Loss Prevention inthe Process IndustriesVolume 107:26 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 107:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 2This book is dedicated toHerbert Douglas Lees (18601944), gas engineer;Frank Priestman Lees (18901916), gas engineer;Herbert Douglas Lees (18971955), gas engineer;David John Lees (1936), agricultural engineer;Frank Lyman MacCallum (18931955), mining engineer and missionary;Vivien Clare Lees (1960), plastic and hand surgeonHarry Douglas Lees (1962), restaurateurand their families` They do not preach that their God will rouse them a little beforethe nuts work loose.They do not teach that His Pity allows them to drop their job whenthey dam'-well choose.As in the thronged and the lighted ways, so in the dark and thedesert they stand,Wary and watchful all their days that their brethren's days may belong in the land.'Rudyard Kipling (The Sons of Martha, 1907)Wo einer kommt and saget an,Er hat es allen recht getan,So bitten wir diesen lieben Herrn,Er woll uns solche Kunste auch lehrn(Whoever is able to say to us` I have done everything right ',We beg that honest gentlemanTo show us how it is done)Inscription over the ` Zwischenbau' adjoining the Rathaus in Brandenburg-on-the-Haven(quoted by Prince B.H.M. von Bulow in Memoirs, 1932)If the honeye that the bees gather out of so manye floure of herbes . . . that are growing in othermennis medowes . . . may justly be called the bees' honeye . . . so maye I call it that I have . . .gathered of manye good autores . . . my booke.William Turner (quoted by A. Scott-James in The Language of the Garden: A Personal Anthology)By the same author:A.W. Cox, F.P. Lees and M.L. Ang (1990): Classification of Hazardous Locations (Rugby:Institution of Chemical Engineers)Elwyn Edwards and Frank P. Lees (1973): Man and Computer in Process Control (London:Institution of Chemical Engineers)Elwyn Edwards and Frank P. Lees (eds) (1974): The Human Operator in Process Control(London: Taylor & Francis)Frank P. Lees and M.L. Ang (1989): Safety Cases (London: Butterworths)07:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 3Loss Prevention inthe Process IndustriesHazard Identification, Assessment and ControlVolume 1Second editionFrank P. LeesEmeritus Professor of Chemical Engineering, Departmentof Chemical Engineering, Loughborough University,United Kingdom07:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 4Butterworth-HeinemannLinacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DPA division of Reed Educational and Professional PublishingA member of the Reed Elsevier plc groupOXFORD BOSTON JOHANNESBURGMELBOURNE NEW DELHI SINGAPOREFirst published 1980Second edition 1996#Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd 1996All rights reserved. No part of this publicationmay be reproduced in any material form (includingphotocopying or storing in any medium by electronicmeans and whether or not transiently or incidentallyto some other use of this publication) without thewritten permission of the copyright holder exceptin accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of alicence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd,90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1P 9HE.Applications for the copyright holder's written permissionto reproduce any part of this publication should be addressedto the publishersBritish Library Cataloguing in Publication DataLees, Frank P.Loss Prevention in the ProcessIndustries: Hazard Identification,Assessment and Control. 2Rev.edI. Title658.47ISBN 0 7506 1547 8Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication DataLees, Frank P.Loss prevention in the process industries : hazardidentification, assessment, and control / Frank P. Lees. 2nd ed.p. cm.Rev. ed. of : Loss prevention in the process industries. 1980.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0 7506 1547 81. Petroleum chemicals industryGreat BritainSafety measures.I. Lees, Frank P. Loss prevention in the process industries.II. title.TP690.6.L43 1995600'.2804dc20Printed in Great Britain07:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 5Preface to Second EditionThe first edition of this book appeared in 1980, at theend of a decade of rapid growth and development in lossprevention. After another decade and a half the subject ismore mature, although development continues apace. Inpreparing this second edition it has been even moredifficult than before to decide what to put in and what toleave out.The importance of loss prevention has been underlinedby a number of disasters. Those at San Carlos, MexicoCity, Bhopal and Pasadena are perhaps the best known,but there have been several others with death tollsexceeding 100. There have also been major incidents inrelated areas, such as those on the Piper Alpha oilplatform and at the nuclear power stations at Three MileIsland and Chernobyl.Apart from the human tragedy, it has become clearthat a major accident can seriously damage even a largeinternational company and may even threaten its exis-tence, rendering it liable to severe damages andvulnerable to takeover.Accidents in the process industries have given impetusto the creation of regulatory controls. In the UK theAdvisory Committee on Major Hazards made its thirdand final report in 1983. At the same time the EuropeanCommunity was developing its own controls whichappeared as the EC Directive on Major AccidentHazards. The resulting UK legislation is the NIHHSRegulations 1982 and the CIMAH Regulations 1984.Other members of the EC have brought in their ownlegislation to implement the Directive. There have beencorresponding developments in planning controls . . .An important tool for decision-making on hazards ishazard assessment. The application of quantitative meth-ods has played a crucial role in the development of lossprevention, but there has been lively debate on theproper application of such assessment, and particularlyon the estimation and evaluation of the risk to the public.Hazard assessment involves the assessment both ofthe frequency and of the consequences of hazardousevents. In frequency estimation progress has been madein the collection of data and creation of data banks andin fault tree synthesis and analysis, including computeraids. In consequence assessment there has been a highlevel of activity in developing physical models foremission, vaporization and gas dispersion, particularlydense gas dispersion; for pool fires, fireballs, jet flamesand engulfing fires; for vapour cloud explosions; and forboiling liquid expanding vapour explosions (BLEVEs).Work has also been done on injury models for thermalradiation, explosion overpressure and toxic concentration,on models of the density and other characteristics of theexposed population, and on shelter and escape.Some of these topics require experimental work on alarge scale and involving international cooperation. Largescale tests have been carried out at several sites ondense gas dispersion and on vapour cloud fires andexplosions. Another major cooperative researchprogramme has been that of DIERS on venting ofchemical reactors.The basic approach developed for fixed installations onshore has also been increasingly applied in other fields.For transport in the UK the Transport Hazards Report ofthe Advisory Committee on Dangerous Substancesrepresents an important landmark. Another applicationis in the offshore oil and gas industry, for which thereport on the Piper Alpha disaster, the Cullen Report,constitutes a watershed.As elsewhere in engineering, computers are in wide-spread use in the design of process plants, wherecomputer aided design (CAD) covers physical proper-ties, flowsheeting, piping and instrument diagrams, unitoperations and plant layout. There is increasing use ofcomputers for failure data retrieval and analysis, relia-bility and availability studies, fault tree synthesis andanalysis and consequence modelling, while more elusivesafety expertise is being captured by computer-basedexpert systems.The subject of this book is the process industries, butthe process aspects of related industries, notably nuclearpower and oil and gas platforms are briefly touched on.The process industries themselves are continually chan-ging. In the last decade one of the main changes hasbeen increased emphasis on products such as pharma-ceuticals and agrochemicals made by batch processes,which have their own particular hazards.All this knowledge is of little use unless it reaches theright people. The institutions which educate the engi-neers who will be responsible for the design andoperation of plants handling hazardous materials have aduty to make their students aware of the hazards and atleast to make a start in gaining competence in handlingthem.I would like again to thank for their encouragementthe heads of the Department of Chemical Engineeringat Loughborough, Professors D.C. Freshwater, B.W.Brooks and M. Streat; our Industrial Professors T.A.Kletz and H.A. Duxbury and Visiting Professor S.M.Richardson; my colleagues, past and present, in the PlantEngineering Group, Mr R.J. Aird, Dr P.K. Andow, DrM.L. Ang, Dr P.W.H. Chung, Dr D.W. Edwards, DrP. Rice and Dr A.G. Rushton I owe a particular debtto the latter; the members of the ACMH, chairedby Professor B.H. Harvey; the sometime directorsof Technica Ltd, Dr D.H. Slater, Mr P. Charsley, DrP.J. Comer, Dr R.A. Cox, Mr T. Gjerstad, Dr M.A.F.Pyman, Mr C.G. Ramsay, Mr M.A. Seaman and DrR. Whitehouse; the members of the IChemE LossPrevention Panel; the IChemE's former Loss PreventionOfficer, Mr B.M. Hancock; the members of the IChemELoss Prevention Study Group and of the Register ofSafety Professionals; the editorial staff of the IChemE, inparticular Mr B. Brammer; numerous members of theHealth and Safety Executive, especially Dr A.C. Barrell,Mr J. Barton, Dr D.A. Carter, Mr K. Cassidy, Mr P.J.07:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 6Crossthwaite, Dr N.W. Hurst, Dr S.F. Jagger, Dr J.McQuaid, Dr K. Moodie, Dr C. Nussey, Dr R.P. Pape,Dr A.F. Roberts and Dr N.F. Scilly; workers at the Safetyand Reliability Directorate, particularly Dr A.T.D.Butland, Mr I. Hymes, Dr D.W. Phillips and Dr D.M.Webber; staff at Shell Thornton Research Centre,including Dr D.C. Bull and Dr A.C. Chamberlain; staffat British Gas, including Dr J.D. Andrews, Dr M.J.Harris, Mr H. Hopkins, Dr J.M. Morgan and Dr D.J.Smith; staff at the Ministry of Defence, ExplosivesStorage and Transport Committee, including Mr M.A.Gould, Mr J. Henderson and Mr P. Stone; andcolleagues who have taught on post-experience coursesat Loughborough, in particular Dr C.D. Jones, Dr D.J.Lewis and Mr J. Madden; BP International and Mr R.Malpas for allowing me to spend a period of study leavewith the company in 198586 and Mr F.D.H. Moysen,Mr G. Hately, Mr M. Hough, Mr R. Fearon and othersin the Central Safety Group and in EngineeringDepartment; the Honourable Lord Cullen, my fellowTechnical Assessors on the Piper Alpha Inquiry, Mr B.Appleton and Mr G.M. Ford and the Cremer and Warnerteam at the inquiry, in particular Mr G. Kenney and MrR. Sylvester-Evans; other professional colleagues Dr L.J.Bellamy, Professor B.A. Buffham, Dr D.A. Crowl, Mr T.J.Gilbert, Mr D.O. Hagon, Dr D.J. Hall, Mr K.M. Hill,Professor T.M. Husband, Mr M. Kneale, Dr V.C.Marshall, Dr M.L. Preston, Dr J. Rasmussen, Dr J.R.Roach, Dr J.R. Taylor, Dr V.M. Trbojevic, Mr H.M.Tweeddale, Dr G.L. Wells and Dr A.J. Wilday; myresearch colleagues Dr C.P. Murphy, Mrs J.I. Petts, DrD.J. Sherwin, Mr R.M.J. Withers and Dr H. Zerkani; myresearch students Mr M. Aldersey, Mr D.C.Arulanantham, Dr A. Bunn, Dr M.A. Cox, Dr P.A.Davies, Dr S.M. Gilbert, Mr P. Heino, Dr A. Hunt, DrB.E. Kelly, Dr G.P.S. Marrs, Dr J.S. Mullhi, Dr J.C.Parmar, Mr B. Poblete, Dr A. Shafaghi and Dr A.J.Trenchard as well as colleagues' research students MrE.J. Broomfield, Mr R. Goodwin, Mr M.J. Jefferson, DrF.D. Larkin, Mr S.A. McCoy, Dr K. Plamping, Mr J.Soutter, Dr P. Thorpe and Mr S.J. Wakeman; the officestaff of the Department, Mrs E.M. Barradell, Mr D.M.Blake, Miss H.J. Bryers and Miss Y. Kosar; the staff ofthe University Library, in particular Miss S.F. Pilkington;and my wife Elizabeth, whose contribution has beenmany-faceted and in scale with this book.FRANK P. LEESLoughborough,199407:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 7Preface to First EditionWithin the past ten or fifteen years the chemical andpetroleum industries have undergone considerablechanges. Process conditions such as pressure andtemperature have become more severe. The concentra-tion of stored energy has increased. Plants have grownin size and are often single-stream. Storage has beenreduced and interlinking with other plants has increased.The response of the process is often faster. The plantcontains very large items of equipment. The scale ofpossible fire, explosion or toxic release has grown and sohas the area which might be affected by such events,especially outside the works boundary.These factors have greatly increased the potential forloss both in human and in economic terms. This is clearboth from the increasing concern of the industry and itsinsurers and from the historical loss statistics.The industry has always paid much attention to safetyand has a relatively good record. But with the growingscale and complexity involved in modern plants thedanger of serious large-scale incidents has been asource of increasing concern and the adequacy ofexisting procedures has been subjected to an increas-ingly critical examination.Developments in other related areas have also had aninfluence. During the period considered there has beengrowing public concern about the various forms ofpollution, including gaseous and liquid effluents andsolid wastes and noise.It is against this background that the loss preventionapproach has developed. It is characteristic of thisapproach that it is primarily concerned with theproblems caused by the depth of technology involvedin modern processes and that it adopts essentially anengineering approach to them. As far as possible boththe hazards and the protection are evaluated quantita-tively.The clear recognition by senior management of theimportance of the loss prevention problem has beencrucial to these developments. Progress has been madebecause management has been prepared to assign to thiswork many senior and capable personnel and to allocatethe other resources necessary.The management system is fundamental to lossprevention. This involves a clear management structurewith well defined line and advisory responsibilities staffedby competent people. It requires the use of appropriateprocedures, codes of practice and standards in thedesign and operation of plant. It provides for theidentification, evaluation and reduction of hazardsthrough all stages of a project from research tooperation. It includes planning for emergencies.The development of loss prevention can be clearlytraced through the literature. In 1960 the Institution ofChemical Engineers held the first of a periodic series ofsymposia on Chemical Process Hazards with SpecialReference to Plant Design. The Dow Chemical Companypublished its Process Safety Manual in 1964. TheAmerican Institute of Chemical Engineers started in 1967an annual series of symposia on Loss Prevention. TheEuropean Federation of Chemical Engineers' symposiumon Major Loss Prevention in the Process Industries atNewcastle in 1971 and the Federation's symposium onLoss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the ProcessIndustries (Buschmann, 1974) at Delft are further mile-stones.Another indicator is the creation in 1973 by theInstitution of Chemical Engineers Engineering PracticeCommittee of a Loss Prevention Panel under thechairmanship of Mr T.A. Kantyka.In the United Kingdom the Health and Safety at Worketc. Act 1974 has given further impetus to lossprevention. The philosophy of the Robens Report (1972),which is embodied in the Act, is that of self-regulation byindustry. It is the responsibility of industry to take allreasonable measures to assure safety. This philosophy isparticularly appropriate to complex technological systemsand the Act provides a flexible framework for thedevelopment of the loss prevention approach.The disaster at Flixborough in 1974 has proved aturning point. This event has led to a much morewidespread and intense concern with the loss preventionproblem. It has also caused the government to set up in1975 an Advisory Committee on Major Hazards. Thiscommittee has made far-reaching recommendations forthe identification and control of major hazard installa-tions.It will be apparent that loss prevention differs some-what from safety as traditionally conceived in the processindustries. The essential difference is the much greaterengineering content in loss prevention.This is illustrated by the relative effectiveness ofinspection in different processes. In fairly simple plantsmuch can be done to improve safety by visual inspection.This approach is not adequate, however, for the moretechnological aspects of complex processes.For the reasons given above loss prevention iscurrently a somewhat fashionable subject. It is as wellto emphasize, therefore, that much of it is not new, buthas been developed over many years by engineerswhose patient work in an often apparently unrewardingbut vital field is the mark of true professionalism.It is appropriate to emphasize, moreover, that accidentsarising from relatively mundane situations and activitiesare still responsible for many more deaths and injuriesthan those due to advanced technology.Nevertheless, loss prevention has developed inresponse to the growth of a new problem, the hazardof high technology processes, and it does have adistinctive approach and some novel techniques.Particularly characteristic are the emphasis on matchingthe management system to the depth of technology inthe installation, the techniques developed for identifyinghazards, the principle and methods of quantifyinghazards, the application of reliability assessment, the07:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 8practice of planning for emergencies and the critique oftraditional practices or existing codes, standards orregulations where these are outdated by technologicalchange.There is an enormous, indeed intimidating, literatureon safety and loss prevention. In addition to thesymposia already referred to, mention may be made ofthe Handbook of Safety and Accident Prevention inChemical Operations by Fawcett and Wood (1965); theHandbook of Industrial Loss Prevention by the FactoryMutual Engineering Corporation (1967); and theIndustrial Safety Handbook by Handley (1969, 1977).These publications, which are by multiple authors, areinvaluable source material.There is a need, however, in the author's view for abalanced and integrated textbook on loss prevention inthe process industries which presents the basic elementsof the subject, which covers the recent period of intensedevelopment and which gives a reasonably comprehen-sive bibliography. The present book is an attempt tomeet this need.The book is based on lectures given to undergraduateand postgraduate students at Loughborough over aperiod of years and the author gladly acknowledgestheir contribution.Loss prevention is a wide and rapidly developing fieldand is therefore not an easy subject for a book.Nevertheless, it is precisely for these reasons that theengineer needs the assistance of a textbook and that theattempt has been considered justified.The structure of the book is as follows. Chapter 1deals with the background to the historical developmentof loss prevention, the problem of large, single-streamplants, and the differences between loss prevention andconventional safety, and between loss prevention and totalloss control; Chapter 2 with hazard, accident andloss, including historical statistics; Chapter 3 with thelegislation and legal background; Chapter 4 with thecontrol of major hazards; Chapter 5 with economic andinsurance aspects; Chapter 6 with management systems,including management structure, competent persons,systems and procedures, standards and codes of prac-tice, documentation and auditing arrangements; Chapter7 with reliability engineering, including its application inthe process industires; Chapter 8 with the spectrum oftechniques for identifying hazards from research throughto operation; Chapter 9 with the assessment of hazards,including the question of acceptable risk; Chapter 10with the siting and layout of plant; Chapter 11 withprocess design, including application of principles suchas limitation of inventory, consideration of known hazardsassociated with chemical reactors, unit processes, unitoperations and equipments, operating conditions, utilities,particular chemicals and particular processes and plants,and checking of operational deviations; Chapter 12 withpressure system design, including properties of materials,design of pressure vessels and pipework, pressure vesselstandards and codes, equipment such as heat exchan-gers, fired heaters and rotating machinery, pressurerelief and blowdown arrangements, and failure inpressure systems; Chapter 13 with design of instrumen-tation and control systems, including regular instrumen-tation, process computers and protective systems;Chapter 14 with human factors in process control,process operators, computer aids and human error;Chapter 15 with loss of containment and dispersion ofmaterial; Chapter 16 with fire, flammability characteris-tics, ignition sources, flames and particular types ofprocess fire, effects of fire and fire prevention, protectionand control; Chapter 17 with explosion, explosives,explosion energy, particular types of process explosionsuch as confined explosions, unconfined vapour cloudexplosions and dust explosions, effects of explosion andexplosion prevention, protection and relief; Chapter 18with toxicity of chemicals, toxic release and effects oftoxic release; Chapter 19 with commissioning andinspection of plant; Chapter 20 with plant operation;Chapter 21 with plant maintenance and modification;Chapter 22 with storage; Chapter 23 with transport,particularly by road, rail and pipeline; Chapter 24 withemergency planning both for works and transportemergencies; Chapter 25 with various aspects of perso-nal safety such as occupational health and industrialhygiene, dust and radiation hazards, machinery andelectrical hazards, protective clothing and equipment,and rescue and first aid; Chapter 26 with accidentresearch; Chapter 27 with feedback of information andlearning from accidents; Chapter 28 with safety systems,including the roles of safety managers and safetycommittees and representatives. There are appendiceson Flixborough, Seveso, case histories, standards andcodes, institutional publications, information sources,laboratories and pilot plants, pollution and noise, failureand event data, Canvey, model licence conditions forcertain hazardous plants, and units and unit coversions.Many of the matters dealt with, such as pressurevessels or process control, are major subject areas intheir own right. It is stressed, therefore, that thetreatment given is strictly limited to loss preventionaspects. The emphasis is on deviations and faults whichmay give rise to loss.In engineering in general and in loss prevention inparticular there is a conflict between the demand for astatement of basic principles and that for detailedinstructions. In general, the first of these approacheshas been adopted, but the latter is extremely importantin safety, and a considerable amount of detailed materialis given and references are provided to further material.The book is intended as a contribution to theacademic education of professional chemical and otherengineers. Both educational and professional institutionshave long recognized the importance of education insafety. But until recently the rather qualitative, andindeed often exhortatory, nature of the subject fre-quently seemed to present difficulties in teaching atdegree level. The recent quantitative development of thesubject goes far towards removing these objections andto integrating it more closely with other topics such asengineering design.In other words, loss prevention is capable of develop-ment as a subject presenting intellectual challenge. Thisis all to the good, but a note of caution is appropriate. Itremains true that safety and loss prevention dependprimarily on the hard and usually unglamorous workof engineers with a strong sense of responsibility, andit is important that this central fact should not beobscured.For this reason the book does not attempt to selectparticular topics merely because a quantitative treatmentis possible or to give such a treatment as an academic07:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 9exercise. The subject is too important for such anapproach. Rather the aim has been to give a balancedtreatment of the different aspects and a lead in to furtherreading.It is also hoped that the book will be useful topractising engineers in providing an orientation and entryto unfamiliar areas. It is emphasized, however, that inthis subject above all others, the specialized texts shouldbe consulted for detailed design work.Certain topics which are often associated with lossprevention, for example included in loss preventionsymposia, have not been treated in detail. Theseinclude, for example, pollution and noise. The bookdoes not attempt to deal in detail with total loss control,but a brief account of this is given.The treatment of loss prevention given is based mainlyon the chemical, petrochemical and petroleum industries,but much of it is relevant to other process industries,such as electrical power generation (conventional andnuclear), iron and steel, gas, cement, glass, paper andfood.The book is written from the viewpoint of the UnitedKingdom and, where differences exist within the UK, ofEngland. This point is relevant mainly to legislation.Reference is made to a large number of proceduresand techniques. These do not all have the same status.Some are well established and perhaps incorporated instandards or codes of practice. Others are more tentative.As far as possible the attempt has been made to givesome indication of the extent to which particular itemsare generally accepted.There are probably also some instances where there isa degree of contradiction between two approaches given.In particular, this may occur where one is based onengineering principles and the other on relativelyarbitrary rules-of-thumb.The book does not attempt to follow standards andcodes of practice in drawing a distinction between thewords should, shall and must in recommending particularpractices and generally uses only the former. Thedistinction is important, however, in standards andcodes of practice and it is described in Appendix 4a.An explanation of some of the terms used is in orderat this point. Unfortunately there is at present noaccepted terminology in this field. In general, theproblems considered are those of loss, either of life orproperty. The term hazard is used to describe the objector situation which constitutes the threat of such loss.The consequences which might occur if the threat isrealized are the hazard potential. Associated with thehazard there is a risk, which is the probability of the lossoccurring. Such a risk is expressed as a probability or asa frequency. Probability is expressed as a number in therange 0 to 1 and is dimensionless; frequency isexpressed in terms of events per unit time, or some-times in other units such as events per cycle or peroccasion. Rate is also used as an alternative to frequencyand has the same units.The analysis of hazards involves qualitative hazardidentification and quantitative hazard assessment. Thelatter term is used to describe both the assessment ofaAppendices 4, 5 and 12 in the first edition correspond toAppendices 27, 28 and 30, respectively, in this second edition.hazard potential and of risk. The assessment of risk onlyis described as risk assessment.In accident statistics the term Fatal Accident FrequencyRate (FAFR) has some currency. The last two terms aretautologous and the quantity is here referred to as FatalAccident Rate (FAR).Further treatments of terminology in this field aregiven by BS 4200: 1967, by Green and Bourne (1962), bythe Council for Science and Society (1977) and byHarvey (1979b).Notation is defined for the particular chapter at thepoint where the symbols first occur. In general, aconsistent notation is used, but well established equa-tions from standards, codes and elsewhere are usuallygiven in the original notation. A consolidated list of thenotation is given at the end of chapters in which a largenumber of symbols is used.The units used are in principle SI, but the exceptionsare fairly numerous. These exceptions are dimensionalequations, equations in standards and codes, and otherequations and data given by other workers whereconversion has seemed undesirable for some reason. Incases of conversion from a round number it is often notclear what degree of rounding off is appropriate. In casesof description of particular situations it appears pedanticto make the conversion where a writer has referred, forexample, to a 1 inch pipe.Notes on some of the units used are given inAppendix 12a. For convenience a unit conversion tableis included in this appendix. Numerical values given byother authors are generally quoted without change andnumerical values arising from conversion of the units ofdata given by other authors are sometimes quoted withan additional significant figure in order to avoidexcessive rounding of values.Some cost data are quoted in the book. These aregiven in pounds or US dollars for the year quoted.A particular feature of the book is a fairly extensivebibliography of some 5000 references. These referencesare consolidated at the end of the book rather than atthe end of chapters, because many items are referred toin a number of chapters. Lists of selected references onparticular topics are given in table form in the relevantchapters.Certain institutions, however, have a rather largenumber of publications which it is more convenient totreat in a different manner. These are tabulated inAppendices 4aand 5a, which contain some 2000references. There is a cross-reference to the institutionin the main reference list.In many cases institutions and other organizations arereferred to by their initials. In all cases the firstreference in the book gives the full title of theorganization. The initials may also be looked up in theAuthor Index, which gives the full title.A reference is normally given by quoting the authorand, in brackets, the date, e.g. Kletz (1971). Publicationsby the same author in the same year are denoted byletters of the alphabet a, b, c, etc., e.g. Allen (1977a),while publications by authors of the same surname andin the same year are indicated for convenience by anasterisk against the year in the list of references. Inaddition, the author's initials are given in the main textin cases where there may still be ambiguity. Where adate has not been determined this is indicated as n.d.07:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 10In the case of institutional publications listed inAppendices 4aand 5athe reference is given by quotingthe insitution and, in brackets, the date, the publicationseries, e.g. HSE (1965 HSW Bklt 34) or the itemnumber, e.g. IChemE (1971 Item 7). For institutionalpublications with a named author the reference isgenerally given by quoting the author and, in brackets,the initials of the institution, the date and the publicationseries or item number, e.g. Eames (UKAEA 1965 Item4).The field of loss prevention is currently subject to veryrapid change. In particular, there is a continuousevolution of standards and codes of practice andlegislation. It is important, therefore, that the readershould make any necessary checks on changes whichmay have occurred.I would like to thank for their encouragement in thisproject Professor D.C. Freshwater and the publishers,and to acknowledge the work of many authors which Ihaved used directly or indirectly, particularly that of DrJ.H. Burgoyne and of Professor T.A. Kletz. I havelearned much from my colleagues on the LossPrevention Panel of the Institution of ChemicalEngineers, in particular Mr T.A. Kantyka and Mr F.Hearfield, and on the Advisory Committee on MajorHazards, especially the chairman Professor B.H. Harvey,the secretary Mr H.E. Lewis, my fellow group chairmenProfessor F.R. Farmer and Professor J.L.M. Morrisonand the members of Group 2, Mr K. Briscoe, Dr J.H.Burgoyne, Mr E.J. Challis, Mr S. Hope, Mr M.A.McTaggart, Professor J.F. Richardson, Mr J.R.H.Schenkel, Mr R. Sheath and Mr M.J. Turner, and alsofrom my university colleagues Dr P.K. Andow, Mr R.J.Aird and Dr D.J. Sherwin and students Dr S.N.Anyakora, Dr B. Bellingham, Mr C.A. Marpegan andDr G.A. Martin-Solis. I am much indebted to ProfessorT.A. Kletz for his criticisms and suggestions on the text.My thanks are due also to the Institution of PlantEngineers, which has supported plant engineeringactivities at Loughborough, to the Leverhulme Trustwhich awarded a Research Fellowship to study LossPrevention in the Process Industries and to the ScienceResearch Council, which has supported some of my ownwork in this area. I have received invaluable help withthe references from Mrs C.M. Lincoln, Mrs W. Davison,Mrs P. Graham, Mr R. Rhodes and Mrs M.A. Rowlatt,with the typing from Mrs E.M. Barradell, Mrs P. Jacksonand, in particular, Mrs J. Astley, and with the productionfrom Mr R.L. Pearson and Mr T. Mould. As always inthese matters the responsibility for the final text is minealone.FRANK P. LEESLoughborough,197907:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 11AcknowledgementsFor permission to reproduce material in this book theauthor would like to acknowledge in particular:Academic Press; Adam Hilger; Addison-WesleyPublishers; AGEMA Infrared Systems; the Air PollutionControl Association; the American Chemical Society; theAmerican Gas Association; the American Institute ofChemical Engineers; the American Petroleum Institute;the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers; the American Society ofMechanical Engineers; Anderson Greenwood Company;Anderson Studios; Archivum Combustionis; AssociatedPress; the Association of the British PharmaceuticalIndustry; Atmospheric Environment; the Badische Anilinund Soda Fabrik; the Bettman Archive; the BootsCompany; Borowski Image Communications; BPChemicals Ltd; BP Petroleum Company Ltd; BPPetroleum Development Ltd; the British CeramicsResearch Association; the British Chemical IndustrySafety Council; British Gas plc; British Medical Journal;the British Standards Institution; the BrookhavenNational Laboratory; Brooks/Cole Publishers; theBuilding Research Establishment; the Bureau of Mines;Business Books; Business India; Butterworth-Heinemann;Cambridge University Press; Castle House Publications;the Center for Chemical Process Safety; Champaign FireDepartment; Chapman and Hall; the Chartered Instituteof Building Services Engineers; Chemical Engineering;Chemical Engineering Science; the Chemical IndustriesAssociation; the Chemical Industry Safety and HealthCouncil; Chemical Processing; the Chicago Bridge andIron Company; the Christian Michelsen Institute; CignaInsurance; Clarendon Press; Combustion and Flame; theCombustion Institute; Combustion Science and Technology;Compagnie General d'Edition et de Presse; Crosby Valveand Engineering Ltd; DECHEMA; Marcel Dekker; theDow Chemical Company; Dupont Safer EmergencySystems; the Electrical Power Research Institute; theElectrochemical Society; Elsevier Publishing Company,Elsevier Sequoia SA and Elsevier Science Publishers; theEngineering Equipment Manufacturers and UsersAssociation; the Enterprise Publishing Company, Blair,Nebraska; the Environmental Protection Agency; ExpertVerlag; The Faraday Society; Ferranti Ltd; the FederalPower Commission; Filtration and Separation; FirePrevention Science and Technology; the Fire ProtectionAssociation; Fire Safety Journal; Fire Technology; theFoxboro Company; Gastech; Gordon and BreachScience Publishers; Gower Press; de Gruyter Verlag;Gulf Publishing Corporation; the Guiness Book of Records;the Health and Safety Executive; Hemisphere PublishingCompany; the High Pressure Technology Association; theController of HM Stationery Office; HydrocarbonProcessing; Imperial Chemical Industries plc; IndustrialRisk Insurers; the Institute of Electrical and ElectronicEngineers; the Institute of Measurement and Control; theInstitute of Petroleum; the Institute of Physics; theInstitution of Chemical Engineers; the Institution ofElectrical Engineers; the Institution of Gas Engineers;the Institution of Marine Engineers; the Institution ofMechanical Engineers; the Instrument Society ofAmerica; International Atomic Energy Agency;International Journal of Air and Water Pollution; ITAR-TASS; Journal of Applied Physics; Journal of Colloid andInterface Science; Journal of Electrostatics; Journal ofOccupational Psychology; Journal of Ship Research;William Kaufman Inc.; Kent Instruments Ltd; KluwerAcademic Publishers; the McGraw-Hill Book Company;Marston Excelsior Ltd; the Meteorological Office; MrC.A. Miller; the Ministry of Social Affairs, theNetherlands; Ministry of Supply; the National Academyof Sciences; the National Fire Protection Association; theNational Radiological Protection Board; the NationalTransportation Safety Board; Nature; New YorkAcademy of Sciences; North Holland PublishingCompany; the Norwegian Society of CharteredEngineers; the Nuclear Regulatory Commission; NuclearSafety; the Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration; the Oil Gas Journal; Oxford UniversityPress; Pergamon Press; Philosophical Magazine; PlenumPress; Prentice-Hall; Process Engineering; Progress inEnergy and Combustion Science; PSC Freysinnet; ReidelPublishing Company; Research Study Press; RisoNational Laboratory; Mr A. Ritchie; the Rijnmond PublicAuthority; the Royal Meteorological Society; the RoyalSociety; the Safety in Mines Research Establishment;Science; the Scientific Instrument Research Association;Scottish Technical Developments Ltd and the Universityof Strathclyde; Shell International Petroleum CompanyLtd; Shell Research Ltd; Signs and Labels Ltd; SkandiaInternational and the State of Mexico; the Society ofChemical Industry; the Society of Gas Tanker andTerminal Operators; Sound and Vibration; FrankSpooner Pictures; Springer Verlag; Taylor and FrancisLtd; TNO; Technica Ltd; Trade and Industry; the UKAtomic Energy Authority, Safety and ReliabilityDirectorate; the Union of Concerned Scientists; UnionCarbide; the United Nations; United Press International;the University of Nottingham; the US Atomic EnergyCommission; the US Coast Guard; Mr T. Vanus; WarrenSpring Laboratory; the Watt Committee; Whessoe Ltd;John Wilay and Sons Inc.Extensive use is acknowledged of the reports of AEATechnology (mostly referenced as UKAEA Safety andReliability Directorate). Much of this research has beensupported by the Health and Safety Executive as part ofa long-term programme of work on safety, particularly onmajor hazards.The author would also like to acknowledge his use ofmaterial from Refining Process Safety Booklets of theAmoco Oil Company (formerly the American Oil07:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 12Company, Chicago), in particular Booklet No. 4, Safe Upsand Downs of Refinery Units, Copyright 1960 and 1963The American Oil Company and Booklet No. 9, SafeOperation of Air, Ammonia and Ammonium NitratePlants, Copyright 1964 The American Oil Company.Quoted material is used with the permission of thecopyright owner.Professor H.A. Duxbury and Dr A.J. Wilday have beengood enough comment on Chapter 17, Sections 17.1617.21. Professor Duxbury has also contributed Appendix13 on safety factors in simple relief systems.The responsibility for the text is mine alone.07:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 13TerminologyAttention is drawn to the availability in the literature of anumber of glossaries and other aids to terminology. SomeBritish Standard glossaries are given in Appendix 27 andother glossaries are listed in Table 1.1.NotationIn each chapter a given symbol is defined at the point whereit is first introduced. The definition may be repeated if therehas been a significant gap since it was last used. The defini-tions are summarized in the notation given at the end of thechapter. The notation is global to the chapter unless rede-fined for a section. Similarly, it is global to a section unlessredefined for a subsection and global to a subsection unlessredefined for a set of equations or a single equation. Whereappropriate, the units are given, otherwise a consistent sys-tem of units should be used, SI being the preferred system.Generally the units of constants are not given; where this isthe case it should not be assumed that a constant is dimen-sionless.07:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 14Use of ReferencesThe main list of references is given in the sectionentitled References, towards the end of the book. Thereare three other locations where references are to befound. These are Appendix 27 on standards and codes;Appendix 28 on institutional publications; and in thesection entitled Loss Prevention Bulletin which followsthe References.The basic method of referencing an author is bysurname and date, e.g. Beranek (1960). Where therewould otherwise be ambiguity, or where there arenumerous references to the same surname, e.g. Jones,the first author's initials are included, e.g. A. Jones(1984). Further guidance on names is given at the headof the section References.References in Appendices 27 and 28 are by institutionor author. Some items in these appendices have a codenumber assigned by the institution itself, e.g. API (1990Publ. 421), but where such a code number is lacking,use is generally made of an item number separated fromthe date by a slash, e.g. IChemE (1971/13). Thus typicalentries areAPI Std 2000: 1992 a standard, found in Appendix27 under American PetroleumInstituteAPI (1990 Publ. 421) an institutional publication, foundin Appendix 28 under AmericanPetroleum InstituteHSE (1990 HS(G) 51) an institutional publication, foundin Appendix 28 under Healthand Safety Executive, GuidanceBooklets, HS(G) seriesCoward and Jones an institutional publication, found(1952 BM Bull. 503) in Appendix 28 under Bureau ofMines, BulletinsInstitutional acronyms are given in the section Acronymswhich precedes the Author Index.There are several points of detail which requiremention concerning Appendix 28. (1) The first part ofthe appendix contains publications of a number ofinstitutions and the second part those of the NuclearRegulatory Commission. (2) The Fire ProtectionAssociation publications include a number of serieswhich are collected in the Compendium of Fire SafetyData (CFSD). A typical reference to this is FPA (1989CFSD FS 6011). (3) The entries for the Health andSafety Executive are quite extensive and care may beneeded in locating the relevant series. (4) The publica-tions of the Safety and Reliability Directorate appearunder the UK Atomic Energy Authority, Safety andReliability Directorate. A typical reference is Ramskilland Hunt (1987 SRD R354). These publications areimmediately preceded by the publications of otherbodies related to the UKAEA, such as the Health andSafety Branch, the Systems Reliability Service and theNational Centre for Systems Reliability.References to authors in the IChemE Loss PreventionBulletin are in the style Eddershaw (1989 LPB 88), whichrefers to issue 88 of the bulletin.07:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 15Contents of Volume 11 Introduction 1/11.1 Management Leadership 1/31.2 Industrial Safety and Loss Trends 1/31.3 Safety and Environment Concerns 1/31.4 Loss Prevention - 1 1/41.5 Large Single-stream Plants 1/51.6 Loss Prevention - 2 1/81.7 Total Loss Control 1/91.8 Quality Assurance 1/101.9 Total Quality Management 1/111.10 Risk Management 1/121.11 Safety-critical Systems 1/121.12 Environment 1/121.13 Professional Institutions and Bodies 1/121.14 Responsible Care 1/121.15 Overview 1/122 Hazard, Accident and Loss 2/12.1 The Accident Process 2/12.2 Standard Industrial Classification 2/42.3 Injury Statistics 2/42.4 Major Disasters 2/92.5 Major Process Hazards 2/102.6 Fire Loss Statistics 2/132.7 Fire and Explosion 2/172.8 Causes of Loss 2/182.9 Downtime Losses 2/192.10 Trend of Injuries 2/242.11 Trend of Losses 2/242.12 Case Histories 2/253 Legislation and Law 3/13.1 Factory Legislation 3/53.2 Factories Act 1961 3/73.3 Factory Inspectorate 3/123.4 Robens Report 3/133.5 Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 3/143.6 Health and Safety Commission 3/153.7 Health and Safety Executive 3/153.8 Regulatory Regime 3/153.9 Offshore Regime 3/173.10 Specific Legislation 3/183.11 Workplace Legislation 3/203.12 Pressure Systems Legislation 3/213.13 New Chemicals and Toxic SubstancesLegislation 3/223.14 Flammables, Explosives and FireLegislation 3/223.15 Storage Legislation 3/243.16 Major Hazards Legislation 3/243.17 Planning Legislation 3/243.18 Environmental Legislation 3/243.19 Ionizing Radiations Legislation 3/253.20 Building, Construction and ElectricityLegislation 3/263.21 Personal Safety Legislation 3/263.22 Transport Legislation 3/263.23 Enforcement Practice 3/283.24 Offshore Legislation 3/283.25 Goal-setting Regulations 3/293.26 Self-Regulation 3/303.27 Standards and Codes of Practice 3/313.28 Industrial Law 3/313.29 EC Directives 3/323.30 US Legislation 3/343.31 Occupational Safety and Health Act 1970 3/353.32 US Regulatory Agencies 3/353.33 US Environmental Legislation 3/363.34 US Toxic Substances Legislation 3/363.35 US Accidental Release Legislation 3/363.36 US Transport Legislation 3/373.37 Engineering Ethics 3/374 Major Hazard Control 4/14.1 Superstar Technologies 4/24.2 Hazard Monitoring 4/34.3 Risk Issues 4/44.4 Risk Perception 4/44.5 Risk Management 4/84.6 Hazard Control Policy 4/134.7 Nuclear Hazard Control 4/134.8 Process Hazard Control: Background 4/154.9 Process Hazard Control: Advisory Committeeon Major Hazards 4/154.10 Process Hazard Control: Major HazardsArrangements 4/174.11 Process Hazard Control: Planning 4/264.12 Process Hazard Control: EuropeanCommunity 4/314.13 Process Hazard Control: USA 4/325 Economics and Insurance 5/15.1 Economics of Loss Prevention 5/25.2 Cost of Losses 5/25.3 Cost of Prevention 5/55.4 Level of Loss Prevention Expenditure 5/65.5 Insurance of Process Plant 5/85.6 Damage Insurance 5/115.7 Business Interruption Insurance 5/175.8 Other Insurance Aspects 5/1807:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 166 Management and Management Systems 6/16.1 Management Attitude 6/26.2 Management Leadership 6/46.3 Management Organization 6/46.4 Competent People 6/56.5 Systems and Procedures 6/56.6 Project Safety Reviews 6/56.7 Management of Change 6/56.8 Standards and Codes of Practice 6/66.9 Pressure Systems 6/66.10 Documentation 6/66.11 Audit System 6/66.12 Independent Checks 6/66.13 Major Hazards 6/96.14 Quality Management 6/96.15 Safety Management 6/96.16 Policy 6/96.17 Organization 6/106.18 Planning 6/126.19 Measurement 6/126.20 Control 6/136.21 Audit 6/136.22 Process Knowledge 6/136.23 Safety Strategies 6/146.24 Human Factors 6/156.25 Contractors 6/156.26 Safety Management Systems 6/156.27 Process Safety Management 6/156.28 CCPS Management Guidelines 6/166.29 Regulatory Control 6/186.30 STATAS 6/197 Reliability Engineering 7/17.1 Development of Reliability Engineering 7/57.2 Reliability Engineering in the ProcessIndustries 7/67.3 Definition of Reliability 7/77.4 Meanings of Probability 7/77.5 Some Probability Relationships 7/87.6 Some Reliability Relationships 7/107.7 Failure Distributions 7/147.8 Reliability of Some Standard Systems 7/197.9 Reliability of Complex Systems 7/227.10 Markov Models 7/267.11 Joint Density Functions 7/297.12 Monte Carlo Simulation 7/307.13 Availability 7/327.14 Bayes' Theorem 7/397.15 Renewal Theory 7/407.16 Replacement Models 7/427.17 Models of Failure: StrengthLoadInteraction 7/427.18 Models of Failure: Some Other Models 7/457.19 Failure Behaviour and Regimes 7/467.20 Failure Data Analysis 7/487.21 Reliability in Design 7/607.22 Reliability Prediction 7/617.23 Reliability Growth, Testing andDemonstration 7/617.24 Maintainability 7/637.25 Maintenance Activities and Policies 7/647.26 Reliability-centred Maintenance 7/687.27 Life Cycle Costing 7/697.28 Notation 7/708 Hazard Identification 8/18.1 Safety Audits 8/48.2 Management System Audits 8/118.3 Checklists 8/118.4 Materials Properties 8/128.5 Instability of Materials 8/148.6 Explosibility of Materials 8/258.7 Pilot Plants 8/368.8 Hazard Indices 8/388.9 Hazard Studies 8/548.10 What If? Analysis 8/578.11 Event Tree and Fault Tree Analysis 8/578.12 Preliminary Hazard Analysis 8/578.13 Coarse Hazard Studies 8/598.14 Hazard and Operability Studies 8/598.15 Failure Modes, Effects and CriticalityAnalysis 8/778.16 Sneak Analysis 8/798.17 Computer Hazop 8/808.18 Human Error Analysis 8/828.19 Scenario Development 8/838.20 Consequence Modelling 8/838.21 Process Safety Review System 8/838.22 Choice of Method 8/918.23 Filtering and Follow-up 8/918.24 Safety Review Systems 8/918.25 Hazard Ranking Methods 8/938.26 Hazard Warning Analysis 8/978.27 Plant Safety Audits 8/988.28 Other Methods 8/998.29 Quality Assurance 8/998.30 Quality Assurance: Completeness 8/1008.31 Quality Assurance: QUASA 8/1038.32 Notation 8/1089 Hazard Assessment 9/19.1 Background 9/69.2 Hazard Analysis 9/69.3 Risk Assessment 9/79.4 Event Data 9/119.5 Fault Trees 9/139.6 Event Trees 9/319.7 CauseConsequence Diagrams 9/349.8 Dependent Failures 9/349.9 Expert Judgement 9/439.10 Rare Events and External Threats 9/499.11 Human Factors and Human Error 9/529.12 Management Aspects 9/539.13 Hazard Models 9/559.14 Domino Effects 9/559.15 Hazard Model Systems 9/5807:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 179.16 Population Characteristics 9/609.17 Modification of Exposure 9/709.18 Injury Relations 9/719.19 Presentation of Results 9/769.20 Confidence in Results 9/799.21 Risk Criteria 9/879.22 Guide Assessments 9/979.23 Hazard Impact Model 9/1079.24 Simplified Assessment Methods 9/1099.25 Decay Relations 9/1139.26 Hazard Warning 9/1149.27 Computer Aids 9/1239.28 Risk Assessment Debate 9/1259.29 Overview 9/12710 Plant Siting and Layout 10/110.1 Plant Siting 10/210.2 Plant Layout 10/210.3 Layout Generation 10/410.4 Layout Techniques and Aids 10/510.5 Layout Planning and Development 10/610.6 Site Layout Features 10/810.7 Plot Layout Considerations 10/1110.8 Equipment Layout 10/1310.9 Pipework Layout 10/1510.10 Storage Layout 10/1610.11 Separation Distances 10/1710.12 Hazardous Area Classification 10/2210.13 Hazard Assessment 10/2310.14 Hazard Models 10/2510.15 Fire Protection 10/2610.16 Effluents 10/2910.17 Drain Systems 10/3010.18 Shock-Resistant Structures 10/3110.19 Control Buildings 10/3310.20 Ventilation 10/3810.21 Toxics Protection 10/4310.22 Winterization 10/4410.23 Modular Plants 10/4510.24 Notation 10/4811 Process Design 11/111.1 The Design Process 11/211.2 Conceptual Design 11/1011.3 Detailed Design 11/1211.4 Design Assessments 11/1411.5 Licensors, Vendors and Contractors 11/1511.6 Project Management 11/1611.7 Inherently Safer Design 11/1611.8 Chemical Reactors: General 11/3011.9 Batch Reactors 11/3911.10 Batch Reactors: Reaction Hazard Evaluation11/4511.11 Batch Reactors: Basic Design 11/5511.12 Batch Reactors: Reactor Safety 11/6011.13 Batch Reactors: Hazard Assessment 11/6211.14 Unit Processes 11/6411.15 Unit Operations and Equipments 11/6911.16 Operating Conditions 11/7311.17 Utilities 11/7511.18 Particular Chemicals 11/8211.19 Particular Processes and Plants 11/9511.20 Operational Deviations 11/10411.21 Impurities 11/10711.22 CCPS Engineering Design Guidelines 11/10711.23 Notation 11/10812 Pressure System Design 12/112.1 Pressure Systems 12/812.2 Pressure System Components 12/912.3 Steels and Their Properties 12/912.4 Pressure Vessel Design 12/1612.5 Joining, Fastening and Welding 12/1812.6 Pressure Vessel Standards and Codes 12/1912.7 Pipework and Valves 12/2312.8 Heat Exchangers 12/3412.9 Fired Heaters and Furnaces 12/3612.10 Process Machinery 12/3812.11 Insulation 12/4312.12 Overpressure Protection 12/4612.13 Overpressure Protection: Pressure ReliefDevices 12/4912.14 Overpressure Protection: Relief SystemDesign 12/5212.15 Overpressure Protection: Fire Relief 12/5512.16 Overpressure Protection: Vacuum and ThermalRelief 12/5812.17 Overpressure Protection: Special Situations 12/5912.18 Overpressure Protection: Disposal 12/6012.19 Overpressure Protection: Pressure ReliefValves 12/6212.20 Overpressure Protection: Bursting Discs 12/6712.21 Overpressure Protection: Installation of ReliefDevices 12/6812.22 Flare and Vent Systems 12/6912.23 Blowdown and Depressuring Systems 12/7312.24 Pressure Containment 12/7412.25 Containment of Toxic Materials 12/7412.26 Pressure Systems for Chlorine 12/7612.27 Failure in Pressure Systems 12/8012.28 Fracture Mechanics 12/8812.29 Probabilistic Fracture Mechanics 12/9412.30 Failure of Vessels, Equipment andMachinery 12/9413 Control System Design 13/113.1 Process Characteristics 13/213.2 Control System Characteristics 13/413.3 Instrument System Design 13/413.4 Process Computer Control 13/913.5 Control of Batch Processes 13/1313.6 Control of Particular Units 13/1513.7 Computer Integrated Manufacturing 13/1813.8 Instrument Failure 13/1813.9 Trip Systems 13/2613.10 Interlock Systems 13/4507:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 1813.11 Programmable Logic Systems 13/5013.12 Programmable Electronic Systems 13/5013.13 Software Engineering 13/5813.14 Safety-related Instrument Systems 13/6313.15 CCPS Safe Automation Guidelines 13/6513.16 Emergency Shut-down Systems 13/6913.17 Level of Automation 13/7113.18 Toxic Storage Instrumentation 13/7213.19 Notation 13/7214 Human Factors and Human Error 14/114.1 Human Factors in Process Control 14/414.2 Human Factors in System Design 14/414.3 Themes in Human Factors 14/514.4 Process Operator Functions 14/714.5 Process Operator Studies 14/814.6 Allocation of Function 14/1114.7 Information Display 14/1114.8 Alarm Systems 14/1414.9 Fault Administration 14/1714.10 Malfunction Detection 14/1814.11 Computer-based Aids 14/2014.12 Human Information Processing 14/2314.13 Task Analysis 14/2914.14 Job Design 14/3614.15 Personnel Selection 14/3614.16 Training 14/3714.17 Training: ACSNI Study Group Report 14/3914.18 Human Factors and Industrial Safety 14/4514.19 Human Error 14/4514.20 Models and Classifications of Human Error14/4714.21 Human Error in Process Plants 14/5014.22 Prevention and Mitigation of Human Error14/5514.23 Assessment of Human Error 14/5514.24 Assessment of Human Error: Task AnalyticApproach 14/5514.25 Assessment of Human Error: ProcessOperation 14/5614.26 Assessment of Human Error: QualitativeMethods 14/6014.27 Assessment of Human Error: Human ReliabilityAnalysis Handbook 14/6214.28 Assessment of Human Error: Success LikelihoodIndex Method (SLIM) 14/7614.29 Assessment of Human Error: Human ErrorAssessment and Reduction Technique(HEART) 14/7614.30 Assessment of Human Error: Method ofDougherty and Fragola 14/7914.31 Assessment of Human Error: CCPS Method14/8514.32 Assessment of Human Error: OtherMethods 14/8514.33 Assessment of Human Error: PerformanceShaping Factors 14/8614.34 Assessment of Human Error: Human ErrorData 14/8814.35 Assessment of Human Error: SRD Human ErrorGuides 14/9014.36 Assessment of Human Error: BenchmarkExercise 14/9214.37 Assessment of Human Error: ACSNI Study GroupReport 14/9214.38 CCPS Human Error Prevention Guidelines14/9414.39 Human Factors at Sizewell B 14/9514.40 Notation 14/9615 Emission and Dispersion 15/115.1 Emission 15/215.2 Two-phase Flow 15/1415.3 Two-phase Flow: Fauske Models 15/2715.4 Two-phase Flow: Leung Models 15/3115.5 Vessel Depressurization 15/3515.6 Pressure Relief Valves 15/4015.7 Vessel Blowdown 15/4415.8 Vessel Rupture 15/4515.9 Pipeline Rupture 15/5615.10 Vaporisation 15/5815.11 Dispersion 15/7015.12 Meteorology 15/7715.13 Topography 15/10115.14 Dispersion Modelling 15/10215.15 Passive Dispersion 15/10415.16 Passive Dispersion: Models 15/10615.17 Passive Dispersion: Dispersion over ParticularSurfaces 15/11915.18 Passive Dispersion: Dispersion in ParticularConditions 15/12315.19 Passive Dispersion: Dispersion Parameters15/12415.20 Dispersion of Jets and Plumes 15/13615.21 Dispersion of Two-Phase Flashing Jets 15/15415.22 Dense Gas Dispersion 15/15915.23 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Source Terms 15/16315.24 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Models andModelling 15/16715.25 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Modified ConventionalModels 15/17115.26 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Van Ulden Model15/17115.27 Dispersion of Dense Gas: British Gas/Cremer andWarner Model 15/17515.28 Dispersion of Dense Gas: DENZ and CRUNCH 15/17815.29 Dispersion of Dense Gas: SIGMET 15/18215.30 Dispersion of Dense Gas: SLAB and FEM315/18415.31 Dispersion of Dense Gas: HEGADAS and RelatedModels 15/18615.32 Dispersion of Dense Gas: DEGADIS 15/19215.33 Dispersion of Dense Gas: SLUMP andHEAVYGAS 15/19407:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 1915.34 Dispersion of Dense Gas Dispersion: WorkbookModel 15/19515.35 Dispersion of Dense Gas: DRIFT and RelatedModels 15/20415.36 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Some Other Models andReviews 15/20515.37 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Field Trials 15/20815.38 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Thorney Island Trials 15/22315.39 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Physical Modelling 15/22815.40 Dispersion of Dense Gas Dispersion: Terrain,Obstructions and Buildings 15/24315.41 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Validation andComparison 15/25215.42 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Particular Gases15/25715.43 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Plumes from ElevatedSources 15/26515.44 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Plumes from ElevatedSourcesPLUME 15/27115.45 Concentration and Concentration Fluctuations 15/27615.46 Flammable Cloud Formation 15/28515.47 Toxic Gas Clouds 15/29315.48 Dispersion over Short Distances 15/29715.49 Hazard Ranges for Dispersion 15/30015.50 Transformation and Removal Processes 15/30215.51 Infiltration into Buildings 15/30915.52 Source and Dispersion Modelling: CCPSGuidelines 15/31315.53 Vapour Release Mitigation: Containment andBarriers 15/31415.54 Vapour Cloud Mitigation: CCPS Guidelines15/32615.55 Fugitive Emissions 15/32815.56 Leaks and Spillages 15/33207:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 20Contents of Volume 216 Fire 16/116.1 Fire 16/1316.2 Flammability of Gases and Vapours 16/1516.3 Combustion Phenomena 16/2816.4 Flammability of Aerosols 16/5516.5 Ignition Sources 16/5816.6 Self-heating 16/6916.7 Static Electricity 16/8516.8 Electrical Equipment 16/13316.9 Hazardous Area Classification 16/14016.10 Ignition Models 16/15116.11 Fire in Process Plant 16/15916.12 Flames 16/16516.13 Radiant Heat Transfer 16/16616.14 Vapour Cloud Fires 16/17916.15 Fireballs 16/18216.16 Fireballs from Explosives 16/19416.17 Pool Fires 16/19716.18 Flares 16/21316.19 Jet Flames 16/22116.20 Engulfing Fires 16/23016.21 Effects of Fire: Damage 16/24216.22 Effects of Fire: Injury 16/24616.23 Fire Protection of Process Plant 16/26116.24 Passive Fire Protection 16/26316.25 Fire Fighting Agents 16/26916.26 Fire Protection Using Water: Extinguishment andControl 16/27116.27 Fire Protection Using Water: ExposureProtection 16/27516.28 Fire Protection Using Foam 16/27816.29 Fire Protection Using Dry Chemicals 16/28116.30 Fire Protection Using Vaporizing Liquids 16/28216.31 Fire Protection Using Inert Gas 16/28416.32 Fire Protection Using Special Methods 16/28516.33 Fire Protection Using PortableExtinguishers 16/28616.34 Fire Protection Applications 16/28616.35 Fire Fighting in Process Plant 16/28816.36 Fire and Fire Protection in Buildings 16/29216.37 Fire Protection in Transport 16/30016.38 Fire Hazard 16/30016.39 Hazard Range of Fire 16/30216.40 Notation 16/30517 Explosion 17/117.1 Explosion 17/517.2 Detonation 17/617.3 Explosives 17/1917.4 Explosion Energy 17/2217.5 Deflagration inside Plant 17/3117.6 Detonation inside Plant 17/3617.7 Explosions in Closed Vessels 17/3717.8 Explosions in Buildings 17/4717.9 Explosions in Large Enclosures 17/4917.10 Explosion Prevention 17/5017.11 Explosion Protection 17/5317.12 Explosion Venting of Vessels 17/6117.13 Explosion Venting of Pipes and Ducts 17/8517.14 Explosion Relief of Buildings 17/9017.15 Explosion Relief of Large Enclosures 17/9317.16 Venting of Reactors 17/9817.17 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: DIERS 17/10217.18 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: VentFlow 17/10517.19 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: VentSizing 17/10717.20 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: LeungModel 17/11217.21 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: ICIScheme 17/11417.22 Venting of Reactors: Relief Disposal 17/11917.23 Venting of Reactors: CCPS Work 17/12317.24 Venting of Storage Vessels 17/12417.25 Explosive Shock in Air 17/12517.26 Condensed Phase Explosions 17/12817.27 Vessel Burst Explosions 17/13617.28 Vapour Cloud Explosions 17/14017.29 Boiling Liquid Expanding VapourExplosions 17/17617.30 Explosions in Process Plant 17/18417.31 Effects of Explosions 17/18617.32 Explosion Damage to Structures 17/19117.33 Explosion Damage to Housing 17/20417.34 Explosion Damage by Missiles 17/20717.35 Explosion Damage to Plant by Missiles 17/22717.36 Explosion of a Cased Explosive 17/22917.37 Explosion of an Explosive Load 17/23417.38 Explosion Injury to Persons Outdoors 17/23617.39 Explosion Injury to Persons Indoors 17/24317.40 Explosion Injury from Flying Glass 17/24817.41 Explosion Injury from PenetratingFragments 17/25717.42 Explosion Injury from PenetratingFragments: Model of Gilbert, Lees and Scilly17/25817.43 Dust Explosions 17/26217.44 Dust Explosibility Characteristics 17/26617.45 Dust Ignition Sources 17/27517.46 Dust Explosion Prevention 17/27917.47 Dust Explosion Protection 17/28017.48 Dust Explosion Venting 17/28307:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 2117.49 Dust-handling Plant 17/29817.50 Dust Fires 17/30217.51 Explosion Hazard 17/30317.52 Hazard Range of Explosions 17/30717.53 Notation 17/30818 Toxic Release 18/118.1 Toxic Effects 18/218.2 Toxic Substances 18/918.3 Toxicity Assessment 18/1018.4 Control of Toxic Hazard: RegulatoryControls 18/1518.5 Hygiene Standards 18/1718.6 Hygiene Standards: Occupational ExposureLimits 18/2018.7 Carcinogens 18/2218.8 Dusts 18/2618.9 Metals 18/2718.10 Emergency Exposure Limits 18/2818.11 Gas Toxicity 18/2918.12 Gas Toxicity: Experimental Determination18/3018.13 Gas Toxicity: Physiological Factors 18/3218.14 Gas Toxicity: Toxicity Data 18/3518.15 Gas Toxicity: Vulnerability Model 18/3618.16 Gas Toxicity: Major Industrial Gases 18/3818.17 Gas Toxicity: MHAP Studies 18/4318.18 Gas Toxicity: Chlorine 18/4418.19 Gas Toxicity: Green Book Relations 18/5818.20 Gas Toxicity: Probit Equations 18/5918.21 Gas Toxicity: HSE Dangerous Dose 18/5918.22 Gas Toxicity: Combustion Gases 18/6218.23 Ultratoxic Substances 18/6318.24 Plant Design for Toxic Substances 18/6318.25 Toxic Gas Detection 18/6418.26 Toxic Release Response 18/6518.27 Toxic Release Case Histories 18/6518.28 Toxic Release Risk 18/6818.29 Chlorine Hazard Assessment 18/7018.30 Other Chemicals Hazard Assessment 18/8018.31 Hazard Assessment Methodology 18/8118.32 Notation 18/8219 Plant Commissioning and Inspection 19/119.1 Plant Commissioning 19/219.2 Plant Inspection 19/1419.3 Pressure Vessel Inspection 19/2019.4 Pressure Piping Systems Inspection 19/2419.5 Non-destructive Testing 19/2619.6 Materials Verification 19/2919.7 Pressure Testing 19/3019.8 Leak Testing and Detection 19/3219.9 Plant Monitoring 19/3319.10 Performance Monitoring 19/3419.11 Condition Monitoring 19/3519.12 Vibration Monitoring 19/4019.13 Corrosion Monitoring 19/4519.14 Acoustic Emission Monitoring 19/4619.15 Plant Monitoring: Specific Equipment 19/4919.16 Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring 19/4919.17 Notation 19/4920 Plant Operation 20/120.1 Operating Discipline 20/320.2 Operating Procedures and Instructions 20/320.3 Emergency Procedures 20/720.4 Handover and Permit Systems 20/820.5 Operator Training 20/920.6 Plant Patrols 20/920.7 Modifications to the Process 20/920.8 Operation and Maintenance 20/920.9 Start-up and Shut-down 20/1020.10 Start-up of Refinery Units 20/1120.11 Shut-down of Refinery Units 20/1320.12 Operation of Fired Heaters 20/1320.13 Operation of Driers 20/1420.14 Operation of Storage 20/1520.15 Operational Activities and Hazards 20/1820.16 Sampling 20/1920.17 Trip Systems 20/2020.18 Identification Measures 20/2120.19 Exposure of Personnel 20/2120.20 Security 20/2220.21 Notation 20/2321 Plant Maintenance and Modification 21/121.1 Management of Maintenance 21/221.2 Hazards of Maintenance 21/521.3 Preparation for Maintenance 21/621.4 Isolation 21/721.5 Purging 21/1021.6 Cleaning 21/1121.7 Confined Spaces 21/1221.8 Permit Systems 21/1421.9 Maintenance Equipment 21/2121.10 Flanged Joints 21/2521.11 Hot Work 21/2821.12 Tank Cleaning, Repair and Demolition 21/3321.13 On-line Repairs 21/3521.14 Maintenance of Particular Equipment 21/3621.15 Equipment Removal 21/3821.16 Deteriorated Equipment 21/3821.17 Some Maintenance Problems 21/3921.18 Major Shut-downs 21/4021.19 Maintenance System 21/4221.20 Spares Inventory 21/4321.21 Computer Aids 21/4421.22 Modifications to Plant 21/4521.23 Control of Modifications 21/4621.24 Some Modification Problems 21/5121.25 Major Plant Extensions 21/5121.26 Notation 21/5222 Storage 22/122.1 General Considerations 22/522.2 Petroleum Products Storage 22/607:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 2222.3 Storage Tanks and Vessels 22/722.4 Storage Layout 22/1422.5 Venting and Relief 22/1822.6 Fire Prevention and Protection 22/2022.7 LPG Storage 22/2122.8 LPG Storage: Pressure Storage 22/2122.9 LPG Storage: Refrigerated Storage 22/3522.10 LNG Storage 22/3722.11 LNG Storage: Refrigerated Storage 22/3822.12 Hydrogen Storage 22/4222.13 Toxics Storage 22/4322.14 High Toxic Hazard Materials: CCPSGuidelines 22/4422.15 Chlorine Storage 22/4422.16 Ammonia Storage 22/5022.17 Ammonia Storage: Pressure Storage 22/5122.18 Ammonia Storage: Refrigerated Storage 22/5222.19 Ammonia Storage: Stress CorrosionCracking 22/5522.20 Other Chemicals Storage 22/5622.21 Bunds 22/5822.22 Underground Storage Tanks 22/6322.23 Glass Reinforced Plastic Storage 22/6422.24 Filling Ratio 22/6622.25 Loading and Unloading Facilities 22/6622.26 Loading and Unloading Facilities: ParticularChemicals 22/7022.27 Drum and Cylinder Storage 22/7122.28 Warehouses 22/7122.29 Warehouses: Particular Chemicals Storage22/7522.30 Storage Case Histories 22/7722.31 Storage Risk 22/7822.32 LPG Storage Hazard Assessment 22/7922.33 LNG Storage Hazard Assessment 22/8322.34 Ammonia Storage Hazard Assessment 22/8322.35 Notation 22/8423 Transport 23/123.1 General Considerations 23/223.2 International Codes 23/623.3 Classification, Packaging and Labelling 23/823.4 Transport Containers 23/1223.5 Road Transport 23/1323.6 Road Transport Environment 23/1623.7 Rail Transport 23/3223.8 Rail Transport Environment 23/3423.9 Road and Rail Tunnels 23/3723.10 Waterway Transport 23/3723.11 Pipeline Transport 23/3823.12 Marine Transport: Shipping 23/4523.13 Marine Transport: Regulatory Controls 23/4723.14 Marine Transport: Ports and Harbours 23/5023.15 Marine Transport: Shipboard Fire and FireProtection 23/5423.16 Marine Transport: Liquefied FlammableGas 23/5823.17 Marine Transport: Chemicals 23/6323.18 Marine Transport Environment 23/6323.19 Air Transport 23/7223.20 Transport Emergency Planning and SpillControl 23/7423.21 Transport Case Histories 23/7823.22 Transport Risk 23/8223.23 Transport Hazard Assessment 23/8223.24 Road Transport Hazard Assessment 23/8323.25 Rail Transport Hazard Assessment 23/8323.26 Tunnel Transport Hazard Assessment 23/8423.27 Pipeline Transport Hazard Assessment 23/8523.28 Marine Transport Hazard Assessment 23/8723.29 Transport Hazard Assessment: ComparativeRisks 23/9023.30 Notation 23/9024 Emergency Planning 24/124.1 Disasters and Disaster Planning 24/224.2 Regulatory Requirements 24/424.3 Emergency Scenarios 24/424.4 On-site Emergency Planning 24/524.5 External Authorities and Services 24/524.6 Works Emergency Plan 24/624.7 Communications and Control System 24/624.8 Essential Functions and NominatedPersonnel 24/924.9 Declaration and Communication of theEmergency 24/924.10 Works Emergency Procedures 24/1024.11 Co-operative Planning, Training and Exercises24/1024.12 Public Relations 24/1124.13 Practical Implementation 24/1224.14 Real-time Aids 24/1224.15 Computer Aids 24/1224.16 Off-Site Emergency Planning 24/1324.17 Provision of Information 24/1324.18 Safety Case Guidance 24/1424.19 Evacuation and Shelter 24/1424.20 Transport Emergency Planning 24/1524.21 Transport Emergency Arrangements 24/1724.22 Spectators 24/1724.23 Emergency Incidents 24/1724.24 Emergency Aftermath 24/1925 Personal Safety 25/125.1 Human Factors 25/425.2 Occupational Health 25/625.3 Occupational Hygiene 25/725.4 COSHH Regulations 1988 25/1125.5 Dust Hazards 25/1525.6 Asbestos Dust 25/1625.7 Ventilation 25/1725.8 Skin Disease 25/2125.9 Physico-chemical Hazards 25/2125.10 Ionizing Radiation Hazards 25/2325.11 Non-ionizing Radiation Hazards 25/2425.12 Machinery Hazards 25/2507:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 2325.13 Electricity Hazards 25/2725.14 Other Activities and Hazards 25/2725.15 Personal Protective Equipment 25/3025.16 Respiratory Protective Equipment 25/3125.17 Rescue and First Aid 25/3425.18 Notation 25/3526 Accident Research 26/126.1 General Considerations 26/226.2 Definition of Accidents 26/226.3 Classification of Accidents 26/326.4 Causes of Accidents 26/326.5 Accident Models 26/326.6 Accident Proneness 26/526.7 Risk-taking 26/626.8 Human Error 26/626.9 Social Factors 26/726.10 Accident Prevention 26/826.11 Safety Training 26/826.12 Major Hazards 26/827 Information Feedback 27/127.1 The Learning Process 27/327.2 Incident Reporting 27/327.3 Operations Monitoring 27/427.4 Accident Models 27/427.5 Accident Investigation 27/527.6 Fire Investigation 27/1027.7 Explosion Investigation 27/1227.8 Accident Investigation: CCPS Guidelines 27/1427.9 Public Accident Inquiries 27/1527.10 Organizational Memory 27/1827.11 Case Histories 27/1927.12 Information Exchange 27/1927.13 Accident Databases 27/1927.14 Safety Performance Measurement 27/2027.15 Safety Performance Monitoring 27/2027.16 Near Miss Reporting 27/2427.17 Education 27/2627.18 Teaching Aids 27/2827.19 Notation 27/2928 Safety Systems 28/128.1 Safety Culture 28/228.2 Safety Organization 28/228.3 Safety Policy Statement 28/528.4 Safety Representatives 28/528.5 Safety Committees 28/628.6 Safety Adviser 28/728.7 Safety Training 28/728.8 Safety Communication 28/828.9 Safety Auditing 28/928.10 Safety Rating 28/1129 Computer Aids 29/129.1 Responsibility for Computer Aids 29/429.2 Chemical Engineering Software 29/529.3 Computer Aided Design and Engineering 29/629.4 Computer Aided Process Engineering 29/729.5 Project and Production Management 29/829.6 Pipework 29/829.7 Unit Operations and Equipment 29/929.8 Mechanical Design 29/1029.9 Integrated Systems 29/1029.10 Plant Layout 29/1129.11 Process Dynamics and Control 29/1729.12 Databases, Bibliographies and Indexes 29/1829.13 Standards, Codes and Bibliographies 29/1929.14 Compliance Management 29/1929.15 Combustion 29/1929.16 Computational Fluid Dynamics 29/1929.17 Hazard Identification 29/2029.18 Reliability Engineering and Fault Trees 29/2029.19 Escalation and Event Trees 29/2229.20 Rare Events 29/2329.21 Emission 29/2329.22 Gas Dispersion 29/2429.23 Hazard Models 29/2629.24 Hazard Model Systems 29/2829.25 Hazard Assessment Systems 29/2929.26 Plant Operation 29/3029.27 Transport 29/3029.28 Emergency Planning 29/3029.29 Environment 29/3029.30 Offshore 29/3029.31 Nuclear Industry 29/3130 Artificial Intelligence and ExpertSystems 30/130.1 Knowledge Representation 30/730.2 Databases 30/830.3 Propositional Logic 30/830.4 Predicate Logic 30/1030.5 Non-deductive Inference 30/1030.6 Production Rules 30/1130.7 Non-classical Logics 30/1130.8 Uncertainty and Inconsistency 30/1230.9 Probabilistic Reasoning 30/1430.10 Fuzzy Logic 30/1530.11 Programming Languages 30/1630.12 Structured Knowledge 30/1830.13 Search 30/2030.14 Matching and Pattern Recognition 30/2330.15 Problem-solving and Games 30/2430.16 Vision 30/2530.17 Natural Language 30/2530.18 Planning 30/2630.19 Learning 30/3030.20 Inductive Learning 30/3130.21 Neural Networks 30/3330.22 Graphs, Trees and Networks 30/3330.23 Directed Graphs 30/3630.24 Expert Systems 30/3630.25 Expert Systems: Some Systems andTools 30/4007:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 2430.26 Qualitative Modelling 30/4330.27 Engineering Design 30/4630.28 Process Applications 30/4730.29 Project Aids 30/4830.30 Process Modelling 30/5130.31 DESIGN-KIT 30/5130.32 Process Synthesis 30/5230.33 Plant Design: Synthesis 30/5330.34 Plant Design: Analysis 30/6130.35 Expert Systems: Some Process Systems30/6230.36 Fault Propagation 30/6330.37 Hazard Identification 30/6830.38 Hazard Identification: HAZID 30/7030.39 Hazard Identification: Enhancements 30/7330.40 Fault Tree Analysis 30/8230.41 Fault Tree Synthesis 30/8230.42 Fault Tree Synthesis: FAULTFINDER30/8430.43 Operating Procedure Synthesis 30/9030.44 Process Monitoring 30/9930.45 Fault Administration 30/10030.46 Malfunction Detection 30/10730.47 Notation 30/11207:27 7/11/00 Ref: 3723 LEES Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Chapter 1 Page No. 25Contents of Volume 3Appendix 1 Case Histories A1/1A1.1 Incident Sources A1/2A1.2 Incident Databases A1/5A1.3 Reporting of Incidents A1/5A1.4 Reporting of Injuries in Incidents A1/6A1.5 Reporting of Injuries at National Level A1/7A1.6 Incident Diagrams, Plans and MaPs A1/7A1.7 Incidents Involving Fire Fighting A1/7A1.8 Incidents Involving Condensed Phase ExplosivesA1/7A1.9 Case Histories: Some Principal IncidentsA1/8A1.10 Case Histories: A Series A1/8A1.11 Case Histories: B series A1/68A1.12 Some Other Incidents and Problems A1/77Appendix 2 Flixborough A2/1A2.1 The Company and the Management A2/2A2.2 The Site and the Works A2/3A2.3 The Process and the Plant A2/3A2.4 Events Prior to the Explosion A2/3A2.5 The Explosion 1 A2/7A2.6 The Investigation A2/8A2.7 The Explosion 2 A2/11A2.8 Some Lessons of Flixborough A2/14A2.9 Critiques A2/18Appendix 3 Seveso A3/1A3.1 The Company and the Management A3/2A3.2 The Site and the Works A3/3A3.3 The Process and the Plant A3/3A3.4 TCDD and Its Properties A3/3A3.5 Previous Incidents Involving TCP and TCDDA3/5A3.6 E