1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

CHAPTER 2

LEADERSHIP

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

Describe how to develop a first draft of shift,office, or work center daily work schedules.

Explain how to apply leadership and super-visory skills.

Describe how to estimate time for accomplish-ment of tasks.

Describe how to direct daily work assignmentsusing established time schedules.

Explain how to evaluate completed assign-ments of subordinates for quality, complete-ness, and timeliness.

Explain how to translate daily work require-ments from immediate supervisor into specificassignments for subordinates.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Explain how to evaluate specific assignmentsto determine proper personnel to accomplishassigned tasks.

Describe how to coordinate availability oftools, supplies, equipment, and parts toperform required tasks.

Explain how to evaluate subordinates’ qualifi-cations to perform tasks.

Explain how to recommend formal reward/recognition for subordinates to the immediatesupervisor.

Describe how to counsel subordinates onprofessional performance.

in an all-volunteer force environment, ensuring

We need men and women who by their equality for all, ending drug and alcohol abuse,

personal integrity, their sense of moraland retaining valuable personnel. Leaders should

purpose, and their acceptance of theknow how to analyze these challenges objectively

requirement of hard work, will exemplify and take creative and innovative action to resolve

the best in leadership traditions of the them.

Navy and of our country.

—Admiral Arleigh A. Burke NAVY LEADER DEVELOPMENT(USN RET) (Chief of NavalOperations from 1955 to 1961) The Navy, with leader development goals in

mind, has set up a program for its leading pettyofficers (LPOs) and chief petty officers (CPOs).

As you strive to become a leader in today’s This program is the Navy Leader Develop-Navy, you will confront many difficult leadership ment Program (NAVLEAD). NAVLEAD waschallenges. You will have to deal with recruiting developed and designed to support career-long

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leader development. NAVLEAD emphasizes thefollowing:

Individual commitment to self-improve-ment

Command leader development trainingand opportunities and a positive,supportive command climate

Formal leader development training andeducation programs

Direct involvement by designated echelon2 commands

NAVLEAD provides leadership trainingfor naval personnel to accomplish the Navy’smission effectively. It also provides leadershiptraining for different ascension levels in thethree warfare communities for fleet and shorecommands.

All NAVLEAD courses are based on 16leadership attributes or competencies thatdistinguish superior performers from averageperformers. NAVLEAD courses refer to thosecompetencies as “skills.” The courses em-phasize the knowledges, skills, behaviors, andthought patterns that research has shown todistinguish superior performers from averageperformers.

You can find further information aboutNAVLEAD course requirements in OPNAVINST5351.2.

THE ROLE OF THE LEADINGPETTY OFFICER (LPO)

The division officer normally designates thedivision’s senior chief petty officer or senior pettyofficer as its leading petty officer. The leadingpetty officer aids the division officer inadministering, supervising, and training divisionpersonnel. Those are just a few of the tasks youwill perform when you serve as the LPO. You willalso fulfill the following roles:

Technical expert

Supervisor

Ž Leader

Ž Advisor/counselor

Ž Mentor

To accomplish the above roles, you must learnto use 16 leadership and supervisory skills. Fivesteps support development of the knowledges,behaviors, or thought patterns related to theseleadership skills:

RECOGNIZE SKILLS. Learn to recognizedesired knowledges, skills, behaviors, or thoughtpatterns of superior leaders.

UNDERSTAND THE SKILLS. Integrate thedesired knowledges, skills, behaviors, or thoughtpatterns into your own way of thinking.

SELF-EVALUATE IN RELATION TO THESKILLS. Rate the relevance of the various skills,behaviors, or thought patterns to your own job,career, or life goals and identify specific areas forself-improvement.

PRACTICE THE SKILLS. Develop useof the skills, behaviors, or thought patternsby practicing them and receiving feedback onthem.

PERFORM THE SKILL. Plan how you canuse the skills, behaviors, or thought patterns onthe job. Envision on-the-job problems, set goalsto resolve them, and develop action plans thatinvolve the use of the proper leadership skills.

Learning Styles

People learn in different ways. The way oneperson learns a skill or how to perform a task maynot be an effective or efficient method for anotherperson.

Most people develop a preferred, or dominant,approach to learning by using one or two stylesmore often than others. However, most peopleemploy each of the learning styles, to some degree,often moving from one to the other.

To develop effective subordinates, you needto be an effective leader. That means knowingyour own dominant learning style and thedominant learning style of each of your

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subordinates. The four learning styles are asfollows:

1. Concrete experience

People who primarily use the concrete learningstyle prefer an experience-based approach tolearning. These people want to learn first handwithout preparing beforehand. They do not wantto learn by reading; they want to learn throughexperience.

Concrete learners have the following charac-teristics:

— Rely heavily on feeling-based judgments

— Are receptive to new experiences andactivities

— Are people-oriented

— Prefer to treat each situation as a new case

— Learn best when they can get involved

2. Reflective Observation

People who primarily use the reflectivelearning style prefer to sit back and observewithout getting involved. They like to see how thesituation looks before making a judgment orcommitting themselves to learning.

Reflective learners have the following traits:

— Rely heavily on careful observations whenmaking judgments

— Are more tentative or uncertain whenit comes to learning

— Like to reflect on what they have observedbefore drawing conclusions

— Tend to be withdrawn

— Prefer to be objective observers

3. Abstract conceptualization

People who primarily use the abstract learningstyle prefer a theory-based, analytical approachto learning. These people prefer to study thetopic and think about it. They don’t want to

learn through experience; they’d rather readabout it.

Abstract learners have the following habits:

— Rely heavily on logical thinking andrational evaluation

— Are more oriented to things andsymbols than they are to people

— Prefer authority-directed, impersonallearning situations that emphasize theory

— Are frustrateding approachessimulations

— Like systematic

by “discovery” learn-such as role plays and

approaches or theories

4. Active experimentation

People who primarily use the active learningstyle prefer to learn by becoming involved ina subject. They take a step-by-step, activeapproach. These people like to apply what theyare learning.

Active learners have the following qualities:

— Rely heavily on experimentation

— Like to combine theory with application

— Tend to be practical and responsible

— Use feedback from others

— Use trial and error and learn from theirown mistakes

Motives, Thoughts, andBehaviors

A motive is a need or want based on yourpersonal desires or goals. A motive also leads youto think about how you would feel about reachingor not reaching the goal.

A thought leads to behavior that allows youto reach the goal.

A behavior leads to goals that satisfy yourneeds and wants in the initial motive.

We have three types of social motives: achieve-ment, affiliation, and power. These motives leadto behaviors related to persons and tasks met indaily living.

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The following chart shows some thoughts and behaviors that are typicalof the three types of social motives:

THOUGHTS AND BEHAVIOR CHARACTERISTIC OF THETHREE SOCIAL MOTIVES

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE

TYPICAL TYPICALTHOUGHTS BEHAVIORS

Outperforming someone else Setting realistic but Challenging

Meeting or surpassing a self-goals

imposed standard of excel- Looking for performance feed-Ience back

Doing something unique Ad- Taking initiativevancing one’s career

Taking personal responsibility

Trying to be innovative

Choosing experts over friends towork with

AFFILIATION MOTIVE

TYPICAL TYPICALTHOUGHTS BEHAVIORS

Developing and maintaining Having many friendsclose friendships

Talking to others frequently; writ-Being with others to enjoy ing a lot of letters; making phonetheir company calls

Concern about separation Choosing to be with others ratherfrom others and wanting to than be alonerestore relationships

Putting people before tasksSeeing group activities associal Choosing friends over experts to

work with

Seeking personal approval

Sympathizing, agreeing with, andconsoling others

Communicating about how othersthink and feel

POWER MOTIVE

TYPICAL TYPICALTHOUGHTS BEHAVIORS

Taking strong and forceful Being active in the organization’sactions politics

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POWER MOTIVE

TYPICALTHOUGHTS

Giving help, advice, support(especially unsolicited)

Developing strategies abouthow to control people andshape situations

Thinking about the impactof actions and how otherswill feel or be influenced

Thinking about status, re-putation, or position

TIME MANAGEMENT

An effective leader makes the best use of time.Watch standing, competing demands, andpaperwork duties are just a few examples of thetime robbers that tend to take time away fromyour job.

Use your time efficiently. Use time manage-ment practices for day-to-day work schedules andlong-term goals. Here are some time managementpractices that will get you off to a good start:

1. Set goals and arrange them in their orderof importance.

2. Make a daily “to do” list.

3. Start with the most important goals.

4. Handle each piece of paper only once.

5. Decide which task to perform; then do it.

Set goals; then arrange them into long-termgoals, lifetime goals, 2- or 3-year goals, or6-month goals. Short-term goals are those wedevelop for a week at a time. Rank your goalsin their order of importance; for example, A, B,C, or 1, 2, 3; today; this week; or this month.

Make a to do list at the beginning of each day.Sit down and list all the tasks you plan to do thatday starting with the most important and going

TYPICALBEHAVIORS

Collecting and displaying objectsof prestige

Influencing people through con-trol or persuasion, or offeringhelp or aid

Seeking positions of leadership

Developing subordinates towardtask performance

Seeking, withholding, and usinginformation to control others

to the least important. Make this list regularly andat the same time each day. Rank each item onthe list based on its importance; for exampleA = high value, B = medium value, C = lowvalue, and CZ = no value at all. Avoid listing toomuch; your to do list should be challenging butrealistic.

Make a decision about a piece of paper thefirst time you read it. Each additional time youhandle the same piece of paper is a time waster.

Ask yourself, What is the smallest step or taskI can or am willing to do right now? Then do it.Delegate as many of your tasks as possible, resolveissues quickly, and face people and problemsimmediately. Goal setting and action planning areimportant activities for effective leaders andsupervisors.

Goal Setting

Goal setting in a work situation often beginswith a recognition of critical equipment andsystems problems or lack of resources in a workcenter. That can give you an idea of the actual(or real) operating condition of the work center.

Next you should identify the ideal conditionsand needs of the work center. The ideal meansthe work center has high productivity with fullyworking systems and equipment. Looking at theideal helps you see the operating condition of thework center as it should be.

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Once you determine the real and the ideal,look at the discrepancies between them. Noticethe problems that interrupt the smooth operationand productivity of some tasks. After finding thesize of the gap between the real and ideal, decidewhether you need to make changes to reduce thegap. Any changes should meet four criteria:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Be behaviorally specific: Specify whataction to takeBe measurable: Specify criteria or check-points for rating accomplishment of thegoalBe realistic but challenging: Test yourability but have at least a 50 percent chanceof attainmentBe time-phased: Show a time schedule ordeadline - for reaching the goal

Action Planning

Action planning involves four steps:

1.2.3.

4.

Taking action stepsDefining who will be taking the actionCreating a time schedule with dead-linesListing skills neededattain the goal

EQUAL OPPORTUNITY

to accomplish and

Equal opportunity is the practice of fairpersonnel management and development. Itallows individual achievement, limited only by aperson’s aspirations, abilities, and talents. Itprovides for equal consideration and treatmentwithin the laws based upon a person’s merit,fitness, and capability, without additionalinfluence of race, color, religion, gender, ornational origin.

Navy personnel at all levels in the chain ofcommand are responsible for carrying out equalopportunity. Navy policy directs that all militarymembers and civilian employees will receive equalopportunity and treatment.

You must support equal opportunity in all ofyour day-to-day supervisory practices androutines. That includes the areas of justice anddiscipline, training and advancement, duty assign-ments, communications, awards and recognition,and evaluations and promotions.

You support equal opportunity when using thefive leadership skill groups.

LEADERSHIP SKILLS

Through extensive research, the U.S. Navyidentified a total of 16 leadership skills of superiorperformers. It then grouped these 16 skills underthe following 5 basic areas of competence requiredof Navy leaders. To become an effective leader,you must recognize, understand, practice, andevaluate yourself based on the skills in each ofthese skill groups:

Ž Concern for efficiency and effectiveness

Ž Supervision

Ž Leadership

Ž Advising and counseling

Ž Applying concepts to job situations

Concern for Efficiency andEffectiveness

You show concern for efficiency and ef-fectiveness by performing a task in the leastwasteful manner (efficiency) to produce theintended results (effectiveness). Superiorperformers use this skill group more often, inmore situations, and with better results, than doaverage performers.

When you use the concern for efficiency andeffectiveness skill group, learn to use the followingskills:

1. Set goals and performance standards.

2. Take initiative.

Both of these skills affect your performance asan effective leader.

SET GOALS AND PERFORMANCE STAN-DARDS. —Set goals and performance standardsby taking the following steps:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Establish specific work goals.

Express concern for standards of taskperformance.

Revise goals to make them realistic.

Set deadlines for task accomplishments.

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TAKE INITIATIVE. —To take initiative,develop the following aptitudes:

1. Start new actions or plans without beingtold.

2. Anticipate situations rather than react tothem.

3. Take resourceful and persistent action.

Supervision

Supervision is the ability of a leader to get ajob done, oversee the work process, and coordi-nate efforts toward task completion. The super-vision skill group includes six of the leadershipskills:

1. Planning and organizing2. Optimizing use of resources3. Delegating4. Monitoring results5. Rewarding6. Disciplining

PLANNING AND ORGANIZING. —Whenplanning and organizing how to do a job orcorrect a problem, first arrange the activities,people, or materials involved into a sensible order.For example, you might arrange them by priority,sequence, position in the chain of command, oradministrative functions. Whatever order youdecide to use, plan and organize so that youproceed from the problem to a goal.

First you must determine the specific steps youmust take to get the job done. List and figure theequipment, time, and manpower needed for thejob. Try to foresee any problems that might arise.Ask yourself, Are time, equipment, or personnelscarce? Do the personnel assigned have the skillsor knowledge to perform the assigned tasks?

Next list your plans in their order ofimportance. What must be done now? What canbe left until later? By deciding the order in whichyou must carry out your plans, you can set up aplan of action.

A plan of action lists who will do what tasksat what period. Take time to write down a planof action. Doing that will help you work aroundobstacles, such as times your people will be awayfrom the work center.

Taking the following steps will allow you toplan for interruptions and still complete the

assigned task in the most efficient and effectivemanner.

1. Identify action steps, resources, orobstacles involved in reaching a goal.

2. Prepare a schedule.3. Set priorities.

These steps will allow you to plan forinterruptions and still complete the assigned taskin the most efficient and effective manner.

OPTIMIZING USE OF RESOURCES. —Useall division personnel. Try to make every jobmeaningful by matching the right people with theright job. Matching your people with jobs theylike to do and do well shows them you think theirjob is important. When you give your people jobsthey have no interest in, they become bored.

Rotate your people, because doing the samejob day after day gets old. Rotating your peoplegives them varied experience and trainingopportunities. It also ensures you will have peoplewho can do the work if someone is on leave orgets transferred.

Use the following guidelines in optimizing useof resources:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Analyze the capabilities of individuals andthe characteristics or requirements of thejob.Match the people and jobs to get the bestperformance.Fully use the human resources available toaccomplish tasks.Consider the balance between the re-quirements and work morale.

DELEGATING. —Delegating authority toyour people is important because it will encourageyour subordinates to seek responsibility formanaging tasks. Giving orders may seem like theeasiest way to get a job done. However, that isnot the best way to motivate an individual to beeffective and efficient.

When you give an order, give a reason for theorder. By explaining, your people will knowyou’re not just making more work for them, butavoiding extra work and making the task easier.

Along with assigning a task, you must delegateyour authority to carry out the task. Delegatingauthority works well when you have several jobsgoing on and can’t oversee all jobs at the sametime. Someone has to be in charge in every group.When you ask a subordinate to share in task

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supervision, make sure the person understands thelimits of that delegated authority. Morningquarters is a good time to announce daily taskplans and the names of the people in charge ofvarious groups. Delegating authority means youmust hold subordinates accountable forcompletion of individual tasks. However, youremain responsible for completion of the entirejob. Any problems from higher authority abouttasks are your responsibility. Don’t try to passthe blame to someone else—you made the taskassignments. When delegating authority, use thefollowing guidelines:

1.

2.

3.

Clearly delegate authority and assignresponsibility for task accomplishment toothers.Use the chain of command to getsubordinates to share in task supervision.Encourage others to seek task supervisionresponsibility rather than waiting for adirect order.

MONITORING RESULTS. —After you haveplanned your tasks and delegated authority, youmust keep track of work progress. Once yourpeople have started working, check from time totime to see if work is going as planned. Monitor-ing progress is especially important when you havea group of new people. You may have to checkon them more often to be sure they know whattype of work you expect of them. On the otherhand, a group of people who have worked withyou over a long time require less supervision.

As you monitor progress, make sure yourpeople observe safety precautions. Many peopleare heedless of danger or think a particularregulation is unnecessary. Stress the importanceof safety. Each time your people begin a job,emphasize the safety precautions involved. Shouldwork progress slow down or come to a halt, findout why. You may then need to explain to yourpeople what they are doing wrong and have themstart over or correct their mistakes. Once yourpeople are well into the job, check the progressof the work against a standard of performance:Does the job meet Navy standards? Are yousatisfied with the work? Is the job being doneaccording to plan? Have problems arisen youdid not foresee? Was your job-person matchsuccess fu l? To monitor work progresssuccessfully, follow three basic guidelines:

1. Keep track of a work process by seekinginformation about progress or by directobservation.

2. Check on results of own or others’ action.3. Rate the outcome of a task against a

standard of performance.

REWARDING. —Once you find the results ofa completed task are satisfactory, rewarding yourpeople is important. Rewarding encourages highperformance from subordinates and also showsyour concern about their advancement within theNavy.

Your people feel encouraged when you tell them, “You did a good job; you took a lot ofextra effort to complete it on time. Because ofyour efforts the job meets Navy standards.”People do better work when they know youappreciate their efforts.

When possible, reward a person by praisinghim or her in front of your people; morningquarters is a good time. Let your people knowyou appreciate good work. That will help youestablish a rewarding environment in which all ofyour subordinates feel encouraged to do a betterjob. You can reward and recognize many typesof accomplishments. For example, you couldreward a person for completing a training course,getting a college degree, or successfully completinga personnel qualification standards (PQS)requirement. Subordinates appreciate recognitionfor their accomplishments; it gives them an extraincentive to do better work. Reward subordinatesas follows:

1. Provide feedback for average or aboveaverage performance on a specific task.

2. Publicly cite or recognize accomplishments.

DISCIPLINING. —Disciplining is almost theopposite of rewarding, because disciplining is askill that you use to teach and correct anyinfractions of your people.

As a leader, you occasionally will have towarn, reprimand, or sometimes go as far asplacing a person on report. You might not likesome of the steps involved in disciplining, butcarrying them out is part of a petty officer’sresponsibilities. Remember, the purpose of areprimand is to teach, not to embarrass anindividual. Before you give a reprimand, listen toyour subordinate’s side of the story. The personmay have a logical explanation for whateverhappened. Once you hear the facts and you feelthe person is deserving of a reprimand, decidewhat effect you want the reprimand to have.

When you discipline someone, always try todo it as privately as possible. However, speak up

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promptly if the person did something wrong inpublic; by remaining silent you will appear tocondone the individual’s wrong doings. If youhumiliate the individual in front of others, youmay lose the benefit of the reprimand. Convincingthe person of the fairness of the reprimand iseasier if you talk to the person in private. Someof the main points you might want to bring upduring a reprimand are what was done wrong,why it was wrong, and suggestions on how toimprove. After a warning, treat the individual asthough nothing happened, but watch for results.Once you have taken the proper steps but haveseen no signs of improvement, refer the problemto your leading petty officer, leading chief pettyofficer, or division officer. Follow three guidelineswhen disciplining:

1. Provide feedback to subordinates on in-appropriate appearance, behavior, or per-formance.

2. Hold subordinates accountable.3. Discipline appropriately.

Leadership

Leadership is the ability to direct and motivatepeople on a person-to-person basis toward missionaccomplishment. Superior performers use thisskill more often, in more situations, and withbetter results than do average performers.

The leadership skill group involves four skills:

1. Self-control2. Influencing3. Team building4. Developing subordinates

SELF-CONTROL. —Self-control meansholding back an impulse to say or do somethinginappropriate in any given situation. Self-controldoes not mean you never get angry; it does,however, mean if you become angry, you controlthe anger. Think before you respond to peopleor to a situation, and then respond appropriately.Be aware of situations that trigger you to respondwith an emotional outburst.

An outstanding leader controls impulses,suppresses rage, controls emotional involvement,and remains calm in potentially explosivesituations. Maintaining self-control helps you toidentify and weigh facts before deciding on acourse of action.

Self-control also means controlling the urgeto “do it all yourself. ” That is a common mistake

among new petty officers. They try to run thewhole division by themselves by filling every roleexcept that of a supervisor.

Self-control is the basis for leadership skillsthat require the skillful use of influence. As partof being an effective leader, exercise self-controlin the following ways:

1. Hold back any impulse to say or dosomething inappropriate.

2. Do not show anger.3. Decide only after identifying and weighing

all the facts.4. Control the urge to “do it yourself”;

instead make personnel responsible forassigned tasks by supervising.

INFLUENCING. —An effective leader isskilled at influencing others. Influencing is theability to persuade and convince others to acceptyour ideas. You can influence subordinates bysharing information and plans with them andsetting a personal example.

New petty officers often use flattery to gainpopularity. However, gaining popularity does notgain you respect; you must earn respect by gainingthe confidence of your people. One way you earnyour subordinates’ respect and confidence is byconducting yourself properly in the daily routineof work. The same applies when ashore on liberty.Set a good personal example by refraining fromthe use of foul language and other actions thatwould bring discredit to you and the Navy.

Influence your personnel to commit them-selves to the Navy’s mission. Show them how theybenefit from their work. You will earn the respectand trust of your subordinates when they knowyour exercise of authority is for the good of theNavy.

Another way of influencing your subordinatesis by sharing information and plans with them.People always want to know what’s going on.Sharing information with them relieves theiranxieties and improves their morale. Commoninformation you can share (as long as it is withinthe bounds of security) includes updates on shipmovements, berth changes, and deploymentschedules. That type of information will give yoursubordinates the opportunity to change their ownplans, and they will appreciate the heads up. Byshowing your concern for their welfare, youinfluence your subordinates to trust you. Alertsubordinates of upcoming drills, upkeep periods,inspections, and so forth, to give them time toprepare for them. That will promote a sense of

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team work and cooperation within the workcenter. Remember the following guidelines when

the skill of influencing: using

1.

2.

3.

4.5.6.

Persuade or sell ideas. Your people will buyinto an idea faster if it is in their own self-interest.Build political coalitions or potentialinfluence networks.Gain commitment to organizational goals,traditions, and values by appealing to a“higher” purpose.Make others feel strong.Influence by personal example.Explain why, share information,municate the intent of actions.

and com-

TEAM BUILDING. —Team building is theact of promoting a spirit of team work andcooperation within or among work groups. Inother words, you influence members of workgroups to cooperate with each other to completeassigned tasks. In team building, you createvisions of “I win, you win” situations. (There isno loser and the team is the winner.) Once a workgroup reaches its goal, such as achieving battleefficiency “E,” subordinates will take pride in andidentify with their accomplishments.

This leadership skill is especially important innonroutine situations requiring cooperationbetween work groups to accomplish tasks. Onceteam members at all levels of the chain ofcommand see the contribution their team effortmakes to the Navy’s mission, they will cooperatemore readily.

Although you alone cannot develop esprit decorps among the ship’s crew, your efforts cancontribute to it. Wear your uniform proudly;compliment your people when they present a neat,sharp appearance. During inspections of compart-ment spaces, commend personnel for their teamefforts and extra work in contributing to the goodconditions of the spaces. Then point out any areasthat need improvement and give suggestions onhow to bring those spaces up to standards.Compliments, as long as they don’t result inflattery, can encourage people to do a better job.Use the following guidelines when exercising theskill of team building:

1.

2.

Communicate to others the need forcooperation or teamwork.Inspire teamwork in nonroutine situationsrequiring cooperation between people andwork groups to accomplish tasks.

3. Act to create symbols of group identity,pride, or team effort.

DEVELOPING SUBORDINATES. —Effec-tive leaders develop subordinates by instructing,coaching, helping, and training them to becomeleaders themselves. They help subordinates dotheir jobs more skillfully and responsibly to meetqualification standards.

Developing subordinates requires you to domore than give orders. You must set a goodexample, provide information and encourage-ment, and pass on your knowledges and skills.Effective leadership requires a balance betweensetting an example and delegating duties. Followthree guidelines when developing subordinates:

1. Transfer expertise by setting an example.2. Provide the information and encourage-

ment needed to get the job done.3. Coach by making training opportunities,

expert help, and resources available to subordi-nates.

LEADERSHIP STYLE . —Leadership style isthe characteristic or typical behavior of a personin various leadership situations. The manyelements that determine a person’s leadership styleinclude the following:

Ž The

Ž The

Ž The

• The

• Theand

person’s motives and values

specific leadership situation

person’s experiences

job or task involved

leadership styles of the person’s pastpresent superiors

The effectiveness of a particular leadershipstyle depends on the character of the subordinates,the nature of the task, and the requirementsof the task involved. Coercer, authoritarian,affiliator, democrat, pacesetter, and coach leader-ship styles are discussed as follows:

Coercer. —Leaders who use the coercerleadership style expect unquestioned compliancewith their plans and instructions. Coercerspractice the following methods in their leadershipstyle:

1. Do not listen to subordinates’ ideas orsuggestions; subordinates see them asunresponsive.

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2.3.

4.

5.

6.

Develop only short-range goals and plans.Provide clear directions, and expect sub-ordinates to carry out those directions.Give subordinates specific, negative feed-back of a personal nature.Motivate primarily by threats—rarely praiseor reward.Do not develop subordinates; expect themto know their jobs or simply to comply withorders.

Coercers are effective in the following situa-tions:

1.2.

3.

4.

When a crises occursWhen emergencies occur, requiring a quickresponseWhen a situation requires a leader to issuedirections based on information or aperspective subordinates have no need toknowWhen subordinates must follow specificprocedures exactly (that is, minordeviations from procedures will result inserious problems)

Coercer leaders are ineffective in the situationsthat follow:

1. When subordinates must solve problems,take initiative, or innovate

2. When a requirement for special proceduresexists because of a complex organizationalstructure

Authoritarian. —Leaders who have anauthoritarian leadership style expect to lead andmake their own decisions. Authoritarian leadersuse the following leadership practices:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.6.

Ask for input from subordinates onproblems and decisions, but leave no doubtabout who makes the final decisionSet goals and develop both short- and long-range plansDirect clearly, are cordial, but leave nodoubt about expectationsInform subordinates of inadequate perfor-mance if a problem occurs, and give themrational reasons for needed improvementReward and discipline firmly and fairlyProvide indirect help to develop subordi-nates’ skills

Authoritarian leaders are effective in situationssuch as the following:

1.

2.3.

When a need exists for special proceduresbecause of a complex organizationalstructureWhen they can use their influencing skillsWhen asking for input from subordinates

4.

and communicating results of a decisionand its rationale are importantWhen subordinates may not have all theinformation or the comprehensive perspec-tive needed to make a decision

Authoritarian leaders are ineffective in thefollowing situations:

1.

2.

3.

When the leader does not have a morecomprehensive perspective on the problemor issue than the subordinatesWhen the status distinction between theleader and the subordinates is minimal(Both are petty officers, college graduates,and so forth.)When the supervisor has no input require-ment on decisions to help organizationalperformance

Affiliator. —Leaders who practice theaffiliator style of leadership put people first.Affiliators have the following traits:

1.

2.

3.

4.5.

6.

Listen a lot and are more interestedin personal than task informationDo not set goals and standards or makeexplicit plansDo not direct task performance clearly orexert influence on subordinatesDo not give task-oriented feedbackReward personal characteristics, not taskperformance—never disciplineDo not develop subordinates’ skills

Affiliators aresituations exist:

1.

2.

Tasks areknows what

effective when the following

routine (that is, everyoneis to be done and how to do it),

and performance is at an adequate or highlevel.Supervisors and subordinates are friendsand have a close relationship.

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Situations in which affiliators are ineffectiveinvolve the following:

1.2.

3.

4.

Unique and complex tasksSubordinates who need motivation to takeinitiative or be innovativeSubstandard performance of a group or anindividualDecisions required based on informationor a perspective possessed only by theleader

Democrat. — Leaders who exercise thedemocrat leadership style encourage taking part.Democrat leaders have the following approach toleadership:

1.

2.

3.

4.5.

6.

Take an inactive part in meetings bylistening only, but encourage subordinatesto take an active partMake decisions based on a consensus ofsubordinates’ opinions; allow subordinatesto decide upon and control work-relatedactivitiesBase direction upon a consensus ofsubordinates’ opinions; try to match peopleand jobsGive some task feedbackMotivate subordinates by rewarding ade-quate or desirable performance; givenegative feedback (that is, discipline in anyform) only in very limited situations

ordinates’ skills-

Democrat leaders are effective under thefollowing conditions:

1.2.

3.

4.

All subordinates are excellent performers.All subordinates are suitable for theirjobs.Subordinates have as much informationrelevant to decisions and activities as doesthe supervisor.Subordinates must coordinate with eachother to conduct independent activities.

Democrat leaders are ineffective under thefollowing conditions:

1.

2.

Subordinates do not have access to in-formation or a perspective that the leaderhas.Crises or emergencies occur, which requirea quick response or decision.

3.

4.

Subordinates lack an in-depth under-standing of each others’ work.Subordinates must complete separate jobtasks that will be combined to achieve thework center’s goal.

Pacesetter. —Leaders who supervise usingthe pacesetter leadership style are self-directedand expect others to be self-directed. Pace-setters exercise the following methods of manage-ment:

1.

2.

3.

4.5.

6.

Expect people to know their jobs and dothem well (probably do not listen to others)Communicate goals and standards, and setthe example in their planningSet the pace rather than direct, and takepersonal responsibility for success andfailure; have difficulty delegating, so workunceasingly to try to accomplish everythingaloneGive some task feedbackReward good performance, but provide nowarmth or support; often get very coercivewhen things go wrongDevelop subordinates using only them-selves as a model

The pacesetter leadership style works effec-tively

1.

2.

3.

in the following situations:

Status distinctions between supervisor andsubordinates are minimal.Performance goals and standards are clearto everyone.Subordinates must conduct their workindependently of the leader with littlecoordination or integration amongthemselves.

The pacesetter leadership style worksineffectively when the following situations exist:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Subordinates must perform most of thetasks.Coordination or integration is essential totask accomplishment or organizationalefficiency.One or more subordinates have per-formance problems.Subordinate development must be quick,with special attention from the supervisor.

Coach . —In using the coach leadership style,leaders guide subordinates toward high standards

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Work minimally toward developing sub-

and improved performance, Coaches have thefollowing traits:

1.2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Listen to subordinatesAre concerned about high performancestandards, but feel subordinates shouldfocus on self-improvement and individua-lized goals instead of absolute standards orgoalsAre less directive than other leaders; seetheir job as one of aiding or guidingsubordinates toward achieving standards(that is, not telling them or imposing theleader’s view of the standards); ask sub-ordinates to develop plans, solutions toproblems, and alternate ways of accom-plishing tasks; don’t express personalpreferencesProvide frequent, specific, task-orientedfeedback, help, and resources to helpsubordinates improve performanceReward task performance and improve-ment of performance; respond to failuresby helping subordinates to improveDevelop subordinates effectively

The coach leadership style is effective underthe following conditions:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Subordinates have their own access toperformance-related feedback.Everyone clearly understands performancemeasures and goals.Performance feedback is available tosubordinates in a timely manner.Organizational goals are achievable evenif one or more of the subordinates do notmeet their individual performance goals.

The coach leadership style is ineffective whenthe following conditions exist:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Leaders have information which is notavailable to subordinates.Subordinates do not have the compre-hensive perspective needed to makeperformance-improvement decisions.The organization’s performance dependson the attainment of certain performancegoals by every one of the subordinates.Performance feedback is not easilyobtainable from the coach or is not clearin its interpretation.Decisions about the group’s activities orperformance have to be made in a rapidmanner.

Advising and Counseling

Advising is the ability of a leader to provideneeded information to help a person take actionto correct a problem. Counseling is the ability ofa leader to help a person explore, betterunderstand, and find solutions to a problem. Aneffective leader uses this skill group more often,in more situations, and with better results.

Every ship has a limited number of crewmembers, each with various levels of training andexpertise. Whether they have extensive or minimaltraining, everyone has a specific job. Everymember contributes to the success of the missionand the welfare of the crew. Therefore, theproblems of every subordinate should greatlyconcern you as a leader.

When you became a petty officer, you receivedmore pay, but also more responsibilities. Thoseresponsibilities include any personal problems thataffect your subordinates’ performance, such asmarital, family, and financial problems. Whenthose problems affect a person’s performance,they will, in turn, affect the entire work group.Help your people solve their problems; in turn,you will gain respect and trust from others in thedivision.

The Navy has many helping resources to helppersonnel with problems. Become familiar withthese helping resources and their specific purposesso that you can advise subordinates on how toget help with personal problems.

If you are effective in advising and counselingsubordinates, you achieve the following results:

4 .

Solve problems more quickly by dealingwith them within the work group.Increase morale by building trust.Ease the pressure on superiors by re-solving situations at your own level.Save time and energy of the few pro-fessional counselors for truly seriousproblems.

Although you should believe and trust in yoursubordinates’ basic worth and ability to perform,you will sometimes have subordinates who do notmeet standards. Learning to apply the three skillsof the advising and counseling skills group willhelp you deal with those situations moreeffectively:

1. Positive expectations2. Realistic expectations3. Understanding

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1 .

2 .3 .

POSITIVE EXPECTATIONS. —Leaderswho have positive expectations express a belief ortrust in people’s basic worth or ability to perform.Your expectation of your subordinates’ ability toperform affects the climate in which they work.Positive expectations are important in motivatingsubordinates to work, but they are also importantin advising and counseling sessions.

So far, we have only talked about leadershipskills that deal with actions and behavior. Theskills in the advising and counseling skill groupdeal with how you think. Since the way you thinkaffects your actions, your subordinates can seehow you view their basic worth. Therefore, theywill know if you have positive expectations.

To develop positive expectations of a person,follow five basic guidelines:

1.

2.

3.4.5.

Focus and build on the person’s strengths,not weaknesses.Express positive expectations about theperson’s abilities.Listen and pay attention to the person.Emphasize the person’s worth.Have confidence in your own ability to helpthe person solve the problem.

REALISTIC EXPECTATIONS. —Subordi-nates will have high levels of productivity only ifthey consider your expectations to be realistic andachievable. If you encourage subordinates to strivefor unattainable goals, they will eventually quit try-ing to reach those goals. They will then settle forlower productivity than they are capable of achieving.

A leader’s realistic expectations are thosedoubts and concerns about the ability of othersto perform. Realistic expectations help you seepersonal blocks that prevent a person from solvingproblems or learning how to operate equipment.

Expectations affect performance. If youexpect subordinates to perform poorly, you willbe unable to hide that expectation from yoursubordinates. Indifferent and noncommittaltreatment of subordinates usually communicateslow expectations, which, in turn, leads to poorperformance. For example, suppose you saynothing about your subordinates’ performance.They might then interpret your silence to meanyou are unhappy with their work or that theycannot do a good job.

Realistic expectations and negative expecta-tions are completely different. Realistic expecta-tions involve objectively assessing a subordinate’sability. Negative expectations involve “prejudg-ing, ” “getting down on,” or “giving up on asubordinate.” Negative expectations can lead toundesirable performance.

UNDERSTANDING. —Effective leadersaccurately identify and help others to understandwhat created a problem. They accurately assessthe motives, thoughts, and behavior patterns ofothers and respond appropriately to improve jobperformance.

When a personal problem causes a perform-ance problem, know what resources are availableto help the individual. Your subordinates willrespect your knowledge, experience, and adviceand will appreciate any interest you show in theirwelfare.

ADVISING AND COUNSELING SES-SIONS. —This section explains key pointsinvolved in effective advising and counselingsessions. It covers types of advising and counselingsessions and the actual process involved in each.

o f

KEY COUNSELING POINTS

We perform counseling to solve a problemor to fulfill a need.

Determine interview goal before meetingReview available records.

Give the individual the facts, whether theyare pleasant or unpleasant.

Be a good listener. Be fair.

Refer individual to other resources forprofessional help, as needed.

Keep the individual’s problem confi-dential.

Help the individual grow in self-under-standing.

DO NOT lose your self control. The resultscould be disastrous.

DO NOT make promises you can’t keep.

DO NOT be quick to decide; not allproblems are solvable in a singlecounseling session.

DO NOT forget to document thecounseling and have the counselee sign thecounseling sheet.

You will be involved with four major typesadvising and counseling sessions:

1. Personal2. Career3. Performance4. Disciplinary

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For each type of session, you should understand the nature of the problem and the purpose orintent of the meeting with the counselee. You should also understand the desired results, actions, orbehaviors from the counselee as a result of a session.

TYPE OF DESCRIPTION OFPROBLEM PROBLEM

PERSONAL The person has difficultycoping with situationseither on or off the job.Problems could be finan-cial, legal, interpersonal,educational, moral, reli-gious, etc.

CAREER The individual may be(1) seeking options orideas to plan career paths,(2) making a significantdecision towards change,or (3) considering furthereducation and training.

PERFORMANCE: The individual is notIneffective performing at a level

consistent with unit orcommand standards.

PERFORMANCE: The individual is per-Effective forming in an average or

above average manner.

PURPOSE OFENCOUNTER

Explore situation

Clarify events andings

Give support

Share

feel-

Refer to other resources

Give information

Explore opportunities forpromotion and/or train-ing

Analyze (informally)skills, experience, andtraining

Refer to trained careercounselor

Explore factors behindlow performance

Inform individual ofnegative evaluation

Set mutual standardsand expectations

Reward

Provide performancefeedback

Motivate

Suggest areas forfurther improvement

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DESIREDOUTCOMES

Generation and eval-uation of alternatives

Action plans

Problem solutions

Increased trust

Counselee takes re-sponsibility for situa-tion

Clarification of feel-ings or understanding

Feeling strong

More informedchoices

Action plans forchange

Increased alternatives

Mutual understandingof agenda forimprovement

Motivation towardsimprovement

Increased self-worth

Feeling strong

Desire to do better

TYPE OF DESCRIPTION OF PURPOSE OF DESIREDPROBLEM PROBLEM ENCOUNTER OUTCOMES

DISCIPLINARY The individual has vio- Inform of action being Understanding of viola-lated a specified rule or taken tionregulation

Determine if the behavior Plans for preventiveis indicative of related actionproblems

Legal notification

Inform individual thatstandards have not beenmet

ADVISING AND COUNSELING PRO-CESS. —The advising and counseling processrequires you to take five-steps:

1. Start the session.2. Create suitable conditions for the session.3. Explore and understand the real (how the

situation is now).4. Move toward the ideal (where the counselee

would like to be).5. Monitor and follow up.

Remember that as a leader you’re notconsidered or trained to be a professionalcounselor. You should refer personnel withproblems requiring professional counseling to theright helping resource.

Start the Session. —To start the advising andcounseling process, let the counselee know thatyou want to talk to him or her. In some cases,the counselee might come to you, in which case,he or she would be starting the session. Nextchoose a suitable place to meet; choose a placewhere you will have the least amount ofinterruptions. Then agree on a time to meet; allowenough time to conduct a proper and effectivesession.

Create Suitable Conditions for the Session. —To create suitable conditions for a session, prepareahead of time. Try to ensure you won’t have tostop during the session to do something else. Makesure the meeting place will be physicallycomfortable; the office should have a quietatmosphere and a comfortable place to sit. Helpthe counselee feel at ease; for example, you couldserve coffee. Guarantee confidentiality withinyour legal bounds, and be attentive.

Explore and Understand the Real. —Start yoursession off by stating the reason for the counselingsession. Let the counselee know of your concernabout the situation. Try to elicit information thatmight help you and the counselee understand thereal (how the situation is now). Discuss thesituation as fully as possible so that you bothunderstand it.

Move Toward the Ideal. —Have the counseleestate his or her ideal goal (how the counseleewould like the situation to be) in solving theproblem. State your realistic expectations aboutthe counselee by expressing doubts and concerns;then identify any blocks that might prevent thecounselee from solving the problem.

Suggest sources of outside help. When youcan, provide additional and professional help.Identify optional actions; for example, set anappointment at a helping outside resource or callthe chaplain for an appointment. If you handlethe situation correctly, the counselee will feel goodabout the session and feel resolving the situationis possible. Encourage the counselee to committo the optional actions by keeping his or herappointments. Stress that the counselee mustfollow through on the actions he or she agrees to.State your positive expectations by stating thecounselee’s abilities; that will build the counselee’sstrengths and help him or her succeed in reachingthe goal.

Monitor and Follow Up. —Agree on who isresponsible for monitoring any changes that willoccur throughout the counseling process. Yourcounselee has committed himself or herself toimprove or make a change. Agree on what actionyou will take if the counselee carries out thecommitment as planned. Also agree on what

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actions you will take if the counselee does notfollow through. Give the counselee some time toresolve the problem, but agree on a follow-upsession. Be sure to set a time and a place for thefollow-up session.

Applying Concepts to Job Situations

The applying concepts to job situations skillgroup involves one skill—conceptualizing. Tobecome an outstanding petty officer and leader,conceptualize in the following way:

— Self-controlling

— Influencing

— Team building

— Developing subordinates

— Developing positive expectations

— Developing realistic expectations

— UnderstandingŽ Look at the situation.

— ConceptualizingŽ Rigorously search for and identify the

available facts.

Ž Organize the facts and draw conclusions.

SUMMARY

In your role as a learner or a teacher, youshould be aware of the four learning styles:concrete experience, reflective observation,abstract conceptualization, and active experimen-tation. To be an effective leader and instructor,you need to know your own dominant learningstyle.

A motive is a need or want based on desiresor goals. A motive will cause you to think aboutwhat is needed to reach that goal and how to reachthose needs.

When you have concern for efficiency andeffectiveness, you will perform tasks in the leastwasteful manner to produce the intended results.

Superior leaders have 16 basic leadershipskills:

— Setting goals and performance standards

— Taking initiative

— Planning and organizing

— Optimizing use of resources

— Delegating

— Monitoring

— Rewarding

— Disciplining

Although leaders have one primary leadershipstyle, they sometimes use a combination of thesix styles: coercer, authoritarian, affiliator,democrat, pacesetter, and coach. The effective-ness of a leadership style depends on the peoplebeing led, the requirements of the task, and thesituation.

You will conduct four types of advising andcounseling sessions: personal, career,performance, and disciplinary. Each sessioninvolves five steps:

1. Starting the session2. Creating suitable conditions for the session3. Exploring and understanding the real (how

the situation is now)4. Moving toward the ideal (where the

counselee would like to be)5. Monitoring and following-up

The Navy needs professional leaders who havehigh standards, possess great skills, and who arewilling to study and learn to achieve their fullpotential. As a petty officer it’s your job tobecome an effective leader. Effective leaders usethe knowledges and behaviors involved in the 16leadership skills. The extent to which you, as aNavy leader, apply these leadership skills depends,in part, on your level in the chain of commandor your specific job situation.

REFERENCES

Navy Leader Development Program LeadingPetty Officer Course, Student Guide ,NAVEDTRA 38224-A, Chief of Naval Tech-nical Training, Memphis, Tenn., 1991.

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