learning part ii - university of california,...
TRANSCRIPT
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Learning Part II
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Overview
• Non-associative learning
• Associative Learning – Classical conditioning – Instrumental/operant conditioning
• Observational learning
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Thorndike and Law of Effect
• Classical Conditioning considers only involuntary reflexes. How are voluntary responses learned?
• Thorndike proposed the Law of Effect – If a response (behavior) is not rewarded, it will be
weakened – If a response (behavior) is rewarded, it will be
strengthened
Edward Thorndike1874-1949
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Video: Thorndike’s puzzle box (~2 min.)
(for a copy of this video, see: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDujDOLre-8)
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Thorndike’s results: gradual learning
Learning curves demonstrate that learning is gradual and incremental. There is no evidence that the cats have a sudden insight into the problem’s solution.
Successive trials in puzzle box
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Instrumental Learning
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Operant Conditioning
B.F Skinner 1904-1990
Skinner developed the operant chamber (“Skinner box”) with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer.
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Video: examples of operant conditioning (~1 min.)
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In Classical Conditioning, a response is elicited by the US and CS. The response is involuntary and has no effect on the external environment. The association is between the CS and US.
In Operant Conditioning, a response is emitted. The response is voluntary and is referred to as an operant, behavior that brings about some change in one’s environment. The association is between the response and the reinforcement.
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Video: discrimination in operant conditioning and schedules of reinforcement (~3 min)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA
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Types of Reinforcement Schedules
• Interval schedules: – Fixed Interval: Reinforcer is only available only after
some fixed time after the last reward – Variable Interval: Same as fixed interval, except that
the time between available reinforcers is varied.
• Ratio schedules: – Fixed Ratio: Reinforcer is presented after a fixed
number of responses. – Variable Ratio: The number of responses needed for
a reinforcer varies.
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Cumulative number of responses
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What kind of reinforcement schedule?
• Reprimanding a child if you have to ask him to clean his room three times
• Getting a raise every two years
• Playing a lottery game
• Your boss checks your work periodically but you do not know when she might come in next time
Fixed ratio
Fixed interval
Variable ratio
Variable interval
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Shaping: A desired behavior, even if complex, can be obtained with an operant training method known as successive approximations.
Shaping stretching up Pigeons learning to play a game
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gn4nRCC9TwQ
Reinforcement Learning and Robotics
Google Deepmind: Learning to walk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iNL5-0_T1D0
Robotic starfish teaches itself to walk
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Explaining Superstitious Behavior
• In one experiment, Skinner (1948) delivered food every 15 seconds to pigeons in a Skinner box – Result: some birds engaged in odd idiosyncratic
behavior, pecking aimlessly in a corner or walking in circles
– Pigeons might have learned an accidental correlation – they just accidentally associated a random behavior to the delivery of food
• Could this explain superstitious behavior in humans?
– Skinner argued that an individual might falsely believe a connection exists between an act and its consequences
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Reward only appears to work if the animal has some apparent control over when the reward is delivered.
Contingency in Operant Conditioning
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If a dog is first given shocks that it cannot control, it will take no action to escape shocks presented in a new situation where escape is possible. The phenomenon has been described as learned helplessness.
Contingency and learned helplessness
(Seligman, 1975)
Phase 1 Phase 2
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Creating appearance of control keeps people happy
https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/28/us/placebo-buttons-elevators-crosswalks.html?emc=eta1&_r=0
Some devices have non-functional buttons that lead to the appearance of control
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What make reinforcers?
• Primary reinforcers – meet primary needs: food, water, warmth
• Secondary reinforcers – money, tokens, grades
• Social reinforcers – Hugs, smiles, words of approval, even attention – Chimpanzees, in studies like that of Butler (1954) will
press a bar to get a glimpse of the experimenter. • Sometimes, there appears to be no reinforcer and
behavior might be driven by intrinsic motivation
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Video: temper tantrums (~1.5 min.)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KpSfThUv_pc
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Problems for Behaviorist Theories
• Biological predispositions
– one-trial learning – limitations on stimulus-response associations and
shaping
• Learning without reinforcement – mental representation
• Observational learning
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Edward C. Tolman 1886-1959
Cognitive Behaviorist
Findings imply that the rats learned a cognitive map of the maze without any external reward: latent learning
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More evidence for cognitive maps
START START
FOOD
Rats quickly mastered task (A) Rats were placed in new maze (B) where main straightaway was blocked. Amazingly, they don’t choose 9 or 10 (a generalization strategy) but 5, which is in the direction where the food was previously
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Observational Learning
• Many animals can learn simply by example, without direct reinforcement • vicarious conditioning • imitation
• Observation learning can occur after one exposure
• Imitation can be a source of undesired behaviors (Bobo Doll experiment) as well as a source of new skills.
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Video: Bobo Doll Experiment (Bandura, 1969; ~2 min)
For a similar video see: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNU&feature=related
See also this article: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/25/opinion/sunday/does-media-violence-lead-to-the-real-thing.html?hp&_r=0
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Observational learning & Aggressive behavior
• Evidence that exposure to media violence is associated with aggressive behavior in children
• Challenge is to distinguish between correlation and causation