518Para. 4. Economic incentives 520Para. 5. The limits of economic sanctions 521

Section 6. Summary 522Section 7. Conclusion 525

Deuxieme partieLa mise en oeuvre des sanctions 527

P a r t nThe Implementation of Sanctions 527


ECONOMIC SANCTIONS IN THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITY SYSTEM: RECENTDEVELOPMENTS 529

Section 1. Introduction 529Section 2. Expansion of the notion of threat to the peace 530

Para. 1. Massive violations of human rights that may provoke armedcountermeasures 531

Para. 2. Extreme violence within a State (civil war) . 532Para. 3. Non-compliance with international obligations 533Para. 4. Concerns about future conduct of a State (measures with

regard to armaments) 535

TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS XXI

Para. 5. Massive flow of refugees 535Para. 6. An alternative legal basis for collective sanctions 536

Section 3. Other considerations in application of sanctions by theSecurity Council 540

Para. 1. Humanitarian considerations in application of sanctions . . . 540Para. 2. Effects on third States 545Para. 3. The question of termination of sanctions 549

Section 4. Challenges in application of sanctions by the SecurityCouncil 551Para. 1. There is no limit on the Security Council's discretion . . . . 552Para. 2. The Security Council should exercise its powerjustly . . . . 554Para. 3. Control over the activities of the Council: the Lockerbie case 558

Section 5. Conclusion: sanctions under focus 564


LES COMITES DES SANCTIONS DE L'ORGANISATION DES NATIONS UNIES 567

Section 1. Introduction 567Section 2. Le cadre institutionnel 569

Par. 1. L'integration des comites dans le mecanisme onusien de miseen ceuvre des sanctions 569

A. La Subordination au Conseil de securite 569i) La qualification de l'habilitation prononcee par le Conseil

de securite: attribution de competences ou delegation depouvoirs? 569

ii) Identification des conditions de legalite de la delegation depouvoirs coercitifs 5721) La marge de contröle du Conseil de securite 5732) Les comites detiennent des pouvoirs d'execution . . . . 5743) La precarite de la delegation 5764) Les garanties offertes par l'autorite delegataire 577

B. La cooperation avec les autres organes des Nations Unies . . . 577Par. 2. Le fonctionnement des comites des sanctions 579

A. Les modes de decision quant aux derogations humanitaires . . . 579B. Caractere equitable de la procedure 581

Section 3. La participation des comites ä la mise en oeuvre des sanctions 584Par. 1. Le pouvoir normatif des comites 584

A. La fonction regulatrice des comites des sanctions 585B. La definition des derogations humanitaires 588

i) Produits et fournitures de premiere necessite pour la popu-lation civile 588

ii) L'interdiction de vol 591Par. 2. L'execution des sanctions 592

A. Le pouvoir de contröle des comites des sanctions 593B. L'implication active des comites dans l'application des sanctions 597

Section 4. Conclusion 601Chapitre 11 — Chapter 11

LES SANCTIONS COMMUNAUTAIRES Ä L'EGARD DE PAYS TIERS 6 0 3

Section 1. Introduction 603

XXII TABLE DES MATIERES — CONTENTS

Section 2. La genese des sanctions communautaires: le fondement dansles traites 605

Section 3. La problematique des contre-mesures decentralisees 608Par. 1. Des contre-mesures fondees sur le droit international general . 608Par. 2. A la recherche d'une base juridique appropriee en droit com-

munautaire 612A. Le recours ä l'article 297 (ex-224) CE 612B. Le recours ä l'article 133 (ex-113) CE 614

Section 4. La mise en oeuvre des sanctions du Conseil de securite . . . 616Par. 1. Le role de l'Union europeenne en tant qu'agent d'execution des

sanctions onusiennes 618A. Crise du Golfe et Iraq 619B. Yougoslavie 620C. Afghanistan 621D. Autres cas 622

Par. 2. Les ecarts par rapport aux mesures edictees par le Conseil desecurite 623A. La crise du Kosovo 623B. L'affaire rhodesienne 625C. Levee ou Suspension des mesures 625

Section 5. Les reactions conventionnelles 625Par. 1. L'emergence et la formulation des clauses «droits de l'homme» 627Par. 2. L'application des clauses «droits de l'homme» 631

Section 6. Conclusion 634


PROBLEMES ET TECHNIQUES DE MISE EN CEUVRE DES SANCTIONS ECONO-MIQUES DE L'ORGANISATION DES NATIONS UNIES EN DROIT INTERNE 6 3 7

Section 1. Introduction 637Section 2. Ediction d'une norme interne refletant la norme internatio-

nale 639Par. 1. Distinction materielle des normes internationale et interne . . 639

A. Caractere incomplet de la resolution qui edicte la sanction . . . 639B. Caractere normateur de la concretisation de la resolution dans

l'ordre juridique interne 642Par. 2. Substitution formelle de la norme internationale par la norme

interne dans l'ordre interne 643A. Structure des resolutions 643

i) L'Etat, destinataire direct de la resolution enoncant la sanc-tion 644

ii) Examen de la structure de la resolution par le juge etatique 647B. Structure des enonces internes relatifs aux effets des resolutions

en droit interne 649i) Structure de la norme interne qui reflete l'enonce international 649ii) Structure du raisonnement de l'entite etatique qui applique

la «norme reflet» 652Section 3. Mise en oeuvre de la norme interne qui reflete la norme inter-

nationale 657Par. 1. Techniques de determination de la norme interne ä mettre en

ceuvre 657

TABLE DES MATIERES — CONTENTS XXIII

A. Le choix de la norme nationale ä appliquer 658i) Probleme du conflit entre une norme applicable ä la Situation

litigieuse et la «norme reflet» 658ii) Incidence de l'ediction d'actes de l'executif incontestables

sur la mise en oeuvre de la resolution 660B. Le choix entre la «norme reflet» et la norme etrangere incom-

patible . 667i) Mise en oeuvre de la Ioi etrangere 668

ii) Effets internes des actes unilateraux de l'Etat etranger autresque legislatifs 6701) Effets du jugement etranger 6712) Effets des actes unilateraux non judiciaires de l'Etat

etranger 672Par. 2. Realisation des prescriptions de la norme interne retenue . . . 674

A. Application de la sanction economique et validite des contrats . 675B. Application de la sanction economique et Situation des contrac-

tants 678i) Situation de l'Etat 679

ii) Situation des contractants prives 679Section 4. Conclusion 680


LES EFFETS DES SANCTIONS ECONOMIQUES DE L'ORGANISATION DES NATIONSUNIES SUR LES CONTRATS 6 8 3

Section 1. Introduction 683Section 2. Les restrictions affectant le champ spatial du contrat . . . . 686

Par. 1. Les restrictions directes 686A. Les restrictions tenant ä l'objet des obligations contractuelles. . 687B. Les restrictions tenant ä l'objet des prestations contractuelles . . 690

Par. 2. Les restrictions indirectes 695A. L'interdiction des activites economiques 695B. Le gel des avoirs 698

Section 3. Les restrictions affectant le champ temporel du contrat . . . 701Par. 1. Les contrats en cours anterieurs aux sanctions economiques . . 702

A. Les Solutions au regard du droit materiel 702B. Les solutions au regard des conflits de lois 707

Par. 2. Les contrats subsequents aux sanctions economiques 708A. L'appreciation de la liceite des contrats 709B. La sanction des contrats irreguliers 712

Section 4. Conclusion 714Chapitre 14 — Chapter 14INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC SANCTIONS AS A COMPONENT OF PUBLIC POLICY

FOR CONFLICT-OF-LAWS PURPOSES 7 1 7

Section 1. Introduction 717Para. 1. Economic sanctions in the interaction between international

law and domestic legal Systems 717Para. 2. Incorporating international economic sanctions: some relevant

examples 718

XXIV TABLE DES MATIERES — CONTENTS

A. Prohibitive measures directly affecting commercial transactions 718B. Seizure 718C. Measures consisting in the deprivation of rights or Status . . . . 719D. Non-recognition of juridical situations as created by non-

domestic decisions 719E. Uniform Standards furtherance (positive sanctions implying the

modification of the target State's legal system) 721Section 2. Private international law and international economic sanctions 721

Para. 1. Application by domestic judges of national rules incorporatinginternational economic sanctions 721A. Sanctions incorporated into the judge's State legal system. . . . 724

(i) Lexfori governs the relationship as a whole 724(ii) Lex causae is a foreign law which incorporates sanctions . 724

(iii) Lex causae is a foreign law which does not incorporatesanctions 726

B. Sanctions not resorted to by the State of the forum but incor-porated into the lex causae 726

C. Sanctions not incorporated in the lex fori or in the lex causae,but in the law of a third State 728

(i) Article 7 (1), Rome Convention 728(ii) Equivalent approaches in States which opted out from

Article 7 (1) 729(iii) Further relevant practice 731

Para. 2. Recognition of foreign judicial decisions and internationaleconomic sanctions 733A. Foreign judgment not consistent with an international sanction

adopted by the State where recognition is sought 735B. Foreign judgment applying an international sanction not adopted

by the State where recognition is sought 735C. . . . but recommended (or condemned) by a resolution of an inter-

national organization to which the requested State belongs . . . 736Para. 3. International economic sanctions and transnational commercial

arbitration 737A. Arbitrability — from the viewpoint of a given municipal legal

System 737B. Arbitrability — from the viewpoint of an arbitrator 738C. Recognition and enforcement 739D. Setting aside of the award 740E. The application by arbitrators of rules embodying international

economic sanctions 741Para. 4. Assessing the lawfulness of the adopted sanctions. Some issues 742

A. Judicial determination, unilateral assessment, sanctions: somepreliminary remarks 742

B. The United Nations security system 743C. Law assessment in the case of resort to unilateral sanctions:

blocking Statutes 745D. Law assessment: the comprehensive role of domestic courts . . 745E. Judicial assessment of the legality of Article 41 United Nations

Charter sanctions—jus cogens limitations 748Section 3. On sanctions, international positive sanctions and private inter-

national law 751Para. 1. Sanctions as a means to secure the effectiveness of a legal

System 751

TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS XXV

Para. 2. On negative and positive sanctions: some remarks from afunctional point of view 752

Para. 3. The articulation of sanctions into both a legal and a factualelement 753A. Negative sanctions 753B. Positive sanctions 753

(i) Positive sanctions as unilateral acts (promise withoutacceptance) 754

(ii) Positive sanctions as accepted promises 755(iii) Positive sanctioning through a synallagmatic scheme . . . 755

Para. 4. The role of positive sanctions in the shaping of public policyfor conflict-of-laws purposes 758

Bibliographie selective 761Selected Bibliography 761

Tables 811Indexes 811

les sanctions economiques en droit international economic

Documents