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Land Use and Land Cover Change in Southeast Asia Jay H. Samek1, Do Xuan Lan11, Chaowalit Silapathong3, Charlie Navanagruha4, Sharifah Masturah Syed Abdullah5, Iwan Gunawan6, Bobby Crisostomo8, Flaviana Hilario9, Hoang Minh Hien10, David L. Skole1, Walter Chomentowski1, William A. Salas2, Hartanto Sanjaya7. 1Center for Global Change and Earth Observations, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA 2Applied Geosolutions, LLC, Durham, NH, USA 3Geo-Informatics And Space Technology Development Agency, Bangkok, Thailand 4Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand 5Earth Observation Centre, Universiti Kebansaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia 6Bureau of Programme Coordination and External Relations, ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta Indonesia 7BPPT (Agency for Assessment and Application of Technology), Jakarta, Indonesia 8Database Management Division, National Mapping and Resource Information Authority, Manila, Philippines 9Climatology and Agrometeorology Branch, Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration, Quezon City, Philippines 10Disaster Management Center, Standing Office of the Central Committee for Flood and Storm Control, Hanoi, Vietnam 11Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Development, Hanoi, Vietnam

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Southeast Asia is a culturally, environmentally, and geographically rich, diverse, and dynamic region. Comprised of eleven countries, it spans the Indochina and Malay peninsulas and the Malay Archipelago. Five nations, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, are entirely on the mainland. The remaining six, Brunei, East Timor, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Singapore, are spread across thousands of islands. Coastal zones and river deltas, piedmont zones and mountain chains, with peaks reaching heights greater than 19,000 feet1, characterize the region. The land cover and land use change patterns evident in Southeast Asia are as diverse and dynamic as the political, economic, and demographic spheres in these eleven nations. Direct observations and measurements derived from satellite data, particularly the MSS, TM and ETM+ sensors aboard the suite of Landsat spacecrafts dating back to the early 1970s, provide empirical data used to document the spatial extent of land cover and land use, and also their rates of change over time. The region has experiences loss of forest cover as a whole, particularly hardwood dipterocarp species and mangrove forests, due to a variety of proximate and distant drivers. Recent research, however, provides evidence of dynamic forest re-growth and clearing cycles in upland swidden systems (Wang 2003; Skole et al. 2002). Conservation and resource protection efficacy have also reversed the trend of forest clearing in some regions. In some cases, the total area in forest cover has changed little over time, but the forest cover itself has been converted to plantation forests, such as rubber and oil palm, in place of more diverse, species-rich natural forest. Furthermore, as in other regions of the tropics, forest degradation is rapidly becoming as much of a threat to forest cover as outright clearing and conversion (UNEP 2002; FAO 2001; Matricardi et al. 2001; Achard et al. 1998). Accurate measurements of the forest cover and of forest cover changes in Southeast Asia are important for understanding global and regional climate change, the impacts on biodiversity, ecological health, and human welfare. An equally important dimension of land cover and land use in Southeast Asia is that of urban growth. With cities that are large in terms of population and area2 such as Manila, Bangkok, Jakarta, Hanoi, and Kuala Lumpur, Southeast Asia’s urban environment growth is of global importance socially and with respect to land use and the resultant urban impact on land cover. Regional Forest Cover: From a long-term perspective, 300 years, regional forest cover in Southeast Asia has experienced a steady decline (Fu et al. 1998; Grubler 1994). Decreases in forest cover since the 1700s coincide with the expansion of agriculture, the region’s integration into a global economy, and population growth. Rapid economic development in the region, and technological advances since the mid 1900s, have contributed significantly to the loss of forest cover. The development of transportation networks providing access to areas traditionally traversed on foot, the invention of high-tech machinery to log forests and extract minerals, the construction of hydropower facilities to support the energy demands of the growing urban populations and to 1 Hkakabo in northern Myanmar is the highest peak in Southeast Asia at 19,296 feet above sea level. 2 Population Statistics: Manila, Philippines – 3,754,913; Bangkok, Thailand – 6,320,174; Jakarta, Indonesia – 8,222,515; Hanoi, Vietnam – 1,089,760; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia – 1,297,526;

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support national efforts to compete in the global market economy, the development of large-scale cash-based agriculture in place of subsistent farming, industrial development, national policies favoring economic development over environmental conservation and weak political control have all contributed to the decline in forest cover in Southeast Asia. Long-term estimates of forest cover loss, agricultural expansion, and population growth for Asia as a whole show a loss of 108 x 106 hectares of forest, an increase of 128 x 106 hectares of cropland, and a population increase of 582 x 106 people from 1700 – 1920. Between 1920 and 1980 Asia experienced an additional loss 142 x 106 hectares of forest, an additional increase of 185 x 106 hectares of cropland, and an additional population increase of 1562 x 106 people (revised from Fu et al. 1998). To conclude that population and agricultural expansion alone drive deforestation is too simplistic. However, these proximate causes certainly contribute heavily to the loss of forest cover. The global acquisition of remotely sensed satellite data, since the early 1970s, has contributed significantly to our basic understanding of the forest cover dynamics in this region. The NASA Landsat Pathfinder Humid Tropical Forest Project (HTFP) has measured the extent of forest cover in Indochina at four time periods using high-resolution Landsat MSS (1973, 1985), TM (1992) and ETM+ (1999) data (Figure 1). The Pathfinder HTFP analyses are the only empirically derived, wall-to-wall measurements of Indochina at 30-meter (TM and ETM+) and 60-meter (MSS) spatial resolutions. The Pathfinder HTFP results for Southeast Asia (Figure 2) show a decline in forest cover from 114.72 x 106 hectares in 1973 to 92.87 x 106 hectares in 1999, an overall loss of 21.85 x 106 hectares at an average annual rate of 0.84 x 106 hectares over the twenty six year time frame (revised from Skole et al. 1998 and MSU unpublished results 2003). Figure 3 shows, however, that the annual rate of deforestation in Indochina peaked in the 1980s and has declined since. The annual forest cover loss between 1973 and 1985 was 1.31 x 106 hectares, whereas between 1985-1992 and 1992-1999 the rates were 0.50 and 0.37 x 106 hectares respectively. In relative terms to the total land area of Indochina (190.036 x 106 ha), forest cover has declined from 60.36 % of the total land area in 1973 to 52.08 % in 1985, 50.24 % in 1992 and 48.87 % in 1999. By comparison, the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations’ Forest Resource Assessment 2000 reports Indochina forest cover at 42.57 % of the total land area. The FAO-FRA 2000 calculation is based on country reported statistics that range in years from 1989 in the case of Laos to 1998 for Thailand. Dynamics of Forest Cover Change. While synoptic analyses, such as the Pathfinder HTFP and FAO FRA studies, show continuous decline in regional forest cover for Indochina and Southeast Asia as a whole, studies at the local scale reveal a more dynamic sequence of land cover and land use change and a non-linear pattern to forest re-growth and clearing. Inter-annual analysis of Landsat data for the Mae Chaem watershed in Chiang Mai, Thailand indicates swidden farming systems in the uplands of northwest Thailand allow for secondary forest regrowth (Wang 2003; Silapathong et al. 2002). Tamdoa National Park in northern Vietnam has seen an increase of forest cover since the park’s establishment (Lan et al. 2002). Forest re-growth has also been documented in the northern part of Stoeung Trang district of Kampong Cham province,

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Cambodia and is believed to be linked to the decline of the Khmer Rouge regime (Vina et al. 2002). The upland swidden/fallow areas of Southeast Asia, when analyzed at fine temporal scales, indicate a dynamic system of land cover and land use change that is not captured through decadal analyses. Such changes have been documented in northern Thailand (Skole, et al. 1998, Silapathong et al. 2002). The Mae Chaem district, in Chiang Mai, Thailand is characterized by evergreen hill forest, mixed deciduous forest, dry dipterocarp forest, forest plantation, shifting cultivation, paddy field, field crop, mixed orchards, open land and settlement areas. Mae Chaem is a mountainous area with an elevation range of 300 - 1,800 meters. The analysis of annual Landsat data for a ten-year period (1990 – 1999) for Mae Chaem shows the inter-annual variation of forest clearing and re-growth. While there is in overall decline in forest cover from 1990 to 1999, in two of the ten-year annual increments, 1991-1992 and 1993-1994 the total area of forest increased (Figure 4). Table 1 shows the comparison of land cover and land use changes in Mae Chaem at the annual increment of analysis. Even more significant are the results of the change detection analysis. As indicated in Table 2, and consistent with the synoptic, regional analysis, there is conversion of forest cover to agriculture in nearly all years. However, there are also areas that are converting back to forest from agriculture. These changes support the hypothesis that deforestation in upland swidden regions of Southeast Asia is not a linear cycle of forest clearing and permanent conversion to non-forest land cover but rather, cycles of clearing and abandonment that allow for periods of forest re-growth. The study by Skole et al. (1998) based on a Landsat dataset over a five-year period from 1989 – 1994 also supports these conclusions. In addition to upland dynamics of forest clearing and abandonment to secondary growth, there is also evidence from satellite analyses showing forest re-growth in protected areas. Efficacy of protected areas is not uniform across the region or, in some cases, even within any particular nation’s borders. However, the case of forest cover change in Tamdao National Park is exemplary of how the enforcement of natural resource protection policies can foster the expansion of forest cover in a particular area. Tamdao National Park is an elongated area, oriented in a northeast/southwest direction, which spans three provinces: Vinh Phuc, Thai Nguyen and Tuyen Quang. It comprises a mountain range more than 80 kilometers long, the center of which is located about 80 kilometers northwest of Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam. Tamdao is a tail of arch shaped mountain ranges located in the upper Chay River area. The tails of these ranges converge in Tamdao, and their heads spread out as a fan to the north. The Tamdao range consists of two dozen peaks linked with each other to form sharp edges. The peaks have an elevation around 1000m. The highest peak is Tamdao North (1592m) is located in the center of the range and is a cross point of the three provincial borders. The width of the Tamdao range varies from between 10 and 15 kilometers and is characterized by very steep sloping sides (averaging 26 – 35 degrees). Forests in Tamdao can be classified under tropical forest with a predominance of Dipterocarpaceae and Lauraceae species. In Tamdoa National Park there are six forest types classified by the Vietnamese Forestry and Inventory Planning Institute (FIPI): evergreen tropical rain forest, evergreen sub-tropical rain forest, scrub forest at the top

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of mountains, secondary forest after over-logging, regenerating forest, and forest plantation. Lan, et al. (2002) analyzed three Landsat scenes in a study of land cover and land use change for Tamdao National Park. The study classified data from 1975 (MSS), 1992 (TM), and 1999 (ETM+). The results of the analysis are shown in table 3. Between 1975 and 1992, the area of old growth forest and secondary forests declined 19.7 and 4.3 percent respectively. However, between 1992 and 1999, the area of secondary forest cover expanded by 98.5 percent, or 6,665.4 hectares, nearly doubling the area observed in 1972. Unfortunately, the area of old growth forest declined 22.9 percent for this same time period, a change of 4,515.6 hectares. However, 4,895.7 hectares, the vast majority of transitioned old growth forest in 1992 converted to secondary growth in 1999, rather than to other land cover or land use types (Table 4). Episodic political events, particularly in Southeast Asia, a region characterized by a varied and diverse social, economic and political past history and present make-up, can also contribute to the patterns of land cover and land use measured using satellite data. Political economy and political ecology studies are emphasizing the importance of social and economic factors that influence land cover and land use patterns beyond population growth and agricultural expansion (Arizpe et a. 1995; Hecht and Cockburn 1990; Blaikie and Brookfleid 1987). Vina et al. (2002) document the relationship between the collapse of the Khmer Rouge regime and forest cover expansion in a part of Kampong Cham Province, using a two-date study of land cover and land use change with Landsat data from 1984 (MSS) and from 1991 (TM) and geographic information system modeling (GIS). Kampong Cham province is located about 120 kilometers northeast of Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia. Under the Khmer Rouge regime, people relocated to the northern part of Stoeung Trang district, Kampong Cham province were directed to clear the forest in order to establish a new settlement, the Toul Sambour Commune. Analysis of the 1984 Landsat MSS and the 1991 Landsat TM data shows substantial re-growth of forest cover at this site. With the fall of the Khmer Rouge regime in 1985, many of the people who were forced to reside in parts of the country against their will, returned to their native villages, towns and cities. This was true as well for people forced to live in Stoeung Trang district. By 1991, the abandoned area around Toul Sambour Commune had returned to forest cover. The Emerging Urban Equation. The emphases on Southeast Asia’s forest cover in the science and development arenas have been driven in large part by climate change, sustainability and biodiversity questions (Sanchez-Azofeifa 2003; Macnab and Moses 2001; Ganeshaiah et al. 2001; Galloway and Mellillo 1998; IGBP 1998, Cruz et al. 1998). An emerging global change issue on par with forest cover is that of urban and peri-urban expansion (Glaeser and Kahn 2003; Kressler and Steinnocher 1998; World Bank 1997). The human dimensions effecting land cover and land use of forested areas in Southeast Asia are related directly or indirectly to such phenomena as rural-to-urban migration, economic development and the integration of developing countries into a global market economy sustaining industrialization and the exploitation of natural

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resources, and the development of infrastructure tying remote areas ever closer to urban cores and markets. A case study of the Klang-Langat watershed, which encompasses Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, is exemplary of the urban impacts on land cover and land use (Mastura et al. 2002). The Klang-Langat watershed is located in the mid-western part of Peninsular Malaysia and covers eight administrative districts of Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur. The Klang-Langat watershed represents the most highly urbanised region in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur, the capital city of about 1.5 million people, is located at the confluence of Klang and Gombak rivers. The watershed has several patches of upland forest, lowland forest and mangrove forests. Besides the built-up areas and forests, the other major land cover in the area is agricultural, of which the main crops are oil palm, natural rubber, coffee, cocoa and coconut. The Klang-Langat watershed is also vital in terms of the domestic water supply that it provides to the most densely populated area in Malaysia. There are currently four dams in this watershed: Batu Dam, Klang Gate, Pangsun Dam and Semenyih Dam. A study of nine Landsat TM scenes of the Klang-Langat watershed measured the land cover and land use changes between 1989 and 1999 (annual data except for 1992 and 1997). In this ten-year period, the urban area grew by 159% while forest cover, agricultural and mining areas declined 18.1, 18.6 and 43% respectively. In 1989, urban land use occupied 373.8 km2 but by 1996 the total coverage had expanded to 654.9 km2, nearly double that from 1989. By 1999, the urban land cover in the Klang-Langat watershed encompassed 966.5 km2. The new urban growth areas included the development of a new International Airport (Kuala Lumpur International Airport), the establishment of new towns (Nilai, Putrajaya, Bangi, Tun Hussin Onn), and the expansion of existing satellite urban areas. Of the ten land cover and land use classes measured over the ten-year period from 1989 to 1999, the only growth was in urban areas and water bodies (as a result of dam constructions). All other classes declined by the following amounts: mining (43%), oil palm (2%), rubber (36%), coconut (9%), horticulture (22%), dipterocarp forest (10%), mangrove (35%), bare land (8%) and grassland (21%). Dipterocarp forest located along the upper catchment of the Klang-Langat watershed declined 10% over this time period, from 846.9 km2 in 1989 to 758.5 km2 in 1999. Mangrove forests areas also declined in this period from 394.6 to 258.4 km2 between 1989-1999, a 35% loss. Not all of the Dipterocarp forest or mangrove forest loss can be attributed to conversion to urban land use. However, 64% of the change in Dipterocarp forest converted to either urban (30%) or rubber plantations (34%) The period saw a similar fate for mangroves: 55% of all the mangrove forests that were converted changed to urban (21%) and oil palm plantation (34%). The conversion to plantation agriculture in close proximity to a large, and economically important, market serving a global economy is not surprising and serves as an example of the types of changes the urban sphere is exacting on land cover. The Klang-Langat watershed is an example of the spatial and temporal dynamics of a large and growing metropolitan area. We see similar land cover and land use changes in areas that are within proximity of other large metropolitan areas. The upper Citarum

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watershed in West Java is a mountainous area covering approximately 2.5 x 106 hectares. It lies about 75 kilometers southeast of Jakarta. Within the watershed, three large-scale multipurpose dams have been constructed. The impacts of these multi-purpose dams on land cover and land use, together with the market effects of Jakarta’s proximity, have been significant. Analysis of eight Landsat TM scenes from 1989 to 1998 show a conversion of agricultural lands to urban, primary settlement and industry at an annual rate of nearly 30,000 hectares per year. The greatest change was observed between 1990 and 1991 with more than 50,000 hectares of agricultural land being converted to urban land uses (Gunawan et al. 2002). The flood control function of the dams resulted in downstream areas becoming more suitable for settlements as the risk of yearly flooding diminished. The irrigation function of the dams also provided a steady flow of water that allowed for greater intensification of agricultural land uses. The facilities also provided hydro-electricity supporting the development of industry. While the initial efforts of the dam construction dovetailed with the expansionist agricultural policy of the early 1970s, the area witnessed land cover and land use changes in the late 1980s and 1990s tending toward urbanization as a result of the influence of Jakarta’s economic pull, the magnitude of which has increased with the development of a transportation network linking the mountainous region of the watershed to Jakarta. In this case, the sphere of urban influence on land cover and land use in the Citarum watershed is not local and spatially contiguous to the urban core as in the case of Kuala Lumpur, and the Klang-Langat watershed in Malaysia, but proximate and connected through transportation networks to Jakarta, and reinforced by infrastructural development (dam construction), market influences and national policies supporting industrialization and economic development. Climate Impacts of Land Cover and Land Use Change in Southeast Asia. Much research has been aimed at increasing understanding of the human dimensions of land cover and land use change, and this continues to be an important area of discovery and analysis. There is, however, a growing effort to also understand the biophysical influences of land cover and land use change patterns over time. Certainly, some climatic factors are themselves driven by anthropogenic forces, from human impacts on the landscape (e.g. deforestation, carbon flux and climate impacts; or urban heat island effects on local climate conditions). At national, regional and global levels, there are efforts to understand and minimize the impacts of extreme climatic events, topics of grave importance in Southeast Asia’s monsoon climate. The climate extremes of heavy rains and El Niño/La Niña drought, together with periodic earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, are important influences on the land cover and land use change in the region. A case study of the Magat watershed on Luzon Island in the Philippines documents the climatic impacts of land cover at the local scale (Crisostomo et al. 2002). The Magat watershed in Nueva Vizcaya is a forest reservation area under Philippine Proclamation 573 dated June 26, 1969. It is considered as a critical watershed and supports the Magat multi-purpose dam which is vital for irrigation, flood control, and hydroelectric power. The prevailing climate of the Magat watershed falls under two categories based on the Modified Coronas, type I and type II. In Type I climate, there are two pronounced seasons: dry from November to April and wet during the rest of the year. In the Type II

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climate, seasons are not very pronounced; relatively dry from November to April and wet during the rest of the year. The southwest monsoon and the South Pacific trade winds serve as the most influential climatic controls. The rains brought about by these two air masses contribute about seventy-five percent (75%) of the annual rainfall in the area. Annually, the watershed receives about 1,400 millimeters of rainfall in low altitude areas and about 2,400 millimeters in high altitude locales. However, there is an on-going variation in climate due to the El Niño and La Niña phenomena. The Magat River crosses the Magat watershed from south to north. The watershed is at the confluence of three mountain ranges: the Palali range located to the east, the Sierra Madre range to the south and southeast, and the Cordelleria mountains to the west and southwest. Mount Pulag with an elevation of 2,922 m. above mean sea level is the highest peak in the watershed. Analysis of eight Landsat TM scenes from 1988 to 1998 (annual data except for 1989, 1991, and 1995) documents the climate effects of the La Niña phenomenon on land cover and land use in the watershed. The El Niño event of 1997 severely affected the agricultural activities in the Magat watershed. Analysis of the 1997 Landsat TM data, acquired in October (the rainy season), show the least area in non-tree agricultural use (within the 1988-1998 period of analysis), and a significant increase in open and grass land areas (see Table 5). Agricultural areas declined from 1996 to 1997 by 20,574 hecatres, while grasslands increased by 30,343 hectares during this same period. The Outlook for Land Cover and Land Use Change in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia’s complex and dynamic historical, biophysical, geographical, and socio-cultural characteristics should make one pause before predicting its future land cover. That said, analyses of satellite data at the regional scale indicate a continued decline of forest cover and the expansion of agriculture and urban land uses. However, the trend in forest cover change from forest to other land cover and land use types, for the region as a whole, appears to be leveling off. Unfortunately, land cover change is not solely about the wholesale conversion of one type or class to another. Direct observation and new methods of satellite data classification (Matricardi et al. 2001; Qi et al. 2000) are highlighting the degradation effects of selected logging on forests. In such areas, forests may remain intact as a cover type, but the quality and structure of the forest cover may be radically altered. The outlook for land cover change in general, and forest cover specifically, at smaller scales is somewhat encouraging. There has been a growing momentum in nearly all Southeast Asian countries to curb the total exploitation of forests and to establish protected areas and national parks in order to preserve forested areas. Furthermore, countries are looking to the Kyoto Protocol to provide further incentives to reduce the rate of forest cover decline and support afforestation and reforestation activities. Our scientific understanding of upland agriculture systems and the cycles of forest conversion and abandonment are giving us new insights as to the role of land cover and land use in understanding carbon sources and sinks that impact climate change. Key questions remain for understanding the progression of land cover and land use change in Southeast Asia, how the various proximate and distant forces of land cover

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and land use change operate at multiple-scales, and the eventual human and ecological impacts of these changes. Advances in GIS and remote sensing analysis as well as the development of spatially-explicit diagnostic and prognostic models will add significantly to our understanding of land cover and land use change in Southeast Asia over the next decade. With the trends in developing national spatial data infrastructures (NSDI) that support spatial decision support systems (SDSS), the acquisition and creation of new geographic data sets, and the institutional emphasis on geographic information systems for sustainable development (GIS-D), we can expect to see an exponential growth in regional contributions to our understanding of land cover and land use change, not only in Southeast Asia, but globally.

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In: J. Breuste, H. Feldmann, O. Uhlmann (eds.): Urban ecology. Springer Verlag Berlin - Heildelberg, pp. 456-460. Lan D.X., Hien H.M. and Thu N.G.. 2002. Land Use and Land Cover Change for South East Asia: Vietnamese Case Study in Tamdao

National Park. NASA LCLUC project report. Macnab B. and Moses R. 2001. Biodiversity/Land Use and Land Cover Change (LUCC) Workshop Proceedings: Sept 28-29, 2001.

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Figure 1: Indochina Forest Cover - 1999 (ETM+)

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114.72

98.9795.47

92.87

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1973 1985 1992 1999

Year

'000

,000

ha

Figure 2: Indochina Forest Cover - Pathfinder HTFP

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1.31

0.50

0.37

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40

Rate 73-85 Rate 85-92 Rate 92-99

Period of Analysis

'000

,000

ha

Figure 3: Indochina Annual Rate of Forest Cover Decline

Figure 4: Inter-annual variation of Land Cover and Land Use in Mae Chaem, Thailand (values in square kilometers (km2))

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Table 1: Annual Increment of Land Cover and Land Use Change, Mae Chaem, Thailand in Square Kilometers (km2)

Class 90-91 91-92 92-93 93-94 94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99 Forest Agriculture Open land Urban Water

-2.917 3.106

-0.212 0.033

-0.010

0.936 -1.167 0.172 0.049 0.010

-7.826 11.366 -3.826 0.085 0.001

2.289 -6.782 4.424 0.078

-0.009

-0.602 4.871

-4.269 0 0

-2.603 3.674

-1.107 0.007 0.029

-1.318 2.699

-1.517 0.102 0.034

-1.473 2.322

-0.937 0.069 0.019

-0.737 0.491 0.324 0.029

-0.107 Table 2: Percent of Annual Increment of Land Cover and Land Use Change, Mae Chaem, Thailand (km2)

Class 90-91 91-92 92-93 93-94 94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99 Unchanged Forest Forest to Agriculture Forest to Open land Unchanged Agriculture Agriculture to Forest Agriculture to Open ld. Unchanged Open land Open land to Forest Open land to Agricul.

94.33 0.37

0 3.72

0 0.05 1.27

0 0.12

94.28 0

0.05 3.98 0.16 0.06 1.26

0 0.06

93.21 0.960.25 3.74 0.190.09 0.45 0.05 0.86

93.30 0.120.03 4.55 0.410.61 0.76 0.03 0.01

93.52 0.180.04 4.55 0.120.01 0.80

0 0.59

93.18 0.430.05 5.25 0.040.04 0.65 0.05 0.15

93.01 0.19 0.05 5.68 0.05 0.09 0.39 0.04 0.31

92.7 0.340.06 6.06 0.11

0 0.35 0.13 0.05

92.71 0.190.04 6.23 0.100.11 0.23 0.04 0.13

Table 3: Multi-date analysis of land cover in hectares for Tamdoa National Park

Land use/land cover 1975 1992 1999

Old forest 24,601.0 19,746.7 15,231.1

Secondary forest 7,073.1 6,769.9 13,435.3

Open/bare land 9,827.2 13,554.9 12,826.5

Agriculture 1,624.1 3,053.9 1,632.5

Total 43,125.4 43,125.4 43,125.4

Table 4: Confusion matrix from 1992-1999 analysis of land cover in hectares for Tamdao National Park 99 92

Land uses Old Forest Second. For. Open Land Ag. Land Total

OF 14,191.3 4,895.7 657.2 2.5 19,746.7

SF 434.1 3,359.6 2,907.9 68.3 6,769.9 OP 597.0 4,988.6 7,167.4 801.9 13,554.9 AG 8.7 191.4 2,093.9 759.9 3,053.9 Total 15,231.1 13,435.3 12,826.5 1,632.5 43,125.4

15

Table 5: Land Cover and Land Use from 1988- 1998 in the Magat Watershed, Luzon, Philippines

Land Cover Type

Area in Hectares Covered by Each Land Cover Type Per Year 1988 1990 1992 1993 1994 1996 1997 1998

Forest 52,166 45,295 41,718 44,358 41,052 51,113 58,252 57,133Secondary Forest/Tree Plantation

33,563 14,562 42,994 49,377 53,899 45,969 30,081 18,094

Agriculture 23,391 13,766 11,777 13,354 23,441 28,578 8,004 15,289Bareland 730 5,216 4,086 2,554 3,083 5,451 3,761 5,797Built-up 336 583 981 1,024 1,080 1,444 1,813 2,012Grassland 118,143 148,810 126,792 118,168 105,441 96,037 126,380 129,594River 798 895 778 292 1,131 536 835 1,208TOTAL 231,115 231,117 231,118 231,120 231,121 231,124 231,123 231,125

_ oOo _

This Chapter is part of "Land Change Science" and has been published by Springer, which is a product of combining Kluwer and Springer-Verlag publishing.

http://www.springerlink.com/content/978-1-4020-2561-7 Land Change Science Observing, Monitoring and Understanding Trajectories of Change on the Earth's Surface Book Series Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing

ISSN 1567-3200

Subject Geography, Physical Geography, Remote Sensing/Photogrammetry, Geographical Information Systems/Cartography, Landscape/Regional and Urban Planning and Environmental Physics

Volume Volume 6 Publisher Springer Netherlands DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-2562-4 Copyright 2004 ISBN 978-1-4020-2561-7 (Print) 978-1-4020-2562-4 (Online) Subject Collection Earth and Environmental Science

Subject Geography, Physical Geography, Remote Sensing/Photogrammetry, Geographical Information Systems/Cartography, Landscape/Regional and Urban Planning and Environmental Physics

SpringerLink Date Tuesday, December 11, 2007