UNIVERSITATEA “Petre Andrei” din IAŞI FACULTATEA DE DREPT

ENGLEZA JURIDICA (II)

Lector. univ. drd. Oana HRITCU

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Cuprins

Capitolul I Verbe Modale 3

1. Caracteristici generale 3

1.1. Cazuri de folosire 4

A. Rugăminte 4

B. Obligaţie / Interdicţie 4

C. Sfat 5

D. Posibilitate şi probabilitate 6

E. Obişnuinţă 7

Capitolul II Vorbirea indirectă 9

1. Transformarea de la vorbirea directă la vorbirea indirect 9

1.1. Transformarea propoziţiei affirmative 9

1.2. Transformarea propoziţiei interrogative 10

Capitolul III Subjonctivul 12

A. Subjonctivul sintetic 12

1. Subjonctivul present 12

2. Subjonctivul trecut 12

B. Subjonctivul analytic 13

Capitolul IV Construcţii verbale 15

4.1. Construcţii cu participiul 15

4.2. Construcţii cu gerunziul 15

Capitolul V Exerciţii şi selecţie texte 17

Bibliografie 35

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Capitolul I

Verbe Modale (Modal Verbs)

1. Caracteristici generale

Toate verbele modale au formă unică la toate persoanele (sing. şi plural):

e.g. I can / you can / … / they can – eu pot / tu poţi / … / ei pot

I may / you may / … / they may – eu am voie / tu ai voie / … / ei au voie

I must / you must / … / they must – eu trebuie / tu trebuie / … / ei trebuie

I should / … / they should – eu ar trebui / tu ar trebui / … / ei ar trebui

I will / … / they will – eu vreau / tu vrei / … / ei vor

I need / … / they need – eu am nevoie / tu ai nevoie / … / ei au nevoie

I used to … / they used to – eu obişnuiam să / … / ei obişnuiau să

I dare / … / they dare – eu îndrăznesc / … / ei îndrăznesc

Verbele modale sunt urmate de un verb principal la forma de infinitiv scurt (fără prepoziţia to):

e.g. I can type. (Pot dactilografia.) You may go now. (Poţi să pleci acum.)

Construiesc interogativul prin inversarea poziţiei cu cea a subiectului:

e.g. Can you lend me your pen? (Poţi să-mi împrumuţi stiloul?)

Construiesc negativul prin adăugarea negaţiei not:

F. lungă F. scurtă

e.g. I can + not → I cannot = I can’t

I may + not → I may not = I mayn’t

I must + not → I must not = I mustn’t

I will + not → I will not = I won’t

I should + not → I should not = I shouldn’t

I need + not → I need not = I needn’t

I dare + not → I dare not = I daren’t

Unele verbe modale au înlocuitori (verbe sau construcţii verbale):

Can = to be able to (a fi capabil să)

Must = have to ( a trebui să)

May = be allowed to (a i se permite să)

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1.1. Cazuri de folosire

Verbele modale pot exprima diverse aspecte ce întregesc sensul verbului principal, cum ar fi:

A. Rugăminte (Request)

1. Pentru a adresa o rugăminte se folosesc can sau could, la persoana a doua singular

(can/could you). Can este varianta informală, could este varianta formală / mai politicoasă.

e.g. Can you type this letter for me, please? (Poţi să dactilografiezi scrisoarea asta pentru mine,

te rog?)

Could you help me with my homework? (Ai/Aţi putea să mă ajuţi/ajutaţi la temă?)

2. O rugăminte adresată cuiva pentru ca acesta/aceasta să aducă ceva, se exprimă cu

ajutorul lui may:

e.g. May I have a cup of coffee? (Îmi puteţi aduce o cafea?)

3. Will you (vrei să) se poate folosi pentru adresa o rugăminte atunci cand nu este necesar

să fim deosebit de politicoşi:

e.g. Will you let the cat out, please? (Vrei să dai drumul pisicii, te rog?)

4. Would you sau would you mind se folosesc în exprimarea unei rugăminţi atunci cand

vrem să fim mai politicoşi / formali:

e.g. Would you start without me, please? (Aţi vrea să începeţi fără mine?)

Would you mind telling John the bad news? (V-ar / Te-ar deranja să-I spui lui John veştile

rele?)

B. Obligaţie / Interdicţie (Obligation / Interdiction)

1. Pentru a exprima obligaţia (de a face ceva) în prezent şi viitor, se

foloseşte modalul must, iar pentru a exprima obligaţie în trecut se foloseşte

had to.

Must exprimă obligaţie auto-impusă (exercitarea voinţei proprii):

e.g. I must give up smoking. Reason: Because it is too expensive.

( Trebuie să renunţ la fumat.) Motiv: Pentru că e prea scump.

Have to sau have got to se folosesc pentru a exprima autoritate din

exterior.

e.g. I have to / have got to give up smoking. Reason: My doctor told me so.

(Trebuie să renunţ la fumat.) Motiv: Doctorul mi-a spus aceasta.

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Atunci cand obligaţia reprezintă o datorie, se foloseşte modalul

ought to (se cade / se cuvine).

e.g. You ought to go and see your grandparents more often (Trebuie / se

cuvine să mergi şi să-ţi vizitezi bunicii mai des.)

Notă!

Ought to este adesea folosit pentru a spune că, deşi ceva este corect să fie făcut, totuşi

oamenii nu fac acel lucru.

e.g. We ought to drive cars that use less fuel. - But we don‟t.

(Trebuie să folosim maşini care consumă mai puţin carburant.) - Dar nu facem aceasta.

2. Interdicţie. În engleză, se foloseşte pentru exprimarea interdicţiei 1) negativul lui

must (must not / mustn’t) sau 2) un verb la imperativ, la forma negativă.

e.g. You mustn’t eat with your mouth full. (Nu manca cu gura plină.)

Don’t open my briefcase. (Nu-mi deschide servieta.)

Interdicţia categorică se exprimă cu be to, la forma negativă (be not to) şi este folosit atunci

cand vorbitorul are autoritate deplină sau cand este furios.

e.g. You are not to go there again, is that clear? (Nu ai voie să mai mergi

acolo niciodată, e clar?)

C. Sfat (Advice)

1. În engleză, se poate da un sfat cu ajutorul modalului should (ar trebui să).

e.g. It‟s a good book. You should read it. (E o carte bună. Ar trebui să o

citeşti.)

2. De asemenea, atunci cand cerem sfatul cuiva, folosim tot modalul should.

e.g. Should we tell her? (Ar trebui să-i spunem?)

3. Had better se mai poate folosi pentru a da un sfat. Are sensul: Ar fi

bine dacă tu ….. . Forma de trecut (had) este folosită la orice timp, chiar

şi atunci cand sfatul se dă în momentul prezent sau viitor. După had

better se adaugă infinitivul scurt al verbului.

e.g. You had better / you’d better tell him you haven‟t done that. (Mai

bine i-ai spune că nu ai făcut acel lucru.)

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Forme negative : should not / shouldn’t

had better not .

e.g. You‟re looking tired. You shouldn’t work so late. (Arăţi oboist. N-ar

trebui să lucrezi atat de tarziu.)

You had better not bring your bicycle indoors. (Mai bine nu ţi-ai

aduce bicicleta înăuntru.)

D. Posibilitate şi probabilitate (Possibility and Probability)

1. Posibilitate

a. Pentru a exprima posibilitatea (ca o acţiune să aibă loc) în prezent sau

viitor se folosesc may, might, could + vb. la infinitival (fără to).

e.g. There‟s a parcel here. It may be from Peter. (E un colet aici. Poate fi

de la Peter.) It might / could be from Peter. (Ar putea fi de la Peter.)

Might şi could sugerează îndoială mai mare (sau nesiguranţă mărită) din partea

vorbitorului, spre deosebire de cazul în care e folosit may.

b. Pentru a exprima posibilitatea (ca o acţiune să fi avut loc) în

trecut, se foloseşte may, might sau could + have + forma a III-a verbului.

e.g. He might have got / could have got lost. (El ar fi putut să se rătăcească.)

c. La interogativ, exprimarea posibilităţii se face cu modalele could sau might.

e.g. Might she have been the wrong person to ask? → posibilitate în trecut

(S-ar fi putut ca ea să fie persoana nepotrivită?)

Could the answer be „six‟? → posibilitate în prezent

(Ar putea răspunsul să fie „şase‟?)

Might she be coming tomorrow? → posibilitate în viitor

(S-ar putea ca ea să vină maine?)

d. Pentru exprimarea imposibilităţii se folosesc may not + infinitiv (pt.prezent)

might not have + forma a III-a a vb.-lui (pt. trecut) şi might not + be + vb. –ing. (pt.

viitor)

e.g. He mightn’t have wanted to buy anything. → imposib. în trecut

(S-ar fi putut ca el să nu vrea să cumpere nimic.)

„Six‟ may not be the answer. → imposib. în prezent

(„Şase‟ poate să nu fie răspunsul.)

They might not be coming tomorrow. → imposib. în viitor

(S-ar putea ca ei să nu vină maine.)

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2. Probabilitate

2.1. Pentru a exprima probabilitatea ca o acţiune să aibă loc în prezent sau viitor

se folosesc modalele should sau ought to.

e.g. She should be on her way home now. (Ea ar trebui să fie în drum spre casă acum.) –

Aceasta presupune că noi o aşteptăm să ajungă în curand acasă.

The plane ought to take off about now. ( Avionul ar trebui să decoleze de acum.) –

Se presupune că e timpul ca acesta să decoleze.

2.2. Pentru a exprima probabilitatea ca o acţiune să fi avut loc (în trecut) se

folosesc should have / ought to + have + forma III-a a vb.-lui.

e.g. They should have reached London by 10 o‟clock. (Ei ar fi trebuit să ajungă la Londra

pană la 10.) → probabil că ei au ajuns

E. Obişnuinţă (Habit)

1. Pentru exprimarea unei acţiuni obişnuite, repetată în mod constant în trecut, se

foloseşte modalul used to (obişnuiam să) ca unică formă de trecut.

F. Afirmativă

He used to call me up daily. (El obişnuia să mă sune zilnic.)

F. Interogativă

Did you use to …. ? (Obişnuiai să … ?)

F. Negativă

I did not use to … / I never used to …. (Nu obişnuiam să … )

Used to poate exprima:

a. Acţiuni repetate în trecut, ce nu mai au loc acum:

e.g. When I was sixteen I used to go to the cinema every week. (Cand aveam 16 ani

mergeam / obişnuiam să merg la cinema săptămanal.)

b. Stări trecute ce nu mai sunt valabile în prezent:

e.g. She used to be shy as a child. (Ea era timidă cand era mică.)

c. Situaţii trecute, non-valabile în present:

e.g. He used to be Mary‟s boyfriend but now he‟s Rachel‟s. (El a fost pe vremuri prietenul

lui Mary, dar acum e prietenul lui Rachel.)

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2. Pentru exprimarea unei acţiuni obişnuite, repetată în mod constant în trecut, se

foloseşte, de asemenea, modalul would + infinitivul fără to (= a obişnui să)

F. Afirmativă (scurtă): I’d / you’d / she’d / …. + go = obişnuiam / obişnuiai / obişnuiau

să meargă

F. Negativă: would not / would never (la toate persoanele) = nu obişnuiam să, etc.

F. Interogativă: Would I / …/ they ? = Obişnuiau ei?

Modalul would poate exprima:

a. Acţiuni repetate, obişnuite în trecut, ce nu mai au loc acum (la fel ca şi used to):

e.g. In his youth, he would go to the cinema every week. (În tinereţe el obişnuia să meargă

la cinema în fiecare săptămană.)

b. Would nu se oloseşte pentru exprimarea stărilor sau situaţiilor trecute:

e.g. I used to have long hair. (I would have … . - incorect)

She used to be shy. (She would be … . – incorect)

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Capitolul II

Vorbirea Indirectă (Indirect Speech)

1. Transformarea de la vorbirea directă la vorbirea indirect

1.1. Transformarea propoziţiei afirmative

Acest tip de transformare presupune modificarea graduală a timpului acţiunii

din vorbirea directă. Mai jos, prezentăm modificările ce se efectuează la

transformarea propoziţiei afirmative, din vorbirea directă, în cea indirectă.

Vorbire directă

Vorbire indirectă

„I like coffee‟, she says.

(îmi place)

She said she liked coffee.

(îi plăcea)

„I am writing a letter‟, he says.

(scriu)

She said she was writing a letter.

(scria)

„I saw the film‟, she says.

(am văzut)

She said she had seen a film.

(văzuse)

„I was doing the shopping‟, she says.

(făceam cumpărături)

She said she had been doing the

shopping. (făcuse)

„‟I have finished cooking‟, she says.

(am terminat)

She said she had finished cooking.

(terminase)

„I shall be 30 next week‟, he says.

(voi împlini)

He said he would be 30 the

following week. ( va împlini)

„Go to the bank!‟, he says.

(mergi)

He told me to go to the bank.

(să merg)

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După cum se poate vedea din tabel, transformarea la vorbirea indirectă presupune o serie de

modificări , cum ar fi:

a. Dispariţia ghilimelelor şi schimbarea timpului (e.g. prezent →trecut) în care

se exprimă subiectul (vorbitorul) în vorbirea directă.

e.g. s/he says → s/he said

b. Modificarea timpului verbului în propoziţia din vorbirea directă:

- T. prezent simplu → T. trecut simplu

(like) (liked)

- T. prezent continuu → T. trecut continuu

(am writing) (was writing)

- T. trecut s. → T. mai mult ca perfect s.

(saw) (had seen)

- T. trecut c. →T. mai mult ca perfect c.

(was doing) (had been doing)

- T. prezent perfect → T. mai mult ca perfect

(have finished) (had finished)

- T. viitor → T. viitor în trecut

(shall/will) (should/would)

1.2. Transformarea propoziţiei interogative

If sau whether se folosesc atunci cand transformăm la vorbirea indirect o ]ntrebare ce nu

conţine un pronume interogativ (when, who, why, etc.)

e.g. Vorbire directă: „Is he coming this evening?‟

Vorbire indirectă: She asked if / whether he was coming that evening.

Notă!

Propoziţia interogativă are structura:

Auxiliar + Subiect + verb …

Is he coming … ?

În transformarea la vorbirea indirectă, structura interogativei devine echivalentă cu cea a

propoziţiei afirmative şi în care se operează modificarea timpului verbului.

S + Auxiliar + Verb …

he was coming

e.g „What did you do yesterday?‟

He asked me what I had done the day before.

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Alte modificări ce survin la transformarea de la vorbirea directă la vorbirea indirectă.

Aceste modificări vizează şi alte părţi de vorbire, cum ar fi adverbele de

timp şi de loc (e.g. now, here, today, yesterday, etc.) sau adjective

demonstrative.

V. directă → V. indirectă

- now (acum) → then (atunci)

- today (astăzi) → that day (ziua aceea)

- next day (ziua următoare) → the following day (idem)

- tomorrow (maine) → - “ -

- here/over here (aici) → there/over there (acolo)

- this day / week,etc. →that day / week

(această zi) (ziua/sapt. aceea)

- these cars → those cars

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Capitolul III

Subjonctivul (The Subjunctive)

A. Subjonctivul sintetic

1. Subjonctivul prezent

Forme:

I be = eu să fiu, You be = tu să fii, s/he be = ea/el să fie, etc.

Ca formă, subjonctivul prezent este echivalent cu infinitivul

scurt al verbului.

Subjonctivul prezent exprimă:

a. o dorinţă sau o rugăminte:

e.g. God bless you! (Să fii binecuvantat!)

Long live the Queen! (Trăiască regina!)

b. se foloseşte după verbe ca: to propose, to suggest, to order.

e.g. He proposed that I take the job. (El a propus ca eu să accept

postul.)

2. Subjonctivul trecut

Forme:

I were = aş fi, you were = ai fi, … , they were = ei ar fi, etc.

Ca formă, subjonctivul trecut este echivalent cu trecutul simplu (forma were,

unică la toate persoanele, în cazul vb.-lui to be).

a. Se foloseşte în propoziţiile condiţionale:

e.g. If I were you, I should accept the offer. ( Dacă aş fi în locul tău,

aş accepta oferta.) – exprimă o condiţie posibilă

b. Se foloseşte după verbul wish:

e.g. I wish he visited us more often. (Îmi doresc ca el să ne fi vizitat mai des.)

c. După conjuncţiile: as if/ as though (= ca şi cum/ca şi cand)

e.g. He ran as if his life depended on it. (El alerga de parcă viaţa lui

depindea de aceasta.)

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d. După had rather ( = mai degrabă):

e.g. I had rather you told him than I did. (Mai degrabă i-ai spune tu şi nu eu.)

e. După expresia: it’s (high) time ( = e timpul să)

e.g. It‟s time I went home. (E timpul să merg acasă.)

f. După conjuncţia even if / even though ( = chiar dacă):

e.g. Even if it rained, we should go on that trip. (Chiar dacă o să plouă, ar

trebui să mergem în excursie.)

Atenţie!

Subjonctivul prezent se referă la o acţiune ce are loc în prezent.

Se traduce în romană prin condiţional (= aş merge) sau subjonctiv (să merg).

B. Subjonctivul analytic (Analytic Subjunctive)

În acest caz nu există forme verbale proprii, ci se apelează la verbe modale.

1. Should + infinitiv se foloseşte:

a. în întrebările indirecte care arată îndoiala, introduse prin whether

(dacă da sau nu).

e.g. They discussed whether they should take part in the contest.

b. În propoziţii introduse prin expresii ca:

it is (im)possible, it is necessary / advisable / strange / strange / important, it

is likely (este pro-babil), it is desirable (este de dorit).

e.g. It is important that you should be in time. (Este important ca

tu să fii punctual/ă).

c. În propoziţii introduse prin lest ( = ca să nu):

e.g. He hurried lest he should miss the morning train. (El s-a grăbit ca să nu

piardă trenul de dimineaţă.)

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d. În propoziţii ce conţin verbe ca: to suggest, advise (a sfătui), decide

(a hotărî), order, insist, request (a cere/solicita), demand (a cere), propose (a

propune), etc.

e.g. I suggest (that) they should take our advice. (Sugerez ca ei să ne urmeze

sfaturile.)

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Capitolul IV

Construcţii verbale

4.1. Construcţii cu participiul

A. Construcţia Acuzativ + participiu este folosită după următoarele categorii de

verbe:

a) de percepţie: to see, to hear, to feel, to watch, to imagine etc.

e.g. He saw me writing a letter.

The teacher watched the student doing the exercise.

b) to catch, to find, to discover, to keep, to leave.

e.g. A neighbor caught the thief trying to enter my house.

Don‟t keep me waiting too long.

c) to have = a lăsa

e.g. I won‟t have my son skipping school.

B. Construcţia Nominativ + participiu conţine un substantiv / pronume ca subiect

şi un verb la diateză pasivă, urmat de participiu.

e.g. The prosecutor said that the defendant was seen trying to enter a house.

The pianist was heard playing Mozart.

4.2. Construcţii cu gerunziul

Gerunziul este folosit după:

a) verbe care arată începutul, continuarea şi sfarşitul acţiunii: to begin, to start, to

continue, to go on, to keep on, to finish, to accomplish.

e.g. They keep on running. Go on reading! She stopped talking

when he came into the room.

b) verbe care exprimă sentimente: to like, to dislike, to love, to hate, to enjoy, to

detest, to hate, to prefer, etc.

e.g. I like travelling. He hates doing dirty jobs.

c) alte verbe: to avoid, to delay, to excuse, to deny, to mind, to need, to risk, to

suggest, etc.

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e.g. I couldn‟t avoid meeting him. Do you mind passing me the salt?

Excuse my interrupting you.

d) după verbe cu prepoziţii:

e.g. He wants to give up smoking. (El vrea să renunţe la fumat.)

I‟ll succeed in reading the book this week. (Voi reuşi să termin de citit cartea

săptămana asta.)

Shall I account on your coming to the meeting? (Să mă bazez pe prezenţa ta la

şedinţă?)

He was accused of trespassing. (El a fost acuzat de încălcarea proprietăţii.)

Nobody was surprised at his behaving like that. (Nimeni nu a fost surprins de

cum s-a comportat el.)

The cold weather prevented me from going on the trip. (Vremea rece m-a

împiedicat să merg în excursie.)

I think of giving him the job. (Mă gandesc să-i dau lui postul.)

She relies on our helping to her. (Ea se bazează pe ajutorul nostru.)

He was accused of stealing from us. (El a fost acuzat că ne-a furat.)

They insist on our coming too. (Ei insistă să venim şi noi.)

e) după adjective:

e.g. He is proud of being her student. (El e mandru să fie studentul ei.)

She was afraid of crossing the river. (Ei îi era teamă să traverseze raul.)

Tim was surprised at seeing us again. (Tim era surprins să ne vadă din nou.)

I am tired of hearing that nonsense. (M-am săturat să aud prostia aceea.)

f) după expresii ca:

e.g. I can’t help thinking of her. (Nu pot să nu mă gandesc la ea.)

He feels like going for a walk. (El are chef să meargă la plimbare.)

It‟s no use telling him about that. (Nu are rost să-i spunem despre acel lucru.)

This is not worth doing. (Aceasta nu merită să fie făcută.)

I can’t stand watching this. (Nu suport să văd aceasta.)

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Capitolul V

Exerciţii şi selecţie texte

1. Folosiţi should / had better prin înlocuirea verbelor subliniate în

următoarele propoziţii:

It will be better if he sees a doctor at once.

It is advisable for her to spend more time in the library.

It will be better for you to come home earlier.

It would be nice if we visited them this summer.

It is advisable that I phone Irene myself.

2. Completaţi cu might (not).

1. I …… (go) to Tim‟s party this weekend but I don‟t know yet for sure.

2. They ….. (take) a taxi to the museum but they haven‟t decided it yet. 3. I … (not

invite) Dan to come on the trip with us. 4. Clara … (buy) some jeans but she … (not /

anything). 5. While in China, Peter … (go) on a boat trip.

3. Completaţi cu: must/mustn’t/had to şi un alt verb.

1. Derek … late at the office last night. 2. The dentist had told Annie she … any

more sweet things. Her teeth are in bad condition. 3. Let‟s catch an earlier train

tomorrow. We … late for the meeting. 4. I forgot my key yesterday so I … into the

house through a window. 5. If you are absent for more than three days, you … a

letter from your doctor.

4. Introduceţi must, ought to, ought not to.

1. „You ___ all remember to lock the door at night‟, said the boss to the staff. 2. I

think Derek really ___ help his mother more. She is nearly eighty. 3. They ___

make so much noise every night when come out of the club. 4. I ___ phone Erin

today. She‟s expecting me to. 5. People ___ drink at all if they are going to drive

a car.

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5. Folosiţi should / shouldn’t în propoziţiile de mai jos.

1. You … have a holiday. You …. work so hard. 2. A: I‟ve got a terrible

headache. B: You … take a pill. 3. A: Bill wants to borrow my car this weekend. But

he‟s a terrible driver. B: You … tell him that you need it. You … it to him. 4. A:

Simon‟s late again, and the train leaves in five minutes. … I stay a bit longer?

B: You … wait for him. 5. A: John is very intelligent but he wants to leave school

and get a job. B: He … abandon his studies.

6. Completaţi cu should/had better sau shouldn’t/had better not.

1. You ____ get some sleep. You look tired out. 2. Tell Jane she ____

Work so hard. She‟s overdoing it. 3. You ____ try to lift that by yourself. It‟s

heavy. 4. You ___ say that to Angela. She‟ll be angry with you. 5. He ____ go to

bed earlier tonight. Tomorrow‟s going to be a tough day for him.

7. Scrieţi propoziţii spunand ce ea/el (n-)ar fi trebuit să facă. Folosiţi should /

shouldn’t have done.

e.g. The child took the wallet he found in the street.

The child shouldn’t have taken the wallet.

1. Alan had just a small cut on his knee but he called an ambulance.

2. Helen did not tell her until it was too late.

3. Gary started working for his exams a week before he took them.

4. Eric didn‟t bring his guitar to the party and there were not many CDs.

5. Tom bought another bottle of milk though there was plenty of it in the fridge.

8. Cereţi sfatul folosind Should I … ? Doreşti să ceri sfatul despre:

1. which restaurant to go to, the Chinese one or the Indian one.

2. which shirt to wear, the blue one or the green one.

3. whether to finish your homework or go out.

4. whether to cook dinner or buy take-away meal.

5. whether to go by bus or drive.

9. Transformaţi la vorbirea indirectă:

1. „I think Sue is coming tomorrow‟, she says. 2. „Is it raining?‟ he asks.

3. „You have broken my CD player‟, he says. 4. „It is a nice day‟, she says. 5.

19

„Don‟t spend all the money on clothes‟, he tells his wife. 6. „You have passed

the exam‟, the teacher tells the student. 7. „I went to a concert with Melanie‟, he

says. 8. „John doesn‟t want to come with us‟, he says. 9. „I shall bring you the

book later today‟, she says. 10. „Do some extra homework‟, she told the pupil.

11. „It will snow a lot this winter‟, he says. 12. „I‟m paying for the bread‟, she

says.

10. Traduceţi în engleză:

1. Ei au spus că nu ştiau nimic despre prietenul lor de peste o săptămană. 2. L-a

întrebat ce credea despre filmul acela? 3. Tom le-a spus că nu fusese plecat în

acel weekend. 4. Ea mi-a spus că-mi va plăti pentru traducerea aceea. 5. El a

întrebat-o dacă vroia să meargă cu el la film în acea după-amiază. 6. Mama l-a

sfătuit să se trezească mai devreme a doua zi. 7. Ea l-a rugat să nu mai întarzie

la cină. 8. Ei au spus că nu ştiau ce ni se întamplase.

11. Completaţi cu forma corectă a subjonctivului.

1. I suggest that you ___ (turn off) the TV now. 2. We insisted that the match

___ (be postponed) until next Sunday. 3. It‟s high time you ___ (get) a better job.

4. If I were you I ___ (accept) his proposal. 5. He behaved as if he ___ (be) the

owner of the company. 6. Hurry up lest you ___ (miss) the lecture. 7. I‟d rather

you ___ (change) places with me. 8. Sally looks as if she ___ (know) the truth.

9. Bob insisted that he ___ (give) him the answer soon. 10. Send them a telegram

so that they ___ (know) about your intentions. 11. Was it possible that he ___

(tell) them the right thing? 12. She spoke English as if she ___ (live) in England.

13. The firemen ordered that the people ___ (leave) the building immediately.

14. He was advised to take a map lest he ___ (lose) his way back. 15. I wish you

___ (help) me with my French. 16. He worked hard so that he ___ (win) the

prize.

12. Completaţi cu gerunziul verbelor date în paranteză:

1. I‟m sorry for (keep) you waiting. 2. Yesterday night we heard someone

(shout) for help. 3. It‟s no use (talk) to him. 4. I didn‟t feel like (do) anything

yesterday. 5. He‟ll find it difficult to get used to (travel) to work by bus. 6. She

was afraid of (go) on along that dark alley. 7. She thinks of (visit) her friend in

20

Italy this summer. 7. I can‟t stand you (speak) to me like that. 8. She was proud of

(have) them over for dinner. 9. They insist on our (come) with them. 10. He thinks

of (give) that man a prize. 12. That meeting prevented me from (leave) earlier.

21

The Legal Profession

(Exercises)

A.3 Fill in with the given words and phrases (completaţi cu expresiile şi cuvintele de mai jos):

county magistrates’ Crown court trial rights of audience

evidence presents barrister x 2 client behalf Inns of Court

learning two-year training legal education breaches

“struck off” barristers x 2 solicitors two breach Bar Council

Law Society

The legal profession is divided into (1) ______ branches: (2) ________ and (3) ______ . their

controlling bodies are (4) _____ and (5) _____ . both bodies act as disciplinary agencies to deal

with any (6) of their codes. For serious (7) _____ a member of either branch of the (8) ______

profession maybe “(9) _____ .

All lawyers undergo extensive periods of (10) _____ , both through academic (11) _____ and

practical (12) ____ in legal work. In the case of solicitors this practical training takes the form of a

(13) ______ training contract with a firm of practitioners. For (14) _____ the period of training is

more complicated. The prospective barrister must also join one of the four (15) _____ , where the

life of the barrister is learned. Traditionally the (16) _____ , in wig and gown, (17) _____ the case

and expresses the arguments on the client‟s (18) ______ . The solicitor deals with the (19) _____ ,

chooses a properly and fully instructed (20) _____ , collects relevant (21) _____ and ensures that all

relevant persons are present in (22) on the day of the (23) _____ . Although only barristers have full

(24) _____ in all courts, solicitors have rights of audience in (25) _____ courts, (26) _____ courts

and some (27) ____ courts.

B.2 Find synonyms in the text for the following words or expressions:

1. authority having the power to control something controlling body

2. breaking or neglecting a law / contract violation

3. unwritten laws of conduct observed by members of the legal

profession

etiquette

4. hall in which a trial is held courtroom

5. inexperienced lawyer novice

6. information proving something evidence

22

7. person summoned to testify in court witness

8. removed from membership of a professional body struck off

9. rules of conduct observed by professional groups code of professional

ethics

10. stated without being proved alleged

11. to work as a lawyer / doctor to practise

B.3.2. Match the beginnings of the sentences in column I with their endings in column II.

1. The judge addressed the jury members … A. …to remain silent.

2. It was her idea … B. … which include giving advice to clients, and

preparing legal documentation.

3. The solicitor owes a contractual duty of

care to his client …

C. … to go to court.

4. You have the right … D. … whose task is to present his client‟s case

effectively in court.

5. Judges have a discretionary power … E. …whose attention had been captured by the

defending lawyer.

6. A barrister is an advocate … F. … who is guilty of professional misconduct…

7. Solicitors have functions … G. … to create new rules of law when none exists

to solve the case.

8. A barrister … may be disbarred. H. … for breach of which he is liable for

damages.

1 – E, 2 – C, 3 – H, 4 – A, 5 – G, 6 – D, 7 – B, 8 – F.

23

The Legal Profession

Section D Notaries Public

D.1 In the definitions of the documents below, the headwords are missing. Supply them by choosing from

among the ones in the box. (Introduceţi denumirile actelor notariale de mai jos în tabel.)

power of attorney =

procură

will = testament affidavit = declaraţie dată sub

jurămant

statement =

declaraţie

codicil = codicil deed = act,

înscris

conveyancing document = act

de cesionare

instrument =

document juridic

1. _______________ = official power which gives someone the right to act on someone‟s

behalf in legal matters

2. _______________ = written statement which is signed and sworn before a solicitor and

which can then be used as evidence in court hearings

3. _______________ = a general term for a legal document

4. _______________ = declaration of fact; an allegation by a witness

5. _______________ = legal document by which a person gives instructions to his executors

as how to his property should be disposed of after his death

6. _______________ = document executed in the same way as a will making additions or

changes to an existing will

7. _______________ = legal document which has been signed, sealed and delivered by the

person making it

8. _______________ = document which legally transfers a property from a seller to a buyer

24

The Duties of a Notary Public

The role and competence of the notaries public are very different in civil law countries from those

with a common law system. In England, most notaries public are also practicing solicitors. The few

specialist notaries practice in London, and deal mainly with the preparation of documents for use in

foreign countries.

In most civil law countries, being a notary public is a distinct legal profession. There is a limited

number of notarial offices established by law. A law graduate who wishes to become a notary must

apply for a vacancy, pass a special examination and enter the association of notaries public.

A notary‟s major functions are: drafting documents, such as marriage contracts, wills, mortgages,

and conveyances; certifying documents, which confers them a special status in court proceedings;

and serving as a depository for the original copies of wills and the like.

Due to the nature of his job, the notary often becomes a trusted family legal advisor, whose

assistance is needed in connection with the property aspects generated by such major events as

marriage, divorce and death of a family member.

25

The Legal Profession in the UK

The legal profession in the United Kingdom is divided into two branches, barristers and solicitors.

The former are legal practitioners, who have been admitted to plead at the bar and who are engaged

in conducting the trial or argument of causes; they have exclusive right of audience in the Supreme

Court. The latter assemble the materials necessary for presentation in court and settle cases out of

court. They may also practice in most inferior courts, such as county courts and certain proceedings

of the Crown Court.

Each have their own controlling bodies – the bar Council and the Law Society respectively – and an

intending lawyer must decide, at a relatively early stage in legal training, whether to practice as a

solicitor or a barrister, because apart from the initial period of legal education the two branches are

mutually exclusive in terms of personnel and training, although rather less so in terms of their work.

The controlling bodies exercise strict codes of professional ethics and standards of practice: this is

one of the ways in which the exclusivity of the profession, and its claim to produce high standards f

work, are maintained. Both bodies act as disciplinary agencies to deal with any alleged breach of

these codes, and for serious breaches a member of either branch of the legal profession may be

“struck off”.

All lawyers undergo extensive periods of education, both through formal academic learning and

through practical training in legal work. In the case of solicitors, this practical training takes the

form of a two-year period, after obtaining a law degree and completing the one-year Legal Practice

Course, in a training contract with a firm of practitioners. For intending barristers, the period of

training is rather more complicated and less financially secure, but possibly more intensive because

of the immersion of the novice in the traditions and practices of the Bar. Apart from undertaking

various examinations in the law, the prospective barrister must also join one of the four Inns of

Court, where the life of the barrister is learned. The various rules and institutions of the Bar serve to

socialize the novice into the established ways of that branch of the profession, where customs,

traditions and etiquette play so great a part.

For many people, the image of the typical lawyer ad his work is that presented in the formal setting

of the courtroom. Here, it is traditionally the barrister, in wig and gown, who presents the case and

expresses the arguments on the client‟s behalf; the solicitor‟s task is to deal directly with client, to

26

ensure that the barrister chosen is properly and fully instructed, to collect and collate relevant

evidence (such as witnesses, statements, letters, photographs and so on) and to ensure that all

relevant persons are present in court on the day of the trial.

This image of lawyers and their work is, however, somewhat misleading: the traditional division of

functions in the courtroom has gradually been broken down. Although only barristers have full

„rights of audience‟ (that is, the right to address the judges‟ bench directly on the client‟s behalf) in

all courts, solicitors have full rights of audience, too, in magistrates‟ and county courts, and in some

Crown courts.

Source: Harris, P. An Introduction to Law, Butterworths (1997)

Vocabulary:

branch = branşă barrister = avocat (pledant)

solicitor = jurist bar = barou

the former = primii to plead = a pleda

to be engaged = a se implica trial = process

to assemble = a aduna proceedings = proceduri

right of audience = drept de audienţă the latter = cei din a doua categ.

to settle cases = a pregăti cazuri county court = instanţă locală

controlling bodies = organe de control Bar Council = Consiliul Avocaturii

Law Society = Societate Juridică intending lawyer = viitor avocat

legal training = pregătire juridică are mutually exclusive = se exclud reciproc

in terms of = în ceea ce priveşte claim = pretenţie

high standards of work = muncă de înaltă calitate to deal with = a rezolva

alleged breach = pretinsă încălcare serious breach = încălcare gravă

be struck off = a fi dat afară undergo = a urma

academic learning = pregătire profesională law degree = diplomă în drept

undertaking = suţinerea join = a se înscrie

Inns of Court = Cluburi ale juriştilor established ways = modalităţi prestabilite

play so great a part = a juca un rol important courtroom = sală de tribunal

on the client‟s behalf= în numele clientului the solicitor‟s task = obligaţia juristului

to ensure = a se asigura to collect = a aduna

properly and fully = corespunzător şi riguros collate = a asocial

relevant evidence = probe relevante is misleading = este înşelătoare

27

division of functions = separarea sarcinilor has been broken down = a fost desfiinţată

judges‟ bench = complet de judecată full rights of audience = drepturi depline de

audienţă

28

COURT STRUCTURE IN THE US

Issues of crime and justice have always held the Americans attention. Americans are accustomed to

bringing their claims for justice to the courts. There are few countries where so many people treat

the law as part of their everyday lives. Local, state and federal courts handle approximately 12

million cases a year. The sheer number of Americans employed in the legal profession is

overwhelming; there is one lawyer for every 4440 Americans, whereas in Japan there is one lawyer

for every 10,000 people.

Americans‟ claims for justice rest on the provisions of the US Constitution. Most of rights and

freedoms that the Americans enjoy are guaranteed in the first ten amendments or “Bill of Rights” of

the constitution.

The Constitution, written in 1987, established a separate judicial branch of government which

operates independently alongside the executive and legislative branches. Within the judicial branch,

authority is divided between state and federal (national) courts. At the head of the judicial branch is

the Supreme Court, the final interpreter of the Constitution, which consists of nine justices and has

jurisdiction over all other courts in the nation.

The Constitution recognizes that the states have certain rights and authorities beyond the power of

the federal government. States have power to establish their own systems of criminal and civil laws,

with the result that each state has its own laws, prisons, police forces and state courts.

The separate system of federal courts, which operate alongside the state courts, handles cases which

arise under the US Constitution or under any law or treaty, as well as any controversy to which the

federal government is itself a party. Federal courts also hear disputes involving governments or

citizens of different states.

All federal judges are appointed for life. A case which falls within the federal jurisdiction is heard

before a federal district judge. An appeal may be made to the circuit Court of Appeals and, possibly,

in the last resort, to the highest court in the land; the US Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court hears cases in which someone claims that a lower court ruling is unjust or in

which someone claims that Constitutional law has been violated. Its decisions are final and become

29

legally binding. Not all Americans are satisfied with all Supreme Court decisions. Many Americans

believe that the court too often “takes the side of the criminals” in declaring the proceedings invalid

because an accused person‟s rights have been violated. Others argue, however, that protecting the

innocent is the real intent of these rulings, and that it is better to have a few criminals go free than to

have one innocent person be jailed. Although the Supreme Court does not have the power to make

laws, it does have the power to examine actions of the legislative, executive and administrative

institutions of the government and decide whether they are constitutional. It is in this function that

the Supreme Court has the potential to influence decisively the political, social and economic life of

the country by giving new protection and freedom to minorities or by nullifying certain laws of the

Congress, or even declaring actions of American presidents unconstitutional.

Presidents have often criticized the Supreme Court, although the criticism comes more frequently

today from the bar associations, law schools and court observers in the press. The two judicial

systems, federal and state, form layers of courts that check each other and are checked in turn by the

law profession and law schools, which study the decisions and create an informed opinion.

Congress also reviews the laws to be enforced and can change the laws and the number of Supreme

Court judges. The president nominates the Supreme Court appointee, while the Senate examines to

determine whether he or she is qualified. Similarly, the governors, the state legislatures, and the

people select the state judges.

30

Qualifications of Jurymen

The basic qualification of jurymen is that of citizenship as evidenced by inclusion in the Electoral

Register. Anyone between the ages of 18 and 65 registered as an elector who has lived in England

or Wales for five years or more since the age of 13 becomes liable for jury service.

Payments in respect of jury service for travelling, subsistence and financial loss are made to jurors.

Anyone who has been imprisoned in the past ten years is disqualified from serving on a jury as is

anyone who has been on probation during the previous five years.

Judges, M.P.s, clergymen, barristers, solicitors, medical practitioners, members of H.M. Forces and

police officers are among the persons exempt from jury service. Mentally ill persons are illegible.

Vocabulary:

basic qualification = calificare/eligibilitate principal citizenship = cetăţenie

as evidenced = conform evidenţei registered = înregistrat

becomes liable = devine eligibil in respect of = corespunzător/ aferent

jurors = juraţi is disqualified from = este descalificat

be on probation = a fi în arest preventiv the previous = în ultimii

M.P.s = membrii ai Parlamentului exempt from = excluse din

H.M. Forces = membrii ai Ministerului de Interne illegible = neeligibil

31

An Interview on Human Rights

I.: Now, at the turn of the millennium it is perhaps important to look back over the centuries in

order to see how human rights and liberties have been protected and guaranteed in legal and

political documents. That‟s why I invited Prof. Douglas Holmes, a well-known specialist in the

area, here today. Hello, Prof. Holmes.

Prof. Holmes: Hello.

I.: Perhaps you could start by defining the concept of human rights.

Prof. H.: Well, this term refers to the rights and freedoms to which all human beings are entitled.

In fact, it is sometimes suggested that human rights are so fundamental, that they form part of the

natural law.

I.: Human rights and freedoms are now guaranteed by various documents at national and

international level. Has it always been the same? I mean … have always human rights been spelled

out in documents?

Prof. H.: Well, Bills of rights have long been familiar to English people and Americans. The New

World settlers surely knew the history of Magna Carta, of the Petition of Rights and of the Bill of

Rights in their mother country. But American Bills of rights were the first, historically speaking, to

become part of the Constitution.

I.: Could you enlarge a little?

Prof. H.: Yes, certainly. The first and most famous of these bills was the one drawn up by John

Mason and adopted by the Virginia Assembly on June 12, 1776. This eloquent document, known as

the Virginia Bill of Rights, starts with the famous statement:”… all men are by nature equally free

and independent and have certain inherent rights …”

I.: Did the Virginia Bill of rights have any impact at that time?

Prof. H.: A great impact, we could say. This statement of fundamental rights was widely copied

not only in America, but also abroad: it was especially popular in France and contributed to the later

French Declaration of the Rights of Man.

I.: I must confess my ignorance. I didn‟t know a thing about the Virginia Bill of Rights.

Prof. H.: Well, I‟m pretty sure you have heard, though, about other famous American documents.

I.: You mean the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution?

Prof. H.: Yes, that‟s what I had in mind.

I.: As you were quoting that article from the Virginia Bill of Rights, I couldn‟t help remembering

quite a similar passage from the Declaration of Independence. I quote: “We hold these truths to be

self-evident, that all men are created equal, …”

32

Prof. H.: “ … that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among

these are Life, liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” The similarity comes from the fact that the

underlying principles of the Declaration of Independence are based on the idea of natural, God-

given rights, just like those of the Virginia Bill of Rights.

I.: When was the Declaration adopted?

Prof. H.: The Declaration, drafted by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted on July 4, 1776. And since

1783, July 4 has become the most important holiday in the USA – Independence Day.

I.: And what can you say about the US Constitution? What rights does it include, for example?

Prof. H.: The Constitution of the US, established, in Lincoln‟s words, a system of government, “of

the people, by the people, for the people.” Hence its well-known preamble “WE THE PEOPLE of

the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union …” When the Constitution became the

fundamental law of the USA, on March 4, 1789, it didn‟t include a series of individual liberties.

During the ratification debates, however, it became evident that such a bill of rights was necessary.

In 1791, the first ten amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, were added, to be followed by many

others.

I.: Yes, of course, to these we should add the rights protected by the Bill of Civil Rights in the

60‟s.

Prof. H.: Yes, that Bill was signed by President Lyndon Johnson on July 4, 1964 and it helped

eradicate any racial or religious discrimination or segregation.

I.: So far we‟ve been talking about the US. How are human rights promoted and protected in other

countries of the world?

Prof. H.: Well, it would take hours or even days just to give a brief mention of the specific steps

made by each and every state to ensure and protect rights and freedoms for its citizens. So, as not to

bore you, I shall refer only to the common efforts made by the states of the world to guarantee

human rights.

I.: What events do you have in mind?

Prof. H.: First of all, the fact that in 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the

Universal Declaration of human Rights, which spells out most of the main rights that must be

protected throughout the world.

I.: It seems to me that, if such a declaration exists, then why are there so many infringements of

human rights worldwide?

Prof. H.: The UN Declaration is not, unfortunately, a legally binding document. That‟s why, in

1966, the General Assembly adopted two international covenants placing legal obligations on the

states ratifying them: firstly, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the other,

the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

33

I.: All‟s well in theory, but how is the implementation of these rights practically monitored?

Prof. H.: Good question. The United Nations has set up a Commission on Human Rights, which

has the power to discuss gross violations of human rights and liberties.

I.: Yes, aha, I see. Are there any regional Conventions on human rights?

Prof. H. : Yes, there‟re several, but the best known are the European Convention for the Protection

of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, and the Inter-American Convention of Human

Rights.

I.: Aha … can we stick to Europe this time? Let‟s stick to Europe this time. Could you give more

details about the European Convention on Human Rights?

Prof. H.: Certainly. It was originally formulated in 1950, and came into force on September 3,

1953. And it aims at protecting the human rights of all people in the member states of the Council

of Europe.

I.: And are there any institutions that protect these rights and freedoms of all people?

Prof. H.: The Commission on Human Rights and the Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.

I.: And how exactly do these institutions work?

Prof. H.: Well, if a complaint is judged to fulfill certain conditions that make it admissible, the

commission places itself at the disposal of the parties in an effort to achieve a friendly settlement.

I.: And what happens if that sort of fails?

Prof. H.: Well, in that case, the Commission sends a report to the Committee of Ministers of the

Council of Europe. The case may then be brought before the Court of human Rights, provided the

state against which the complaint is made has accepted the Court‟s jurisdiction. The Court has

power to make a final ruling, which is binding on the parties.

I.: Thank you very much, Prof. Holmes. What you‟ve said has been most interesting.

Prof. H.: Thank you.

Vocabulary:

are entitled = li se cuvin Bill of rights = Legea drepturilor

spelled out = menţionate în scris to be self-=evident = a fi ultra evident

ratification debates = discuţii privind ratificarea infringements = încălcări

legally binding document = doc. obligatoriu prin lege covenant = convenţie

set up = a înfiinţa gross violations = încălcări grave

stick to =a se limita la come into force = a intra în vigoare

34

is judged to fulfill = este considerată a îndeplini friendly settlement = rezolvare amiabilă

to make a final ruling = a pronunţa o hotărare definitivă is binding on = este obligatorie pentru

35

Bibliografie

Text Book

English for Legal Purposes: Cavallioti Publishing House, British Council,

Bucharest, 2002.

Grammar Books

Bădescu, Alice: Gramatica limbii engleze, Editura Stiintifică, Bucuresti, 1982;

Dean, Michael: English Grammar Lessons, An Interactive Classroom Grammar,

OUP,1993;

Naylor, Helen & Raymond, Murphy: Essential Grammar in Use, Supplementary

Exercises, Cambridge University Press, UK, 1997;

Murphy, Raymond: Essential Grammar in Use, 2nd

Edition, Cambridge University

Press, UK, 1998.