landscape acter assessment - scottish natural heritage · part 1a practical guide to landscape...

The Countryside AgencyJohn Dower House, Crescent Place, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire GL50 3RATel: 01242 521381Fax: 01242 584270www.countryside.gov.uk

Scottish Natural Heritage2 Anderson PlaceEdinburgh EH6 5NPTel: 0131 446200Fax: 0131 4462405www.snh.org.uk

CAX 84

This document is printed on recycled paper.

April 2002

Landscape Character Assessment

Guidance for England and Scotland

Landscape C

haracter Assessm

ent Guidance for England and Scotland

LANDSCAPE CHARACTER ASSESSMENTGUIDANCE FOR ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND

Prepared on behalf of

The Countryside Agency

and

Scottish Natural Heritage

by

Carys Swanwick

Department of Landscape

University of Sheffield

and

Land Use Consultants

2002

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This guidance has been supported by a working group comprising Liz Bingham, Rick Minter and Carol Somper of theCountryside Agency, and Rebecca Hughes of Scottish Natural Heritage. Further advice has been provided by a widersteering group of officers from each agency. We are indebted to input from the Scottish Natural Heritage LandscapeGroup, the Countryside Agency’s Countryside Character Advisory group, and the many practitioners whocontributed comments on the Interim Landscape Character Assessment Guidance.

FOREWORD

The landscape determines the character of the British countryside and influences our daily life. However, landscapeis not a static thing. It has always been changing and will continue to do so - in some places suddenly and dramati-cally, in others, gradually and subtly.

Most of us welcome progressive change, but do not want to see development running amok. We applaud newwoodland to enhance the landscape, but know that planting and management must be sensitive to the locality. Wecan be excited by bold regeneration for places in need of improvement, but recognise that the new developmentmust work around the best of the old, rather than sweep it away.

Policy makers and practitioners need techniques to identify what gives a locality its own sense of place and makes itdifferent from other areas, and which conditions should be set for any new development and change. LandscapeCharacter Assessment has been used for these purposes for many years now, especially in England and Scotland.

This document consolidates latest thinking on the subject and sets out updated advice. Policy makers and practition-ers will continue to have to make tough decisions on development and change. We believe this document, and thetopic papers which follow, can help inform those decisions, underpin planning policies, and ensure positive change inthe landscape.

Richard WakefordChief Executive,The Countryside Agency

Roger CroftsChief Executive, Scottish Natural Heritage

CONTENTS

Part 1 A practical guide to Landscape Character Assessment page

1 Introduction 1

2 Principles and process 8

3 Defining the scope (step 1) 17

4 Desk study (step 2) 21

5 Field survey (step 3) 30

6 Classification and description (step 4) 37

7 Making judgements based on landscape character 52

Part 2 Landscape Character Assessment in practice

8 Applications in planning 61

9 Applications in landscape conservation and management 74

References 82

PART 1

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO

LANDSCAPE CHARACTER ASSESSMENT

Promotional artwork for countryside character area 103 Malvern Hills.

Reproduced by kind permission of Herefordshire Council Parks & Countryside Service.

Original artwork by Clive McWilliam.

WHAT THIS GUIDANCE IS ABOUT1.1 This guidance providesupdated advice on LandscapeCharacter Assessment, an impor-tant tool for all those involved ininfluencing the landscape. Theguidance reflects how methods andtechniques for LandscapeCharacter Assessment have devel-oped in recent years and buildsupon interim guidance which wasthe subject of consultation in 1999[1]. This new guidance has beenprepared for England and Scotland,although aspects may haverelevance to other parts of theBritish Isles (para 2.2).

1.2 This document sets out thefull scope of activity potentiallyinvolved in a Landscape CharacterAssessment, but it may well bepossible to undertake a moremodest exercise that will stillinform decision-making.

WHO THE GUIDANCE IS AIMED AT1.3 The guidance is aimed at allthose individuals and organisationswhose activities affect thelandscape. Its main audienceincludes those involved in commis-sioning, carrying out, and usingresults from a Landscape CharacterAssessment, including practitionersin local authorities, governmentdepartments and agencies, develop-ment companies, utilities andprivate practice.

1.4 Other people and organisa-tions may find the guidance of

value, but are likely to focus on theprinciples rather than the details,and the separate summary may be useful for this purpose. We envis-age this audience including thosepeople:

• who need to consider howLandscape CharacterAssessment can informdecision-making at central,regional, and local governmentlevel, and in the private andvoluntary sectors;

• who influence the character ofthe landscape and need to knowwhat such assessments meanfor them, for example farmers,foresters, highway engineers andthose responsible for develop-ment activity;

• who may become involved inLandscape CharacterAssessment because they are astakeholder - that is, with aparticular interest in thelandscape which they wish toexpress.

1.5 The guidance has been organ-ised to meet the needs of thesedifferent audiences. It has twoparts:

• a basic guide to the approachand methods of LandscapeCharacter Assessment (thisdocument);

• a separate series of topicpapers, which offer more detailon particular uses and policycontexts for LandscapeCharacter Assessment.Thesetopic papers will continue to be

issued to respond to the evolv-ing needs of practitioners.

Look at the ‘Finding your way around’section at the end of this introductionto see which parts of the guidancemeet your needs and to find out moreabout the contents of differentsections.

THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT1.6 The need to incorporatelandscape considerations intodecision-making is not new, but hasgrown in importance as the empha-sis on sustainable development hasincreased. The Government’sSustainable Development Strategy ABetter Quality of Life [2], sets outthe following definition of sustain-able development:

“It means meeting four objectivesat the same time in the UK and theworld as a whole:

• social progress that recognisesthe needs of everyone;

• effective protection of the environment;

• prudent use of naturalresources; and

• maintenance of high and stablelevels of economic growth andemployment.”

1.7 Landscape CharacterAssessment is a tool which canmake a significant contribution tothe objectives that relate to‘environmental protection’ and‘prudent resource use’ as corner-

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1

2

stones of sustainable development.In England this is recognised in theGovernment’s Rural White Paper[3], which endorses the use ofLandscape Character Assessment asa way of informing decisions. InScotland various elements ofplanning legislation now recognisethe importance of landscapecharacter, such as NPPG 14 [4]. Inparticular, Landscape CharacterAssessment can help in processeswhich:

• identify what environmental andcultural features are present in alocality;

• monitor change in the environ-ment;

• understand a location’s sensitiv-ity to development and change;

• inform the conditions for anydevelopment and change.

1.8 For many years, and especiallyin the 1970s, the emphasis indealing with landscape as a consid-eration in land use planning andmanagement was on landscapeevaluation - what makes one area‘better’ than another. Landscapeassessment emerged in the mid-80sas a tool to separate the classifica-tion and description of landscapecharacter (i.e. what makes onearea ‘different’ or ‘distinct’ fromanother) from landscape evaluation.During recent years yet moreemphasis has been placed on therole of landscape character and theprocess has become described asLandscape Character Assessmentto reflect this. In Scotland thisterm has been used to describe thenational programme of assessment.The concept of landscape characteris also central to the CountrysideAgency’s Countryside Characterinitiative and national framework ofcharacter areas in England.

1.9 This guidance definesLandscape Character Assessment asaddressing both the characterisa-tion process, involving identifying,mapping, classifying and describinglandscape character, and theprocess of making judgementsbased on landscape character toinform a range of differentdecisions. This distinction is themost important principle of theapproach and is stressed through-out this guidance.

1.10 Landscape CharacterAssessment is one of a growingnumber of tools which can be usedin planning for sustainable develop-ment. Among the most relevantare those in which characterassessment has a part to play along-side assessments of otherenvironmental resources. Furtherdetails of this wider range of toolsare contained in Topic Paper 2,which also briefly discusses whereLandscape Character Assessmentfits into these wider initiatives. Itdeals with:• Environmental Impact • Quality of Life Capital;

• Environmental ImpactAssessment;

• Identification of landscape indicators;

• Natural Heritage Futures.

WHY FOCUS ON LANDSCAPE ?1.11 Landscape is about therelationship between people andplace. It provides the setting forour day-to-day lives. The termdoes not mean just special ordesignated landscapes and it doesnot only apply to the countryside.Landscape can mean a small patchof urban wasteland as much as amountain range, and an urban parkas much as an expanse of lowlandplain. It results from the way thatdifferent components of ourenvironment - both natural (theinfluences of geology, soils, climate,flora and fauna) and cultural (thehistorical and current impact ofland use, settlement, enclosure andother human interventions) -interact together and are perceivedby us (Figure 1.1). People’sperceptions turn land into theconcept of landscape. This is not

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just about visual perception, or howwe see the land, but also how wehear, smell and feel our surround-ings, and the feelings, memories orassociations that they evoke.Landscape character, which is thepattern that arises from particularcombinations of the differentcomponents, can provide a sense ofplace to our surroundings.

1.12 People value landscape formany different reasons, not all ofthem related to traditionalconcepts of aesthetics and beauty.It can provide habitats for wildlifeand a cultural record of howpeople have lived on the land andharnessed its resources. Landscapecan have social and communityvalue, as an important part ofpeople’s day-to-day lives. It cancontribute to a sense of identity,well-being, enjoyment and inspira-tion. It has economic value,providing the context for economicactivity and often being a centralfactor in attracting business andtourism. Landscape CharacterAssessment has emerged as anappropriate way to look atlandscape because it provides astructured approach to identifyingcharacter and distinctiveness aswell as value.

USES OF LANDSCAPECHARACTER ASSESSMENT1.13 Landscape CharacterAssessment recognises the funda-mental role played by farming andforestry and by different forms ofdevelopment in fashioning thelandscape. Virtually the whole ofthe British landscape owes itscharacter as much to the influenceof these activities as to understand-ing the influences of geology, soils,landform, climate, and flora andfauna.

1.14 Landscape CharacterAssessment is not a tool designedto resist changes that may influencethe landscape. Rather it is an aid todecision-making - a tool to helpunderstand what the landscape islike today, how it came to be likethat, and how it may change in thefuture. Its role is to help ensurethat change and development doesnot undermine whatever is charac-teristic or valued about anyparticular landscape, and that waysof improving the character of aplace can be considered. It can bea powerful tool to aid the planning,design and management oflandscapes.

1.15 Landscape CharacterAssessment has been used in awide range of situations throughoutEngland, Scotland and further afield,and its role is likely to increase inthe future. The main applicationsare summarised below to illustratethe range:

Planning• informing development plan

policies at strategic (regionaland structure plan) and locallevel;

• studies of development poten-tial, for example to help infinding sites for new develop-ment, especially in or on theedge of towns, and in the widercountryside;

• informing the siting, spacing,scale, and design conditions forparticular forms of developmentsuch as housing, minerals andwind energy;

• contributing to landscape capac-ity studies relating to the supplyof land for housing, minerals,renewable energy or other landuses;

• providing an input toEnvironmental Assessment,

both at the level of plans andpolicies, and at the level ofindividual development proposals.

Landscape conservation,management and enhancement• providing a basis for the prepa-

ration of landscape managementstrategies;

• informing work on special areas,including identification of areasfor designation, mapping ofboundaries, justifications forspecial application of policies,justification for special treat-ment by designation, and inputto management plans and othermanagement initiatives;

• helping to guide land use changein positive and sustainable ways,for example programmes ofwoodland expansion, and newuses for disturbed and degradedland;

• informing the targeting of agri-environment schemes;

• contributing to wider environ-mental initiatives such as LocalAgenda 21, Biodiversity ActionPlans, State of the EnvironmentReports and, in Scotland,Natural Heritage Futures.

1.16 Examples of the use ofLandscape Character Assessment inthis range of applications can befound in Chapters 8 and 9. Thegrowing importance of LandscapeCharacter Assessment, particularlyin the planning arena, is emphasisedin several of the current series ofPlanning Policy Guidance notesissued by central government(PPGs in England, NPPGs inScotland), and in the Government’sRural White Paper [3]. Key aspectsof these references are summarisedin Box 1.1.

3

Introduction

4

Introduction

Box 1.1: References to Landscape Character Assessment in Planning Policy Guidance

PPG 1 General Policy and Principles (England) 1997Annex A on the handling of design issues states that “Policies should be based on a proper assessment of thecharacter of the surrounding built and natural environment, and should take account of the defining characteris-tics of each local area”.

PPG 7 The Countryside - Environmental Quality and Economic and SocialDevelopment (England) (1997)Contains a specific section on the character of the countryside and makes reference to The Character of Englandmap. It states that the character approach “should help in accommodating necessary change without sacrificinglocal character. It can help ensure that development respects or enhances the distinctive character of the landand the built environment”.

PPG 15 Planning and the Historic Environment (England) (1994)States that “The physical survivals of our past are to be valued and protected for their own sake, as a centralpart of our cultural heritage and our sense of national identity…Their presence adds to the quality of our lives,by enhancing the familiar and cherished local scene and sustaining the sense of local distinctiveness which is soimportant an aspect of the character and appearance of our towns, villages and countryside.” It goes on to note that “in the countryside, the detailed patterns of fields and farms, of hedgerows and walls, andof hamlets and villages, are among the most highly valued aspects of our environment.” Registers of historicparks and gardens and of battlefields are referred to and work on the identification and components of thewider historic landscape are described. It notes that “The whole of the landscape, to varying degrees…is anarchaeological and historic artefact…much of its value lies in its complexity, regional diversity and local distinc-tiveness”.

NPPG 1 (Revised) The Planning System (Scotland) (2000)In this revised NPPG there is explicit reference to the character approach in relation to design in paragraphs15-17 where it states “Development Plans should include broad design parameters based on a sound analysis ofthe character of an area.”

NPPG 14 Natural Heritage (Scotland) (1998)In December 1998, the Scottish Office issued National Planning Policy Guideline 14 on the Natural Heritage. Inits introduction, the NPPG stresses the complex nature of the natural heritage and the close links withScotland’s culture and economy. It notes that “Natural heritage embraces the combination and interrelationshipof landform, habitat, wildlife and landscape and their capacity to provide enjoyment and inspiration. It thereforeencompasses both physical attributes and aesthetic values and, given the long interaction between humancommunities and the land in Scotland, has important cultural and economic dimensions.” Focusing on landscapeprotection and enhancement, the guidelines describe the wide variety of landscapes found in Scotland, and theirrole in shaping regional identities and contributing to the quality of life. The guidelines describe the interactionof the natural environment with buildings and other cultural features in creating identity and character. TheNPPG makes explicit reference to Scottish Natural Heritage’s programme of landscape character assessmentsand notes that these now cover the whole of Scotland. It describes the use of these assessments in theplanning process, highlighting their role in providing guidance on the capacity of the landscape to accommodatedevelopment, and informing policy development and development control processes. Turning to the ‘actionrequired’ of planning authorities, NPPG 14 states that Structure Plans should “include policies for protecting andenhancing the character of landscapes of regional importance, including any areas of importance for their wildland character” and that Local Plans should “include policies for the conservation and/or enhancement oflandscape character”. /...contd.

RELATIONSHIP TO PREVIOUS GUIDANCE1.17 This advice supersedesseveral earlier documents that gaveguidance on landscape assessmentin England and Scotland, namely:

• Landscape Assessment: aCountryside Commission approach.Countryside Commission. CCD18 (1987) [5]

• Landscape Assessment: Principlesand Practice. CountrysideCommission for Scotland.(1991) [6]

• Assessment and conservation oflandscape character:TheWarwickshire Landscapes Projectapproach. CountrysideCommission. CCP332 (1991)[7]

• Landscape Assessment Guidance.Countryside Commission. CCP423 (1993) [8]

• Interim Landscape CharacterAssessment Guidance.Countryside Agency/ScottishNatural Heritage (1999) [1]

All these documents served apurpose at different stages in theevolution of Landscape CharacterAssessment (see Topic Paper 1)but they are no longer up-to-date.

1.18 Since the last main guidanceof 1993 there has been a majorincrease in Landscape CharacterAssessment work. The Character ofEngland map [9], jointly published inEngland by the former CountrysideCommission and English Nature,provides a national framework formore detailed assessments by localauthorities and others. This frame-work has recently beenstrengthened by the developmentof a national landscape typology by

the Countryside Agency in collabo-ration with English Nature andEnglish Heritage. Local authoritieshave been increasingly active,although the quality of LandscapeCharacter Assessments variesconsiderably. In the same periodthe major Scottish nationalprogramme of Landscape CharacterAssessment has been completed,which involved all Scottish localauthorities and some other organi-sations such as the ForestryCommission. The experiencegained, and the lessons learnt fromall this work, has informed thisguidance. Further details of thenational initiatives in England andScotland, and their relevance tomore detailed assessments aboutto start or be planned, are given inChapter 6 and Topic Paper 1.

Box 1.1 (contd.)

NPPG 18 Planning and the Historic Environment (Scotland) (1999)The relationship between historic buildings, cultural features and the natural environment can help give an area itsparticular identity and character. The spaces between buildings, the settings of historic buildings and areas,historic landscapes, urban parks, historic street patterns, historic battlefields and memorials are particularly signifi-cant in this respect.

PAN 60 Planning for the Natural Heritage (Scotland) (2000)This Planning Advice Note furthers the statements made in NPPG 14 by stating that “Safeguarding and enhancinglandscape character is an important planning objective.” It goes on to state how the national Landscape CharacterAssessment programme covers the whole of Scotland and how different planning authorities are making use ofthe information.“Planning authorities are finding landscape character assessment to be of value in informing devel-opment plan policies; preparing locational strategies for mineral extraction, renewable energy developments andforestry; determining environmental and settlement capacity; reviewing Green Belt boundaries; designing landrenewal schemes; determining individual planning applications; and responding to Woodland Grant Scheme consul-tations.”

Rural White Paper (England) (2000)Section 9.3 of the Government’s Rural White Paper Our Countryside:The Future - A Fair Deal for Rural England [2]deals with the importance of understanding, evaluating and protecting countryside diversity and character. Inparticular, it stresses the need to find ways of “ensuring that the valued features and attributes of the wholecountryside are conserved and enhanced.” It cites this guidance as a means “to help those interested in carryingout character assessment at sub-regional level” using the national character map as a starting point and guide, andas a tool for local authorities “to seek ways to enrich the countryside as a whole...and maintain its distinctivelocal features.”

5

Introduction

6

Introduction

FINDING YOUR WAY AROUND1.19 If you are new to LandscapeCharacter Assessment you shouldconcentrate on this main document.After this introductory section it isdivided into two parts. The firstprovides a basic practical guide towhat Landscape Character Assessmentmeans and how it is carried out. Thesecond demonstrates the wide range ofdifferent uses for such an assessment.The contents of the two parts in moredetail are shown in Box 1.2

NEED MORE INFORMATION ?1.20 The references providefurther information on various

aspects of Landscape CharacterAssessment. In addition, thisguidance is accessible through theweb pages of the CountrysideAgency and Scottish NaturalHeritage (SNH)1. Further casestudies and topic papers will beadded in future. In Scotland the fullset of assessments producedthrough the national programme ispublished and available fromScottish Natural Heritage [10-38].A Countryside CharacterNetwork has been established andprovides a forum for exchangingexperience on the use of Landscape Character Assessments2. Itsnewsletters and workshop reportsprovide a useful range of relevant

information. There is a lessformalised Scottish network as wellwith the relevant local authorityofficers, which meets with the SNHLandscape Group with occasionalseminars on landscape characterassessment and applications underSNH’s ‘Sharing Good Practice’programme. Also, the CountrysideAgency is funding a small numberof Landscape CharacterAssessments to show howLandscape Character Assessmentcan be undertaken and applied ateach level in the hierarchy, fromregional to local, all with particularemphasis on stakeholder participation.

Box 1.2: Organisation and content of main guidance

PART 1 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO LANDSCAPE CHARACTER ASSESSMENT

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Principles and processIntroduces the principles of the approach and gives an overview of the process. Identifies a series of key steps,which are then described in detail in the following chapters.

Chapter 3 Defining the scope (step 1)Stresses the importance of establishing the scope of an assessment before embarking on the work and dealswith issues such as purpose and aims, scale and level of detail, resources required, approaches to making judge-ments, and decisions about outputs from the work.

Chapter 4 Desk study (step 2)Describes the important preparatory work that must be done before embarking on field survey, reviews sourcesof map information on a range of different topics, and describes the preparation of map overlays as a basis forpreliminary identification of landscape types.

Chapter 5 Field survey (step 3)Outlines the important contribution of field survey and ways of carrying out this work comprehensively andeffectively.

/...contd.

1 View the guidance, and related topic papers, at www.countryside.gov.uk/cci/guidance and www.snh.org.uk/strategy/LCA

2 For more information on the Countryside Character Network see the Countryside Agency’s website at www.countryside.gov.uk/cci/character_network For more detail on Landscape Character Assessment in Scotland, see the SNH website at www.snh.org.uk

Box 1.2 (contd.)

Chapter 6 Classification and description (step 4)

Looks at the principles and practice of landscape characterisation, including approaches to classification, consis-tency in terminology, dealing with boundaries and descriptions of character.

Chapter 7 Making judgements based on landscape characterExamines the way that Landscape Character Assessment can inform decisions and the range of approaches tomaking judgements about the landscape.

PART 2 LANDSCAPE CHARACTER ASSESSMENT IN PRACTICE

Chapter 8 Applications in planning Reviews the way that Landscape Character Assessment is being applied in work relating to the planning system,including development plan policies, studies of development potential, and design of new development.

Chapter 9 Applications in landscape conservation and managementReviews the way that Landscape Character Assessment is being used in relation to the development of landscapemanagement strategies, work on particular designated areas, and in guiding major landscape change, for examplearising from woodland expansion or agricultural change.

Topic Paper 1 Recent practice and the evolution of Landscape Character Assessment

Topic Paper 2 Links to other sustainability tools

Topic Paper 3 Landscape Character Assessment - how stakeholders can help

Forthcoming Papers

Available Summer/Autumn 2002

Topic Paper 4 Use of GIS and other computer methods

Topic Paper 5 Historic landscape characterisation

Topic Paper 6 Techniques and criteria for judging capacity and sensitivity

Topic Paper 7 Development and new landscape character

Topic Paper 8 Landscape character and wind energy developments

Available early 2003

Topic Paper 9 Climate change and natural forces - the consequences for landscape character

7

Introduction

INTRODUCTION2.1 This chapter sets out some ofthe key principles which underpinLandscape Character Assessment.It goes on to introduce the basicprocess which is used, identifying aseries of steps which should befollowed. The method which isdescribed here and which is beingwidely used throughout the UnitedKingdom has emerged over aperiod of some 15 to 20 years. Ithas been continuously developedand refined in the light of experi-ence and will no doubt continue toevolve in future. Aspects of thedevelopment of LandscapeCharacter Assessment aredescribed in Topic Paper 1.

2.2 The approach described hereis common to both Scotland andEngland. Similar work is also carriedout in Northern Ireland and in theRepublic of Ireland, and althoughWales has taken a differentapproach in its LANDMAP initia-tive, some of the principles set outhere chime with practice in Wales.The examples used are drawnpredominantly from Scotland andEngland, although reference is alsomade to work in Ireland.

2.3 Landscape CharacterAssessment offers a framework fortechniques that can be used incombinations according to thesituation, not least the resources

and funds available to carry out thework. The Agencies do not intendthat this advice should be overlyprescriptive - practitioners musthave some flexibility to respond tolocal circumstance. The guidance isintended to establish some basicground rules, describing theessence of the approach, clarifyingsome of the terminology, and point-ing to good practice.

KEY PRINCIPLES OF THE CURRENTAPPROACH2.4 Four key principles are centralto the understanding and appropri-ate use of Landscape CharacterAssessment. They are:

• the emphasis placed onlandscape character;

• the division between theprocess of characterisation andthe making of judgements toinform decisions;

• the roles for both objectivityand subjectivity in the process;

• the potential for application atdifferent scales.

Emphasis on landscape character2.5 Landscape CharacterAssessment is concerned primarilywith landscape character, ratherthan with landscape quality orvalue. These latter factors arenevertheless still relevant when aLandscape Character Assessment isused to inform decisions, whenjudgements must be made aboutthe implications of an assessment.An understanding of the concept ofcharacter is therefore vital.

CHAPTER 2

PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS

Box 2:1: Words relating to landscape character

CharacterA distinct, recognisable and consistent pattern of elements in thelandscape that makes one landscape different from another, rather thanbetter or worse.

CharacteristicsElements, or combinations of elements, which make a particular contri-bution to distinctive character.

ElementsIndividual components which make up the landscape, such as trees andhedges.

FeaturesParticularly prominent or eye-catching elements, like tree clumps,church towers, or wooded skylines.

CharacterisationThe process of identifying areas of similar character, classifying andmapping them and describing their character.

8

Landscape character (see Box2.1 for relationship to other terms)is defined as a distinct and recog-nisable pattern of elements thatoccur consistently in a particulartype of landscape. Particularcombinations of geology, landform,soils, vegetation, land use, fieldpatterns and human settlementcreate character. Character makeseach part of the landscape distinct,and gives each its particular senseof place. Whether we value certainlandscapes for their distinctiveness,or for other reasons, is a separatequestion.

2.6 Exploring and understandingthe landscape character of any arearequires systematic investigation ofthe many different factors that havehelped to create and influence thatlocation. They include geology andlandform, the natural attributes ofsoils and the vegetation associatedwith them, and both the historicaland current influences of humanland use and settlement. The inter-actions between all these factorscreate the character of thelandscape.

Distinction between characterisation and themaking of judgements2.7 Landscape CharacterAssessment draws an importantdistinction between two stages:

• the relatively value-free processof characterisation;

• the subsequent making ofjudgements based on knowl-edge of landscape character.

The judgements made can thencontribute to informing thedecision-making processes - forexample: should a particular devel-opment proposal be allowed toproceed (and with what condi-tions)? Or where would it be

appropriate to encourage land usechange such as the planting of newwoodland in an area?

2.8 Characterisation: The firststage embraces the practical stepsinvolved in identifying areas ofdistinctive character, classifying andmapping them, and describing theircharacter. It concentrates onmaking clear what makes one areadifferent or distinctive fromanother. It normally results in theidentification of one or both of thefollowing:

• Landscape character types:These are distinct types oflandscape that are relativelyhomogeneous in character. Theyare generic in nature in that theymay occur in different areas indifferent parts of the country, butwherever they occur they sharebroadly similar combinations ofgeology, topography, drainagepatterns, vegetation and historicalland use and settlement pattern.For example, chalk river valleys orrocky moorlands are recognisableand distinct landscape charactertypes.• Landscape character areas:By comparison, these are singleunique areas and are the discretegeographical areas of a particularlandscape type. So, taking thechalk river example, the ItchenValley, the Test Valley and theAvon Valley (all chalk rivers)would be separate landscapecharacter areas, of the chalk rivervalley landscape character type.Each has its own individualcharacter and identity, eventhough it shares the samegeneric characteristics with otherareas of the same chalk rivervalley type. This distinction isreflected in the naming of typesand areas: landscape charactertypes have generic names such as

moorland plateau and river valley,but landscape character areas takeon the names of specific places.Looking at a Scottish example, inDumfries and Galloway the narrowwooded valley landscape charactertype can be found. Within the areathere are several individuallandscape character areas of thistype, each distinct and unique, suchas the Esk Valley, the Urr Water, theWater of Kan, the Big Water ofFleet and the River Cree characterunits.

Landscape character areas andtypes rarely conform to administra-tive boundaries (Figure 2.1).

2.9 The end product ofcharacterisation will usually be amap of landscape types and/orareas, together with relativelyvalue-free descriptions of theircharacter and identification of thekey characteristics which are mostimportant in creating this character.‘Forces for change’ or ‘keyissues’ will often be identified aswell, such as ongoing land usechange and types of developmentpressures. The characterisationprocess is discussed in detail inChapter 6.

TYPE A

TYPE B

administrative boundary

Figure 2.1: Landscape character areas/types andadministrative boundaries

9

Principles and process

2.10 Making judgements: Thisstage is based on the results of thecharacterisation process andinvolves making judgements aboutlandscape character to informparticular decisions related to thetype of application. Different typesof judgement may need to be usedto inform different types ofdecision (see Chapter 7 forfurther information). Thus thisstage may result in a range of differ-ent outputs, involving differenttypes of judgement, each aimed at aparticular need. These outputs mayeither:

• directly inform decisions aboutlandscape through, for example,the preparation of planningpolicies, and strategies for theconservation and enhancementof landscape character; or

• feed into broader decision-making tools (such asEnvironmental ImpactAssessment or Quality of LifeCapital) and strategies (such asRegeneration Strategies orWoodland Strategies) wherelandscape is only one of a broadrange of environmental issuesunder consideration.

The role of objectivity and subjectivity2.11 There has been long-standingdebate about the role of objectivityand subjectivity in dealing withlandscape. The search for suppos-edly objective approaches hasreflected a desire, in some quarters,to remove the element of personaljudgement from the process. InLandscape Character Assessment itis accepted that there is a role forsubjective inputs, but these must bemade in a systematic and transpar-ent way. The process ofcharacterisation should be anobjective process in the main, whilemaking judgements to inform

decisions involves an element ofsubjectivity which can be clarifiedby using criteria agreed beforehand.

2.12 Surveying the elements thatmake up a landscape, mapping anddescribing landscape types, whichmany might consider to be whollyobjective matters, can still involvesubjective judgements. This canonly be avoided if the whole taskwere to be reduced to one ofmeasuring attributes from mapsand analysing the data quantitatively(but this approach would not teaseout all aspects of character andsense of place). To illustrate thispoint, a surveyor could record thatthere are 20 hectares of woodlandin a landscape as an objective fact;to then record that this woodlandis a dominant feature or a keycharacteristic of the landscapenecessarily introduces an elementof subjectivity into the characterisa-tion.

2.13 Nevertheless, this is still avery different type of subjectivity toone which judges that onelandscape is better than another insome way. The important thing isthat everyone involved in theprocess, or in the use of an assess-ment, understands which elementsof it are relatively objective andunlikely to be disputed, and whichones are more likely to be vieweddifferently by different stakeholders.There is also scope for a widerange of stakeholders to contributeto characterisation, each contribut-ing their own judgements aboutvariations in character.

Application at different scales2.14 Landscape CharacterAssessment can be applied at anumber of different scales from thenational or indeed European levelto the parish level. Ideally assess-

ments at different scales should fittogether as a nested series or ahierarchy of landscape charactertypes and/or areas so that assess-ment at each level adds more detailto the one above. The analogy ofRussian Dolls is often used todescribe this hierarchical relation-ship, but the idea of a camerazooming in, from a distant broadview, to a detailed small-scaleportrait, also makes the point(Figures 2.2 and 2.3). The threemain levels at which LandscapeCharacter Assessment are carriedout are:

• National and regional scale:Work at this level is to a smallscale (typically at 1:250,000) andmay cover the whole of acountry or a large region (ashas been done for both Englandand Scotland) to identify broadpatterns of variation inlandscape character. Thesepatterns result from the under-lying geology and landformoverlaid with the influence ofbroad ecological associationsand key aspects of settlementand enclosure history. Thisresults in the identification ofdistinct landscape types andareas at this broad scale, forexample chalk downland ormontane plateau, as well as thecharacter areas where theyoccur, which are distinctgeographical areas such as theSouth Downs or theCairngorms.

• Local authority scale: Withinthese broad patterns oflandscape character it is possi-ble to identify a finer grainwhich can be mapped anddescribed through LandscapeCharacter Assessment appliedat the county, district or unitaryauthority level in England or at

10


the council area level inScotland. The appropriate scaleof working is normally 1:50,000or 1:25,000 scale. This resultsin the definition of landscapetypes, which have unity ofcharacter due to particularcombinations of landform andland cover, and a distinct patternof elements. They might includeriver floodplains, plateaumoorlands or enclosedfarmland. Once again, characterareas at this scale are thediscrete geographical areaswhere each type occurs,conveying a sense of place.

• Local scale: Sometimes itmay be necessary or appropri-ate to carry out an assessmentof a smaller area at 1:10,000or even larger scales, such as

an individual parish, or anestate or farm, a country parkor a proposed developmentsite. At this local scale it isimportant to set the areafirmly in the context of awider character assessment, toshow which landscapetype/area it falls within. Adetailed assessment may theneither map landscape typesand/or areas at an even finerscale, or add detail by mappingand describing the individualelements which contribute tothe character of the area, suchas hedges, arable fields andfarm buildings. Local assess-ments may also consider thecontribution made by the siteto the character of thesurrounding area as well asviews into and out of it.

2.15 Assessments can also becarried out at intermediate levelsbetween those noted above but thesame general principles should apply:

• there should be a clear distinc-tion between landscapecharacter types and landscapecharacter areas whatever thescale (although at smaller scalesit is often appropriate to dealonly with local character areas);

• the assessment should relate tolandscape character typesand/or areas established athigher and lower order levelsand should form a seamlessconnection with assessments oneither side of administrativeboundaries;

• the more local the scale, thegreater the level of detailrequired.

GRANITE UPLANDS

DARTMOOR BODMIN MOOR

PLATEAU TOP RIVERVALLEYS

EXEVALLEY TAVYVALLEY

VALLEY SIDE VALLEY BOTTOM

BIDDLECOMBE EDGE CHUDLEIGH FRINGE

LANDSCAPE

CHARACTER

TYPES

LANDSCAPE

CHARACTER

AREAS

LANDSCAPE

CHARACTER

TYPES

LANDSCAPE

CHARACTER

AREAS

LANDSCAPE

CHARACTER

TYPES

LANDSCAPE

CHARACTER

AREAS

LEV

EL3

LEV

EL2

Examples of whereexisting assessmentsfit into the hierarchy

Staf

ford

shir

eC

ount

y

War

wic

kshi

r eC

ount

y

LEV

EL1

NA

TIO

NA

L/R

EG

ION

AL

LO

CA

LA

UT

HO

RIT

Y(e

.g.c

oun

ty/d

istr

ict)

LO

CA

L

11

1

Shro

pshi

r eH

ills

ESA

Cai

rngo

rm E

SA/

Loch

Lom

mon

d &

Tro

ssac

hs p

ropo

sed

Nat

iona

l Par

k

Dum

frie

s &

Gal

low

ay C

ounc

il

Figure 2.2: The Landscape Character Assessment spatial hierarchy - an example of therelationship between the different levels [1]

11


1Some practitioners use this parallel system in parts of England but it is not used in Scotland

KEIGHLEY

B1

H1

H2

DARWENRAWTENSTALL

BACUP

TODMORDEN

BRIDGEHEBDEN

KEIGHLEY

BINGLEY

I1

B2

E3

E3

D5

I4I2

E3

B2

I3

F1

C

A1

D4

F8

A1

A1

A1

D1

A1

E4

B2

K

D8F6 E5

B1J1

D3

J2

H1

E2

F5E1

E1

F5D7A2F7

D6

D4

D1

G4D2

F3

D7

G2

H2

G3

F2

RAMSBOTTOM

HASLINGDEN

F4

G1

E4

C

C

A1

A1

F2

I5

Figure 2.3: The Landscape Character Assessment spatial hierarchy - an example of the relation-ship between the different levels [2]

Source: Derived from LUC (1999) South Peninnes Landscape Character Assessment. For SCOSPA, Bradford.

Character Type (County /District Level)Moorland Hills

Character Types (Hypothetical) (Local Level)

1. High Moorland Tops2. Grassy Moorland Fringes3. Complex Moorland Mosaic

Character Area(National/Regional Level)Joint Character Area 36 - The South Pennines(from The Character of England)

Character Types(County/District Level)South Pennines Landscape

12


Character Area (County /District Level)Rombalds Hills

Character Area(Hypothetical) (Local Level)Rombalds Top

Landcover/Vegetation

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

AT

ION

MA

KIN

GJU

DG

EM

EN

TS

Natural Factors

Soils

Cultural/Social Factors

SettlementLand Use Enclosure

Scale andLevel of Detail

Draft Landscape CharacterTypes and/or Areas

Map ofCharacter

Types and Areas

Research otherevidence

LandscapeEnhancement

Proposals

People andResources Required

Purposeand Aims

Descriptions ofCharacter

Types and Areas

Field ObservationsDefine Approachand Criteria

Informationfor Planning

Policies

SpecialRecognition Strategies and

Guidelines

ConditionSensitivity

Trends

Aesthetic andPerceptualAspects

PerceivedCharacter

ST

AG

E1

ST

AG

E2

DEFINE SCOPE

DESK STUDY

FIELD SURVEY

CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION

DECIDINGTHE APPROACHTO JUDGEMENTS

MAKING JUDGEMENTS

STEP 1

STEP 2

STEP 3

STEP 4

STEP 5

STEP 6

LandformGeology Drainage

Scope forStakeholder Input

OUTPUTS

POSSIBLESTAKEHOLDER

INPUT

POSSIBLESTAKEHOLDER

INPUT

POSSIBLESTAKEHOLDER

INPUT

POSSIBLESTAKEHOLDER

INPUT

POSSIBLESTAKEHOLDER

INPUT

OUTPUTS

Time Depth

IdentifyKey

Characteristics

LandscapeLocation and

Design of

Proposals for

Development

e.g.

Figure 2.4: Flow diagram of Landscape Character Assessment methodology

Footnote: Stakeholder contributions may be possible at all stages.

The whole process may be iterative.

13


14


Box 2.2: Main steps in Landscape Character Assessment

STAGE 1: CHARACTERISATION

These are the practical steps involved in initiating a study, identifying areas of distinctive character, classifying andmapping them and describing their character:

• Step 1: Defining the scope. All Landscape Character Assessments need a clearly defined purpose.Thiswill critically influence the scale and level of detail of the assessment, the resources required, those whoshould be involved in its preparation, and the types of judgement that are needed to inform decisions. Aspart of defining the scope, it is normally essential that a familiarisation visit is undertaken to allow thoseinvolved in commissioning or carrying out the assessment to learn more about the character of thelocation’s landscape.

• Step 2: Desk study. This involves review of relevant background reports, other data and mapped informa-tion, and use of this information to develop a series of map overlays to assist in the identification of areas ofcommon character (usually draft landscape character types and/or areas).

• Step 3: Field survey. Field data is collected in a rigorous way to test and refine the draft landscapecharacter types/areas, to inform written descriptions of their character, to identify aesthetic and perceptualqualities which are unlikely to be evident from desk information, and to identify the current condition oflandscape elements.

• Step 4: Classification and description. This step then refines and finalises the output of the characteri-sation process by classifying the landscape into landscape character types and/or areas and mapping theirextent, based on all the information collected, followed by preparation of clear descriptions of their charac-ter.These descriptions will often recognise ‘forces for change’, such as key development pressures and trendsin land management.

STAGE 2: MAKING JUDGEMENTS

• Step 5: Deciding the approach to judgements. Further work is usually needed to decide on theapproach to making the judgements that will be needed to meet the objectives of the assessment. This willrequire thought to be given to the overall approach, the criteria to be used and the information needed tosupport the judgements to be made. Decisions will be needed on the role to be played by the stakeholders.Sometimes, especially if judgements are needed about landscape value, it may be necessary to look forevidence about how others, such as artists and writers for example, have perceived the area. Additional fieldwork may be necessary, especially when additional applications of the assessment only emerge after theoriginal characterisation has been completed. Information from the field survey will need to be reviewed ontopics such as the condition of landscape elements and features and the sensitivity of the landscape tochange.

• Step 6: Making judgements. The nature of the judgements and the outputs that may result from theprocess will vary according to the purpose of the assessment (see Chapter 7). The main approaches tomaking judgements within the landscape assessment process are:

- landscape strategies;- landscape guidelines;- attaching status to landscapes;- landscape capacity.

SUMMARY OF THEPROCESS2.16 The sequence of workinvolved in carrying out aLandscape Character Assessment isshown in Figure 2.4. This distin-guishes between the relativelyvalue-free stage of characterisationand the more value-laden stage ofmaking judgements to informdecisions. There are six main stepsin the process, each of which isdescribed in detail in the chaptersthat follow. The steps aresummarised in Box 2.2. It shouldbe noted that in reality the stepsrelating to desk study and fieldsurvey should be iterative. Thedesk study must not be overlydeterministic, recognising that theremay be real landscape differencesthat are not obvious from mappedinformation. Equally field surveymay highlight questions that needto be checked via desk study andtherefore possibly require morethan one stage of fieldwork toconclude the character areasidentification.

2.17 Some assessments may stopafter completion of Stage 1, thecharacterisation of the landscape,with the map and accompanyingdescriptions of character typesand/or areas as the final product.This then stands as a neutral state-ment of the current character ofthe landscape. This can be used toraise awareness of the distinctive-ness of the landscape andencourage appreciation of thedifferences between individualareas. Where the assessment hasbeen undertaken to inform aparticular decision or policy,however, the assessment will moveon to make judgements aboutlandscape character. Ultimately thedecisions themselves lie beyond theLandscape Character Assessment

process and will be made by politi-cians, land managers and, ideally, awide range of other stakeholders,on the basis of the informationpresented and the strength of thesupporting argument.

NEW EMPHASIS ON STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION2.18 To date the majority ofLandscape Character Assessmentshave been prepared by profession-als for use by professionals. Butthere is growing recognition of theneed to find ways of involving themuch wider constituency of peoplewho have a particular concern,involvement or stake in thelandscape. The term ‘stakeholder’describes the whole range ofindividuals and groups who have aninterest in the landscape. This maybe through their direct involvementin management of the land, throughtheir knowledge of and interest in aparticular subject, or because theyhave an attachment to a particularplace, as residents or visitors. Thisemphasis fits well with governmentrequirements for local authoritiesto develop approaches to commu-nity planning, cultural strategies, andBest Value performance plans andindicators.

2.19 There is still some way to goin developing approaches to stake-holder involvement in LandscapeCharacter Assessment and thereare still relatively few practicalexamples of good practice. Muchhas still to be learnt about themost appropriate stage of suchwork for stakeholders tocontribute - as Figure 2.4 shows itis possible at virtually all stages. Itmay though be more practical andcost effective at some stages thanothers. There are real resourcecosts of achieving worthwhilestakeholder involvement. However,

the process should be seen as aninvestment, resulting in moreinformed assessments and greaterownership of the results and appli-cations.

2.20 More detailed informationabout approaches to stakeholderinvolvement, some of the methodswhich may be used, and practicalexamples of these approaches, canbe found in Topic Paper 3.Practitioners embarking on aLandscape Character Assessmentare urged to review this materialand consider how they can involvethe full constituency of stakehold-ers in their work.

THE OUTPUTS FROM AN ASSESSMENT2.21 All Landscape CharacterAssessments must clearly statetheir purpose. They should make aclear separation between theoutputs from the characterisationprocess, and the outputs associatedwith making judgements to meetparticular needs. This may beachieved by producing two separatereports or two parts of the samereport.

Outputs from characterisa-tion (Stage 1) should:• summarise the brief and

indicate the scope of the study,including the role played bystakeholders and the intendedaudience;

• explain the methodologyfollowed;

• include a contextual descriptionof the study area;

• indicate how the assessment fitswith other Landscape CharacterAssessments at larger andsmaller scales and in adjacentadministrative or geographicalareas;

• include a clear map or maps, atan appropriate scale, showing

15


the extent of the landscapecharacter types and/or areasidentified;

• include clear and accuratedescriptions of the landscapecharacter of each type and/orarea identified, avoiding valuejudgements;

• include photographs and illus-trations, as appropriate, toillustrate the character beingdescribed;

• identify the key characteristicsof each landscape type and/orarea i.e. those combinations ofelements that make a particularcontribution to creating distinc-tive character.

Outputs associated withmaking judgements (Stage 2) should:• make fully transparent the

approach adopted to makingjudgements, including thespecific criteria used;

• explain the reasons for adoptinga particular approach to makingjudgements;

• state who made the judgementsand the role played by stake-holders;

• ensure that the judgementsmade are clearly linked to theresults of the characterisation.

GOOD PRACTICE POINTERS

• Landscape Character Assessments should make a clear distinction between:

- characterisation, which is relatively value-free and is concerned with identifying, classifying anddescribing areas of distinctive character; and

- making judgements to inform particular decisions, which may use one or a combination ofapproaches depending on the purpose of the exercise.

• Determine the appropriate level in the hierarchy which will suit the application of the work and providethe right scale and level of detail of information. Relate the findings to other levels in the hierarchy whereappropriate.

• All characterisation must make a clear distinction between landscape character types and landscapecharacter areas.

• Make clear at all stages the extent to which judgement (professional, stakeholder, political etc) is beingapplied in the methods used.

• Ensure that some element of stakeholder involvement is included, with appropriate time and resourcesidentified early in the whole exercise. Stakeholder involvement is especially important at the local leveland in informing judgements based on landscape character.


16

ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTIONS3.1 The scope of an assessmentmust be defined at the outset toensure that the work is effective.The checklist of questions in Box3.1 should help those embarkingon an assessment, or those review-ing or using an existing assessment,to give proper consideration to itsscope.

PURPOSE AND AIMS3.2 Landscape CharacterAssessments are now being usedfor a wide range of purposes (para1.15). It is essential that theultimate purpose be known as thiswill influence many aspects of howthe assessment is carried out andthe results used and disseminated.An assessment may, however, beundertaken for one specificpurpose, but then be used for awider range of uses. In other casesthe initial purpose may simply be toprovide a baseline inventory anddescription of landscape character,and only later will the outcome beapplied for particular purposes.This is why it is so important toseparate (value-free) characterisa-tion from subsequent evaluativeaspects where judgements aremade to inform decisions.

SCALE AND LEVEL OF DETAIL3.3 The purpose of the work willdetermine the scale and level ofdetail that is appropriate. Forexample, it would be entirelyinappropriate to make detailedhousing allocations on the basis of

The Character of England map [9]or SNH Level 3 map, as these do not provide the level of detailrequired. Several issues need to beaddressed when making decisionsabout the appropriate scale andlevel of detail for an assessment.Careful thought is required as thesematters will have a major effect on

the resources required and thecosts of such work.

Relationship to existing assessments3.4 All new assessments shouldbe designed to fit within the frame-works provided by the nationallandscape character programmes of

CHAPTER 3

DEFINING THE SCOPE (STEP 1)

Box 3.1: Questions to ask in defining the scope of an assessment

Purpose and aims• What are the purpose and aims of the assessment?

Scale and level of detail• How should this assessment relate to other assessments in the

hierarchy?• At what scale should the assessment be carried out?• What level of detail is required to meet the aims?• Should landscape character types and/or areas be identified?

Making judgements• What judgements need to be made to inform the purpose of the

assessment?

People, resources and timing• Who are the stakeholders and how and when should they be

involved?• What skills are needed?• To what extent should GIS be used?• How will the assessment reflect seasonal differences?

Outputs• What form of character description is required?• Will the description of character be kept separate from subsequent

judgements about landscape character (to inform decisions)?• What form will the outputs take - report(s), CD Rom, video, inter-

active web site?• How will the assessment be updated?

17

the Countryside Agency andScottish Natural Heritage. Theyshould be explicit about theirrelationship with any existinglandscape assessments at higherand lower levels in the hierarchythat cover the same area. Care isalso needed to ensure thatlandscape character types andareas, as appropriate, join upseamlessly with areas across admin-istrative boundaries.

Scale3.5 National or regional assess-ments have been carried out at1:250,000 scale in England, withemphasis on broad patterns ratherthan on detail. In Scotland, theLandscape Character Assessmentprogramme was carried outtypically at 1:50,000 scale, workingwith local authorities across thecountry. This scale of data, andsometimes 1:25,000 scale, is alsonormally used at the ‘local author-ity’ level (e.g. county or district) inEngland. Work at the 1:50,000 and1:25,000 scales has helped toinform development plans, conser-vation and enhancement strategies,strategic land use planning andother similar initiatives in bothEngland and Scotland. Wheregreater detail is required, becauseof particular issues e.g. in areas ofdevelopment pressure or in theallocation of housing sites, thenwork is usually carried out at1:10,000 scale. However, this istime consuming and resourceintensive and should only be usedwhere a detailed local perspectiveis essential.

Level of detail3.6 The purpose will also help todetermine the amount of informa-tion needed. Some applicationsonly require a general descriptionof character at the level oflandscape character types,

allowing generic strategies orguidelines to be developed. Othersmay require more specific detail,dealing with individual landscapecharacter areas, or even with theextent, nature and distribution ofindividual elements if, for example,the assessment is to be used as abaseline for monitoring change oris part of a detailed assessment ofdevelopment options.

MAKING JUDGEMENTS3.7 The purpose of the work willdetermine how judgements shouldbe made about landscape characterto inform different decisions.Those who will be using the resultsof the assessment should beinvolved in preparing the brief forit. For example, in determiningplanning policies or preparingstrategies and guidelines, thoughtmust be given to how judgementswill be made about what is appro-priate in each landscape typeand/or area. These topics arediscussed in more detail inChapter 7.

PEOPLE,RESOURCES AND TIMING3.8 It is important to judge thepeople and skills needed and timerequired to complete theLandscape Character Assessment.Skills and time inputs, together withthe scale and level of detail of thework, ultimately determine the costof an assessment. Even a relativelymodest Landscape CharacterAssessment, involving a limitedrange of professional and stake-holder inputs, and not making useof GIS technology, can help informpolicy-making in many situations.

Stakeholder involvement3.9 In defining the scope of anassessment, decisions will beneeded about the nature of stake-

holder participation (see TopicPaper 3 for details), including:

• the range of stakeholders to beinvolved;

• the stage of work they willcontribute to;

• the methods to be used tosecure their participation.

Skills needed3.10 Landscape CharacterAssessment requires inputs from anumber of specialist areas, includinglandscape history and archaeology,ecology, agriculture, forestry andplanning. It is important that thebulk of the work is carried out by acore team with complementaryskills, such as a landscape specialistand a planner. They can carry outthe majority of the desk study andfield survey and keep an overviewof the process and the products.Specialist inputs from others canthen be introduced as necessary.GIS skills are also increasinglyimportant, as are facilitation skillsto support stakeholder involve-ment.

3.11 Geographic InformationSystems (GIS) are playing a growingpart in Landscape CharacterAssessment as tools in the process.Access to hardware and software,and the availability of digital datasets relevant to landscape charac-ter, have both improved. Thismeans that it will become morecommonplace for the differentsteps in Landscape CharacterAssessment to be carried out, tovarying degrees, using GIS. The useof computer technology will largelydepend on the scale at which thework is being carried out, the skillsand resources available, and howmuch of the baseline data is alreadyavailable in digital form. It is partic-ularly helpful in handling differentlayers of mapped information which

18


may be at different scales and interrogating these for interrela-tionships. GIS also has theadvantages of:

• allowing high quality presenta-tion of mapped information;

• linking to databases and there-fore providing a system for datastorage, retrieval and analysis;

• providing a flexible output thatcan be updated and refined asmore information becomesavailable.

3.12 Use of GIS and methods ofcomputer analysis should not,however, be at the expense ofproper consideration of theperceptual and aesthetic factorswhich influence character. Norshould it distract from the need toengage stakeholders in meaningfulways. Use of computer technology,including GIS, is reviewed in moredetail in Topic Paper 4.

Seasons and timing3.13 Landscape changes with theseasons, both in its physical appear-ance and how it is perceived.Assessments should, as far as possi-ble, cover more than one seasonand, at the very least, should notnormally be undertaken in the deadof winter when days are short andlight conditions are often unsuitablefor survey and photography. Whereit is unavoidable that the fieldsurvey is carried out in mid-winter,verification in other seasons shouldideally be undertaken.

OUTPUTS3.14 To date Landscape CharacterAssessments have largely beenproduced in paper report formataccompanied by maps at the appro-

priate scale. Reports will continueto be important but there are nowopportunities to produce assess-ments in a variety of other formats.These include publishing onwebsites, on CD Roms and possiblyon videos, all of which have thepotential to make them more livelyand accessible to a wider audience.The target audiences for theassessment will be a critical factorin deciding how the results shouldbe produced and disseminated.Topic Paper 4 discusses theoptions more fully.

3.15 Producing an assessment indigital form on the internet or CDRom greatly improves the ability toupdate the outputs on a regularbasis. This is particularly the casewhen the whole dataset thatunderpins the assessment ispublished in this way, rather thanjust the digital equivalent of thereport. Where resources arelimited, the Agencies would preferto see assessments treated in thisway, as open-ended datasets withmultiple layers, to which furtherinformation can be added over timeas and when more information isavailable. There may still be a placefor more traditional reports butthey can be expensive to produceand inflexible in terms of using,applying and updating information.

3.16 Whatever the form of theoutput from an assessment it is stillimportant that the summary resultsof the characterisation process -essentially a map of character typesand/or areas and descriptions oftheir character - are kept separatefrom outputs involving judgementsabout landscape character toinform particular decisions.

Getting the brief right3.17 Whether the work is to becarried out by consultants or in-house, it is important that there isa clear brief. The brief shoulddescribe the scope of the study asaccurately as possible, to provide acommon reference point for allconcerned. It should specify thescale of the work and the level ofdetail required, the nature of thedecisions the assessment isrequired to inform, and the natureand extent of stakeholder involve-ment, distinguishing betweencommunities of interest andcommunities of place. A well-informed brief should also ensurethat adequate resources areallocated for the task, either interms of staff employed andsupporting resources made avail-able by public bodies, or number ofperson days allowed by consultants.

3.18 A preliminary field visit shouldbe undertaken during the prepara-tion of the brief, or at least in thevery early stage of the assessment.This will allow those involved tobecome familiar with the nature ofthe landscape, to understand itsgeography and to gain a generalimpression of variations in charac-ter. Such a visit will make a briefmore realistic, and can also assist inpractical tasks such as designingtailored record sheets for use inthe main field survey, ensuring thatthey are appropriate to the particu-lar character of the landscape inquestion.


19

20



In planning a Landscape Character Assessment consideration must be given to:

• the purpose and aims of the assessment;

• the scale and level of detail required;

• how judgements will be made to inform relevant decisions;

• the people, skills and resources required;

• the time available to undertake the task;

• the nature of the outputs needed.

All of these will in turn influence the cost of the exercise.

INTRODUCTION4.1 Desk study focuses on infor-mation gathering to provide thecontext for a Landscape CharacterAssessment. It involves the prepara-tion of map overlays of differentlandscape factors as the basis fordefining areas of common characterwhich can then be checked in thefield. The interaction between thedesk study and field survey will beiterative, with the field surveyhighlighting questions that need tobe informed by further desk study.The desk study stage focuses andinforms the field survey andprovides a crucial information base.Practitioners need to ensure thatsufficient time is devoted to thiswork before starting detailed fieldwork.

INFORMATION GATHERING4.2 Information that should bereviewed includes:

• past character descriptions ofthe area;

• designations and their distribu-tion, for example:- landscape designations,- historic parks and gardens,

and designed landscapes,- Conservation Areas,- scheduled monuments and

listed buildings

- battlefields,- SACs, SPAs, NNRs, SSSIs

and non-statutory WildlifeSites;

• literature on:- geology,- local architecture,- archaeology,- history and wildlife (includ-

ing the relevant NaturalArea Profiles, availablefrom English Nature3;Biodiversity Action Plans;and the relevant NaturalHeritage Prospectuses, tobe called ‘Natural HeritageFutures’4;

• relevant policies in public andformal documents such as:- statutory development

plans,- countryside strategies,- forestry and woodland

strategies,- tourism strategies.

It will also be important to reviewrelevant Landscape CharacterAssessments including those cover-ing the area but undertaken for adifferent purpose, those coveringsurrounding areas and, in England,the relevant descriptions ofcountryside character areas [39-46], and the national landscapetypologies5, which provide the

framework for more local assess-ments.

MAP ANALYSIS AND PREPARATION OF MAP OVERLAYS4.3 Analysis of map and relatedinformation (Box 4.1) and aerialphotographs, contributes to anunderstanding of the ‘bird’s eye’view of landscape and is essential indeciding how the different factorswhich shape the landscape cometogether and interact to createpatterns of landscape character.As discussed in more detail below,map overlays ideally should encom-pass:

Natural factors• geology;• landform;• river and drainage systems;• soils;• land cover (including semi-

natural vegetation).

Cultural/social factors• land use (including farm types);• settlement pattern;• patterns of field enclosure;• ‘time depth’ - the historic

dimension of the landscape.

4.4 Where resources are limitedand time is short, the desk studymay need to be limited to an

CHAPTER 4

DESK STUDY (STEP 2)

21

3 More information on Natural Area Profiles is available from English Nature Local Teams. Local team addresses may be obtained via the English Nature website atwww.english-nature.org.uk or by contacting the Enquiry Service on Tel: 01733 455100 or email at [email protected]

4 See www.snh.org.uk for information on the national landscape character dataset and Natural Heritage Futures

5 For more information on the national landscape typologies see www.countryside.gov.uk and www.snh.org.uk

Box 4.1: Sources of information for desk study

Topic Potential Sources

Geology British Geological Survey Data (1:50,000 or 1:63,360)

Landform Ordnance Survey Data (1:50,000 Land Ranger Map Series)(1:25,000 Pathfinder Map Series)

Soils Soil Survey Data (1:250,000)Soil Survey Reports

Vegetation Land Cover Map of ScotlandPhase 1 Habitat SurveysNatural Area Profiles (England)Natural Heritage Futures (Scotland)

Trees/Woodland Ordnance Survey Data(1:50,000 Land Ranger Map Series)Aerial PhotographsForestry Commission woodland inventoryAncient woodland inventoriesHistorical data and maps

Land Use Historical data and maps and Estate Plansand enclosure/field Land Cover Map 2000patterns MAFF Agricultural Land Classification

2nd Land Utilisation SurveyAerial PhotographsOrdnance Survey Data(1:25,000 Pathfinder Map Series)

Settlement Patterns Historical data and mapsHistorical Landscape Character StudiesRural Settlement Atlas (England) [47]Ordnance Survey Data(1:50,000 Land Ranger Map Series)

Notes

1) The word data is used in this table, and in the following text to refer to both the published maps and digitaldata that may be available from the different sources.

2) Useful sources of historical information, including historical data and old aerial photographs, include: inEngland, local authority Sites and Monuments Records, about half of which also have Historic LandscapeCharacterisation information; English Heritage’s Record Centre at Swindon (formerly the RCHME); the NationalLibrary of Scotland; the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS);and the Scottish National Archive.

22

Desk study

assessment of geology, landform,land cover and settlement distribu-tion. In these cases theopportunity should be taken toupdate and amplify the datacollected, especially in terms of thehistoric dimension, when time andresources become available.

4.5 In preparing map overlays it isusually best to interpret the rawinformation to emphasise thoseaspects which are really influentialin determining landscape character.For example, contours onOrdnance Survey (OS) data mustbe interpreted into landform unitssuch as valleys, plateaus, scarps,rolling hills or mountain peaks, andland use categories should bederived from data about farm typesor from land use or land coversurveys.

Natural Factors4.6 Geological Information isnormally derived from dataproduced by the British GeologicalSurvey (BGS), especially thosecovering drift deposits but alsothose dealing with solid geology.The national level data at 1: 625,000 scale are appropriate forworking at the national scale, whileintermediate work should use the1: 50, 000 (or 1: 63,360) scale dataand accompanying reports in theBritish Regional Geology series.For more detailed assessments,data are available for most of thecountry at 1:10, 000 (or 1:10, 560)scale. The BGS is constantly updat-ing its survey information andshould be contacted for the mostup-to-date material. It holds gooddigital data for use on GIS. A clearunderstanding of the way in whichdifferent geological formations influ-enced the landscape will assistgreatly in deriving a simplified mapoverlay of geology.

4.7 Landform is often one ofthe main influences on landscapecharacter, especially in hill andupland areas. The basic source ofinformation is OS data at 1: 50,000,or sometimes 1:25,000 scale, whichprovide contour information.There are several ways of analysinglandform. The most common is toproduce a coloured map ofcontour intervals, which helps toisolate the contour informationfrom the other material on themaps, or in the digital data, and tobring out clearly the topographicalvariation in the area. Slope andaspect analysis can also assist withthis type of analysis. If digital OSdata is available then some form ofcomputer analysis, for example,using a digital terrain model, canachieve the same results. If timepermits stereoscopic study of aerialphotographs can also be helpful inunderstanding landform.

4.8 Rivers and drainagesystems also have an importantpart to play in shaping thelandscape. The extent of originalriver floodplains can be determinedfrom the areas of alluvium shownon maps produced by the BritishGeological Survey (BGS).Information about watercoursescan be obtained from OS data,although for more complexmatters, such as the definition ofmain rivers or levels of pollution,which may be relevant in detailedwork, advice must be sought fromthe Environment Agency or theScottish Environmental ProtectionAgency.

4.9 Landform and drainage infor-mation can usefully be combined toreveal distinct topographical areas,such as rolling hills, plateaus, broadvalleys, narrow valleys, or scarpslopes, which can then be mappedas landform units. They are often

closely related to the underlyinggeology and so these map overlayscan sometimes be combined. Theseunits define the physical ‘skeleton’of the landscape while soils andvegetation provide the ‘flesh’ on theskeleton’s bones.

4.10 Soil types can be derivedfrom Soil Survey data, but theseagain usually require a considerabledegree of interpretation to derivethe relevant categories which aremost important in influencingcharacter. Other useful informationcan be gained from DEFRA’sAgricultural Land Classificationmaps.

4.11 Vegetation cover relies ona variety of information sourceswhich are sometimes difficult tosimplify to an appropriate level ofdetail. A map overlay of vegetationcover will be important wheresemi-natural vegetation is exten-sive. Information sources include:

• Phase 1 Habitat Surveys,prepared by English Nature,Scottish Natural Heritage,County Councils and WildlifeTrusts, which are at 1: 10, 000scale and sometimes may betoo detailed for landscapecharacterisation. Wildlife Trustsmay also be able to provideother ecological survey informa-tion.

• Land Cover Map ofScotland, prepared by theMacaulay Land Use ResearchInstitute, which is a 1: 50,000map derived from AerialPhotographic Interpretation,providing detailed informationon land cover types.

• Natural Area Profiles,prepared by English Nature,which contain some mappedinformation about the distribu-tion of habitats.

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• Land Cover Map 2000,produced by the Department ofthe Environment,Transport, andthe Regions and the Centre forEcology and Hydrology (CEH)as part of the CountrysideSurvey 2000, available in digitalform from the CEH,Monkswood.

• Natural Heritage Futures,developed by SNH with a seriesof Prospectuses covering allbiodiversity and landscapeaspects of the 21 zones acrossScotland, launched andpublished in March 2002 asNatural Heritage Futures, avail-able from SNH publications andits website.

4.12 Tree cover information canbe found in several sources. TheForestry Commission’s Inventory ofWoodlands and Trees (1995-ongoing)can be obtained in digital form fromthe Forestry Commission. Thismaps at 1:25,000 scale the extentand type of all woodlands over twohectares in England and Scotland,based on interpretation of OS dataand aerial photographs and groundtruthing within random samplesquares. Ancient WoodlandInventories (obtainable from EnglishNature, Scottish Natural Heritageand the Wildlife Trusts) providedetails of woodland origin.Alternatively OS 1: 50,000 dataprovide basic information on types,areas and distribution of woodlandand allow woodland covercategories (which in lowlandareas may be combined withpatterns of enclosure) to be inter-preted and mapped. These might,for example, include categoriessuch as ‘sparsely wooded’, ‘manysmall woods and copses’, or ‘heavilywooded’. When more detailedinformation on tree cover isrequired, for example on field andhedgerow trees, aerial photographic

interpretation may be needed, usingland cover analysis techniques. Thisis time-consuming, however, andonly likely to be useful where avery detailed level of assessment isrequired.

Cultural factors4.13 The influence of human activ-ity makes a major contribution tothe character of the Britishlandscape. There are three maindimensions to this:

• land use and management;• the character of settlements

and buildings;• pattern and type of fields and

enclosure.

4.14 The character of the Britishlandscape is particularly influencedby the contemporary pattern ofthese factors, but the ‘time-depth’dimension of the landscape is alsovery important. Virtually alllandscape in Britain has been trans-formed by human activity and it isimportant to understand pastpatterns, the extent to which theyhave survived, and how differentstages in history have contributedto the current landscape character.

4.15 Map information on land usecan be obtained from a variety ofsources including those listed undervegetation cover. Aerial photo-graphs provide contemporaryinformation but are time-consumingand expensive to interpret(although the Land Cover Map ofScotland provides informationabout land use which is already inmap form, even though it is basedon interpretation of aerial photo-graphs). Remotely sensedinformation like the DEFRA/CEHLand Cover Map 2000 gives adetailed digital picture and is suffi-ciently accurate for intermediatestudies and local studies. The 1941

reports of Dudley Stamp’s LandUtilisation Survey of Britain [48] givea pre-war picture of land use andcan sometimes be used to indicatethe land use of an area before thedramatic post-war changes inagriculture took place. Informationfrom DEFRA Agricultural Censusdata are valuable for indicatingcurrent agricultural land usepatterns.

4.16 Settlement patterns inEngland need to be seen in thecontext of the national frameworkprepared by Roberts andWrathmell of Durham University,published as an Atlas (of England) in2001 [47]. Locally, patterns canalso be mapped from 1:50,000 OSdata.

4.17 Patterns of field enclosurecan be interpreted from 1:25,000OS data and from aerial photo-graphs, again using land coveranalysis. Map analysis, however, onlyprovides an understanding of thecontemporary patterns of settle-ment and enclosure without theimportant ‘time-depth’ dimensionof their historical origins.

4.18 Field systems and settlementsare often intimately linked andtogether contribute to distinctiveregional patterns in the landscape,notably the well-known divisionbetween ancient and plannedlandscapes in England [49]. In areaswhere a small holding economyexisted, such as the NorthPennines, Cornwall, or the croftingareas of Scotland, numerous smalldwellings are linked with small fieldenclosures. Conversely,Parliamentary enclosures, oftenreferred to as ‘planned landscapes’,are characterised by isolated farms,with a geometric pattern of fieldsand roads laid out by surveyors. Allthese linkages and patterns make

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Figure 4.1: Field patterns

Crofters Field Pattern, Hannay, Orkney

(Source: 1: 25,000 OS map)

Medieval Field Pattern, (AncientLandscape) of irregular small fields or

closes surrounded by thickhedgerows or wooded shaws, High

Weald, East Sussex.

(Source: 1st Edition OS map).

Enclosure Field Pattern, (PlannedLandscape), of grid-iron layout, nr.Haughton, Shropshire

(Source: 1st Edition OS map )

important contributions tolandscape character (Figure 4.1).

Understanding the historic dimension4.19 To understand the ‘time-depth’ aspects of landscaperequires expert analysis. The age ofenclosures can be interpreted fromfield shape and pattern but only bya trained eye. In England, themethod of Historic LandscapeCharacterisation (HLC) developedby English Heritage [50, 51] and, inScotland, the method of HistoricLanduse Assessment (HLA) devel-oped by Historic Scotland and theRCAHMS [52], provide muchgreater understanding of thehistoric dimension of landscapecharacter.

4.20 Historic Landscape (or LandUse) Characterisation is afreestanding GIS-based tool,separate from Landscape CharacterAssessment, for characterising thehistoric dimension of the landscape.It provides an historic landscapecontext to individual sites andmonuments and links to broaderlandscape characterisation (Figure4.2). It can take place eitherbefore, or in parallel with aLandscape Character Assessment,but increasingly the benefits of

integrating the two approachestogether are being realised. Astudy which combines LandscapeCharacter Assessment with ahistoric assessment using theapproaches referred to above, islikely to be the most satisfactory.Further details of the currenthistoric landscape characterisationinitiatives in England and Scotlandare contained in Topic Paper 5.

4.21 At present Historic LandscapeCharacterisation in England andHistoric Landuse Assessment inScotland, cover sizeable areas ofboth countries. Where they doexist they can make invaluablecontributions to LandscapeCharacter Assessments. Wherethey do not, the ‘time-depth’dimension of landscape characterwill not be fully recognised orappreciated. Landscape historians,archaeologists or historical geogra-phers may be able to provide anarrative contribution on theevolution of the landscape but thiswill fall short of the contribution ofa full HLC/HLA. Ideally the gapshould be filled by carrying out afull study but this may, due topractical constraints, have to comeafter the Landscape CharacterAssessment has been completed.

COMBINING MAP OVERLAYS4.22 Once finalised, the differentmap overlays (Figure 4.3) arecombined to begin the process ofidentifying areas of commoncharacter to be tested andvalidated in the field. Theseoverlays should suggest clear corre-lations between different factorsand allow areas of potentiallysimilar character to be identified.This work may be done manuallyand judged by eye, although increas-ingly GIS and other computerisedmethods of data handling are beingused to help in the process.

4.23 The level of breakdownachieved at this stage will dependon the brief, the nature of the mapinformation collected, and thecharacter of the landscape itself. Insome cases a pattern of draftlandscape character types may beobvious and their subdivision intotentative character areas may bepossible. In other cases no distinc-tive patterns may immediatelyemerge and the starting point forthe field work will be a simple mapof areas for survey that it is antici-pated may have distinct character.

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The Historic Landuse Assessment of the central part of Ayrshire, highlighting the historic landuse categoriesinto which the historic landuse types are grouped, and the modern changes (depicted in yellow) in thepattern of rectilinear improvement period fields.

Source: Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS) with the help of theWest of Scotland Archaeological Services and the Joint Ayrshire Structure Plan Team (2001).

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Figure 4.2: Historic Landuse Assessment, Ayrshire

Built-up areaCroftingDefensive establishmentDesigned landscapeImprovement period fieldsMineral, waste and peat industriesModern improved fieldsMoorland and rough grazing

Planned villageRecreation areaRitual areaTransportWater bodyWoodland and forest

Sea

Council boundary

© Crown Copyright: RCAHMS; HS; OS.

Figure 4.3: Map overlays from Sefton Landscape Assessment

Source: Warnock, S. and Parker, A. (1999) Sefton Landscape Assessment. Sefton Borough Council, Sefton.

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Topographydunesforeshorelevelslow hillsrolling lowland

Soil typefree drainingpoorly drainingraw soilsseasonally wet

Tree covern/a (urban)discrete woodsinterlocking woodslinear/tree groupsn/a (foreshore)unwooded

Settlementurbanclustereddiscrete clustersdispersedisolated farmssettledunsettled


Importance of desk studyDesk study should always be undertaken at the outset of a Landscape Character Assessment. Without it thesubsequent field survey is likely to be unfocused and wasteful of resources. The aim should be to build up adatabase of background material and, critically, to create a series of map overlays covering, at a minimum,geology, landform, land cover and settlement pattern. Combining these map overlays should provide a basisfor identifying areas of similar character (draft landscape character types and/or areas) which can subsequentlybe tested and amended in the field.

Use of GISGIS can be very valuable in helping to amalgamate map overlays to identify draft landscape character typesand/or areas and subsequently to amend and confirm these once field survey has been carried out. GIS hasthe advantages of being able to link to databases of information and of providing flexibility, allowing both dataand outputs to be updated as new information comes to light.

Taking account of the historic dimensionHistoric Landscape Characterisation (HLC) in England and Historic Landuse Assessment (HLA) in Scotland areseparate freestanding methodologies for understanding the ‘time-depth’ dimension of landscape. Theseapproaches provide a valuable addition to Landscape Character Assessment. Ideally they should be integratedwith a Landscape Character Assessment to provide the historic dimension of the landscape. Alternatively theycan be undertaken before, or in parallel to the Landscape Character Assessment in which case they canprovide an invaluable input to the desk study. Where circumstances are such that a historic assessment mustbe undertaken subsequently, it will serve to amplify and strengthen an existing assessment.

UpdatingWhere resources are limited, the Agencies suggest that assessments are treated as open-ended in order thatfurther information can be added over time, as resources allow.

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INTRODUCTION5.1 Field survey provides theimportant ground level view thatshows how the landscape is seenby people. It can also identify keyelements or features that are notapparent from the desk study, and itcan help to record aesthetic andperceptual qualities of the area.For very large areas, there will bemore reliance on desk study,combined with limited field survey,largely for verification purposes.When the area is small, morecomprehensive field survey willusually be required. For assess-ments of local authority areas orequivalent, the aim should be tosurvey each of the areas identifiedin the desk study as likely to havehomogeneous character - that isthe draft landscape character typesand/or areas.

PLANNING THE FIELD SURVEY5.2 Careful planning of the fieldsurvey is essential to ensureefficient use of time and resources.The aim should be to movethrough the study area, visiting allof the draft landscape charactertypes and/or areas and recording arange of information about them.Routes should be planned toachieve this, and in each areaaround three points should beselected to give a representativeview of the landscape. Each pointshould be publicly accessible and befirmly within the area in question.For example, it is often tempting toselect high points or panoramicviewpoints because of the expan-sive views which they offer. Such

points often give views over severaldifferent types of landscape and socan confuse the survey, althoughthey can be useful for orientationand to provide a general overview,and for verification and refinementof landscape character type or areaboundaries.

5.3 Experience has shown thatsurveys are best carried out inpairs. This certainly helps with thepracticalities of navigating andrecording at the same time andencourages a consensus to bereached about reactions to thelandscape. Ideal pairings for suchwork would be two landscapeprofessionals, who will be used totaking a broad overview of thelandscape, or one landscape profes-sional working with an ecologist oran archaeologist or landscape histo-rian, who will have specificknowledge of an aspect of thelandscape. In a perfect world allthree or more might worktogether.

RECORDING INFORMATION IN THE FIELD5.4 The purpose of detailed fieldsurvey is to collect as much infor-mation as is necessary to:

• describe the character;• identify aesthetic and perceptual

qualities;• assist in final decisions about

division into character typesand areas;

• update and expand the databaseof desk study information;

• contribute to the process ofmaking judgements about thefuture of the landscape.

5.5 Information should berecorded on a field record sheetdesigned specifically for thepurpose. This encourages survey-ors to make systematicobservations and to record them ina consistent way. The contents ofthe field survey sheet (Figure5.1) should normally includes spacefor:

• a written description of thecharacter observed at particularpoints or in certain areas;

• an annotated sketch;• a checklist of landscape

elements and their significance;• a checklist of aesthetic and

perceptual factors;• space for observations about

the condition, sensitivity andmanagement needs of thelandscape.

The space allowed for these mayvary according to circumstancesand record sheets must be individu-ally tailored for each assessment.

5.6 A brief written descriptionrecorded in the field should capturethe overall impression of landscapecharacter. It should incorporateinformation about the elementsthat make up the landscape and theway that they interact together, andabout the aesthetic and perceptualcharacteristics of the landscape. Itis better to write too much, ratherthan too little at this stage, as thesedescriptions will be an invaluable

CHAPTER 5

FIELD SURVEY (STEP 3)

Figure 5.1: Example field survey sheets

Forms can be adapted to reflect the scale of work, level of detail and local names of features. For example, inScotland the term ‘narrow valley’ might be replaced by ‘glen’ and ‘lake’ by ‘loch’.The groupings may also varybetween forms. If perceptual aspects are addressed, they should be developed with a full range of stakeholders.

Source: ERM (2001) Salisbury Plain Army Training Estate Landscape Character Assessment. For Defence Estates.

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source when preparing generaliseddescriptions for inclusion in finalreports.

5.7 Checklists, which can beused for both landscape elementsand aesthetic and perceptualfactors, can be an important aidememoir for surveyors. They aresimply a tool to encourage thosewho are carrying out the assess-ment to look carefully andrigorously at the landscape they aredealing with. They are certainly nota method of assessment inthemselves and standard checklistsshould not generally be used aseach situation is different. They canbe very simple and selective, orthey can be more complex, dealingfor example with how conspicuousdifferent elements are in thelandscape.

5.8 Annotated sketches arealso helpful components of field

recording and are particularlyuseful for conveying informationabout exactly how differentelements of the landscape interacttogether - for example, woodlandsmarking breaks of slope or hedgesaccentuating landform. They canalso be used to create composite‘typical’ sketches or drawings toillustrate descriptions of landscapecharacter in final reports (Figure5.2).

5.9 Photographs should betaken at each survey point andprovide an important supplemen-tary record and point of referenceonce the survey is completed. Useof a tripod, though more timeconsuming, will improve the qualityof the photographs and make themmore useful for both future refer-ence and illustrative purposes.They should be numbered,annotated and referenced to mapsof the routes taken and the points

surveyed. The aim should be torecord the variations in character,not just the most scenic views, andto create a record of typicalaspects of landscape character in anarea. Detailed photographs ofparticular elements, such as stilesor dry stone walls or details ofvernacular building styles, may alsobe useful.

5.10 To supplement the formalfield survey record it can also behelpful to produce an annotatedmap of the area. This is particu-larly important for detailed surveysof small areas, such as a parish orestate, where records of keyfeatures, views, boundary features,edges and other specific elementsmay be required. However, it canalso help with larger scale surveys,for example at a district level,where it is useful to record moredetailed or subtle variations inlandscape character that may not

Figure 5.2: Composite illustration

Source: Countryside Commission (1995) The Kent Downs Landscape Assessment. An assessment of the Area ofOutstanding Natural Beauty. CCP 479. Countryside Commission and Kent County Council.

Medway Valley - typical landscape characteristics

TRIMMED REMNANTHEDGES

BRICK AND FLINTBUILDINGS

WOODED UPPER SCARPS AND WIDE VIEWS

LARGE SCARP FOOTARABLE FIELDS

Figure 5.3: Annotated field survey map

This example is based on a district-wide landscape assess-ment and shows the type of map-based information thatcan be recorded in the field. In this case, the surveyorsused a series of ‘shorthand’ codes to map the detaileddistribution of draft landscape types devised during thefamiliarisation and desk study stages, and any obviouslandscape boundaries (e.g. scarp foot/top, top of valleysides, formal parkland boundary). The map also showsthe locations of field survey points, key viewpoints andviews, prominent features and landmarks, and other notesrelating to the condition and management needs of thelandscape. This information can then be combined withthe desk study findings to produce the final landscapecharacterisation and to inform judgements and decisions.

Source: Landscape Design Associates (2001).

KEY

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© Countryside Agency copyright. Based on the Ordnance Survey map. © Crown copyright.

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be evident from the desk studyinformation and cannot easily beconveyed by the use of selectedfield survey forms alone. Surveyorscan, therefore, annotate maps toshow:

• refinements in the boundariesof draft landscape charactertypes and areas, including moredetailed variations in landscapecharacter that should bereflected in the assessment;

• routes taken and the location ofsurvey points and keyviewpoints;

• prominent or notable features;• any other information which is

specific to a location but may berelevant to the survey as awhole, such as informationrelating to the condition offeatures and elements and themanagement needs of thelandscape.

An example of an annotated fieldsurvey map used in a district-wideassessment is shown in Figure 5.3.

DEALING WITH AESTHETIC AND PERCEPTUAL ASPECTS5.11 Survey methods can dealrelatively easily with recording thedifferent elements that make up

landscape character and theirrelative significance. They can beincorporated into checklists of thetype described above, and can bewoven into factual, objective,written descriptions. It is impor-tant, however, to give equalattention to the more experientialaspects of the landscape coveringaesthetic and perceptual dimen-sions of landscape character.

Aesthetic aspects5.12 Some of the more aestheticaspects of landscape character canstill be recorded in a rigorous andsystematic, if not wholly objectiveor value-free, way. Box 5.1 liststhe range of aspects that might becovered here and the adjectivesthat might be used to describethem. This list is by no meanscomprehensive and some surveyorsmay wish to introduce a differentand wider range of words to meettheir needs. Such information canbe recorded, using a suitable check-list, by incorporating suitableadjectives into written descriptions,and by ensuring that appropriateannotations are added to sketchesor photographs. Aesthetic factorswill be particularly important if theassessment is to be used to influ-ence design decisions, such as thesiting and design of new woodlands

for example. The ForestryCommission’s guidelines onlandscape assessment for use inIndicative Forestry Strategies [53]contains a descriptive vocabularyfor use in describing some of theseaesthetic aspects of landscape in arigorous and standardised way(summarised in Box 5.2).

5.13 If more detail is requiredabout aesthetic factors, perhaps tohelp in design, then separate notescan be made on the record sheetsabout matters such as balance,scale, colour, diversity, texture andso on. It is essential to indicatehow specific landscape elementscontribute to these aestheticcharacteristics - for example, enclo-sure may result from the presenceof woodlands or from landform,while unity in the landscape maycome from the consistent use ofbuilding materials in features likewalls and vernacular buildings.

Perceptual aspects5.14 Other aspects of landscapeperception may be more subjectiveand responses to them might bemore personal and coloured by theexperience of the individual. Suchfactors include a sense of wildness,sense of security, the quality of lightand perceptions of beauty or scenicattractiveness. There are also somefactors that can be perceived orexperienced by senses other thansight, such as noisiness or tranquil-lity and exposure to the elements.Judgements about all these, andother relevant perceptions, need tobe incorporated into surveys in atransparent way, acknowledging theextent of subjectivity that isinvolved. Both checklists andwritten descriptions can be used torecord responses in the field. Itshould be noted that even in theseareas of perception, an element ofobjectivity can inform such judge-

Box 5.1: Aesthetic aspects of landscape character

SCALE Intimate Small Large VastENCLOSURE Tight Enclosed Open ExposedDIVERSITY Uniform Simple Diverse ComplexTEXTURE Smooth Textured Rough Very roughFORM Vertical Sloping Rolling HorizontalLINE Straight Angular Curved SinuousCOLOUR Monochrome Muted Colourful GarishBALANCE Harmonious Balanced Discordant ChaoticMOVEMENT Dead Still Calm BusyPATTERN Random Organised Regular Formal

Box 5.2: Some of the aesthetic factors in Landscape Character Assessments

Balance and ProportionThe relative quantities of different elements withinthe view affect balance and proportion. Criteria suchas a 1/3 to 2/3 relationship (rule of thirds) can beused to assess how well balanced the landscape is inaesthetic terms. Temporal effects should be consid-ered. Proportions may change with the seasonaladdition or loss of elements.

ScaleHere the overall scale of the landscape must beassessed once the factors that define it have beenestablished. These include the degree of enclosure bylandform or woodland and the main positions fromwhich the landscape is viewed - scale increases withelevation and distance. Scale is closely related tobalance, proportion and enclosure.

EnclosureWhere elements are arranged so that they enclosespace, this has an effect on the overall compositionso that the space and mass become as one. It alsohas a great effect on scale due to the interaction ofthe height of the enclosing elements and the distancebetween them.

TextureThis varies according to scale, but can be defined inrelative terms as coarse, intermediate or fine.Texture is determined by crops, tree cover, size oftrees, species, size of fields, etc. It is an importantcontributor to design unity and diversity, susceptibleto change by addition or loss of elements.

ColourThis refers to the dominant colours of fields,woodlands, the built environment and otherlandscape elements. It includes any notable seasonaleffects due to farming activity and seasonal change.

DiversityThis needs to be assessed in two ways. First, withinthe boundaries of the landscape type the minor varia-tions of the landscape should be assessed todetermine overall how uniform or diverse thelandscape is. Second, the diversity of a typicalcomposition should be evaluated. Additionally, trendsfor change should be borne in mind, that is whetherthe degree of diversity is increasing or decreasing.

UnityThe repetition of similar elements, balance andproportion, scale and enclosure, all contribute tounity. The degree to which contrasting elementsdisrupt a composition depends also on the context.For example a single quarry in the midst of an other-wise unified landscape pattern may cause a highdegree of discontinuity.

FormThis term describes the shapes of fields, woods, oflinear features, of landform. e.g. rectangular, curvilin-ear, rounded, flat, etc. It is a very important factor indefining ancient or planned landscapes. We pick outforms and shapes very quickly, often on slightevidence.

Source: Based on Forest Authority England (1992) Forest Authority Guidelines on landscape assessment forIndicative Forestry Strategies. Unpublished draft, as in CCP 423, Countryside Commission.

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ments. Remoteness for example,which is an important dimension ofwildness, can be assessed bymeasurements of accessibility andabsence of settlement, while theTranquil Areas Maps in England,available from the Council for theProtection of Rural England, are

based on the application of a rangeof criteria which can be measured.Any consensus views gainedthrough the involvement of stake-holders can also play an importantpart in indicating the importance ofthese perceptions of landscape,which make such a key contribution

to character (see Topic Paper 3).Stakeholders will often have specialknowledge about an area which willmean that their perceptions areinfluenced by particular associationswhich a landscape may have.

CONTRIBUTION OFFIELD SURVEY TO MAKING JUDGEMENTS

5.15 The main period of fieldworkmust also allow for the collectionof information which may informsubsequent decisions. At a generallevel this is likely to require infor-mation on: the condition offeatures and elements within thelandscape; evidence of change andthe causes of change; and judge-ments about sensitivity, forexample, in relation to land usechange or new development.Other more specific requirementsfor survey information may flowfrom the specific purpose of theassessment.

COVERING THE GROUND5.16 Field survey must cover theground in sufficient detail to allowwell-informed decisions to be madeabout the identification of discretelandscape types and/or areas, andto provide the basis for meaningfuldescriptions and illustrations ofcharacter. Formal field recordingshould be carried out at eachidentified survey point - normallythree in each discrete area identi-fied, depending on its size. This isparticularly important in the earlystages of the survey when thoseinvolved are feeling their way andbecoming familiar with the patternsin the landscape. When surveyorsare more experienced it may beacceptable to complete one formalfield record sheet for each discretecharacter type and/or area, basedon a summative view gained bytravelling through it.

KEEPINGAPPROPRIATE RECORDS5.17 Landscape CharacterAssessment is now being used incircumstances where the resultsare subject to public scrutiny anddebate, such as public inquiries intospecial area designations, or intodevelopment plan policies andproposals. The results of an assess-ment must be robust enough tostand up to such scrutiny and theexistence of comprehensive, acces-sible and consistent survey recordsplays an important part in this.Time and resources can inevitablylimit the scale of field survey work.Within reason, however, it is betterto have too much survey informa-tion than too little, provided that itis appropriate to the purpose ofthe work and the level of detailrequired, and that it is properlyrecorded in an accessible way.


• Field survey is essential to: complement the desk study, verify and amend the draft landscape charactertypes and/or areas, allow character to be clearly described, and provide information on characteristicswhich cannot be identified from desk study and on the aesthetic and perceptual aspects of the landscape;and to inform subsequent judgements and decisions.

• Surveys should be planned to ensure that all draft landscape character types and/or areas identified in thedesk study are visited, generally seeking to achieve an average of three survey points in each.

• A field survey sheet should guide the collection of field data at each survey point. The survey sheet shouldbe tailored to the specific study and should provide space for: a written description, a checklist oflandscape elements and their significance, a checklist of aesthetic and perceptual factors, and space forobservations about the sensitivity and management needs of the landscape.

• A full and robust record of the survey should be kept and should be as comprehensive, accessible andconsistent as possible. Photographs should be an essential part of the field survey record.

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PRINCIPLES OF LANDSCAPE CLASSIFICATION6.1 This chapter describes thelast step in the characterisationprocess, namely classifying anddescribing landscape character. Itlooks at:

• the principles and practice oflandscape classification;

• terminology used, with the aimof encouraging greater consis-tency amongst practitioners;

• dealing with boundariesbetween landscape charactertypes and areas;

• description of character.

6.2 Landscape classification iscentral to Landscape CharacterAssessment and is concerned withthe process of dividing landscapeinto areas of distinct, recognisableand consistent common character,and grouping areas of similarcharacter together. Classificationcan be carried out at any scale andso can provide information on theextent and distribution of differenttypes and areas of landscape fromthe national to the local scale.Classification provides the centralframework on which subsequentjudgements about landscape charac-ter are based.

6.3 Classification requires theidentification of patterns in thelandscape, created by the way inwhich the natural and human influ-

ences on the landscape interact tocreate character. Methods of classi-fication are simply ways ofrecognising and recording thesepatterns. Broadly, classificationapproaches take three forms, andthere may be a variety of combina-tions of these:

• professional and/or stakeholderjudgement about boundariesbased on the manual manipula-tion of all data collected;

• use of GIS for the manipulationof map data and computerclassification techniques todevise the classes of landscapecharacter and the appropriateboundaries;

• use of GIS to assist in themanipulation and analysis ofmap data to help inform profes-sional and/or stakeholderjudgements about the bound-aries of landscape classes.

APPROACHES TO CLASSIFICATION AT DIFFERENT SCALES6.4 The approach adopted in aparticular assessment exercise willdepend on the level in the hierar-chy at which the assessment istaking place and therefore the scaleand level of detail required. Thelarger the scale the more reliancethere is likely to be on computertechniques to help with datahandling and the less the scope forcomprehensive fieldwork or forsignificant stakeholder involvement.

Classification at the large(national/ regional) scale6.5 Assessments which coverlarge areas, at the national orregional level, may be either: ‘top-down’, in that they consist of aquite broad, generalised characteri-sation based on identification oflarge-scale patterns of characterwhich may then be characterised inmore detail at the next level in thehierarchy (demonstrated by theCountryside Character initiative);or ‘bottom-up’ in that they arebased on amalgamation of, andgeneralisation from, more detailedcharacter types or areas identifiedat a lower level in the hierarchy(demonstrated by Scotland’snational programme of LandscapeCharacter Assessment).

6.6 Top down assessments tend,for practical reasons, to bepredominantly desk-based exercisesrelying largely on map information.They are concerned with identifyingbroad regional patterns of charac-ter in the landscape resulting fromparticular combinations of geology,soils, topography and settlementand enclosure patterns. Maps ofthese attributes prepared in thedesk study stage need to beoverlaid and patterns identified sothat areas of relatively homoge-neous character can be mapped.This can be done manually, withpatterns identified by eye, but atthis scale maps in paper form canbecome unwieldy and manual analy-

CHAPTER 6

CLASSIFICATION

AND DESCRIPTION (STEP 4)

37

Classification and description

38

sis difficult. In general it is alsosimply not practical to carry outcomprehensive fieldwork at thisscale although field survey can beused in a targeted way to add infor-mation to that available from maps.

6.7 The use of GIS combinedwith computer classificationtechniques can be particularlyhelpful at this scale, because ofthese difficulties. These tools allowdifferent sets of map data to becombined, manipulated and corre-lated more easily and help toidentify the large-scale patterns oflandscape character. Examples ofthe types of techniques that can beused and of their practical applica-tion can be found in Topic Paper4. Such techniques can either beused alone, or in combination withmanual approaches. It is importantto recognise, however, that workrelying wholly on computer classifi-cation is rarely entirely satisfactoryas it omits the critical contributionsof both fieldwork and stakeholderinvolvement.

Classification at the local authority scale6.8 Landscape assessments at theintermediate scale, for examplethose covering local authority areasor special areas such as NationalParks or other designatedlandscapes, need to be nestedwithin the framework of any higher-level national or regionalassessment which may alreadyexist. For bottom-up approachesthis happens automatically. Fortop-down approaches this meanssubdividing character types or areasidentified at the higher level.

6.9 In work at this level divisioninto landscape types and areas has,to date, been largely based onmanual methods. Nevertheless,where resources allow, there are

now significant advantages in usingGIS to manipulate the data derivedfrom desk study and fieldwork.This approach to data handlingshould however still be combinedwith practitioner judgement toidentify areas of distinct landscapecharacter and to decide whetherdifferent areas are sufficientlysimilar to be grouped together asone landscape type. The skill in carrying out this type of classifica-tion is to be able to recogniseconsistent patterns of attributesfrom map overlays and to relatethese to variations in characteridentified through field survey, andperhaps also by stakeholder input.At this scale there is generally lessvalue in computer classificationtechniques as they are not wellsuited to analysing field data aboutlandscape or to incorporatingstakeholder views. They may beable to help with combining deskstudy map overlays but certainlycannot provide all the answers.

Classification at the local level6.10 At this scale, classification willnormally be based on practitionerjudgement drawing on manualhandling using paper copies of mapoverlays and again, nesting theassessment within the hierarchy ofother higher order assessments.GIS mapping can still play an impor-tant part, especially if detailedinformation on landscape elementsand characteristics has been assem-bled for some other purpose, forexample when undertaken as partof an Environmental ImpactAssessment for a developmentproposal, but it may not be worththe effort of assembling digital datasolely for the purposes of a localassessment. Stakeholders can playan important part in the character-isation process at this scale. Theymay be able to describe, either

graphically or in words, theirperceptions of the boundariesbetween different character typesand/or areas. Depending on thepurpose of the study, these maybecome the final boundaries ormay be used to modify and testthose derived through professionaljudgement.

TERMINOLOGY FORCHARACTERISATION 6.11 As use of LandscapeCharacter Assessment becomesmore widespread, use of consistentterminology is increasingly impor-tant. Correct use of the termslandscape character types andlandscape character areas, isparticularly important, as is thedifferentiation between types andareas identified at different levels inthe hierarchy (see paras 2.14 -2.15 and Figures 2.2 - 2.3).

Landscape character types6.12 A single landscape type willhave broadly similar patterns ofgeology, landform, soils, vegetation,land use, settlement and fieldpattern in every area where itoccurs. This does not mean thatevery area will be identical butrather that there is a commonpattern which can be discernedboth in the maps and in the fieldsurvey records. Landscape charac-ter types can be identified at eachdifferent level in the hierarchy ofassessment.

6.13 At the national and regionallevel in England the work whichpreceded the CountrysideCharacter initiative identifiesnational/regional landscapetypes, based on particular combinations of the underlyingnatural and cultural influences onthe landscape and with broadgeneric names like gritstone

moorlands, or limestone uplands.They have not yet been identifiedfor the whole country but theCountryside Agency will be devel-oping a top-level nationalclassification of landscape charactertypes based on consistent groupingof the countryside character areasof The Character of England map.This will be developed in partner-ship with practitioners in theEnglish regions to ensure a consis-tent and robust approach.

6.14 In Scotland the national levelis represented by groups oflandscape types created byamalgamating the more detailedlandscape types identified in thenational Landscape CharacterAssessment programme which wascarried out at the local authoritylevel. Examples of these amalga-mated generic types at the nationallevel include the rocky moorlandsof the Highlands and Islands, croft-ing landscapes, and drumlinlowlands.

6.15 In local authority and similarassessments, the emphasis is on theidentification of smaller scale, morefine-grained landscape charactertypes which represent more localpatterns of character andcontribute strongly to a more local‘sense of place’. In areas of moder-ate or high relief they are oftenbased mainly on variations inlandform, for example uplandplateaus, or steep v-shaped valleys,or scarp slopes. In areas of lowrelief they are more likely to bedetermined by patterns of drainage(e.g. river corridors) land use, andfield and settlement patterns. InEngland and Scotland it is impor-tant to realise that these landscapecharacter types may either occurrepeatedly in a study area, or occurin just one place. The CountrysideAgency has produced a typology of


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Figure 6.1: Natural Heritage Futures (Scotland)

© Scottish Natural Heritage copyright.

Based on the Ordnance Survey map. © Crown copyright.

1 Shetland 12 North East Glens2 North Caithness and Orkney 13 Lochaber3 Western Isles 14 Argyll West and Islands4 North West Seaboard 15 Breadalbane and East Argyll5 The Peatlands of Caithness 16 Eastern Lowlands

and Sutherland 17 West Central Belt6 Western Seaboard 18 Wigtown Machairs and Outer Solway7 Northern Highlands 19 Western Southern Uplands and Inner Solway8 Western Highlands 20 Border Hills9 North East Coastal Plain 21 Moray Firth10 Central Highlands11 Cairngorm Massif


40

landscape types occurring withinthe countryside character areas byusing GIS and other computertechniques to analyse a wide rangeof national datasets on landscapeattributes, combined with analysisof Landscape CharacterAssessments carried out in moredetail for local authority areas anddesignated landscapes. In Scotlanda national landscape typology hasbeen derived by amalgamatinglandscape character types from theregional studies into a nationallandscape assessment map to formwhat is known as LCA Level 3 ofthe database.

Landscape character areas6.16 Landscape character areas arethe unique individual geographicalareas in which landscape typesoccur. They share generic charac-teristics with other areas of thesame type but have their ownparticular identity. In the majorityof cases there will be morelandscape character areas thanlandscape character types, as sometypes will occur in more than onearea.

6.17 If landscape assessments wereto deal only with character areasthey would certainly convey a realsense of identity and distinctive-ness. The written descriptionswould, however, become veryrepetitive since characteristicsshared by each area of the sametype would be described everytime. The advantage of identifyingboth types and areas is that theshared generic characteristics canbe described for types, leaving thedescription of areas to draw outthe individually distinctive features,so avoiding repetition.

6.18 At the national level inEngland, the emphasis in TheCharacter of England map has been

firmly on the identification anddescription of individual country-side character areas. These arediscrete geographical areas identi-fied by professional judgement,validated by consensus andinformed by multivariate analysis ofmap information. Similar broadcharacter areas (usually referred toas regional character areas) havebeen identified in some of theassessments in Scotland, such asDumfries and Galloway, andAyrshire. Here too the emphasishas been on the use of professionaljudgement and informed consensus,aided by the analysis of map infor-mation. Elsewhere in Scotland it isthe Natural Heritage Futures whichprovide a comparable high-levelnational framework (Figure 6.1).

6.19 At the local authority level,landscape character areas arethe individual areas where moredetailed landscape character typesoccur. A comprehensive locallandscape assessment should usuallyidentify, map and describe bothlandscape character types andlandscape character areas at avariety of levels locally, and showthe relationship between the two,as in the National Forest examplein Figure 6.2. In some cases,however, it may be decided that thedistinctiveness of individual areas issuch that the use of types is nothelpful. As a result the assessmentwill be based only on individualareas. In other cases, especially ifresources are limited, an assess-ment may deal only with landscapecharacter types and not continue asfar as dealing with individuallandscape character areas.

DEALING WITH BOUNDARIES6.20 Boundaries are requiredaround landscape character areasand types, although their precision

will vary with the scale and level ofdetail of the assessment. In reality,landscape is a continuum andcharacter does not, in general,change abruptly. There are excep-tions to this, for example, where asteep escarpment marks thedivision between an upland plateauand an adjacent vale (as in thescarp between the South Downsand the Low Weald, or between theNorth Pennines and the Vale ofEden). In these cases it may bequite easy to draw the boundary,although a decision will still beneeded about whether to includethe scarp in the plateau above orthe vale below.

6.21 More commonly however, thecharacter of the landscape willchange gradually rather thansuddenly. While landscape charac-ter may be clearly defined anddistinctive in the centre of acharacter type or area, there maybe transitions at the edges wherethe influences of land cover, landuse, settlement and field patternmay be less consistent. The charac-ter of the landscape in thesetransition areas is no less impor-tant, but may be more difficult totie down precisely and in thesecases, drawing a firm line as aboundary on a map may suggest amuch more obvious change than isreally apparent on the ground.

6.22 It has often been suggestedthat in such circumstances it wouldbe more appropriate to use someform of indicative boundary todepict the change from one area toanother. The Character of Englandwork, for example, shows broadbelts of transition in the moredetailed reports [39-46] ratherthan precise lines. This can betechnically quite difficult to achieveand in more detailed assessments itis usually better simply to incorpo-

NATIONAL FOREST - LANDSCAPE ASSESSMENT

LOUGHBOROUGH

LEICESTER

LICHFIELD

N0 5KM

NATIONAL FOREST - LANDSCAPE ASSESSMENT

LOUGHBOROUGH

LEICESTER

LICHFIELD

N0 5KM

LOCAL CHARACTER AREAS

1 GREAVES2 HANBURY3 NEEDWOOD4 HOARCROSS5 BYRKELY6YOXALL7 ANSLOW8 DUNSTALL9 BRANSTON10 BARTON

11 WYCHNOR12 ALREWAS13 BURTON14 TRENT15 COTON16 STANTON17 SWADLINCOTE18 BRETBY19 WILLESLEY20 SMISBY

21 CALKE22 PACKINGTON23 ASHBY24 COLEORTON25 COALVILLE26 BAGWORTH27 THRINGSTONE28 BLACKBROOK29 CHARLEY30 MARKFIELD

31 THORNTON32 SHEPSHED33 NEWTON LINFORD34 GROBY

4

3

1

2

5

8

7

9

10

11 14

12

613

16

15

17

1922

23

20

1821

20

24 2831

2927

30

26

25

27

3234

33

BURTON

SWADLINCOTE

ASHBY

COALVILLE

BURTON

SWADLINCOTE

COALVILLE

REGIONAL CHARACTER AREAS

CHARNWOOD FOREST

MIDLANDS COAL FIELD

MEASE LOWLANDS

TRENTVALLEY

NEEDWOOD FOREST

ASHBY

PLATEAU FARMLAND

PLATEAU FRINGEPASTURES

OPEN FARMLANDS

ESTATE FARMLANDS

WOODED PARKLANDS

FARMED RIVER TERRACE

ANCIENT TERRACEFARMLANDS

FLOODPLAIN FARMLANDS

DEGRADED FLOODPLAIN

URBAN

WOODED ESCARPMENT

HISTORIC SETTLEMENTSAND ENCLOSURES

INDUSTRIAL ANDURBAN FRINGE FARMLANDS

COMMUNITY URBANFRINGE

LOCAL LANDSCAPE TYPES

Figure 6.2: National Forest - hierarchy in practice

Source: LUC (1992) New Forest Landscape Assessment: A Summary Report. Unpublished report to the NewNational Forest Office.


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rate a statement in maps andreports to indicate the status andmeaning of boundary lines, andtheir limitations.

NAMING LANDSCAPETYPES AND AREAS6.23 Whatever the scale at whichan assessment is carried out, theresulting landscape character typesand areas should be named, forboth ease of identification andreference. Occasionally, if theclassification into types is particu-larly detailed or complex, codesmade up of letters and numbersmay be used but names are moredescriptive and meaningful topeople.

6.24 For landscape charactertypes it is usual to use a two orthree word name which reflects thedominant influences on landscapecharacter, usually using wordsrelated to geology, landform, landcover and settlement. Typesdefined at the national level aremore likely to have names thatcombine geological and landformterms, using names like LimestoneUplands, Upland Glens,Lowland Loch Basins, ClayVales, Rocky Moorlands, orDrumlin Lowlands. At the morelocal level, types are often namedby combinations of landform andland cover, and sometimes settle-ment, using names like plateaufarmland, farmed strath,wooded scarp, knock andlochan, small farms and crofts,or urban fringe farmland. In allcases the aim is to find a namewhich conveys some sense of whatthe character of the landscape islike (Box 6.1).

6.25 Landscape characterareas are unique and are thereforegiven names that are geographicallyspecific, but may also refer to the

landscape type. The geographicallyspecific name is often based on aplace name or established locality.Stakeholder involvement in thenaming of areas should be encour-aged to secure a greater sense ofidentity and ownership and toensure that established local namesare used. At the national levelnames are often taken from well-known hill ranges like TheTrossachs or the South Downs,or from historic forest areas likethe New Forest, Charnwood orRothiemurchus. Alternatively thenames of counties, districts oradjacent cities may be used, as inLeicestershire and DerbyshireCoalfield or NorthamptonshireUplands. Local assessmentsshould generally name characterareas after local place names,

villages or parishes. The example ofthe National Forest Assessment(Figure 6.2) shows the use ofnames for landscape charactertypes and areas at thenational/regional and local levels.

DESCRIBING LANDSCAPECHARACTER6.26 Once character types andareas have been identified andmapped, they must be described ina way which captures the essenceof their character. This usuallyinvolves a written description,accompanied by appropriate illus-trations. This will be the mainsource of information about thenature of the landscape.

Box 6.1: Words to use in naming landscape types

Geology Landform Land cover SettlementLimestone Plateau Moorland Urban FringeSandstone Valley Heathland IndustrialChalk Upland Woodland SettledClay Scarp Parkland UrbanGranite Vale Pasture VillageAlluvial Coastal Arable Remote

Estuary FarmlandFloodplain MeadowRiver Terrace FenDownland MarshlandRollingHillCliffMountain

Words from any of these lists, or indeed other appropriate words notin these lists, should be combined to reflect the dominant influences onlandscape character. For example, Limestone Plateau Farmland, orGranite Scarp Woodland, or Alluvial Floodplain Pasture, or UrbanFringe Farmland.

Source: Expansion of Countryside Commission (1993) LandscapeAssessment Guidance. Countryside Commission, Cheltenham CCP423.

Box 6.2: Different types of landscape description

An objective, factual description

The characteristic stepped profile of the stepped basalt landscape is formed by the differential erosion of succes-sive lava flows... Successive basalt steps rise on to flat or tilted tablelands, each one defined by sheer basalt cliffs,most clearly seen on Eigg but also evident on Canna and the Morvern and Ardnamurchan Peninsulas. Successivecliffs are separated by gently sloping terraces; where weathering has been more intense the steps have becomeindistinct and the hills’ sides appear riven with ridges.

The tablelands or terraces are covered by bracken and grass swards and, where not over grazed, by heather.The friable surfaces have been weathered into base-rich soils which support extensive forest plantations andwhich often obscure the unique land form. These soils have accumulated in the wider glens, where there is alush community of trees, plantations and pockets of farmland. Broadleaf woodlands line the steeper slopes,often comprising thick hazel scrub as well as oak and ash. Scattered crofts or settlements occur in the lessexposed glens, often sheltering within the lee of basalt cliffs. Gentle lower slopes provide suitable ground forpastures, often enclosed by dry stone dykes.

Source: Environmental Resources Management (1998) Lochaber: landscape character assessment. No 97, ScottishNatural Heritage, Edinburgh.

A subjective, personal description

A huge panorama was spread out below me. On the far edge of it, the hills beyond the valley rippled upwardstowards the sky. The lower slopes were wooded, with a variety of trees that offered every shade of green andrusset; in the valley itself a tiny village straggles down the middle, accompanied by a faithful River, while oceans ofgolden corn and lavender-fields flowed serenely by, stopping every few hundred yards to turn themselves into apatchwork quilt. And the light and shade which governed the whole picture combined in a no less harmoniouspattern.

Source: Levin, B. (1987) In Hannibal’s Footsteps. Hodder and Stoughton, London.

A balanced description combining objective and subjective elements

The steeply sloping valley sides are characterised by a great diversity of features. The stepped profile formed bythe alternating shales, sandstone and limestone of the Yoredale series is often visible...A network of regularstone walls imposes a strong pattern on the land form, and farms and settlements spread high up the valleysides. Field trees follow the walls, and clumps of sycamore mark the positions of buildings... Higher up, field sizesincrease, the grazing becomes rougher, and the skyline is formed by the moorland fringe, appearing green in thesummer, tinged with purple in the autumn, and olive-gold or almost white as the grasses wither in the winter.These landscapes are complex and diverse. There is always something to catch the eye, and there are richpatterns and textures at many different levels - the textures and colours of flowers carpeting the meadows, thepatterns of the stone walls and the varying shades of the fields on the valley side. There is a strong sense ofhistorical continuity and of the maintenance of traditional land management.

Source: Countryside Commission (1991) The North Pennines Landscape. Countryside Commission, Cheltenham CCP318.


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Written descriptions6.27 Writing a good description oflandscape character is a skilled job.The description should draw onthe information recorded duringthe field survey but may have togeneralise from this, as well asbeing more complete and polishedin presentation. The aim should beto describe the overall character ofthe landscape, with reference togeology, landform, land cover, landuse, settlement and enclosure, andto draw out the way that thesefactors interact together and areperceived. It can be helpful toimagine that you are describing thelandscape to someone who cannotsee it.

6.28 Descriptions often have tostrike a balance between factualstatements about the componentswhich make up the landscape, andmore evocative statements aboutits character. This balance may varyaccording to the purpose of thework. For example, an apprecia-tion of a landscape which sets outto demonstrate what is specialabout it, should be more evocative,seeking to capture special qualitiesand making more reference toaesthetic qualities and perception.In contrast, if an assessment is toinform planning policy, a morestraightforward factual descriptionis required. Box 6.2 illustratesdifferent styles of description.

6.29 Care must be used in select-ing descriptive words. Subjectivevalue judgements should beavoided and a distinction drawnbetween adjectives which seek toconvey the aesthetic qualities of alandscape (Box 5.1) and thosewhich deal with personal percep-tions or values. So, words likebland, beautiful, attractive, degradedand ordinary should generally notbe used since such judgements

Box 6.3: Examples of key characteristics at different scales inthe hierarchy

The Character of England mapEden Valley (countryside character area)

• Broad river valley landscapes of productive mixed farmland withlocal variations in topography, scale and landcover.

• Productive improved pasture and arable land with large farms in thelow lying areas.

• Less intensively managed rolling hills or hilly pasture with lowlandheath, intersected by numerous gills, in the foothills of the NorthPennines.

• Settlements have strong distinctive character. Red sandstone is thedominant building material and a unifying feature. Limestone isfound on the margins of the area.

• Important transport corridor for the Settle-Carlisle railway line, theM6 motorway,A66 trunk road and west coast mainline.

Fife Landscape Character Assessment (Scottish region)February 1998David Tyldesley and AssociatesC10 Lowland Loch Basins (landscape type)

• The flat, relatively low-lying landform with strong horizontal links.• The open large scale, regular, tended pattern of fields.• The regular distribution of steadings and plantations/tree

groups/shelter belts and small settlements.• The diverse, calm, settled and (away from the motorway and main

roads) the quiet and balanced character.• The presence of wildlife on and around the lochs and birds

overhead in flight.

Fareham Borough Landscape Assessment May 1996Scott Wilson Resource ConsultantsPorchester South (landscape character area - urban)

• A large concentration of older, interwar suburban housing with agrid street pattern and block structure, allowing good permeability.

• Lack of variety in built form, homogeneous character.• Public open space provision mostly outside the urban area next to

the coastline and not very accessible.• No coastal character in residential area despite the proximity of the

coast.

tend to be very subjective and ‘inthe eye of the beholder’. Accuracyin written expression is important,avoiding contradictions such as‘isolated farm buildings arefrequent’ and ensuring that phraseslike ‘nucleated settlement’ or ‘linearsettlement’ are used appropriately.Consistency in use of terms is alsoan important factor in landscapedescription. Landscapes of similarcharacter occur in different parts ofBritain and ideally they should bedescribed consistently in each area.This is difficult to achieve becauseLandscape Character Assessmentsare carried out by different peoplein different places. Reference,however, should be made to otherassessments, and to the nationalframeworks of The Character ofEngland map and associated charac-ter area descriptions [39-46] andthe Natural Heritage Futures inScotland, to provide context.

6.30 Description of field patternsillustrates the point. Landscapedescriptions, especially of lowlandagricultural areas, often make refer-ence to field size and pattern, butusually in the context of the localarea. So, for example, fields mightbe described as large in one area ofthe country when in reality theyare quite small compared with, say,the typical scale in East Anglia. Themeaning of such a term in anassessment should be defined (forexample, large fields means thoseover 10 hectares). To assist withthis the Countryside Agency will beworking with others to prepare anexplanation of commonly useddescriptive terms (incorporatingregional names) for particularlandscape elements.

6.31 In many cases, especiallywhere the emphasis is on landscapecelebration, landscape descriptionscan be enlivened and illuminated by

illustrating how the landscape hasbeen described in art, literature,music and other media. Forexample, photographs and paintingscan be used as illustrations andquotations can be inserted, helpingto show patterns and consistencyin descriptions over time.Topographical writers of both pastand present can be particularlyinstructive, while television isincreasingly influential in thecreation of landscape image andassociation. Quotes from descrip-tions by stakeholders can also beimportant in demonstrating whatan area means to local people andto visitors.

Identifying key characteristics6.32 Landscape descriptions shouldbe accompanied by a separate listwhich summarises the key charac-teristics of each landscapecharacter type and/or area. Key

characteristics are those combina-tions of elements which help givean area its distinct sense of place.They tend in many cases to be‘positive’ characteristics but theymay also, in some cases, be‘negative’ features which neverthe-less are important to the currentcharacter of the landscape. If thekey characteristics which are identi-fied were to change or be lostthere would be significant conse-quences for the current characterof the landscape. These wouldusually be negative but sometimespositive where some characteristicscurrently have a negative influenceon the character (e.g. the effects ofa busy road corridor). Key charac-teristics should therefore be theprime targets for monitoringchange and for identifying landscapeindicators.

6.33 Key characteristics arepresented as short statements

Box 6.4: Use of historical information in landscape description

The report of the Cornwall Historic Landscape Characterisation projectshows how the historical information was used to enrich the landscapedescriptions in the parallel landscape assessment of the whole County ofCornwall. The example used is the inland Culm Plateau. Withouthistoric information the landscape might have been described as “smallto medium scale field pattern with some areas of large fields. Land issparsely populated with scattered isolated farmsteads”. With input fromHistoric Landscape Characterisation the report shows that a much fullerdescription is possible. The same landscape would be described as “smallto medium scale field pattern, comprising mostly Anciently EnclosedLand, although a large number of these fields have been amalgamated toform larger units in the twentieth century. There are some pockets ofRecently Enclosed Land which indicate the loss of rough ground orwetland areas. This area is sparsely populated with scattered isolatedfarmsteads. Buildings generally consist of small symmetrical cottageswith sash windows, typical of around 1840 when areas of this landscapewere enclosed or earlier boundaries altered”.

Source: Cornwall County Council (1996) Cornwall Landscape Assessment1994. Landscape Design Associates and Cornwall Archaeological Unit.


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which encapsulate the key aspectsof character. They usually encom-pass the interaction of landform,land cover, semi-natural vegetation,field pattern, aspects of settlementand aesthetic characteristics likeopen skies, long views, or a strongsense of enclosure. They must beidentified and described carefully asthey are likely to become a majorreference point in making decisionsabout the future of the landscape.It is vital that they are appropriateto the scale and nature of theassessment. In a large scale or localauthority assessment, for example,they should be genuinely character-istic of a whole landscape type orarea rather than being strictly localin occurrence. The smaller thescale and the greater the level ofdetail in the assessment, the moredetailed and specific the key charac-teristics are likely to be (Box 6.3).

The value of the historical perspective6.34 Landscape descriptions shouldusually include an historicalperspective on the way in whichthe character which is apparenttoday has evolved. This requires agood understanding of the interplaybetween the natural factors whichinfluence character and the humaninfluences which shape it over time.Where there has been an HistoricLandscape Characterisation or Historic Landuse Assessment, theresults can help to provide this‘time-depth’ dimension tolandscape description. Such infor-mation greatly enriches the writtendescriptions of landscape character,as illustrated by Box 6.4.

6.35 Information on recent historycan also be used to inform descrip-tions of ‘forces for change’,namely issues and pressures affect-

ing the landscape and its keyfeatures. These might includevarious types of development,trends in land management andwoodland expansion programmes,and natural forces such as floodingand climate change. Knowledge ofthese factors will often be gainedby observation in the field anddiscussions with stakeholders, aswell as through backgroundresearch.

CHARACTERISATIONIN PRACTICE6.36 These principles of characteri-sation have been put into practice,to varying degrees, in LandscapeCharacter Assessments at a varietyof scales in both England andScotland. Further details of thevarious country initiatives arecontained in Boxes 6.5 and 6.6.

6.37 In England the CountrysideAgency advocates adoption of thehierarchical approach to LandscapeCharacter Assessment and use ofThe Character of England map andassociated character area descrip-tions as a framework for localauthority and more detailed localassessments. This will allow thenational map of character areas toprovide a framework for reportingto Government. It enables abottom-up flow of information onlandscape character and landscapechange to inform regional planningguidance, regional strategies and thework of the Regional DevelopmentAgencies, and to assist in devisingregional and national priorities for abroad range of policy matters, forexample, agri-environment schemetargeting. Where earlier landscapecharacter assessments are notreported within this frameworkthey may need to be re-visited inthe future, as resources permit, so

that they do. The CountrysideAgency will consider grant aidinglocal authorities to achieve this.

6.38 In Scotland the main empha-sis has been on the local authoritylevel through the nationalprogramme of Landscape CharacterAssessment, which began in 1994.Since then the whole of Scotlandhas been covered and 29 assess-ments have been completed,identifying 366 local landscapecharacter types and nearly 4,000individual local character areas. Theaims of this work were: to developan inventory of the landscapes ofScotland, to provide a context forSNH and others’ casework, toprovide information for a widerange of people involved in devel-opment plans and land use policies,and to inform national policy. Theresults of the programme havebeen used to create a nationaldigital dataset of landscape charac-ter types linked to a database ofthe key characteristics for eachtype and the main forces forchange.

6.39 Scotland is fortunate toalready have complete coverage ofthe country at a reasonablydetailed level in a published seriesof reports and to have a GISdatabase6, which together are a richsource of information about theScottish landscape. At the nationallevel government departments,agencies and other organisationscan use the high level information,together with the framework of theNatural Heritage Futures, to dealwith strategic land use and develop-ment issues which may influencelandscape character.

6.40 Local authorities in Scotlandhave a valuable resource in the

6 This database is now available to all staff in Area offices and is being further refined for external access via the SNH website for March 2002

reports of the national programmeand many are making use of themfor a variety of applications, butparticularly in landscape capacitystudies for various types of devel-opment pressure. They areimportant also in providing a start-ing point for more detailedassessments of particular areas,where specific issues arise. SNH isactively promoting use of thisresource, providing advice andguidance on how the assessmentsshould be used, and taking a lead innew developments in this area.

From characterisation tojudgement6.41 It is possible that a LandscapeCharacter Assessment could stopat the characterisation stage. Theresulting map of landscape typesand/or areas, and the accompanyingdescriptions of character, wouldthen stand as a neutral, relativelyvalue-free summary of the currentcharacter of the landscape. In thisform it could help to raise aware-ness of the distinctive character ofan area and to encourage apprecia-tion of variations in this character.

It could play a role in education,information and promotion, helpingpeople to understand and appreci-ate the landscape around them.Beyond this, if an assessment is toplay a part in informing decision-making, an approach to makingjudgments based on character mustbe developed. This is the subject ofthe next chapter.


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Box 6.5: National initiatives in England

In 1996 the former Countryside Commission and English Nature, with support from English Heritage, producedThe Character of England map [9]. This combines English Nature’s Natural Areas and the former CountrysideCommission’s countryside character areas into a map of joint character areas for the whole of England (Figure6.3) providing a picture of the different landscape character at the national scale. The map is accompanied bydescriptions of the character of each of the 159 landscape character areas, the influences determining thatcharacter, and some of the main pressures for change in each area. Eight regional volumes containing thesedescriptions were launched in December 1998 [39-46]. The National Map and the descriptions togetherprovide the top tier of the hierarchy of assessment in England but deal only with character areas at this scaleand do not address landscape types. Their main purpose is to provide the necessary broad framework for moredetailed assessment at lower levels in the hierarchy. In 2001 the Countryside Agency subsequently developed anational typology of landscapes that fits within the framework of character areas.

At the intermediate level, many counties and some District Councils have prepared assessments describing moredetailed variations in the character of their areas at 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 scale, and the former CountrysideCommission published assessments of all the Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs) in England. Thereis some variation in the approach in these assessments, because they have been prepared at different stages inthe evolution of landscape character assessment methods, often by different practitioners working to differentbriefs. Nevertheless all of them identify landscape character types, and some also identify character areas. Manyof these assessments preceded publication of the National Map and so do not make use of this national frame-work. A growing number, however, do use the national set of countryside character areas as a basis for moredetailed assessment and the Countryside Agency wishes all future assessments to fit within this framework.

Figure 6.3: The Character of England map

© Countryside Agency copyright.

Based on the Ordnance Survey map. © Crown copyright.


48

Lead consultants - Chris Blandford Associates

The Character of England mapdivides England into 159 characterareas, providing a picture of thediversity of landscape character atthe national scale. Examples of areasare:11 Tyne Gap and Hadrian’s Wall40 Holderness74 Leicestershire and

Nottinghamshire Wolds82 Suffolk Coast and Heaths107 Cotswolds115 Thames Valley131 New Forest153 Bodmin Moor

A full key is included in each of theeight countryside character volumes[39-46 ]

Figure 6.4: Scotland - Level 3 landscape character types


49

© Scottish Natural Heritage copyright. Based on

the Ordnance Survey map. © Crown copyright.

Examples of Level 3 typesHighland and Islands

High Massive, Rugged, Steep-Sided Mountains

Highland Straths

Highland and Island Crofting Landscapes

Highland and Island Glens

Highland and Island Rocky Coastal Landscapes

Lowlands

Agricultural Lowland of the North East

Lowland Plateaux and Plains

Lowland Rolling or Undulating Farmlands

Uplands

Rugged Moorland Hills

Upland Glens, Valleys and Dales

Upland Hills, The Southern Uplands and Cheviots


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Box 6.6 National initiatives in Scotland

Scottish Natural Heritage has completed a comprehensive national programme of Landscape CharacterAssessment. A total of 29 separate regional studies have been carried out, in partnership with local authoritiesand other organisations [10-38]. Together, these assessments document the rich variety of Scotland’s landscape.The studies cover all of the local authority areas in Scotland, together with a number of other areas, includingsome districts, the countryside around some towns, and special areas such as Loch Lomond and The Trossachswhich is due to be designated a National Park in 2002.

The individual assessments describe the landscape mostly at 1:50,000 scale, identifying over 3,600 individuallandscape character areas, grouped into 366 landscape character types. Subsequently these landscape types havebeen grouped together on the basis of similarities in their key characteristics, into a hierarchy. The initial 366Level 1 types have been grouped firstly into 106 Level 2 landscape types, and then these have been furthergrouped to create 52 Level 3 types (Figure 6.4). This hierarchy allows the character of the landscape to beexamined at a number of different scales, from the broad national level, to the regional level, and sometimesdown to the local level.

In Scotland, the Natural Heritage Futures programme provides a comparable broad strategic framework to theCountryside Character Map (Character of England). There are 21 areas defined on the basis of biogeographicaland landscape character information (Figure 6.1).


Landscape classification

• Landscape classification is a key part of characterisation and is concerned with dividing the landscape intoareas of distinct, recognisable and consistent common character and grouping areas of similar charactertogether.

• Landscape classification can be undertaken at any scale and requires the identification of patterns in thelandscape, created by the way in which the natural and human influences interact to create character in thelandscape.

• Approaches to classification range from the use of GIS and computer classification techniques (mostappropriate at the large scale) to the manual overlaying of maps combined with professional and stake-holder judgement about where the boundaries between areas of different character lie. The key concernof the Agencies is that whatever techniques are used, they are consistent and rigorous, provide informationthat can be updated, and have the ability to take account of qualitative field survey information and stake-holder perceptions in appropriate ways.

/...contd.

Good Practice Pointers (contd.)

Landscape character types and landscape character areas

• In all classification it must be clear whether landscape character types and/or landscape character areas arebeing identified. Landscape character types are generic types which possess broadly similar patterns ofgeology, landform, soils, vegetation, land use, settlement and field pattern in every area where they occur,while landscape character areas are the unique individual geographical areas in which landscape typesoccur. They share generic characteristics with other areas of the same type but also have their own particu-lar identity.

• Landscape character types and areas need to be named. The Agencies suggest using descriptivenames rather than numbers, as these are more meaningful to people and help engender sense of place. Typeswill have generic names often based on topography and land use e.g. drumlin lowlands while character areasshould have names that are geographically specific, but may also refer to the landscape type in which they liee.g. Northamptonshire Uplands. Stakeholders should be involved in the naming of character areas to ensure agreater sense of identity and ownership.

Written descriptions

• Written descriptions of landscape character need to strike the appropriate balance between factual state-ments about the components which make up the landscape and more evocative statements about itscharacter. In particular:

- descriptive words should avoid value-laden judgements, for example, words such as beautiful, bland, attractive,degraded or ordinary;

- descriptive terms must be accurate e.g. descriptions such as ‘nucleated settlement’ and ‘linear settlement’must be applied correctly;

- descriptive terms must be consistent and, if necessary, defined e.g. it must be clear what is meant by largefields or small fields - is this relative to the locality or the national perspective?

- where a celebration of the landscape is required, reference to other media can bring the description alive e.g.inclusion of other writings, quotes, pictures and music which illustrate how the landscape has been perceivedand celebrated through the ages.

• Written descriptions should be accompanied by a separate list of the key characteristics of each landscapetype and/or area. Key characteristics are those aspects of character which give an area its distinct sense ofplace. They are rarely single landscape elements but are short statements that capture key aspects of thecharacter of the landscape.The descriptions may also include an account of the forces for change affectingthe landscape.


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INTRODUCTION7.1 The use of LandscapeCharacter Assessment in makingjudgements is a fast-moving sceneamongst practitioners.This chaptersets out some main principles onthe subject. Topic Paper 6,Techniques and criteria for judgingcapacity and sensitivity, will be issuedin the Summer of 2002 to addressone of the key areas where practi-tioners need to make judgementson this topic.

7.2 The main value of having aLandscape Character Assessment isto help in the process of managingchange in a particular place. Allsorts of change will shape futurelandscapes, and by applying this toolin an appropriate way, alongsideother tools, we can help to ensurethat such changes make a ‘positive’contribution.

7.3 For this reason, most assess-ments will usually move beyond thecharacterisation stage to the stageof making judgements to informparticular decisions. Making judge-ments as part of an assessmentshould not concentrate only on themaintenance of existing character.This may be one part of the judge-ments made. The focus should beon ensuring that land use change ordevelopment proposals are plannedand designed to achieve an appro-priate relationship (and most oftena ‘fit’) with their surroundings, andwherever possible contribute toenhancement of the landscape, in

some cases by creating a newcharacter.

7.4 Judgements based onlandscape character need to takeaccount of several factors. Mostimportantly it is vital to decide whois going to be involved in makingthe judgements. For practicalreasons some assessments may stillrely mainly on judgements made byprofessionals. It is neverthelessimportant to involve stakeholdersin this part of the process if thejudgements are to command widesupport and are to be as fullyinformed as possible. Many differ-ent stakeholder groups need to begiven opportunities to contribute,especially:

• those who manage the land,especially farmers and foresters;

• local residents and communitygroups;

• other users of the land, includ-ing visitors and those who takepart in recreational activities.

7.5 An historical perspective isimportant to help understand theway in which a landscape hasevolved over time to take on itspresent character, and how bothnatural forces and human interven-tion have contributed to itsevolution. With such understand-ing, decisions about future changecan be placed in an historicalcontext and ideas about, forexample, restoration of someearlier historic character can be

well-informed and based on asound historical rationale (seeTopic Paper 5).

WHAT TYPES OF JUDGEMENTS ?7.6 Ways of making judgementsbased on character will varydepending upon the particular issuethat is being addressed. This in turnwill reflect the purpose of theassessment and the type of judge-ments that are required. As set outin Chapter 2 (para 2.10), thesejudgements will either:

• be specifically related todecision-making based onlandscape character; or

• be designed to contribute towider environmental decision-making tools where landscape isonly one of several topics to beaddressed.

7.7 A number of such environ-mental and sustainabilitydecision-making tools now exist.Some, like Environmental ImpactAssessment and landscape capacitystudies, are well established.Others, like the Natural HeritageFutures programme (used inScotland), and Quality of LifeCapital (in England) are newer andstill emerging. LandscapeCharacter Assessment links tothese tools in different ways.Topic Paper 2 provides informa-tion about these tools. Itparticularly highlights the way that

CHAPTER 7

MAKING JUDGEMENTS BASED

ON LANDSCAPE CHARACTER

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these tools and initiatives can beinformed by Landscape CharacterAssessment.

MAIN CONSIDERATIONS IN MAKING JUDGEMENTS7.8 Approaches to making judge-ments that are focused onlandscape character, as distinct fromthese broader environmental tools,have continued to evolve particu-larly over the last ten years aspractitioners have gained moreexperience in the practical applica-tion of techniques. Theseapproaches are generally based onone or more of the followingconsiderations, namely the charac-ter, quality (condition of features),value of the landscape, and itssensitivity to change. These termsneed to be understood if there isto be consistency in approachestaken. The definitions recom-mended by the Agencies are asfollows:

• Landscape character meansthe distinct and recognisablepattern of elements that occursconsistently in a particular typeof landscape, and how these areperceived by people. It reflectsparticular combinations ofgeology, landform, soils, vegeta-tion, land use and humansettlement. It creates theparticular sense of place ofdifferent areas of the landscape.

• Landscape quality (or condition) is based on judge-ments about the physical stateof the landscape, and about itsintactness, from visual,functional, and ecologicalperspectives. It also reflects thestate of repair of individualfeatures and elements whichmake up the character in anyone place.

• Landscape value is concernedwith the relative value that is

attached to different landscapes.In a policy context the usualbasis for recognising certainhighly valued landscapes isthrough the application of alocal or national landscapedesignation. Yet a landscape maybe valued by different communi-ties of interest for manydifferent reasons without anyformal designation, recognising,for example, perceptual aspectssuch as scenic beauty, tranquil-lity or wildness; special culturalassociations; the influence andpresence of other conservationinterests; or the existence of aconsensus about importance,either nationally or locally.

• Landscape capacity refers tothe degree to which a particularlandscape character type orarea is able to accommodatechange without significanteffects on its character, oroverall change of landscapecharacter type. Capacity islikely to vary according to thetype and nature of change beingproposed.

7.9 In deciding on the approachto making judgements there mustbe a clear rationale which isexplained to the assessment’s users.This will help make the assessmentand its application more robust andaccountable.

DEFINING OBJECTIVES7.10 The rationale for judgementswill need to establish the balancebetween the following objectivesfor landscape types and areas:

• Conservation and mainte-nance of existing character;

• Enhancement of existingcharacter through the introduc-tion of new elements andfeatures or different manage-ment of existing ones;

• Restoration of character,where this is appropriate tocurrent land use activities andstakeholders’ preferences, and iseconomically viable througheither public or private moneyor a mix of both;

• Creation of or acceleratingchange towards a new charac-ter; or

• Some combination of theseoptions, especially whereregeneration activity is occur-ring, involving muchdevelopment and change.

7.11 Developing such a rationalewill require careful thought aboutthe overall character and keycharacteristics of the landscapetoday, and the dynamics of thelandscape, in terms of recentchange, current trends and futureforces. This will help to determineboth the desirability and practicabil-ity of maintaining current character.

APPROACHES TO MAKING JUDGEMENTS7.12 The approach taken to makingjudgements will usually varydepending on the particular applica-tions for which the assessment isto be used. One of the followingfour approaches is usually adopted.

i. Landscape strategies7.13 A Landscape CharacterAssessment may lead to a strategyfor the landscape based on whatchange, if any, is thought to bedesirable for a particular landscapecharacter type (or area) as a whole.The judgements underpinning suchstrategies need to be transparentbut not overly complex, and willusually relate in some way to theobjectives set out in para 7.10. Toensure they are widely owned andcan be implemented, they should bedevised and tested through stake-holder involvement where possible.

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Making judgements based on landscape character

7.14 To date, practitioners haveused landscape strategies to guidethinking on the desirability of:maintaining the existing landscapecharacter; enhancing character;restoring some former landscape,or creating a new one.

7.15 When used in the field ofplanning policy, for example as abasis for structure or local planpolicies, the strategy approach maybe used to indicate the preferredapproach for each policy zonewithin the plan and to provide abasis for landscape and develop-ment policies. In othercircumstances, aspects of landscapevalue (paras 7.21 - 7.23) may helpto identify areas for some form oflandscape status or designation.

ii. Landscape guidelines7.16 A Landscape CharacterAssessment will normally identifythe character of an area and thosefactors that are particularly impor-tant in creating that character,usually referred to as key charac-teristics. If the distinctive characterof a certain landscape is to bemaintained, the assumption must bethat its positive key characteristicsshould be protected from adversechange and, conversely, that theeffects of negative characteristicswill be overcome by some form ofenhancement. This assumptionprovides the basis for judgementsabout the actions necessary toachieve this (Box 7.1).

7.17 Field survey should identifythe physical state of individualelements and features, and, incombination with consultation andadditional research, should indicatethe probability of future change,and its nature and direction (trendsor ‘forces for change’). Consideringall this information together shouldthen reveal opportunities either to

prevent those changes which mayhave adverse consequences forlandscape character, or to maximiseopportunities for enhancement.This requires careful thought aboutthe importance attached to charac-teristic features and about thelikelihood of either ‘positive’ or‘negative’ change.

7.18 This type of analysis usuallyresults in the drawing up oflandscape guidelines to indicatethe actions required to ensure thatdistinctive character is maintainedor, if appropriate, enhanced. Thisapproach has been adopted in themajority of published assessments

in England and Scotland. Suchguidelines are often produced inwritten form, and are sub-dividedaccording to both the landscapetype in question and the mainpressures likely to result inlandscape change, namely agricul-ture, forestry, settlement and builtdevelopment, mineral working,tourism and recreation, and infra-structure (Box 7.2).

7.19 Guidelines can also bepresented graphically. This is partic-ularly useful when dealing withdesign issues. In the Sussex DownsAONB graphic guidelines are avail-able in a loose-leaf folder designed

Box 7.1: Steps in developing landscape guidelines

Review from field survey• key characteristics of the landscape;• current state of landscape - condition of features and elements and

overall intactness;• evidence of landscape change and of its consequences.

Identify by research and consultation• trends in land use that may cause future change;• potential development pressures.

Predict• consequences of land use trends and development pressures for the

landscape;• effects of predicted change on key characteristics, both negative and

positive.

Define• threats to key characteristics as a result of adverse consequences of

change;• opportunities for enhancement where scope for beneficial change;• guidelines on intervention required for different land uses to

counter threats and realise opportunities;• priorities for action and methods of implementation.

It is often helpful to prepare guidelines at several different levels - forthe whole of a study area where they are common, for each landscapecharacter type and for individual landscape character areas where thereare specific requirements for action.

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to assist in communicating ideas tofarmers and land managers (Figure7.1). The Skye and Lochalshcharacter assessment in Scotlandhas also taken a highly graphicapproach to both the descriptionsof landscape character and to theguidelines (Figure 7.2).

7.20 As guidelines are designed toinfluence the way in whichlandscapes are managed it is highlydesirable that the many stakehold-ers involved in day-to-day

management are actively involved inthe process. This will help toensure that the guidelines are basedon a good understanding of ‘realworld’ land uses and land manage-ment practices, and that there willbe a good prospect that they canbe practically implemented.

iii. Attaching status to landscapes7.21 Where a tract of landscape isselected for special recognition,judgements need to be based on a

range of different considerations.National landscape designations inEngland and Scotland are based on criteria that encompass much morethan landscape alone. The keyconsiderations are:

• natural beauty: encompassesflora, fauna, geological andphysiographical features and isthe term that has been used indefining AONBs and NationalParks in England;

Box 7.2: Example of landscape guidelines

Fife Landscape Character AssessmentLandscape character type: Lowland Dens

Agriculture• Encourage maintenance of the relatively small-scale irregular field pattern.• Where land is taken out of arable use encourage permanent woodland planting.• Improving grasslands and drainage schemes could disturb the characteristic land cover and vegetation

patterns and adversely affect the contours and textures of the landscape and its ecological value.

Forestry• Encourage the planting of broadleaved trees along the river and burns to link existing woodlands and other

habitats and to reinforce the semi-natural patterns of drainage and riparian vegetation and habitats.• Encourage new planting to enhance the interlinking of new woodlands to existing plantations and semi-

natural woodlands on the hills and in the lowlands.

Settlement and built development• Concentrate new built development in the form of well landscaped extensions to existing settlements well-

related to landform and of a scale appropriate to the size of the settlement.• Encourage the use of existing building styles and materials such as grey stone with grey or dark blue slate-like

roofs.

Mineral workings• Mineral extraction in this landscape type would be inappropriate owing to its potentially adverse effects on

the character of the landscape and the potential for the workings to be conspicuous bearing in mind that anyeffective, large-scale screening measures themselves would be inappropriate features.

Other development and structures in the landscape• Avoid locating any high or bulky new structures in this landscape type or, where essential, they should be

subject to rigorous landscape and visual impact assessment and should be sited carefully and designed tominimise their impact.

Source: David Tyldesley and Associates (1999) Fife Landscape Character Assessment, Scottish Natural Heritage,Edinburgh.


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Fig 7.1 Sussex Downs AONB Landscape Design Guidelines

Source: Landscape Design Associates (1997) Sussex Downs AONB Landscape Design Guidelines. CountrysideCommission and Sussex Downs Conservation Board, Cheltenham.

Figure 7.2: Skye and Lochalsh landscape guidelines

Source: Stanton, C. (1996) Skye and Lochalsh Landscape Assessment. No 71. Scottish Natural Heritage, Edinburgh.

Rocky moorland landscape character type• The introduction of numerous elements within this landscape character type often results in visual

confusion, due to the difficulty in creating any kind of order and sense of relationship between elementsupon a variable landform; each element, even if part of a collective group, tends to have a differentrelationship with the landscape.

As a result of this landscape having no distinct pattern or edges, new elements can often appear mostappropriate where they either have a direct relationship to a specific landscape characteristic, orare concentrated and ordered as a group, although the latter may collectively create a dominantfocus, contrasting to the undifferentiated character of this landscape.

confusion of collective elements

related to acommon characteristic

distinct order andrelationship of elements

dispersed elementscan appear assprawl, affectingentire area

concentrationallows retention ofsurrounding openspace


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• recreational opportunity:opportunities afforded foropen-air recreation, havingregard both to landscapecharacter and position inrelation to centres of popula-tion. (Also used in definingNational Parks in England);

• natural beauty and amenity:a composite term, used in thefounding legislation of SNHcontained with The NaturalHeritage (Scotland) Act 1991.The Act defines the naturalheritage as including the physicalelements of flora, fauna, geology,physiographic features andnatural beauty and amenity.Thiscombination of terms coversthe physical landscape, but alsothe less tangible aspects such asremoteness or tranquillity, andaspects of landscape experiencewhich appeal to senses otherthan sight, such as the sound orsmell of the sea.

7.22 In considering natural beautyand amenity, and in any other situa-tion which requires that a landscapebe identified as requiring specialattention, judgements must be basedat least in part on the concept oflandscape value (para 7.8). Thisrefers to the relative value or impor-tance that stakeholders attach todifferent landscapes and their reasonsfor valuing them. The reasons maybe set out according to a range ofmore detailed criteria that mayinclude the following:

• landscape quality: the intact-ness of the landscape and thecondition of features andelements (para 7.8);

• scenic quality: the term that isused to describe landscapeswhich appeal primarily to thevisual senses;

• rarity: the presence of rarefeatures and elements in the

landscape, or the presence of arare landscape character type;

• representativeness: whetherthe landscape contains a partic-ular character, and/or featuresand elements, which is felt bystakeholders to be worthy ofrepresenting;

• conservation interests: thepresence of features of particu-lar wildlife, earth science orarchaeological, historical andcultural interest can add to thevalue of a landscape as well ashaving value in their own right;

• wildness: the presence of wild(or relatively wild) character inthe landscape which makes aparticular contribution to senseof place;

• associations with particularpeople, artists, writers, or othermedia, or events in history.

There may often be a consensusof opinion about the value of anarea encompassing one or moreof these criteria, which can betraced over time from the viewsexpressed by different stake-holders.

7.23 Tranquillity: In addition tothese landscape-related criteriathere is another criterion,‘tranquillity’, that is a compositefeature related to low levels ofbuilt development, traffic, noiseand artificial lighting. Authors ofLandscape Character Assessmentsmust state their criteria for ‘lowlevels’ clearly and should alsoconsider whether one or more ofthe factors needs to beaddressed individually, rather thanin combination. Policy makers andpractitioners may find it useful torefer to the Tranquil Areas maps[54]. Tranquil area mapping iscurrently underway in Scotland,as is the identification of corewild land areas.

7.24 The full range of criteria setout above may be used to identifyvalued landscapes that merit someform of designation or recognition.They can be used, either individu-ally or in combination, to assist thedefinition of nationally importantareas throughout England andScotland. These include NationalParks,Areas of Outstanding NaturalBeauty, National Scenic Areas, andequivalent areas.

7.25 The criteria of ‘natural beauty’,‘recreational opportunity’ and‘natural beauty and amenity’ can bethe starting points for selecting thebroad area of search for designationor recognition of special areas. Thecriteria listed in paras 7.22 and7.23 could be used to provide asupporting statement about why aparticular area is valued.Boundaries can then be determinedby assessing the character andquality of the landscapes within thearea of search to determinewhether or not they should beincluded (see Chapter 9 forfurther detail).

iv. Landscape capacity7.26 Many Landscape CharacterAssessments will be used to help indecisions about the ability of an areato accommodate change, either as aresult of new development, or someother form of land use change, suchas the introduction of new features,or major change in land cover suchas new woodland planting. In thesecircumstances judgements must bebased on an understanding of theability of the landscape to accom-modate change without significanteffects on its character. Criteria forwhat constitutes significant changeneed to be identified in planningpolicies or landscape strategies, andwill usually be informed by potentialeffects on character and/or particu-lar features and elements.


57


• It is particularly important to find ways of involving stakeholders in this part of the process if the judge-ments made are to command wide support.

• The approach taken to making judgements based on character will vary depending upon the issue beingaddressed and must be designed to meet the particular circumstances.

• Some approaches to making judgements are an integral part of the Landscape Character Assessmentprocess. Others are wider environmental evaluation processes to which Landscape Character Assessmentcan make a valuable contribution.

• There must be a clear rationale behind the approach to making judgements, which will help to determinethe eventual outcome. This will require careful thought about the overall character and key characteristicsof the landscape, its history and origins, and the opportunities that may exist to create new landscapes tomeet the emerging social, economic and environmental needs of stakeholders.

• It is particularly important that:

- the reasons for adopting a particular approach to making judgements are made clear;

- the approach (or combination of approaches) used must be clearly explained and transparent;

- the extent and nature of stakeholder involvement should be made clear.


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PART 2

LANDSCAPE CHARACTER ASSESSMENT

IN PRACTICE

Stob Coire nan Lochan and the Three Sisters, Glencoe by Graham Buchanan-Dunlop for The National Trust for Scotland.

The management plan for this property covers detailed consideration of landscape character.

60

LANDSCAPE CHANGEAND PLANNING8.1 The classification and descrip-tion of landscape character typesshould be a factual and objectiveprocess.The results can be used ina range of situations. The processof making judgements and produc-ing guidelines will, on the otherhand, require an approach tailoredto particular circumstances.

8.2 Many different factorscontribute to change in thelandscape. They are as diverse asclimate change, severe weatherevents like floods and droughts,built development, and changingland management, among others.The balance between the differentfactors varies in different parts ofthe country. There can be littledoubt, however, that in some areasbuilt development is one of themost significant causes of change.Most forms of built developmentare subject to planning controls andboth planning policies and theimplementation of these policiesthrough development control canhave a significant influence on theevolution of the landscape.Landscape Character Assessmentcan make a valuable contribution tothe formulation of planning policies,to development control activities,to the allocation of land for devel-opment, and to processes such asenvironmental assessment. (SeeBox 8.1 for discussion of researchinto this link in Scotland). The useof Landscape Character Assessmentin the planning sector is the focusof this chapter.

DEVELOPMENT PLAN POLICIES8.3 In addressing landscape issues,development plans in England andScotland have traditionally concen-trated on policies for theprotection of:

• nationally designated landscapeslike National Parks in England

and now in Scotland, as well asAONBs in England and NationalScenic Areas in Scotland;

• locally designated areas, usuallyeither Areas of Great/HighLandscape Value or SpecialLandscape Areas;

• individual landscape features,with trees the most frequentlymentioned.

CHAPTER 8

APPLICATIONS IN PLANNING

Box 8.1: The use of Landscape Character Assessment in development plans

A study in Scotland has investigated the links between LandscapeCharacter Assessment and development planning. A range of develop-ment plans in both England and Scotland has been reviewed to assesshow they use character-based approaches and how they incorporate thefindings of Landscape Character Assessments in planning policies. Thework demonstrated that in Scotland there is a high level of awareness of,and respect for, SNH’s programme of Landscape Character Assessment.The report states that the planners contacted “all believe it has beendirectly or indirectly influential in the development planning and develop-ment control processes, raising awareness and understanding: thedifferences are, essentially of degree, emphasis, timing, scale, detail andprescription”.

The major constraint on use of Landscape Character Assessment isthought to be the scale of the work and the lack of prescription. Thedescriptions of character are thought to be particularly helpful, theguidelines generally less so. The majority of those authorities consultedwill refer to the assessment in their development plans, two-thirds ofthem in policies and one-third in supporting text, but only one authorityhas dropped landscape designations in favour of a character-basedapproach.

The study has led to clear recognition that there is a stage between theassessment and the development plan process “in which the content ofthe Landscape Character Assessment needs to be expanded and specificissues need to be addressed in more detail”.

Source: David Tyldesley Associates (1999) The Use of Landscape CharacterAssessments in Development Plans. Report to Scottish Natural Heritage.

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8.4 It is likely that policies fornationally designated areas willcontinue to receive the majoremphasis in development plans inboth England and Scotland.Approaches to local landscapedesignations are more varied andare largely determined by currentgovernment policy as set down inrelevant planning policy guidance.In England, PPG 7 [55] advises thatthese local designations carry lessweight than national designationsand that development plans shouldnot apply the same policies tothem. It also indicates that localplanning authorities should onlymaintain or extend local designa-tions where it is believed thatnormal planning policies cannotprovide the necessary protection,in which case plans must makeclear what exactly it is thatrequires extra protection and why.When reviewing developmentplans, authorities are urged to“rigorously consider the functionand justification of existing localcountryside designations” and toensure that they are “soundlybased on a formal assessment ofthe qualities of the countryside”.In Scotland NPPG 14 [4] indicatesthat local designations continue tohave an important role to play indevelopment plans and the issue oflocal designations is being reviewedin association with a review ofnational designations.

8.5 PPG 7 indicates that “Thepriority now is to find new ways ofenriching the quality of the wholeof the countryside whilst accom-modating appropriate development,in order to complement theprotection which designationsoffer”. Landscape CharacterAssessment has a major role toplay in this process. Neither theCountryside Agency nor SNHcurrently promote approaches

based on character as an alterna-tive to local landscape orcountryside designations. Rather itis seen as complementary. It canbe used both within such desig-nated areas and outside them, toinform individual planning andmanagement decisions, and to helpidentify the conditions for develop-ment and change.

8.6 In recent years, nevertheless,and partly in response to PPG 7 inEngland and NPPG 14 in Scotland,the balance has begun to shift awayfrom policies for locally designatedareas towards an emphasis onmaintaining and enhancing thedistinctive character everywhere.National landscape designations willundoubtedly still continue to be thefocus for development plan policiesbut, in future, policies based onlandscape character are likely toemerge alongside those based onlocal designations, in regional, struc-ture and local plans. Where localdesignations continue to be used itis likely that there will be growingemphasis on the role of LandscapeCharacter Assessment in definingand justifying these areas, in orderto meet the requirement for“formal assessment of the qualitiesof the countryside” [55].

8.7 If local designations are to besupplemented by, and in Englandgradually give way to, an approachbased on character, ways must befound of linking landscape policiesto landscape character. The moststraightforward approach is a policythat simply requires that develop-ment is in keeping with thecharacter of the landscape andmaintains its distinctiveness, as inthe example of the AyrshireStructure Plan policy (Box 8.2).Such a policy must be accompaniedby some form of character map,with descriptions of the landscape

types and areas embraced by theplan, and guidance on the implica-tions of these for development. InScotland, for example,Ayrshire hasa Joint Structure Plan Committeethat has pursued a character-basedapproach. Here a map of eightsimplified ‘regional character areas’is included in the Structure Plan,amalgamating the original 26landscape types identified in the

Box 8.2: A character-basedplanning policy

Ayrshire Joint StructurePlan 1999

Policy E1“The quality of Ayrshire’slandscape and its distinctivelocal characteristics shall bemaintained and enhanced. Inproviding for new development,particular care shall be taken toconserve those features thatcontribute to local distinctive-ness including:

A. The setting of settlementsand buildings within thelandscape.B. The patterns of woodland,fields, hedgerows and treefeatures.C. The special qualities ofrivers, estuaries and coasts.D. Historic landscapes; andE. Skylines and hill features,including prominent views.

Local plans shall seek toprotect and enhance landscapecharacter and criteria should beestablished for the assessmentof the sensitivity of locallandscape types to differentcategories of development”.

Source: (as above).

Applications in planning

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Council’s area-wide LandscapeCharacter Assessment. In England,the Forest of Dean District-wideLocal Plan included descriptions oflandscape types identified in theLandscape Character Assessment ofthe District in the supporting textof the plan, to be read in conjunc-tion with the policy on landscapecharacter.

8.8 An alternative approach isthat the Landscape CharacterAssessment document itself may beadopted as supplementary planningguidance, in which case the inclu-sion in the assessment of carefullythought out guidelines dealing withthe role of settlement and builtdevelopment in the landscape willthen provide supporting informa-tion to assist in developmentcontrol.

8.9 Some local planning authori-ties have developed moreprescriptive, map-based policieswhich make use of the landscapequality and strategies approach tomaking judgements, as outlined inChapter 7. In the HambletonDistrict Local Plan, for example,three different policies towardsdevelopment were devised, linkedto the strategies of conservation,restoration and enhancementwhich were attached to differentlandscape character areas identifiedin the district-wide LandscapeCharacter Assessment. The map ofthese strategy areas became thebasis for the plan policies and forimplementation through develop-ment control.

8.10 In this approach characterareas that are judged to require astrategy of conservation, or conser-

vation and restoration, are oftenfound to accord well with previ-ously defined local designations. Inthe Landscape CharacterAssessment of the area covered byLeeds City Council, for example,these areas were found to coincidebroadly with the existing SpecialLandscape Area in all but one case(Figure 8.1). The strategy-basedapproach can be much more flexi-ble than the use of designationsand, when combined with landscapeguidelines, can give more guidanceon what forms of development maybe acceptable in different areas.

8.11 This approach to developingplanning policies based on charac-ter has been taken further incounties in the Midlands of England,notably in Staffordshire (Box 8.3).Judgements about landscape qualityand sensitivity are here combined

Figure 8.1: Leeds - strategies for landscape character types

Source: LUC (1994) LeedsLandscape Assessment. ForLeeds City Council, Leeds.

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Box 8.3: Staffordshire approach to developing planning landscape policies

Staffordshire County Council has carried out a comprehensive Landscape Character Assessment of the Countywith particular emphasis on its application in developing structure plan policies, but also for many other importantapplications. The assessment uses The Character of England framework as a starting point for describing character,then develops a finer grain description and classification of landscape character.The assessment adopts a hierar-chical approach to defining landscape character types but ultimately uses the smallest units of landscape characterareas, here referred to as ‘Land Description Units’ (LDUs), as the basis for further judgements and decision-making. LDUs are defined as the largest homogeneous map units sharing a similar pattern of physical, biologicaland historical components.

In moving from landscape character to the judgements required in practical applications, the Staffordshire workhas adopted a highly structured approach which is clearly set out in supplementary planning guidance. LDUs areused as the framework and in each unit judgements are made, based on fieldwork, about landscape quality andlandscape sensitivity. Separate maps showing landscape quality and sensitivity are then combined, to define a seriesof landscape policy zones linked to a structure plan policy (see Policy NC2). This landscape character and qualityassessment has now been formally adopted as Supplementary Planning Guidance to the Staffordshire and Stoke-on-Trent Structure Plan 1996 - 2011.

Staffordshire Landscape Policy Zones (part of map)

Policy NC2: Landscape Protection and RestorationDevelopment should be informed by and be sympathetic to landscape character and quality and shouldcontribute, as appropriate, to the regeneration, restoration, enhancement, maintenance or active conservation ofthe landscape likely to be affected. Proposals with landscape and visual implications will be assessed having regardto the extent to which they would:(a) cause unacceptable visual harm;(b) introduce (or conversely remove) incongruous landscape elements;(c) cause the disturbance or loss of (or conversely help to maintain):

(i) landscape elements that contribute to local distinctiveness;(ii) historic elements that contribute significantly to landscape

character and quality, such as field, settlement or road patterns;(iii) semi-natural vegetation which is characteristic of that landscape type;(iv) the visual condition of landscape elements;(v) tranquillity.

Source: Staffordshire County Council (2001): Planning for Landscape Change - Supplementary Planning Guidance to theStaffordshire and Stoke-on-Trent Structure Plan 1996-2011.

Landscape policy objectives

Landscape regenerationLandscape restorationLandscape enhancementLandscape maintenanceActive landscape conservation

Areas of highest landscape sensitivityLandscapes at risk of rapid loss of (existing) characterand qualityArea of outstanding natural beauty

Areas of built character

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to create a map of Landscape PolicyZones linked to an accompanyingpolicy on development. In this casethe strategy approach is framed infive policy objectives, namely:

• innovative landscape regeneration;

• landscape restoration;• landscape enhancement;• landscape maintenance;• active landscape conservation.

STUDIES OF DEVELOP-MENT POTENTIAL 8.12 The results of LandscapeCharacter Assessment can make animportant contribution, alongsideother environmental considera-tions, to identifying areas withpotential for new built develop-ment. This is becoming particularlyimportant in considering thelocation and design of new housing.A broad overview can be takeninitially at the regional planningscale, where The Character ofEngland descriptions and landscapetypology can provide a startingpoint in identifying areas of searchin England and the more aggregatedlevels of the national programme ofassessments in Scotland can play asimilar role there. The RegionalDevelopment Agencies in Englandare being urged to adopt thisapproach in their planning for thefuture.

8.13 At the local authority level,studies of development potentialneed to be based on detailed localLandscape Character Assessments.Judgements made on the basis ofconcepts such as landscape value,and condition of landscapeelements, and the policy zones thatresult, can help identify areasconsidered suitable for some formsof development. Where areas areearmarked for development andregeneration there should be a

clear link between the developmentand provision of enhancements,while the design of the develop-ment should be informed by thelocal character.

8.14 In Scotland, LandscapeCharacter Assessment has alreadyplayed an important role in examin-ing the capacity of some areas toaccept new built development,contributing significantly to struc-ture and local plans. SNH hasworked in partnership with manylocal authorities to deviseapproaches to identifying the capac-ity of the landscape toaccommodate change beingbrought about by various types ofdevelopment pressure (Boxes 8.4and 8.5). In England, housingdevelopers themselves have usedLandscape Character Assessmentsto help find a location for a newsettlement, such as in the EastMidlands. Elsewhere in the UK, amajor study of Belfast City Regionhas used Landscape CharacterAssessment to assess the capacityof different areas to accommodatedevelopment (Box 8.6).

Expansion of settlements atthe urban edge8.15 Pressures for new develop-ment are usually focused aroundexisting settlements. Planningconsiderations relating to transportand sustainability issues all point toa preference for locating newdevelopment either in existingurban areas or on the edge oftowns and cities. Given thatopportunities within existing urbanareas will inevitably be increasinglylimited, there will be growingpressures on the edges of existingsettlements. Many of these areasaround towns and cities will becovered by Green Belt policieswhich will have a strong influenceon what and how development

takes place. Careful characterisa-tion of the landscape, allied withappropriate frameworks for makingjudgments, can help here by provid-ing a close examination of thecharacter of urban fringe areas andtheir potential to accommodatedevelopment. There are a numberof recent examples of the use ofLandscape Character Assessmentsin these urban fringe areas.

8.16 Historic cities can poseparticular challenges when it comesto identifying areas for potentialexpansion. This is because thelandscape setting of such cities isoften an important contributor totheir special character. GreaterYork Council has assessed thecharacter of the countrysidearound the historic City of Yorkand used this as a framework forassessing a large number of poten-tial housing sites, including landwithin the Green Belt. HampshireCounty Council, together withseveral partner organisations,including statutory governmentagencies, commissioned a compre-hensive character appraisal ofWinchester City and its setting toinform both a methodology for thefuture appraisal of historic citiesand as an input to a major study toreview the future of the City, beingconducted by the City Council andusing the Quality of Life Capitalapproach (Box 8.7). The use ofLandscape Character Assessment inevaluating the development capacityof settlements in Scotland waspioneered in work on the historictown of St Andrews and furtherdeveloped in work on the areasaround the historic City of Stirlingand the wider area covered byStirling Council (Box 8.5).

8.17 Studies on the edge of townscan make use of the approaches tomaking judgments that have been

Box 8.4: Perth Landscape Capacity Study

In preparing the Perth Structure Plan, Perth & Kinross Council were aware that the area was continuing toexperience high levels of population growth and consequent pressure for new development.The Council alsorecognised that the area was sensitive to changes in the landscape. Officers from the Council and SNH were

involved in developing methods for landscape capac-ity assessment both in fieldwork and assessmentprocesses to inform the locational strategy of thedevelopment plan.

The capacity of the landscapes around Perth and 17other settlements in the Local Plan area wereassessed for their potential to accommodate furtherbuilt development in the form of small or largerscale expansion and to investigate the potentiallocations and capacity for a new settlement withinthe Local Plan area.The justification for a Green Beltfor Perth was also examined in a second phase ofthis study.

The study area contained six regional landscapecharacter types shown in Figure 1. These weresubdivided into a series of units and sub-units forassessment in relation to each of the settlements,and to assess the landscape capacity to accommo-date a new settlement in addition to one alreadyunder consideration.

The assessment concluded that:

• the landscapes around Perth have limited capacityto accommodate further urban expansion if thesetting and character of the city is to be sustained;

• there is scope for substantial new development atfour settlements, and for small-scale expansion infour other smaller ones;

• nine other settlements have effectively reachedtheir capacity to accommodate development inlandscape and visual terms;

• there is scope to accommodate a new settlementin one landscape character sub-unit;

• some sub-units could accommodate a new villagebut not of the size necessary to make it viable andsustainable in respect of other considerations.

Source: Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report(2001) Report No. F99LH24A

Contractor: David Tyldesley Associates

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Figure 1. Landscape character types and units in thestudy area

Figure 2. Example settlement - New Scone

Box 8.5: Using capacity studies to inform the new Structure Plan for Clackmannanshire andStirling Councils

Clackmannanshire Council and Stirling Council are preparing a new Structure Plan which will set the strategicframework for new developments up to 2016. It has been estimated that there may be a requirement for about4,000 - 6,000 houses in the area of Stirling Council and a further 1,100 in the area of ClackmannanshireCouncil.

To assist in preparation of the Structure Plan, and in developing a strategy to meet such needs while sustainingthe landscape qualities and characteristics which make the area unique and special, Scottish Natural Heritagecommissioned separate detailed landscape character assessments for each of the Stirling and ClackmannanshireCouncil areas. The studies were managed jointly by SNH and the relevant council.

Both areas had already been subject to landscape character assessments at a scale of 1:50,000, as part of theScottish National LCA Programme. The detailed studies aimed to develop and refine these assessments forcertain specified areas which had been identified as potential locations for development. This required refine-ment and detailed application of the landscape types and areas identified in the original assessments to suit themore detailed level of working. The work then focused on whether or not, in the specified locations, new devel-opments would conflict with landscape character in a way that could not be effectively or appropriatelymitigated, and sought to identify areas suitable for accommodating small-scale growth and those suitable formajor settlement expansion.

Judgements about capacity were derived from the key characteristics and features of the landscape charactertypes present in the areas, under five criteria:

• Landscape as a resource examined potential effects on key aspects of land form, land cover, settlementpatterns and other land uses, point and linear features;

• Landscape experience considered effects on the aesthetic and perceptual aspects such as scale, openness,diversity, form and pattern;

• Visual effects reviewed impacts on views, approaches and skylines and the overall conspicuousness (orconspicuity) of potential developments;

• Other important effects reviewed any potential impacts on particular features of importance such asdesigned landscapes or other cultural or historical features;

• Mitigation considered whether there was scope to reduce the effects of development by appropriate mitiga-tion.

These criteria were applied in a systematic away, using a simple three point graphical scale to express therelative significance of the potential effects, to specific locations and areas where developments might be feasiblewithin the defined areas of search. Finally, guidelines were developed to demonstrate the design principles thatshould be applied in areas identified as suitable for development. From this work, a description was producedfor each settlement which covered, in a standard format: the relationship of the settlement to the landscape;views and viewpoints; local pressures for change; sensitivity to change; and options for change. Each analysis wasaccompanied by a plan showing: opportunities for sensitive expansion; locations for mitigation measures; andimportant landscape features and views.

Sources: David Tyldesley Associates (1999) Stirling Landscape Character Assessment and Landscape Capacity Study,Report to Stirling Council and Scottish Natural Heritage; David Tyldesley Associates (1998) Clackmannanshire Local Plan -Settlement Landscape Capacity Studies, Report to Clackmannanshire Council and Scottish Natural Heritage.

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outlined in Chapter 7. Thelandscape strategy, guidelines andcapacity approaches are likely to beparticularly useful. When individualsites or small local areas are beingassessed, however, it may also benecessary to incorporate a moredetailed landscape and visualappraisal of the site. This mightinclude factors such as views to andfrom the site, visually prominentlandscape features and landmarks,skylines and so on. When dealingwith historic towns and cities their

interface with the surroundingcountryside merits special atten-tion, including factors such as:

• the importance of the landscapesetting to the town and therelationship between the two,including the presence of anyapparently ‘natural’ limits todevelopment;

• the relationship of gateways, ringroads and other access routesto the form of the settlementand to the landscape setting;

• the nature of views from thesurrounding area to keylandmarks, such as cathedralsand castles.

8.18 At the urban edge, the focusof Landscape Character Assessmentis on the open land around thetown, including green corridorspenetrating into it, and on theinterface with the built-up area.Analysis of the different relation-ships between the two may berequired in order to characterise

Box 8.6: Belfast City Region Landscape Character Assessment - capacity to accommodate development

In 1997 a Landscape Character Assessment was undertaken for Belfast City Region (BCR). It was particularlyvaluable in helping to develop a strategic framework for guiding the location of new development and identifyingopportunities to strengthen and enhance landscape character and quality. The assessment is being used in apositive way, not only to protect sensitive landscapes, but as a way of accommodating change and facilitating theregeneration of local economies. The assessment:

• identifies a number of landscape character areas and records their principal characteristics and landscapequality;

• defines the landscape sensitivity of the character areas based on character, condition, context and specialvalue;

• pays particular attention to a detailed visual analysis and to the character, quality and relative sensitivity ofdifferent urban fringe landscapes;

• establishes opportunities for new development and principles for its siting and design, suggesting the pattern,form and scale which it might take in order to reinforce and enhance landscape character.

In summary, the Landscape Character Assessment is intended to build an understanding of the striking variationsin landscape character across the BCR and to describe how the design of new buildings and the management ofthe countryside can help to conserve landscape diversity and (in many instances) bolster its capacity to accom-modate further development. This requires a pro-active approach. Areas under pressure for development havea particular need for strong design to counteract the tendency for homogenisation and to ensure that develop-ment reinforces local landscape quality and diversity. Encouraging high quality design is therefore seen to be apriority and implies:

• providing clearer guidance and advice to planners and developers on the siting, design and layout of develop-ments in different settlements and landscape types;

• a more integrated and locally-based approach to design and planning in which opportunities for conserva-tion;

• environmental enhancement and landscape management are considered in parallel with opportunities fordevelopment.

Source: ERM (1997) Belfast City Region Landscape Character Assessment. Belfast City Region.

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the landscape in an appropriate wayand judge its capacity to accommo-date development.

Links with urban characterisation8.19 Recent studies have alsoincorporated characterisation ofthe urban area itself. Forexample, in the case of FarehamBorough Council in Hampshire,the character assessment of theBorough, which encompassed themajor built up areas, formed animportant part of the Local Planreview [56]. Since then, thewritten descriptions of characterand the identification of keycharacteristics have been used aspart of the development controlprocess to assess whetherproposed development conformswith the general character of thearea in which the development isproposed and whether it wouldadversely affect key characteris-tics. This evidence has beensupported at public inquiry.

8.20 Urban characterisation is,however, quite different fromLandscape Character Assessment asit deals predominantly with thebuilt environment. It is a form oftownscape assessment or urbanmorphology analysis. Althoughimportant in their own right, thesetechniques are not consideredfurther in this guidance, althoughTopic Paper 7 sets out somepointers on this subject.

DEVELOPMENT PROPOSALS8.21 Section 54A of the Town andCountry Planning Act 1990, andSection 25 of the Town andCountry Planning (Scotland) Act1997, makes it clear that applica-tions must conform to thedevelopment plan.Thus it is impor-tant that policies relating to

landscape character are included indevelopment plans. Once this isachieved it is important that thedesign of new proposals for development are informed bypolicies for landscape character andoften they will need to achieveappropriate fit within the landscape.Development control will thenneed to be informed by the issuesrelating to landscape character anddevelopment.

8.22 The ‘acceptability’ of a devel-opment proposal will often bebased on whether or not it isjudged to have an adverse impacton the area’s character. Forexample, the emerging HartDistrict Local Plan [57] contains apolicy that states:

“Within the landscape characterareas...development will be permittedif it does not adversely affect theparticular character of the landscape,and is in accordance with otherpolicies of this plan.”

Where local planning authoritiesuse this approach, they need to setout criteria to judge whether thechange and development will bedeemed to be adverse. Such criteriawill need to be based on particularelements and/or characteristics ofthe area’s character which arejudged to be sensitive to particularforms of development.

The advantages of such a policy andcriteria are that:

• development has to be inaccord with the character ofthe area;

• developers know what to do togain planning permission;

• development control staff knowwhat details they are looking forin applications;

• higher quality development isthe result.

Design of new development8.23 Landscape CharacterAssessments which aim to influ-ence the design of newdevelopment often conclude withlandscape guidelines which coverissues such as:

• the form and location of settle-ments and their relationship tothe landscape;

• the nature of characteristicbuildings, including materials,height and form, and detailing;

• particular local features whichmight add distinctiveness tonew development.

8.24 The aim of design guidanceshould be to ensure that essentialchange is sympathetic to thecharacter of the landscape andwhere possible enhances it. Insome situations it could alsoidentify what changes might bepossible to the area’s character, anissue addressed in Topic Paper 7.It should not exclude innovativedesign which still respects charac-ter, but neither should it be sovague as to be meaningless.Guidance may be given on thesiting, scale, form, massing, and useof space of new development aswell as on the details of its design,including colour and use of materi-als. In the light of such guidance,development briefs and conceptstatements for sites can thenindicate how the key landscapecharacteristics need to bemaintained and how schemes canensure the best possible fit withtheir landscape setting. Conditionsattached to planning permissionscan further assist in ensuringappropriate design to reflectlandscape character.

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Box 8.7: Winchester City and its Setting Study (1998)

The principal aims of this study were to:

• identify the landscape/townscape characteristics and attributes of the historic city and its setting, and thecontribution they make to the special character and sense of place;

• identify and delineate the boundary of the historic setting to Winchester;• examine the existing pressures on each defined character area and how the foreseeable pressures on the City

and its environment interact;• define those characteristics which are essential to the historic fabric of the City and its setting and

approaches, and its relationship to the wider countryside;• identify possible mitigation measures to reduce the effects of development.

It was proposed that these results would then inform (a) a separate study being undertaken by Winchester CityCouncil on the ‘Future of Winchester’ and its environmental capacity and (b) a future methodology for appraisinghistoric cathedral cities and their setting.

The approach adopted involved:• initial reconnaissance of the area to define the scope of the study and area of search;• integrated characterisation which took account of the historic evolution of the city, as well as present-day

landscape/townscape character and ecological attributes. Field surveys were undertaken by experts independ-ently but a joint steering group provided an integrated approach to characterisation and mapping ofboundaries;

• a civic perception workshop involving an invited list of delegates (50) including representatives of key localorganisations who contributed to specific themes: built heritage and urban spaces; historic landscape; placeand people; nature conservation; and industry and archaeology. This workshop highlighted the need todevelop opportunities for greater public participation in this type of work;

• identification of landscape types and landscape and townscape character areas. Although the landscape andtownscape areas are generally physically distinct there are areas where they borrow from each other e.g.where green wedges feed into the city centre;

• classification of landscape and townscape character areas according to their area of influence and relativesignificance within the City and its wider landscape setting. The following broad categories were identified:- visually cohesive historic cores;- visually fragmented historic cores;- landscape and townscape distinctive to

Winchester and its setting;- landscape and townscape supportive to

Winchester and its setting;- other connective areas of landscape and

townscape within Winchester and its setting.

All these categories are considered important within thecontext of Winchester. It is these categories which havebeen fed into the broader capacity study of Winchesterwhich has adopted the Quality of Life Capital approach toappraise future scenarios.

Source: Hampshire County Council et al (1998) WinchesterCity and its Setting Study, Stage 1 Report. Landscape DesignAssociates, Peterborough.

Areas of influence

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8.25 In England the CountrysideAgency has developed complemen-tary techniques, alongsideLandscape Character Assessment,for assessing the character of thebuilt environment and its relation-ship to the landscape through itsDesign in the CountrysideProgramme which coversCountryside Design Summaries(CDS),Village Design Statements(VDS), and Town Design Statements(TDS). It is desirable for aLandscape Character Assessmentand a Countryside DesignSummary to be prepared in parallelor in close sequence, for the samearea, as in North LincolnshireUnitary Authority and Stratford-on-Avon District (Box 8.8), with theCDS concentrating on buildings andsettlements in the landscape.Following this approach it is impor-tant that the different emphasis ofthe Landscape CharacterAssessment and the CDS is under-stood, and that the outputs arecomplementary and not contradic-tory. A single set of charactertypes and areas should be commonto both.

Development control8.26 In development control,landscape character is only one ofmany factors to be considered inreaching decisions about applica-tions for planning permission. ALandscape Character Assessment,referred to in a development planor available as supplementaryplanning guidance, together withsuitably worded policies onlandscape character, and informedby other work such as aCountryside Design Summary orVillage Design Statement, will be ofconsiderable help in ensuring thatdecisions are as informed as possi-ble. Development control officersshould contribute to the brief forany Landscape Character

Assessment and should be involvedin discussions about the proposeduses of an assessment for develop-ment control purposes. They areimportant stakeholders who shouldcontribute to the making of judge-ments about character, ideally bybeing part of a project steeringgroup.

8.27 The final decision about theacceptability of new development isgenerally taken by local authoritymembers, advised by officers. IfLandscape Character Assessment isto play a major role in improvingthese decisions, it is vital thatmembers themselves develop anunderstanding of the importance ofcharacter and the way that it canbe influenced by different forms ofdevelopment. While detailedunderstanding of the technicalitiesof Landscape Character Assessmentis not necessary, an appreciation ofits role, importance and implica-tions will be invaluable. This can beencouraged by information, adviceand training for members. Not alldecisions will be made by localauthorities, but by the Secretary ofState or planning inspectors, whowill also consider advice about theimportance of character.

INPUTS TO ENVIRONMENTALIMPACT ASSESSMENT8.28 Many forms of developmentare the subject of EnvironmentalImpact Assessment under theprovisions of the EU Directives andthe UK government regulationswhich put them into effect.Assessing the landscape and visualimpact of development proposals isone of the main components ofthese procedures and there isseparate guidance, produced by theLandscape Institute and theInstitute of EnvironmentalAssessment [58], on how this part

of the work should be carried out.

8.29 Landscape CharacterAssessment makes a significantcontribution to that part of theprocedure concerned with assess-ing the impact of a development onlandscape as a resource. It will, forexample, help to indicate:

• the type of landscape withinwhich the proposal lies;

• the consequences (both benefitsand disbenefits) of not proceed-ing with a development, or onlymaking minimal change;

• the scope for additional mitiga-tion measures where, with gooddesign, a development which isacceptable, can be visually andenvironmentally enhanced.

Proper application of these proce-dures within an EIA framework, atall relevant stages of project devel-opment, can do a great deal tobring about development which issensitive to its landscape context.

8.30 This approach has specialrelevance to highway schemes andother transport infrastructuredevelopment proposals. These maybe instituted either at the strategiclevel as part of multi-modal androad-based studies or at the locallevel by local authorities undertheir five year Local TransportPlans. The process of landscapecharacterisation will be importantin examining the regional, sub-regional and local scale impact onthe landscape arising from propos-als for all or part of majortransport corridors, whether theproposals transect or are alignedwithin one or more character areasor character types.

8.31 In England, the Guidance on theMethodology for Multi-Modal Studies(GOMMMS) [59] sets out detailed

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Box 8.8: Stratford-on-Avon District - Countryside Design Summary, District Design Guide

Stratford-on-Avon District Council has produced a three-part package of design guidance that complements theWarwickshire Landscape Guidelines and comprises:

• Countryside Design Summary (CDS) - two A1 posters including a character map and outlining key designprinciples;

• District Design Guide - a document that incorporates and expands upon the CDS, providing more compre-hensive general descriptions and design principles;

• Village Design Statements - produced by local communities, providing detailed information about their specificsettlements.

The CDS divides the district into five main character areas, each of which was further divided into sub-areas toaccount for local differences. These character areas and their description were drawn up on the basis of theWarwickshire Landscape Guidelines with the character areas responding in broad outline to those identified inthe Character of England map. The CDS made slight changes to the names and boundaries of the Guideline’soriginal character areas, in response to local perceptions and a more deliberate focus on settlement location,structure and predominant building materials.

The CDS and the more detailed District Design Guide set out general design principles that promote usingsettlements themselves as a design resource to maintain and enhance the distinctive local character of each area.The principles derive from an understanding of the historical processes that have created the District’s villagesand buildings. In particular they consider:

1. Settlement position and form

2. Skyline, views and edge character

3. Internal characteristics of settlements (eg street pattern, plot pattern, individual plots, buildings, details andmaterials).

A core body of concepts and methods used in putting together the CDS and the District Design Guide camefrom the field of urban morphology, which is concerned with the process of formation, structure and character ofhuman settlements. It become clear in combining urban morphological analysis and the character-based approachto landscape assessment that the two share several common concepts and methods. Both take a similar approachto different areas of the environment, one predominantly planted the other predominantly built. Taken togetherthey form a complementary view of the broader human environment and a useful tool for management anddesign guidance.

Sources: Warwickshire County Council (1993) Warwickshire Landscape Guidelines. Countryside Commission, Cheltenham.Stratford-on-Avon District Council (1999) Countryside Design Summary for Stratford-on-Avon District; Stratford-on-AvonDistrict Council (2001) Stratford-on-Avon District Design Guide. Both published by Stratford-on-Avon District Council.

Hilltop or ridgetop settlements tend toextend along ridgelines and plateaux,and secondarily downward along mainroutes.

Hillside or hill terrace settlementstend to extend parallel to the contour

lines of the hillside. Secondarily theytend to extend downward along the

main routes.

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advice on the appraisal techniquesfor each of the Government’sobjectives for transport.The equivalent in Scotlandproduced by the Scottish ExecutiveRoads Directorate is known asSTAGS (Scottish TransportAppraisal Guidance System).GOMMMS and STAGS build uponthe methodology in the Guidance ona New Approach to Appraisal(GNATA) [60]. In October 2001,the Department for Transport,Local Government and the Regionsissued supplementary guidance onAccumulating Environmental Impacts[61]. This document comes intoeffect immediately and providesclearer guidance on the procedureto be adopted to derive an overallassessment score when an optionaffects a number of key environ-mental resources.

Establishing landscape criteria for other forms of development8.32 Different forms of develop-ment are now using acharacter-based approach to informtheir proposals, not only housingand transport but also the windenergy and telecommunicationssectors. For example, areas subjectto proposals from any of thesesectors can benefit from informa-tion from a Landscape CharacterAssessment, especially incorporat-ing information on:

• the proximity of important sitesand features;

• intrinsic landscape patterns andperceived characteristics;

• the potential visual influence ofthe developments;

• the likely influence of theproposed development on thelocality’s character and sense ofplace.

The issue of wind energy develop-ment is discussed further inrelation to landscape character inTopic Paper 8.

INTRODUCTION9.1 Landscape CharacterAssessment can be used to informpolicies for landscape conservationand management. Traditionally thefocus has been on the designationof special areas of landscape, andon their appropriate management.Outside these areas there has beengrowing emphasis on devisingstrategies and guidelines to help toconserve and enhance character inthe wider landscape. This has alsoinvolved the use of LandscapeCharacter Assessment to influencedecisions about land use change,such as the planned increase in theextent of woodland in thelandscape, and interventionsthrough mechanisms such as agri-environment schemes. Landownersand managers can sometimes seesuch approaches as lacking appreci-ation of the real world of landmarket economics and the practicaldecisions which they are facedwith. It is therefore important thatthese stakeholders should beactively involved, along with others,in discussions about appropriatestrategies and guidelines.

LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES9.2 Many local authorities prepareLandscape Character Assessmentsto assist in the development ofnon-statutory countryside strate-gies or specific landscape strategies.Other initiatives like IndicativeForestry Strategies can also be

informed by this tool. Theseexercises generally rely on analysisof key characteristics, understand-ing of the pressures causinglandscape change, and the drawingup of landscape guidelines. Somestudies develop these guidelineswithin strategies or objectives forindividual landscape character typesor areas, of the type described inChapter 7.

9.3 Establishing a clear linkbetween key characteristics, analysisof change and landscape guidelinesis particularly important and is bestachieved by the involvement of arange of stakeholders, especiallythose representing land manage-ment interests. There are manyexamples of Landscape CharacterAssessments being used in this way.In Scotland all the assessmentswhich have formed part of thenational programme, contain ananalysis of the issues facing thelandscape, and develop guidelinesfor conservation or enhancementwhich are not highly prescriptivebut which indicate actions required.This approach has been used in theCouncil area assessments (Box9.1) where it is common toprepare guidelines for eachlandscape character type, and insome smaller-scale applications(Box 9.2).

9.4 In England many counties haveprepared landscape guidelines. Inthe Warwickshire LandscapeAssessment, strategies and guide-

lines were prepared for landscapecharacter types in each of thecountryside character areas withinthe county, helped by a series ofworkshops involving all the mainstakeholders with an interest in theWarwickshire countryside. Aproject officer was subsequentlyemployed to facilitate implementa-tion of the guidelines by workingwith stakeholders, including localparishes. This exercise encourageddiscussion and interpretation of thelandscape guidelines at the locallevel.

SPECIAL AREAS - IDENTIFICATION AND BOUNDARIES 9.5 Designation of areas oflandscape deemed to be of speciallandscape value has, for manyyears, been the key plank oflandscape conservation andmanagement. National Parks andAONBs in England and NationalScenic Areas in Scotland, haveplayed an important role in planningpolicy and development control, aswell as in conserving, managing andenhancing the landscape. InEngland, the first step in the desig-nation of nationally importantlandscapes has been to choose thebroad area of special landscape andthen to define an appropriateadministrative boundary that encap-sulates areas of appropriatecharacter. In principle broadcharacter areas, equivalent to thosenow shown in The Character ofEngland map, which did not exist

CHAPTER 9

APPLICATIONS IN LANDSCAPE

CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

74

Box 9.1: Landscape Character Assessment of Fife

The Landscape Character Assessment of the area covered by Fife Council was commissioned jointly by ScottishNatural Heritage and the Council itself, working in partnership. It forms part of the Scottish national programmeof Landscape Character Assessment and is designed to assist in ensuring that decisions that may affect the Fifelandscape will help contribute to its sustainability and enhancement. The report focuses on landscape issues inthe area and has the following main aims and objectives, which are broadly similar to those for the nationalprogramme as a whole:

• to classify and describe the landscape, identifying the landscape character types which occur in Fife and placethem in their national context, integrating the assessment with those already carried out for parts of the areaand for adjacent areas;

• to identify the forces or pressures for change in the landscape which may affect its distinctive character;• to assess the sensitivity of the landscape to change and identify which areas have the greatest and least capac-

ity to accommodate development and land use change;• to recommend guidelines for the conservation/enhancement of the different landscape types and identify

opportunities for these activities and priorities for specific landscape initiatives;• to provide a useful working tool for planners, landscape architects, ecologists, land managers, developers and

others who may contribute to the conservation and enhancement of the landscape;• to provide a baseline for Fife Council’s Crushed Rock Strategy.

The landscape classification for Fife was undertaken at a finer grain than the larger scale assessments that aremore typical of SNH’s national programme, reflecting its application at the local level. Landscape types weredefined on a 1:25,000 map base and presented in summary on the less detailed 1:50,000 base. 19 landscape typeswere defined across the study area, and these were subsequently subdivided into 115 individual landscapecharacter units or areas, defined to reflect recognisable and identifiable local character. Landform and topogra-phy were the dominant influences on the definition of landscape types (e.g. uplands, hills, basins, and coastalareas), though ‘designed landscapes’ were identified as a landscape type in their own right. The assessment alsoputs this detailed work into the wider context by referring to five regional landscape character areas and threenational landscapes types.

The Fife landscape assessment, like most others in the Scottish national programme, does not seek to evaluatethe landscape or to identify areas that are perceived to be of greater value than others. Landscape Guidelinesare used to provide non-prescriptive recommendations, advice and comment to aid future management of thelandscape. Guidance is also given on how the assessment may be used in respect of project-related landscapeand visual impact assessment. The guidelines deal with each landscape type individually and in each case coveragriculture, forestry, settlements and built development, recreation, tourism and access, other developments andstructures and mineral working. Overall recommendations for action and future initiatives are also made andinclude:

• a historic landscape study and a more detailed study of Gardens and Designed Landscapes;• a review of landscape designations;• work on coastal management strategies and countryside recreation and access;• a proposed vision for the future of the lowland hills and valleys;• a proposal to develop landscape management plans for the upland slopes and Volcanic Hills;• a landscape strategy and Green Belt proposal for St Andrews;• an overview of landscape capacity for mineral workings.

Source: David Tyldesley Associates (1999) Fife landscape character assessment, No. 113, Scottish Natural Heritage,Edinburgh.

Applications in landscape conservation and management

75

when most National Parks weredesignated, can be selected on thebasis of their special valuemeasured against a series of criteriaof the type listed in paras 7.21 -7.23. These criteria are indicativeonly. Such criteria can also providethe basis for a statement about whya particular area is valued, and suchcomments can be found in manylandscape assessments of AONBs inEngland and in the descriptionscontained in Scotland’s ScenicHeritage for the National ScenicAreas in Scotland [62].

9.6 Once a broad area has beenselected for national designation orrecognition, a map of landscapecharacter at the local level can helpto define detailed boundaries. Forexample, it may be that certainlandscape character types areconsidered appropriate for inclu-sion in the area, while others arenot. A map of landscape types can,in these circumstances, make thetask of boundary definitionrelatively straightforward.Character and value are separateconcepts so character area bound-aries may coincide with designationboundaries but they do not have

to, and in many instances do not.There are often other, completelydifferent criteria, for a variety ofenvironmental, social or politicalreasons, that are also used to selectboundaries of such areas.

9.7 Once defined, more detailedLandscape Character Assessmentsmay be undertaken to meet partic-ular objectives. In England, theCountryside Agency has initiatedassessments for all AONBs with theaim of providing a statement abouttheir particular landscape value, andraising awareness of their specialqualities. These assessments also

Box 9.2: Landscape Character Assessment of Mar Lodge Estate for management plan purposes

On 1 July 1995, the National Trust for Scotland (NTS) acquired the 77,500 acre Mar Lodge Estate which formspart of the core area of the Cairngorms Working Party Study Area. The international and national importance ofthe Cairngorms is recognised by a variety of existing and prospective scenic, nature conservation and geomor-phologic designations throughout the area. The Estate also contributes to the recreational importance of thearea, where a wide range of countryside experiences are available, from challenging winter sports in a hostilemountain environment to easily visited, scenic locations in the surrounding straths and glens. In the same year,1995, the National Trust for Scotland commissioned an assessment of the landscape character of the Estate. Thestudy forms part of the national programme of Landscape Character Assessment in Scotland, but is unusual inthat it is at a greater level of detail than the other studies in the programme as it focuses on a specific land area,in single ownership, and is designed to inform and shape the content of the Estate Management Plan.The detailed objectives of the assessment in terms of management were to:

• provide information about different landscape character areas for use by land managers and to inform theManagement Plan;

• to consider the likely pressures and opportunities for landscape change within the Estate and to assess thesensitivity of particular landscape character areas to such change;

• to develop guidelines indicating how landscape character may be conserved enhanced or restructured asappropriate;

• to provide guidance on how various types of land-use change might best be accommodated within the differ-ent landscape character areas identified.

The assessment recognises that while some types of landscape change may have a detrimental effect on charac-ter, others may offer opportunities for enhancement or for increasing the diversity of the landscape. The studyestablishes a strategy of conserving and enhancing existing landscape diversity and the elements and attributeswhich contribute to the distinctiveness of the Estate landscape. Specific guidelines cover native woodlandrestoration, management of plantations, conservation and enhancement of wild land quality, treatment of derelictbuildings, moorland management and deer management.

Source: Turnbull Jeffrey Partnership (1996) Mar Lodge Landscape Assessment. No. 79. Scottish Natural Heritage,Edinburgh.


76

provide the starting point formanagement proposals, althoughmore detailed work may berequired for this purpose. In theSussex Downs AONB, for example,there is a suite of separate assess-ment reports, each fulfilling adifferent function (Box 9.3).

GUIDING WOODLAND EXPANSION9.8 Woodland expansion is nowan important government policycommitment, and LandscapeCharacter Assessments have animportant role to play in guidingthis change. The ForestryCommission’s UK ForestryStandard [63] and both the England[64] and Scottish ForestryStrategies [65] make particular

mention of the role of character inhelping to guide decisions aboutthe location and design of newwoodland. In England it is antici-pated that regional planning willincreasingly take on board strate-gies for woodland expansion andthe countryside character areas willbe an important first step in theirdevelopment. Major forestry andwoodland initiatives, like theCommunity Forests and theNational Forest in England, and theCentral Scotland Forest, have madesignificant use of LandscapeCharacter Assessment to indicatewhere there is greatest potentialfor woodland planting and whereexpansion is undesirable in termsof landscape character. A numberof these initiatives have involved

stakeholder input to the forestrystrategies that have flowed fromthe Landscape CharacterAssessments, such as that devisedfor the National Forest (Box 9.4).Another example is in Ayrshire,where an Indicative ForestryStrategy based on the area’sLandscape Character Assessment isbeing developed with industry andcommunity as partners. A range ofrelevant stakeholders, especiallythose directly involved in managingforests and woodlands, have beenconsulted on the development ofthese strategies and guidelines.

9.9 Judgements by professionalsand stakeholders, based on informa-tion on the character of thelandscape and its capacity to

Box 9.3: A suite of documents: Sussex Downs AONB

From a single landscape character assessment and follow-up research, a suite of documents has been producedfor the Sussex Down AONB to serve different purposes.

• The Landscape of the Sussex Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty CCP 495 (1996) is one of theCountryside Agency’s series of publications on the landscapes of the AONBs of England. This is first andforemost a celebration in words and pictures of the character of the AONB. Its purpose is to capture thespecial qualities of the Sussex Downs, identify how the landscape has come to be as it is, what the specialcharacteristics are of the various landscape types which together make up the whole picture, how thelandscape relates to the ecology of the area and the pattern of human settlement, and how the landscape hasbeen perceived by writers and artists.

• A Landscape Assessment of the Sussex Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (1996) is a technicallandscape assessment report which describes the key landscape types and sensitivities to change and focuseson the Management Guidelines applicable to each. It has been adopted as Supplementary Planning Guidance.It is primarily aimed at planning officers and all those who have influence over the future of the AONB.

• The Sussex Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty Landscape Design Guidelines provide practicaladvice, primarily aimed at land managers (farmers and foresters), of what they can do to maintain andenhance the special character of the area. Guidelines are presented in easily assimilated graphic formshowing the existing situation and preferred situation for each landscape type. The Guidance is in loose-leafform so that relevant sheets can be copied for individual landowners.

Sources: Landscape Design Associates (1996) The Landscape of the Sussex Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.Countryside Commission and Sussex Downs Conservation Board, Cheltenham CCP 495;Landscape Design Associates (1996) A Landscape Assessment of the Sussex Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.Countryside Commission and Sussex Downs Conservation Board, Cheltenham;Landscape Design Associates (1997) The Sussex Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty Landscape DesignGuidelines. Countryside Commission and Sussex Downs Conservation Board, Cheltenham.


77

accommodate change, will providea starting point in deciding wheresignificant new woodland may beappropriate. Character types andareas which include a strategy forenhancement potentially providethe greatest opportunities for newwoodland planting. More detailedguidelines relating to woodlandpotential can then be combinedwith the Forestry Commission’sown guidelines on woodland design[66] to indicate how planting whichis sensitive to its landscape contextcan be achieved.

9.10 There are now manyexamples of this sort of application:

• the Cumbria Woodlands Forumhas used the national country-side character areas to show inan accessible, graphic form, howthe woodland area of thecounty could be increased;

• in Staffordshire the countylandscape assessment hasinformed an Indicative ForestryStrategy for the county, showingthe scope for different levels of

planting in each landscapecharacter area on a WoodlandOpportunities Map;

• in East Sussex the countylandscape assessment hasformed the basis of a county-wide Woodland and TreeStrategy;

• in Scotland LandscapeCharacter Assessments havebeen used to help develop LocalForestry Frameworks, with twoin Dumfries and Galloway andone in the Cairngorms. Afurther Framework for LochLomond and the Trossachs -soon to be Scotland’s firstNational Park - is currentlybeing prepared.

9.11 The existing LandscapeCharacter Assessment in Dumfriesand Galloway has also been used todevelop the Forestry CommissionStrategic Plan for the area. Inaddition, a partnership between theCouncil, Forestry Commission andSNH has produced forestry andwoodland design guidance [67] forparticular landscape character types

in Dumfries and Galloway whichare potential areas for woodlandexpansion, as a reference forfarmers and landowners applyingfor Woodland Grants Schemes(Figure 9.1).

9.12 In the Culm area of the SouthWest of England, a combination ofexisting landscape assessments havebeen used to take a strategic viewof the location, type and extent ofwoodland planting that would beappropriate within what has nowbecome defined as the South WestForest Project. Here woodlandplanting is being promoted as amethod of halting rapid agriculturaleconomic decline, through develop-ing alternative land uses andstimulating a wood-based economy.

AGRICULTURE AND LANDSCAPE CHARACTER

Agri-environment schemes9.13 Landscape CharacterAssessment is an invaluable tool indevising and targeting agri-environ-

Box 9.4: Landscape Character Assessment and stakeholder input in the National Forest

The original Landscape Character Assessment for the National Forest was central to the development of theForestry Strategy. The consultation on the Strategy provided the opportunity for comment on the descriptiveassessment and on the Forward Strategy for forestry creation based on the assessment. Consultationtechniques included:

• written responses to the full Strategy (220 replies);• 1300 questionnaires returned by the general public from 18,000 distributed summary documents of the

Strategy;• extensive media coverage - press, radio, and production of a video for loan to outside groups;• 30 talks to specialist stakeholder groups;• 6 public meetings and 6 day-long manned displays in local shopping centres;• watercolours commissioned to depict the changes in rural and coalfield landscapes over a 50-year period, for

use in talks and exhibitions;• community views sought by interviewing six groups from within a typical coalfield village and an urban settle-

ment from within the Forest.

Source: Information supplied by the National Forest.


78

ment schemes. It has alreadyplayed an important role in theoperation of EnvironmentallySensitive Areas (ESAs), whereassessments have been undertakenfor each ESA to help guide theprescriptions (based on an analysisof the key characteristics and theirquality), and to provide a basis formonitoring. In Scotland SNHprovided the Scottish ExecutiveRural Affairs Division with alandscape character monitoringframework for the ESAs to beapplied together with biological andarchaeological monitoring over aten year period to assess theeffects of grant uptake on thecountryside of the ESAs. The

Countryside Agency has beenworking on a character-basedapproach that could guide targetingof the Countryside StewardshipScheme (CSS).

9.14 Landscape CharacterAssessment can also be an impor-tant tool in making the case foragri-environment support. In theIsles of Scilly a combined landscapeand historic landscape characterassessment was undertaken onbehalf of the Duchy of Cornwall tomake a case for the Islands to beconsidered as a CountrysideStewardship Scheme Special ProjectArea and to devise the appropriateprescriptions, based on the identifi-

cation of key characteristics andtheir condition [68]. In the case ofthe High Weald, the existingLandscape Character Assessmentfor the AONB [69] was a centralbuilding block in a separate studywhich highlighted the need forintegrated rural support tomaintain the unique character ofthe area in the face of acuteagricultural decline. Based on thiscase, the High Weald is nowanother of the CountrysideAgency’s Land ManagementInitiatives (LMIs) (Box 9.5).

Product and place9.15 Another key role forLandscape Character Assessment

Figure 9.1: Landscape Design Guidance for Forests and Woodlands in Dumfries and Galloway

Enhance enclosure pattern with fieldcorner plantingand shelterbelts

Re-establish hedgerow andfield tree patterns

Plant steep riverbanks,levees, bluffs and lochmargins with deciduousspecies

Manage and improve riparianand wetland woodland andscrub habitats on FloodedValley margins

Establish new nativewoodlands adjacent to loch.Follow the valley landformsto reinforce their pattern

Vary edges by introducing areas oflow density planting, with clumpsof shrubs and native broadleavesto maintain diversity and provideviews of flooded valleys

As forests are restructured, estab-lish new edges with species andstructural diversity, softening themargin to open space and followingthe contours

Either leave the glacialfeatures (drumlins) onthe valley floorunplanted and open toview or plant them toemphasise the landscapefeature (as shown)

Establish small tomedium scalewoodlands in landformfolds and tributaryvalleys, using a highpercentage ofbroadleaves

Extensions topolicy woodlandsfollowing thelandformExisting planting

New planting (fenced)

Restructured forest

Hatching indicatesconifer woodland

Key

Lower DaleMiddle DaleFlooded Valley


79

Source: ERM (1998) Landscape Design Guidance for Forests and Woodlands in Dumfries and Galloway. ForestryCommission, Dumfries and Galloway Council, Scottish Natural Heritage.

which is rapidly coming to the fore,is in developing the concept ofproduct and place i.e. the linking ofland-based production to a particu-lar locality. This can have a strongtwo-way benefit:

• for local producers, linking theirproduct (e.g. food and drink,woodland produce) to a partic-ular locality can help engenderproduct identity, creatingenhanced marketing opportuni-ties and sales;

• for the environment, with theright promotion (through mediasuch as local product directo-ries), the selective purchasing oflocal products by consumerscan help boost the local ruraleconomy and thus the mainte-nance of the landscape.

9.16 Both regional and more localLandscape Character Assessments,especially when conducted withstakeholder input, can helpreinforce local identity andstrengthen the links between the

landscape and its economy. Theycan identify local symbols of place,which can be used in productlabelling and marketing and, withcareful promotion, can encourageconsumers to ‘buy in’ to thoselandscapes that they wish tosupport.

LANDSCAPE CHANGEFOR REGENERATION9.17 The current character of thelandscape should not be a barrierto the creation of new landscapes.Where a Landscape CharacterAssessment indicates that a strat-egy of enhancement orregeneration is appropriate for aparticular landscape type or area,this signals scope for significantchange to the landscape, often bycreation of a new landscapecharacter to suit new circum-stances. In many respects,landscapes with degraded featuresand elements offer greatest scopefor positive change to improve thelocal environment and people’squality of life.

9.18 Landscape CharacterAssessment can play a key role inidentifying areas of the country-side which offer potential forcreative approaches to landscaperenewal. They can involverestoration of valued characterwhere it has been lost, and invest-ment in creating new landscapeselsewhere. Schemes like theCentral Scotland Forest, HighlandBirchwoods Project, Isle of RumManagement Plan, the NationalForest and the CommunityForests are all good examples oflarge-scale initiatives to improveand regenerate extensive tracts oflandscape. New wetlands andfenland restoration are otherexamples of how extensive landuse change can be a focus for newactivity in the countryside and atthe urban edge. All have beeninformed by Landscape CharacterAssessments, helping to guidelandscape change where it will beof greatest benefit, and influencingdesign matters.

9.19 Many of the most significantopportunities for restoration andcreation of landscape occuraround the fringes of urban areas.These are also often the areasunder greatest pressure for devel-opment and subject to morerapid rates of change. Characterin these areas may be difficult topin down because it is usuallydominated by built-up areas ofdifferent types. Stakeholderinvolvement can be of particularmerit in indicating where andwhat people value most in theirlocal environment and inhighlighting those landscapecharacteristics which local peoplewould wish to see incorporatedinto proposals for enhancementand development.

Box 9.5: The High Weald Land Management Initiative andstakeholder involvement

The High Weald Land Management Initiative was set up in 2000 to helpfarms, other rural businesses and rural communities to find sustainableways of diversifying to maintain the distinctive environment, ruraleconomy and local communities. Before the Initiative was launched, thelandscape character of the High Weald was explored in a series ofworkshops involving local stakeholders, including the farming commu-nity. A strong consensus emerged that the key characteristic of theHigh Weald landscape is its distinctive mosaic of interlockingwoodlands, linear wooded features and small fields. This helped thegroups to establish and agree environmental targets for the LMI. Thesetargets included ones for hedgerows, new woodland planting, hedgerowtrees, field edges, arable headlands, unimproved permanent pasture,ponds and streams.The targets will be firmed up in 2002.

Source: High Weald Land Management Initiative and the High Weald AONBUnit (2001).


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[1] Countryside Agency and Scottish NaturalHeritage (1999) Interim Landscape Character AssessmentGuidance. Countryside Agency/Scottish NaturalHeritage.

[2] Department of the Environment,Transport andthe Regions (1999) A Better Quality of Life: a Strategyfor Sustainable Development in the United Kingdom.Stationery Office, London.

[3] Department of the Environment,Transport andthe Regions (2000) Our Countryside:The Future - A FairDeal for Rural England. Rural White Paper. StationeryOffice, London.

[4] The Scottish Office (1998) National Planning PolicyGuidelines 14: Natural Heritage.The Scottish Office.

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[6] Countryside Commission for Scotland (1991)Landscape Assessment: Principles and Practice.Countryside Commission for Scotland, Battleby.

[7] Countryside Commission (1991) Assessment andConservation of landscape character: The WarwickshireLandscapes Project approach. CCP 332. CountrysideCommission, Cheltenham.

[8] Countryside Commission (1993) LandscapeAssessment Guidance. CCP 423. CountrysideCommission, Cheltenham.

[9] Countryside Commission and English Nature(1996) The Character of England: landscape, wildlife andnatural features (map) CCX 41. CountrysideCommission/English Nature, Cheltenham.

[10] David Tyldesley and Associates (1996)Dunfermline District Landscape assessment. No. 19.Scottish Natural Heritage, Edinburgh.

[11] Cobham Resource Consultants (1997) Nationalprogramme of landscape character assessment: Banff andBuchan. No 37. Scottish Natural Heritage, Edinburgh.

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[14] David Tyldesley and Associates (1995) TheLandscape of Kinross-shire. No 77. Scottish NaturalHeritage, Edinburgh.

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References

Landscape Character Assessment

MAKING SENSE OF PLACE

Summary Guidance for England and Scotland

Landscape is about the relationship between peopleand place. It is the setting for our lives. It can meana patch of local green space as much as a mountainrange.

Landscape has:

• economic value, providing the setting for economicactivity and often becoming a central factor inattracting business and tourism...

• social and community value, as an important part ofpeople’s lives, contributing to our sense ofidentity and well-being, and bringing enjoymentand inspiration...

• environmental value, as a home for wildlife and acultural record of society's use of the land...

...so it is crucial that we understand the character ofthe landscape when we consider how it might change- so that any change is for the better.

MAKING SENSE OF PLACE

Why landscape character matters

People can welcome development if it is well designed and contributes toquality of life. Policy makers and practitioners need ways of achieving this, andLandscape Character Assessment is one of the key techniques.

Landscape Character Assessment tells you what makes a place distinctive. Youcan use this information to achieve high quality development that is not only inthe right place, but which respects and enhances its surroundings. It can alsoinform land management decisions that will help the economy, as well assustain the environment.

To help decision-makers and practitioners make best use of LandscapeCharacter Assessment, the Countryside Agency and Scottish Natural Heritagehave joined forces to produce new guidance. This is a summary of the fulldocument, which is available free from the sources listed on the back of thispamphlet.

Landscape - the setting for our lives

A T

ryner/Countryside A

gency

It’s a tool for identifying the features that give a locality its ‘sense of place’ andpinpointing what makes it different from its neighbouring areas.

Landscape Character Assessment provides a framework for describing an area in asystematic way. It lets different interest groups make better judgements by knowingwhat’s present and what is distinct, so any change can respect local character, or addto it, and even change it if that is what’s desired.

The Character of England map provides a national framework for the more detailedassessments carried out by local authorities and others. The major Scottish nationalprogramme of Landscape Character Assessment is also now complete, involving allScottish local authorities and organisations such as the Forestry Commission.

So what is Landscape Character Assessment?

A Landscape Character Assessment of land surrounding settlements can help plan for future development in a way that will respect their

distinctive character and landscape setting.

Landscape Design A

ssociates

The Government’s Sustainable Development Strategy, A Better Quality ofLife, gives the following definition of sustainable development:

“It means meeting four objectives at the same time in the UK and theworld as a whole:

• social progress that recognises the needs of everyone;

• effective protection of the environment;

• prudent use of natural resources; and

• maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and employment.”

Landscape Character Assessment helps to address two of these objectives- ‘effective environmental protection’ and ‘prudent natural resource use’.In particular, it can help:

• identify the environmental and cultural features in a locality;

• monitor change in the environment;

• understand a location’s sensitivity to development and change;

• set the conditions for any development and change.

How Landscape Character Assessment helps deliver sustainable development

New housing at Elvetham Heath, Fleet,

Hampshire. The developers and the District

Council used local landscape character analysis

to help guide the detailed design brief for a

complex site.

Landscape Character Assessment can help to

find the best sites for telecommunications

infrastructure.

Hart D

istrict Council

Jon Stone/Countryside A

gency

Development and planning

Landscape Character Assessment can help:

• decide policies in development plans;

• inform the siting and design of particulartypes of development, such as housing,minerals, telecommunications and windenergy;

• assess land availability for a range ofuses, including new development;

• provide information for EnvironmentalAssessments of plans, policies andindividual development proposals.

Landscape Character Assessment can help:

• inform programmes for environmentalenhancement, such as woodlandexpansion, or the regeneration oftowns and villages;

• the targeting of agri-environmentschemes;

• contribute to wider environmentalinitiatives such as Local Agenda 21,State of the Environment Reports and,in Scotland, Natural Heritage Futures.

Land management

Management proposals for areas worked by industry can be informed by Landscape

Character Assessment.

Preparation of a Local Forestry and Woodland Framework for

Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park has included a

review of Landscape Character Assessment guidelines for the

area. Restructuring of forestry in the foreground will create a

more diverse woodland landscape.

Land Use C

onsultants

Archy M

iles/Countryside A

gency

Landscape Character Assessment comprises twostages - characterisation, and then making judgements.

Characterisation

The characterisation stage defines the scope ofthe assessment, involves a desk study and fieldsurvey, and then a description of the landscape,dividing it into areas of common character,mapping them and describing their character andkey issues.

Making judgements

Land management decisions ultimately lie withsociety - owners, politicians, land managers, localcommunities and many other stakeholders. Buttheir decisions will be sounder if they are basedon information assembled through the LandscapeCharacter Assessment process.

Involving these stakeholders in LandscapeCharacter Assessments will be a sound invest-ment. It will produce results that are betterinformed and which encourage greater involve-ment in their use for determining betterdevelopment and land management decisions.

How Landscape Character Assessment works

Using Landscape Character Assessment at the right scale

Landscape Character Assessments can be carried out at three main levels:

• National and regional scale to identify broad differences in landscape character acrossthe whole of a country or region;

• Local authority scale to identify landscape character at the county, district or unitaryauthority level in England, or at the council area level in Scotland;

• Local scale to describe the landscape character of smaller areas: an individual parish,perhaps, or a large farm estate, a country park or a proposed development site.

Assessments at different scales should fit seamlessly together, providing the context forassessments at lower levels or adding more detail to assessments above.

Simon W

arner/Countryside A

gency

Landscape Character Assessment can help target agri-environment funds, by

highlighting key landscape characteristics that need maintaining and enhancing.

“The recognition of fifteen distinct Landscape Character Areas in Hart’s emerging LocalPlan is playing a key role in encouraging new developments to respect the District’sunderlying local character and diversity in their location, layout, design and management.Furthermore, it is helping to reinforce that often elusive quality of ‘sense of place’throughout the District.”

David Simpson, Leader of Hart District Council

“The landscape does not respect administrative boundaries. It was therefore important, inour area of joint planning, to establish a consistent context that would be used by the eightconstituent councils. A Landscape Character Assessment provided this, and was animportant early task in preparing the Glasgow and Clyde Valley Structure Plan.”

Vincent Goodstadt, Structure Plan Manager,The Glasgow and Clyde Valley JointStructure Plan Committee

“Working with grassroots community groups has demonstrated to me the importance ofengaging local people in Landscape Character Assessment. By participating they contributetheir local expertise, whilst gaining confidence and understanding. Partnership workingproduces effective results, which can help to secure a sound future for local landscapes.”

John Gittens - Cheshire Landscape Trust

Why Landscape Character Assessment is important…

Stakeholder involvement can produce a more informed assessment, greater ownership of

applications, and establish valuable partnerships for future work. Here,Women’s Institute groups

and planning authorities are working together in Suffolk to record local landscape character and

monitor landscape change.

Suffolk Coastal D

istrict Council

The full Landscape Character Assessment: Guidance for England and Scotland, and related topic papers, can be viewedand downloaded from www.countryside.gov.uk/cci/guidance and www.snh.org.uk/strategy/LCA

Free copies of the guidance are also available from:

Countryside Agency Publications Scottish Natural HeritageTel: 0870 1206466 Tel: 0131 446 2400Fax: 0870 1206467 Fax: 0131 446 2405Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Available April 2002:Topic Paper 1 Recent practice and the evolution of Landscape Character AssessmentTopic Paper 2 Links to other sustainability toolsTopic Paper 3 Landscape Character Assessment - how stakeholders can help

Available Summer/Autumn 2002:Topic Paper 4 Use of GIS and other computer methodsTopic Paper 5 Historic landscape characterisationTopic Paper 6 Techniques and criteria for judging capacity and sensitivityTopic Paper 7 Development and new landscape character Topic Paper 8 Landscape character and wind energy developments

Available early 2003:Topic Paper 9 Climate change and natural forces - the consequences for landscape character

Eight regional volumes on Countryside Character are also available from the Countryside Agency, as is TheCharacter of England map. In Scotland, the full set of assessments produced through the national programmecan be obtained from Scottish Natural Heritage.

Want to find out more?

The Countryside Agency Scottish Natural HeritageJohn Dower House, 2 Anderson PlaceCrescent Place, Cheltenham, Edinburgh Gloucestershire GL50 3RA EH6 5NPTel: 01242 521381 Tel: 0131 446200Fax: 01242 584270 Fax: 0131 4462405www.countryside.gov.uk www.snh.org.uk

CAX 94

This document is printed on recycled paper.April 2002

The map extracts used within this publication are reproduced from Ordnance Surveymaterial with the permission of Ordnance Survey on behalf of the Controller of HerMajesty’s Stationery Office © Crown copyright. Unauthorised reproduction infringesCrown copyright and may lead to prosecution or civil proceedings. Countryside AgencyGD272434, 2002.

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