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V.A.K.

a) V.A.Kuckharenko. A book of practice in Stylistics. 2nd rev. and suppl. ed. A manual for students of Foreign Languages Departments of Higher Educational Institutions. Vinnytsia: Nova Knyga, 2000

b) .. : . .- . . 2- , . . : , 2000. 160 . .

c) .. . . .- .. . 2- ., . . : , 2000. 160 . .

, . , .I.R.G.

a) I.R.Galperin. Stylistics. 2nd ed., rev., ed. by L.R.Todd. M.: Higher School, 1977

b) .. . . . 2-, . . . ... .: . , 1977. 332 . .

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Stylistics

style of language

is a system of co-ordinated, interrelated and inter-conditioned language means intended to fulfil a specific function of communication and aiming at a definite effect (I.R.G.)

See: , , , , , , , ,

stylistic device

SD

is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and/or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalised status and thus becoming a generative model (I.R.G.)

See: , , ; , , ;

expressive means

EMs

are those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance (I.R.G.)

See: ;

practical stylistic

the stylistics, proceeding form the norms of language usage at a given period and teaching these norms to language speakers, especially the ones, dealing with the language professionally (editors, publishers, writers, journalists, teachers, etc.). (V.A.K.)

See:

stylistic norm

the invariant of the phonemic, morphological. lexical and syntactical patterns circulating in language-in-action at a given period of time (I.R.G.)

See: ,

individual style

a unique combination of language units, and s peculiar to a given writer, which makes that writers works or even utterances easily recognisable (I.R.G.)

See: ,

sign

a material, sensuously perceived object (phenomenon, action) appearing in the process of cognition and communication in the capacity of a representative (substitute) of another object (or objects) and used for receiving, storing, recasting and transforming information about this object

See: , ,

word

a unit of language functioning within the sentence or within a part of it which by its sound or graphical form expresses a concrete or abstract notion or a grammatical notion through one of its meanings and which is capable of enriching its semantic structure by acquiring new meanings and losing old ones (I.R.G.)

See: , ,

foregrounding

the ability of a verbal element to obtain extra significance, to say more in a definite context (Prague linguists)

See: , ,

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functional style

FS

a) a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim of communication

b) includes: , , , ,

c) the co-ordination of the language means and s which shapes the distinctive features of each style, and not the language means or SD themselves

d) a patterned variety of literary text characterised by the greater or lesser typification of its constituents, supra-phrasal units, in which the choice and arrangement of interdependent and interwoven language media are calculated to secure the purport of the communication

See: , ,

Source: (I.R.G.)

official style

(the) style of official documents

officialese

represented in all kinds of official documents and papers (V.A.K.)

The main aim is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking (the state and the citizen, citizen and citizen, the society and its members, two or more enterprises or bodies, a person and subordinates) (I.R.G.)

Substyles: the language of business documents, the language of legal documents, the language of diplomacy, the language of military documents

See: ,

scientific style

found in articles, brochures, monographs and other scientific and academic publications (V.A.K.)

The aim is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. (I.R.G.)

See: ,

publicist style

covering such genres as essay, feature article, most writing of new journalism, public speeches, etc. (V.A.K.)

The general aim is to exert a constant and deep influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer of the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well (brain-washing function). (I.R.G.)

Substyles: oratorical (direct contact with the listeners); radio commentary; essay (moral, philosophical, literary; book review in journals and magazines, pamphlets); articles (political, social, economic).

See: ,

newspaper style

1) observed in the majority of information materials printed in newspapers (V.A.K.)

2) a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived by the community speaking the language as a separate unity that basically serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader. (I.R.G.)

See: ,

belles-lettres style

(the) style of imaginative literature

embracing numerous and versatile genres of imaginative writing (V.A.K.)

The purpose is not to prove but only to suggest a possible interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer. (I.R.G.)

Substyles: the language of poetry (verse), emotive prose (fiction), the language of drama.

See: ,

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phono-graphical level

includes: , , ,

See: ,

morphological level

includes: ,

See: ,

(direct) onomatopoeia

1) the use of words whose sounds imitate those of the signified object of action (V.A.K.)

2) a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc.), by things (machines or tools, etc.) by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet, etc.) and by animals (I.R.G.)

e.g.: hiss, powwow, murmur, bump, grumble, sizzle, ding-dong, buzz, bang, cuckoo, tintinnabulation, mew, ping-pong, roar

e.g.: Then with enormous, shattering rumble, sludge-puff, sludge-puff, the train came into the station. (A.Saxton)

See: ,

alliteration

the repetition of consonants, usually in the beginning of words (V.A.K.)

e.g.: ... silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain (E.A.Poe)

e.g.: The furrow followed free. (S.T.Coleridge)

e.g.: The Italian trio tut-tuted their tongues at me. (T.Capote)

See:

assonance

the repetition of similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables (V.A.K.)

e.g.: Nor soul helps flesh now // more than flesh helps soul (R.Browning)

e.g.: Dreadful young creatures squealing and squawking.(D.Carter)

See:

euphony

a sense of ease and comfort in pronouncing or hearing (V.A.K.)

See: , ,

cacophony

a sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing (V.A.K.)

See: , ,

graphon

1. Intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation, to recreate the individual and social peculiarities of the speaker, the atmosphere of the communication act. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: I had a coach with a little seat in fwont with an iwon wail for the dwiver. (Ch. Dickens ) [lang id=2] .[/lang]

e.g.: You dont mean to thay that thith ith your firth time. (D.Cusack)

2. All changes of the type (italics, CapiTaliSation), s p a c i n g of graphemes, (hy-phe-na-ti-on, m-m-multiplication) and of lines. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: Alllll aboarrrrrrrd.

e.g.: Help. Help. HELP (A.Huxley)

e.g.: grinning like a chim-pan-zee (OConnor)

e.g.: Kiddies and grown-ups too-oo-oo // We havent enough to do-oo-oo. (R.Kipling)

See:

morphemic repetition

repetition of a morpheme, both root and affixational, to emphasise and promote it (V.A.K.)

e.g.: They unchained, unbolted and unlocked the door. (A.Bennett)

e.g.: Laughing, crying, cheering, chaffing, singing, David Rossis people brought him home in triumph. (H.Caine)

e.g.: Young Blight made another great show of changing the volume, taking up a pen, sucking it, sipping it, and running over previous entries before he wrote. As, Mr. Alley, Mr. Balley, Mr. Calley, Mr. Dalley, Mr. Falley, Mr. Galley, Mr. Halley, Mr. Lalley, Mr. Malley. And Mr. Boffin. (Ch.Dickens)

See: ,

occasional words

nonce-words

extension of the normative valency which results in the formation of new words. An effective way of using a morpheme for the creation of additional information. They are not neologisms in the true sense for they are created for special communicative situations only , and are not used beyond these occasions.(V.A.K.)

e.g.: I am an undersecretary of an underbureau. (I.Show)

e.g.: Parritt turns startledly. (E.ONeill)

e.g.: That was masterly. Or should one say mistressly. (A.Huxley)

See:

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lexical level

word-stock

stratum of words

includes: , ,

See: , ;

literary words

learned words

bookish words

high-flown words

a) serve to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific, high poetry and poetic messages, authorial speech of creative prose;

b) mainly observed in the written form;

c) contribute to the message the tone of solemnity, sophistication, seriousness, gravity, learnedness.

e.g.: I must decline to pursue this painful discussion, It is not pleasant to my feelings; it is repugnant to my feelings. (Ch.Dickens)

See: , ; ;

Source: (V.A.K.)

colloquial words

a) employed in non-official everyday communication

b) their use is associated with the oral form of communication

c) mark the message as informal, non-official, conversational

e.g.: dad, kid, crony, fan, to pop, folks

d) include

e.g.: Shes engaged. Nice guy, too. Though theres a slight difference in height. Id say a foot, her favor. (T.Capote)

See: , ,

Source: (V.A.K.)

special colloquial words

, , ,

neutral words

the overwhelming majority of lexis (V.A.K.)

See: ,

special literary words

such as and (V.A.K.)

terms

, denoting objects, processes, phenomena of science, humanities, technique (V.A.K.)

archaisms

such as

a) historical words denoting historical phenomena which are no more in use

e.g.: yeoman, vassal, falconet

b) poetic words and highly literary words used in poetry in the 17 19 cc.

e.g.: steed - horse, quoth - said, woe - sorrow, eftsoons - again, soon after, rondure - roundness

c) archaic words proper in the course of language history ousted by newer synonymous words or forms;

e.g.: to deem = to think, repast = meal, - for horse, quoth for said, woe for sorrow; maketh = makes, thou wilt = you will, brethren = brothers, whereof, aforesaid, hereby, therewith, hereinafternamed

e.g.: If manners maketh man, then manner and grooming maketh poodle.(J.Steinbeck)

Source: (V.A.K.)

(general) slang

such which

a) used by most speakers in very and highly informal, substandard communication

b) are highly emotive and expressive and as such

d) lose their originality rather fast and

c) are replaced by newer formations, unstable, fluctuating, tending to expanded synonymity within certain lexico-semantic groups

e.g.: Now take fried, crocked, squiffed, loaded plastered, blotto, tiddled, soaked, boiled, stinko, viled, polluted(K.Kesey)

e.g.: Do you talk? asked Bundle. or are you just strong and silent? Talk? said Anthony. I burble. I murmur. I gurgle like a running brook, you know. Sometimes I even ask questions. (A.Christie)

See: , ,

Source: (V.A.K.)

jargonisms

special slang

such which

a) stand close to , also being substandard, expressive and emotive, but, unlike slang

b) are used by limited groups of people, united either professionally ( or ) or socially ()

c) cover a narrow semantic field, function and sphere of application

d) tending to expanded synonymity within certain lexico-semantic groups

See: , ,

Source: (V.A.K.)

professional jargonisms

professionalisms

such which

a) connected with the technical side of some profession

e.g.: driller = borer, digger, wrencher, hogger, brake weight

e.g.: pipeliner = swabber, bender, cat, old cat, collar-pecker, hammerman

b) are formed according to the existing word-building patterns of present existing words in new meanings, and,

c) covering the field of special professional knowledge, which is semantically limited, offer a vast variety of synonymic choices for naming one and the same professional item

See: , ,

Source: (V.A.K.)

jargonisms proper

such which

a) served to conceal the actual significance of the utterance from the uninitiated;

c) originated from the thieves jargon (largo, cant);

b) was to be cryptic, secretive (major function);

See: , ,

Source: (V.A.K.)

vulgarisms

coarse with a strong emotive meaning, mostly derogatory, normally avoided in polite conversation (V.A.K.)

e.g.: There is so much bad shit between the two gangs that I bet there will be more killings this year.

See: , ,

Source: (V.A.K.)

dialectical words

such which

a) are normative and devoid of any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used outside of them, carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong;

b) markedly differ on the phonemic level: one and the same phoneme is differently pronounced in each of them;

c) differ also on the lexical level, having their own names for locally existing phenomena and also supplying locally circulating synonyms for the words, accepted by the language in general.

e.g.: son of a bitch, whore, whorehound

e.g.: A hut was all the (= the only) home he ever had.

e.g.: Mary sits aside (= beside) of her sister on the bus.

See: , ,

Source: (V.A.K.)

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lexical stylistic devices

lexical SDs

include: , ; , ; ; play on words, , , , ,

See: , , , transference

act of name-exchange, of substitution of the existing names approved by long usage and fixed in dictionaries by new, occasional, individual ones, prompted by the speakers subjective original view and evaluation of things, for the name of one object is transferred onto another, proceeding from their similarity (of shape, colour, function, etc.), or closeness (of material existence, cause/effect, instrument/result, part/whole, etc.) (V.A.K.)

See: ,

metaphor

of names based on the associated likeness between two objects, on the similarity of one feature common to two different entities, on possessing one common characteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a common component in their semantic structures.

e.g.: pancake for the sun (round, hot, yellow)

e.g.: silver dust and sequins for stars

The expressiveness is promoted by the implicit simultaneous presence of images of both objects the one which is actually named and the one which supplies its own legal name, while each one enters a phrase in the complexity of its other characteristics.

The wider is the gap between the associated objects the more striking and unexpected the more expressive is the metaphor.

e.g.: His voice was a dagger of corroded brass. (S.Lewis)

e.g.: They walked alone, two continents of experience and feeling, unable to communicate. (W.S.Gilbert)

See: , ,

Source: (V.A.K.)

personification

a that involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects (V.A.K.)

e.g.: the face of London, the pain of ocean

e.g.: Geneva, mother of the Red Cross, hostess of humanitarian congresses for the civilizing of warfare. (J.Reed)

e.g.: Notre Dame squats in the dusk.(E.Hemingway)

See: ,

sustained metaphor

prolonged metaphor

a group (cluster) of s, each supplying another feature of the described phenomenon to present an elaborated image (V.A.K.)

metonymy

of names based on contiguity (nearness), on extralinguistic, actually existing relations between the phenomena (objects), denoted by the words, on common grounds of existence in reality but different semantic (V.A.K.)

e.g.: cup and tea in Will you have another cup?

e.g.: My brass will call your brass (A.Heiley)

e.g.: Dinah, a slim, fresh, pale eighteen, was pliant and yet fragile.(C.Holmes)

See: ,

synecdoche

a based on the relations between the part and the whole (V.A.K.)

e.g.: He made his way through perfume and conversation. (I.Shaw)

e.g.: His mind was alert and people asked him to dinner not for old times sake, but because he was worth his salt.(S.Maugham)

See: ,

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cluster SDs

a small group (cluster) of SDs, which

a) operate on the same linguistic mechanism: namely, one word-form is deliberately used in two meanings;

b) have humorous effect, and

c) include: or , , , , ;

See: , , ,

Source: (V.A.K.)

pun

paronomasia

simultaneous realisation of two meanings through

a) misinterpretation of one speakers utterance by the other, which results in his remark dealing with a different meaning of the misinterpreted word or its homonym

e.g.: Have you been seeing any spirits? Or taking any? added Bob Allen. (Ch.Dickens) [com](The first spirit refers to supernatural forces the second one to strong drinks)[/com]

b) speakers intended violation of the listeners expectation

e.g.: There comes a period in every mans life, but she is just a semicolon in his. (B.Evans) [com](a punctuation mark instead of an interval of time)[/com]

e.g.: There are two things I look for in a man. A sympathetic character and full lips.(I.Shaw)

Source: (V.A.K.)

See: zeugma

a cluster SD, when a polysemantic verb that can be combined with nouns of most varying semantic groups is deliberately used with two of more homogeneous members, which are not connected semantically (V.A.K.)

e.g.: He took his hat and his leave. (Ch.Dickens)

e.g.: She went home, in a flood of tears and a sedan chair. (Ch.Dickens)

See: ,

semantically false chains

a variation of when the number of homogeneous members, semantically disconnected, but attached to the same verb, increases (V.A.K.)

e.g.: A Governess wanted. Must possess knowledge of Rumanian, Russian, Italian, Spanish, German, Music and Mining Engineering. (S.Leacock)

e.g.: Men, pals, red plush seats, white marble tables, waiters in white aprons. Miss Moss walked through them all. (A.Milne)

See: violation of phraseological units

restoring the literal original meaning of the word, which lost some of its semantic independence and strength in a phraseological unit or clich. (A.V.K.)

e.g.: Little John was born with a silver spoon in his mouth which was rather curly and large.(I.Galsworthy)

e.g.: After a while and a cake he crept nervously to the door of the parlour.(A.Tolkien)

See: nonsense of non-sequence

joining two semantically disconnected clauses into one sentence (A.V.K.)

e.g.: Emperor Nero played the fiddle, so they burnt Rome.(Y.Esar)

See: {{==============================================}}

irony

a) is a in which the contextual evaluative meaning of a word is directly opposite to its dictionary meaning

b) is the not of the logical but of the evaluative meaning

c) is the contradiction between the said and implied

c) is subdivided into and

The context is arranged so that the qualifying word in irony reverses the direction of the evaluation, and the word positively charged is understood as a negative qualification and (much-much rarer) vice versa. The context varies from the minimal a word combination to the context of a whole book.

e.g.: The lift held two people and rose slowly, groaning with diffidence.(I.Murdoch)

e.g.: Apart from splits based on politics, racial, religious and ethic backgrounds and specific personality differences, were just one cohesive team.(D.Uhnak)

See:

Source: (V.A.K.)

verbal irony

a type of when it is possible to indicate the exact word whose contextual meaning diametrically opposes its dictionary meaning, in whose meaning we can trace the contradiction between the said and implied (V.A.K.)

e.g.: She turned with the sweet smile of an alligator. (J.Steinbeck)

e.g.: With all the expressiveness of a stone Welsh stared at him another twenty seconds apparently hoping to see him gag.(R.Chandler)

e.g.: Shes a charming middle-aged lady with a face like a bucket of mud and if she has washed her hair since Coolridges second term, Ill eat my spare tire, rim and all. (R.Chandler)

e.g.: Last time it was a nice, simple, European-style war.(I.Shaw)

Ant.:

See:

sustained irony

a) a type of , intuitively feeling the reversal of the evaluation, formed by the contradiction of the speakers (writers) considerations and the generally accepted moral and ethical codes;

b) a number of statements, the whole of the text, in whose meaning we can trace the contradiction between the said and implied.

e.g.: Many examples are supplied by D.Defoe, J.Swift of by such twentieth c. writers as S.Lewis, K.Vonnegut, E.Waugh and others.

e.g.: When the war broke out she took down the signed photograph of the Kaiser and, with some solemnity, hung it in the men-servants lavatory; it was her one combative action. (E.Waugh)

Ant.:

See:

Source: (V.A.K.)

antonomasia

[c]type 1[/c]: a lexical SD in which a proper name is used instead of a common noun or vice versa, i.e. a lexical SD in which the nominal meaning of a proper name is suppressed by its logical meaning or the logical meaning acquires the new nominal component. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: He took little satisfaction in telling each Mary \[=any female\], shortly after she arrived, something ... (Th. Dreiser)

e.g.: Your fur and his Caddy are a perfect match. I respect history: Dont you know that Detroit was founded by Sir Antoine de la Mothe Caddilac, French fur trader.(J.OHara)

[c]type 2[/c]: a lexical SD in which a common noun serves as an individualising name (V.A.K.)

e.g.: There are three doctors in an illness like yours. I dont mean only my self, my partner and the radiologist who does your X-rays, the three Im referring to are Dr. Rest, Dr. Diet and Dr. Fresh Air. (D.Cusack)

[c]type 3[/c]: speaking names whose origin from common nouns is still clearly perceived (V.A.K.)

e.g.: Miss Languish , Mr. Backbite - , Mr. Credulous - , Mr. Snake - (Sheridan)

e.g.: Lord Chatterino , John Jaw , Island Leap-High - (F.Cooper)

e.g.: Mr. Whats-his-name, Mr. Owl Eyes, Colonel Slidebottom, Lady Teazle, Mr. Surface, Miss Tomboy, Miss Sarcastic, Miss Sneerface, Lady Bracknell

e.g.: The next speaker was a tall gloomy man. Sir Something Somebody. (J.B.Priestley)

See:

epithet

a based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used to characterise and object and pointing out to the reader, and frequently imposing on him, some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features or properties

e.g.: wild wind, loud ocean, remorseless dash of billows, formidable waves, heart-burning smile; destructive charms, glorious sight, encouraging smile

- is markedly subjective and evaluative;

Source: (I.R.G.)

- expresses characteristics of an object, both existing and imaginary;

- the emotive meaning of the word to suppress its denotational meaning

- semantically there should be differentiated two main groups: s and s or s;

- structurally there should be differentiated: single epithets, pair epithets, chains or strings, two-step structures, inverted constructions, phrase-attributes

- is the most widely used lexical SD;

Chains or strings of epithets present a group of homogeneous attributes varying in number from three up to sometimes twenty and even more.

e.g.: Youre a scolding, unjust, abusive, aggravating, bad old creature.(Ch.Dickens)

e.g.: Hes a proud, haughty, consequential, turned-nosed peacock. (Ch.Dickens)

Phrase-epithets always produce an original impression.

e.g.: the sunshine-in-the-breakfast-room smell (J.Baldwin)

e.g.: a move-if-you-dare expression(J.Greenwood)

e.g.: There was none of the Old-fashioned Five-Four-Three-Two-One-Zero business, so tough on the human nervous system. (A.Clarke)

Inverted epithets based on the contradiction between the logical and the syntactical: logically defining becomes syntactically defined and vice versa. The article with the second noun will help in doubtful cases.

e.g.: this devil of a woman instead of this devilish woman, the giant man (a gigantic man); the prude of a woman (a prudish woman), the toy of a girl (a small, toylike girl), the kitten of a woman (a kittenlike woman)

e.g.: She was a faded white rabbit of a woman. (A.Cronin)

See:

Source: (V.A.K.)

affective epithet

serves to convey the emotional evaluation of the object by the speaker (V.A.K.)

e.g.: gorgeous, nasty, magnificent, atrocious

See: or , ,

figurative epithet

transferred epithet

an that is formed of , , , expressed by adjectives (V.A.K.)

e.g.: the smiling sun, the frowning cloud, the sleepless pillow, the tobacco-stained smile, a ghost-like face, a dreamlike experience, triumphant look

See: , ,

hyperbole

a in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggeration (V.A.K.)

It does not signify the actual state of affairs in reality, but presents the latter through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of the speaker.

e.g.: My vegetable love should grow faster than empires. (A.Marvell)

e.g.: The man was like the Rock of Gibraltar.

e.g.: Calpurnia was all angles and bones.

e.g.: I was scared to death when he entered the room.(J.D.Salinger)

Ant.:

See:

understatement

a in which emphasis is achieved through intentional underestimationIt does not signify the actual state of affairs in reality, but presents the latter through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of the speaker.

e.g.: The wind is rather strong instead of Theres a gale blowing outside

e.g.: She wore a pink hat, the size of a button. (J.Reed)

e.g.: About a very small man in the Navy: this new sailor stood five feet nothing in sea boots. (Th. Pynchon)

Ant.:

See:

oxymoron

1) a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense (I.R.G.)

2) a combination of two semantically contradictory notions, that help to emphasise contradictory qualities simultaneously existing in the described phenomenon as a dialectical unity (V.A.K.)

e.g.: low skyscraper, sweet sorrow, nice rascal, pleasantly ugly face, horribly beautiful, a deafening silence from Whitehall (The Morning Star)

e.g.: The Beauty of the Dead, to shout mutely, to cry silently, the street damaged by improvements (O.Henry), silence was louder than thunder (J.Updike)

e.g.: O brawling love! O loving hate! O heavy lightness! Serious vanity! Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick heath! (W.Shakespeare)

e.g.: You have two beautiful bad examples for parents. (Sc.Fitzgerald)

See:

{{==============================================}}

syntactical level

include , , , , arrangement of sentence members, ,

See: , , ,

syntactical stylistic devices

syntactical SDs

include: sentence length, , , , , , , , , , one-member sentences, , , , ,

See: ; , , , one-word sentences

possess a very strong emphatic impact, for their only word obtains both the word- and the sentence-stress. The word constituting a sentence also obtains its own sentence-intonation which, too, helps to foreground the content. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: I like people. Not just empty streets and dead buildings. People. People. (P.Abrahams)

See: ,

sentence structure

Not only the clarity and understandability of the sentence but also its expressiveness depend on the position of clauses, constituting it.

@ loose structure

- opens with the main clause, which is followed by dependent units

- less emphatic and is highly characteristic of informal writing and conversation

@ periodic sentences

- open with subordinate clauses, absolute and participial constructions, the main clause being withheld until the end

- are known for their emphasis and are used mainly in creative prose

e.g.: Such being at bottom the fact, I think it is well to leave it at that. (S.Maugham)

@ balanced sentences

- subordinate-main-subordinate similar structuring of the beginning of the sentence and its end;

- known for stressing the logic and reasoning of the content and thus preferred in publicist writing;

@

See: ,

Source: (V.A.K.)

order of words

and are used to convey the corresponding pausation and intonation in the written form of speech (V.A.K.)

See: ,

punctuation

Points of exclamation, points of interrogation, dots, dashes; commas, semicolons and full stops serve as an additional source of information and help to specify the meaning of the written sentence which in oral speech would be conveyed by the intonation. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: Whats your name? John Lewis. Mines Liza. Watkin. (K.Kesey)

e.g.: You know so much. Where is she? Dead. Or in a crazy house. Or married. I think shes married and quieted down. (T.Capote)

e.g.: The neon lights in the heart of the city flashed on and off. On and off. On. Off. On. Off. Continuiously. (P.Abrahams)

See: , ,

rhetorical question

1) peculiar interrogative construction which semantically remains a statement;

- does not demand any information but

- serves to express the emotions of the speaker and also

- serves to call the attention of listeners;

- makes an indispensable part of oratoric speech for they very successfully emphasise the orators ideas. (V.A.K.)

2) a special syntactical stylistic device the essence of which consists in reshaping the grammatical meaning of the interrogative sentence (I.R.G.)

e.g.: Are these the remedies for a starving and desperate populace?

See: , ,

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types of repetition

include: , , , or , , , ;

Repetition:

- is a powerful mean of emphasis

- adds rhythm and balance to the utterance

See: , anaphora

a . . . , a . . . , a . . . ,

the beginning of two or more sentences (clauses) is repeated

The main stylistic function is not so much to emphasise the repeated unit as to create the background for the non-repeated unit, which, through its novelty, becomes foregrounded. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: I might as well face facts: good-bye, Susan, good-bye a big car, good-bye a big house, good-bye power, good-bye the silly handsome dreams. (J.Braine)

e.g.: And everywhere were people. People going into gates and coming out of gates. People staggering and falling. People fighting and cursing.(P.Abrahams)

Ant.:

See:

epiphora

. . . a, . . . a, . . . a,

the end of successive sentences (clauses) is repeated

The main stylistic function is to add stress to the final words of the sentence.(V.A.K.)

e.g.: I wake up and Im alone and I walk round Warley and Im alone; and I talk with people and Im alone and I look at his face when Im home and its dead. (J.Braine)

Ant.:

See:

framing

a . . . a

the beginning of the sentence is repeated in the end, thus forming the frame for the non-repeated part of the sentence (utterance)

The stylistic function is to elucidate the notion mentioned in the beginning of the sentence, to concretise and to specify its semantics. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: Obviously this is a streptococcal infection. Obviously. (W.Deeping)

e.g.: Then there was something between them. There was. There was. (T.Dreiser)

See: or , ,

catch repetition

anadiplosis

reduplication

. . . a, a . . .

the end of one clause (sentence) is repeated in the beginning of the following one

The stylistic function is to elucidate the notion, to concretise and to specify its semantics on a more modest level. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: Now he understood. he understood many things. One can be a person first. A man first and then a black man or a white man. (P.Abrahams)

e.g.: And a great desire for peace, peace of no matter what kind, swept through her.(A.Bennet)

See: , ,

chain repetition

chain-repetition

. . . a, a . . . b, b. . .

several successive repetitions

The effect is that of the smoothly developing logical reasoning. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: To think better of it, returned the gallant Blandois, would be to slight a lady, to slight a lady would be to be deficient in chivalry towards the sex, and chivalry towards the sex is a part of my character. (Ch.Dickens)

e.g.: Failure meant poverty, poverty meant squalor, squalor led, in the final stages, to the smells and stagnation of B. Inn Alley. (D. du Maurier)

See:

ordinary repetition

. . . a, . . . a . . ., a . . .

. . a . ., . . a . ., . . a . .

no definite place in the sentence, the repeated unit occurs in various positions

The stylistic function is to emphasise both the logical and the emotional meaning of the reiterated word (phrase). (V.A.K.)

e.g.: Halfway along the right-hand side of the dark brown hall was a dark brown door with a dark brown settie beside it. (W.S.Gilbert)

e.g.: I really dont see anything romantic in proposing. It is very romantic to be in love. But there is nothing romantic about a definite proposal. (O.Wilde)

See:

successive repetition

. . . a, a, a . . .

a string of closely following each other reiterated units

The most emphatic type of repetition which signifies the peak of emotions of the speaker. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: Of her fathers being groundlessly suspected, she felt sure. Sure. Sure. (Ch.Dickens)

See:

synonymical repetition

the repetition of the same idea by using synonymous words and phrases which by adding a slightly different nuance of meaning intensify the impact of the utterance (I.R.G.)

e.g.: ... are there not capital punishment sufficient in your statutes? Is there not blood enough upon your penal code? (Byron)

See:

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parallel construction

reiteration of the structure of several sentences (clauses), and not of their lexical flesh

almost always includes some type of lexical repetition, and such a convergence produces a very strong effect, at one go logical, rhythmic, emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: I notice that fathers is a large hand, but never a heavy one when it touches me, and that fathers is a rough voice but never an angry one when it speaks to me. (T.Dreiser)

See: , ,

chiasmus reversed parallel construction

a) reversed parallelism of the structure of several sentences (clauses)

b) of the first construction in the second part (V.A.K.)

e.g.: If the first sentence (clause) has a direct word order SPO, the second one will have it inverted OPS.

e.g.: Down dropped the breeze, // The sails dropped down. (Coleridge)

See: , , ,

inversion

a syntactical in which the direct word order is changed either completely so that the predicate precedes the subject (complete inversion), or partially so that the object precedes the subjectp-predicate pair (partial inversion) (V.A.K.)

e.g.: To a medical student the final examinations are something like death ... (R.Gordon) [lang id=2] - ... [/lang]

e.g.: Of all my old association. of all my old pursuits and hopes, of all the living and the dead world, this one poor soul alone comes natural to me. (Ch.Dickens)

e.g.: Women are not made for attack. Wait they must. (J.Conrad)

See: ,

suspense

1) a deliberate postponement of the completion of the sentence with the help of embedded clauses (homogeneous members) separating the predicate from the subject and introducing less important facts and details first, while the expected information of major importance is reserved till the end of the sentence (utterance) (V.A.K.)

2) a compositional device which consists in arranging the matter of a communication in such a way that the less important, descriptive, subordinate parts are amassed at the beginning, the main idea being withheld till the end of the sentence (I.R.G.)

e.g.: Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend M. was obliging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw. (Ch.Lamb)

See: , detachment

detached construction

a based on singling out a secondary member of the sentence with the help of punctuation (intonation) (V.A.K.)

e.g.: I have to beg you nearly killed, ingloriously, in a jeep accident. (I.Shaw)

e.g.: I have to beg you for money. Daily. (S.Lewis)

e.g.: She was crazy about you. In the beginning. (R.P.Warren)

See: , completeness of sentence structure

includes: , , or

See: , ellipsis

a deliberate omission of at least one member of the sentence

e.g.: What! all my pretty chickens and their dam at one fell swoop? (W.Shakespeare)

e.g.: In manner, close and dry. In voice, husky and low. In face, watchful behind a blind. (Ch.Dickens)

e.g.: His forehead was narrow, his face wide, his head large, and his nose all one side. (Ch.Dickens)

See:

apokoinu constructions

the omission of the pronominal (adverbial) connective

- create a blend of the main and the subordinate clauses so that

- the predicative or the object of the first one is simultaneously used as the subject of the second one (V.A.K.)

e.g.: There was a door led into the kitchen. (Sh.Anderson)

e.g.: He was the man killed that deer. (R.P.Warren)

e.g.: There was no breeze came through the door. (E.Hemingway)

See:

break-in-the-narrative

aposiopesis

a stopping short for rhetorical effect (I.R.G.)

- used mainly in the dialogue or in the other forms of narrative imitating spontaneous oral speech because the speakers emotions prevent him from finishing the sentence (V.A.K.)

e.g.: You just come home or Ill ...

e.g.: Good intentions, but ...

e.g.: If you continue your intemperate way of living, in six months time ...

e.g.: What I had seen of Patti didnt really contradict Kittys view of her: a girl who means well, but. (D.Uhnak)

See:

types of connection

include: , ,

See:

polysyndeton

repeated use of conjunctions

- is to strengthen the idea of equal logical/emotive importance of connected sentences. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: By the time he had got all the bottles and dishes and knives and forks and glasses and plates and spoons and things piled up on big trays, he was getting very hot, and red in the face, and annoyed.(A.Tolkien)

e.g.: Bella soaped his face and rubbed his face, and soaped his hands and rubbed his hands, and splashed him, and rinsed him, and towelled him, until he was as red as beetroot. (Ch.Dickens)

Ant.:

See: ,

asyndeton

deliberate omission of conjunctions, cutting off connecting words

- helps to create the effect of terse, energetic, active prose. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: With these hurried words Mr. Bob Sawyer pushed the postboy on one side, jerked his friend into the vehicle, slammed the door, put up the steps, wafered the bill on the street-door, locked it, put the key into his pocket, jumped into the dickey, gave the word for starting. (Ch.Dickens)

Ant.:

See: ,

attachment

separating the second part of the utterance from the first one by full stop though their semantic and grammatical ties remain very strong (V.A.K.)

e.g.: It wasnt his fault. It was yours. And mine. I now humbly beg you to give me the money with which to buy meals for you to eat. And hereafter do remember it: the next time I shant beg. I shall simply starve. (S.Lewis)

e.g.: Prison is where she belongs. And my husband agrees one thousand per cent. (T.Capote)

e.g.: He is a very deliberate, careful guy and we trust each other completely. With a few reservations. (D.Uhnak)

See: , , ,

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lexico-syntactical stylistic devices

lexico-syntactical SDs

certain structures, whose emphasis depends not only on the arrangement of sentence members but also on the lexico-semantic aspect of the utterance (V.A.K.)

- include: , , , , ,

See: , , ,

antithesis

a semantically complicated , the two parts of which are semantically opposite to each other

- is to stress the heterogenity of the described phenomenon, to show that the latter is a dialectical unity of two (or more) opposing features. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: Some people have much to live on, and little to live for. (O.Wilde)

e.g.: If we dont know who gains by his death we do know who loses by it. (A.Christie)

e.g.: Mrs. Nork had a large home and a small husband. (S.Lewis)

e.g.: In marriage the upkeep of woman is often the downfall of man. (S.Evans)

e.g.: Dont use big words. They mean so little. (O.Wilde)

See:

climax

gradation

a semantically complicated , in which each next word combination (clause, sentence) is logically more important or emotionally stronger and more explicit (V.A.K.)

Three types:

@ logical climax

a three-step (the most widely spread model), in which intensification of logical importance, of emotion or quantity (size, dimensions) is gradually rising step by step (V.A.K.)

- is based on the relative importance of the component parts looked at from the point of view of the concepts embodied in them (I.R.G.)

e.g.: Better to borrow, better to beg, better to die! (Ch.Dickens)

e.g.: Like a well, like a vault, like a tomb, the prison had no knowledge of the brightness outside. (Ch.Dickens)

e.g.: For that one instant there was no one else in the room, in the house, in the world, besides themselves.(M.Wilson)

@ emotive climax

a two-step , in which the second part repeats the first one and is further strengthened by an intensifier (V.A.K.)

- is based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with emotive meaning (I.R.G.)

e.g.: He was so helpless, so very helpless. (W.Deeping)

e.g.: She felt better, immensely better. (W.Deeping)

e.g.: I have been so unhappy here, so very very unhappy. (Ch.Dickens)

@ quantitative climax

an evident increase in the volume of the corresponding concepts (I.R.G.)

e.g.: They looked at hundreds of houses; they climbed thousands of stairs; they inspected innumerable kitchens.(S.Maugham)

e.g.: Little by little, bit by bit, and day by day, and year by year the baron got the worst of some disputed question. (Ch.Dickens)

@

e.g.: We were all in all to one another, it was the morning of life, it was bliss, it was frenzy, it was everything else of that sort in the highest degree. (Ch.Dickens)

e.g.: I am firm, thou art obstinate, he is pig-headed. (B.Charlestone)

e.g.: No tree, no shrub, no blade of grass that was not owned. (J. Galsworthy)

Ant.:

Syn.: ,

See:

anticlimax

a suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought which defeats expectations of the reader (listener) and ends in complete semantic reversal of the emphasised idea (V.A.K.)

e.g.: It was appalling and soon forgotten. (J.Galsworthy)

e.g.: He was unconsolable for an afternoon. (J.Galsworthy)

e.g.: Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything except the obvious. (O.Wilde)

Ant.:

See:

simile

an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of some quality

The one which is compared is called the tenor, the one with which it is compared, is called the vehicle. The tenor and the vehicle form the two semantic poles of the simile, which are connected by one of the following link words: like, as, as though, as like, such as, as ... as, etc. (V.A.K.)

e.g.: She is like a rose.

e.g.: He stood immovable like a rock in a torrent. (J.Reed)

e.g.: His muscles are hard as rock. (T.Capote)

e.g.: The conversation she began behaved like green logs: they fumed but would not fire. (T.Capote)

Compare:

See: , or ,

(logical) comparison

an ordinary comparison of two objects belonging to the same classes (V.A.K.)

e.g.: She is like her mother.

Compare:

See:

the tenor

the vehicle

See:

epic simile

Homeric simile

extended , sustained expression of likeness

See:

litotes

a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a possessive evaluation

- the first component is always the negative particle not, while the second, always negative in semantics, varies in form from a negatively affixed word (as above) to a negative phrase (V.A.K.)

e.g.: Her face was not unpretty. (K.Kesey)

e.g.: It was not unnatural if Gilbert felt a certain embarrassment. (E.Waugh)

e.g.: The idea was not totally erroneous. The thought did not displease me. (I.Murdoch)

See: ,

periphrasis

a) using a roundabout form of expression instead of a simpler one

b) using a more or less complicated syntactical structure instead of a word

They are classified into:

- or or

- or

See:

Source: (V.A.K.)

figurative periphrasis

a that is made of phrase-metonymies or phrase-metaphors (V.A.K.)

- is to convey a purely individual perception of the described object

e.g.: The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products of the fighting in Africa. \[=wounded\] (I.Shaw)

e.g.: His huge leather chairs were kind to the femurs. (R.P.Warren)

e.g.: I took my obedient feet away from him. (W.S.Gilbert)

See: , ,

metaphoric periphrasis

metonymic periphrasis

See:

logical periphrasis

euphemistic periphrasis

a phrase synonymic with the words which were substituted by (V.A.K.)

- offers more polite qualification instead of a coarser one (euphemistic)

e.g.: Mr. Du Pont was dressed in the conventional disguise \[the suit \] with which Brooks Brothers cover the shame of American millionaires \[the paunch (belly)\]. (The Morning Star)

e.g.: I am thinking an unmentionable thing about your mother. (I.Shaw)