Trr MamllOrthography

Trr Mamll

A Grammar of the Syriac Language

Volume 1Orthography

George Anton Kiraz

9342012

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA

www.gorgiaspress.com

Copyright by Gorgias Press LLC2012

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No partof this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in anyform or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning orotherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC.

Printed in the United States of America

2012 9ISBN 978-1-4632-0183-8

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kiraz, George Anton. Syriac orthography / by George Kiraz. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Syriac language--Grammar. I. Title. PJ5423.K58 2012 492'.35--dc23

2012027231

vii

Contents at a Glance Preface xix 1. Sources and their Historical Context 1 I. The Graphemic Inventory 29 2. Consonantal Graphemes 31 3. Vowel Graphemes 59 4. Grammatical Graphemes 91 5. Editorial, Liturgical and Musical Graphemes 115 6. Ancient Prosodic Graphemes or Accents 131 7. Numbering Systems 159 II. Graphotactics, Writing, and Ductus 175 8. Graphotactics 177 9. Writing 209 10. Ductus 227 III. Garnography, Adaptation, and Alloglottography 289 11. Garnography I: Syriac as the Target Script 291 12. Garnography II: Syriac as the Source Language 323 13. Nongarnographic Adaptations of the Syriac Script 353 14. Alloglottography 359 IV. Technological Developments 363 15. Lithography and Mimeography 365 16. Typewriters 369 17. Digital Typography 377 18. Coding Standards 387 Indices 395

ix

CCoonntteennttss Preface xix

Plates and Credits xxv Transcription and Transliteration xxvii Note on Examples xxvii Abbreviations and Symbols xxix Bibliography xxxiii

1. Sources and their Historical Context 1 1.1. Preliminaries 2 1.2. Old Syriac Sources 8

1.2.1. The Consonantal System 8

1.2.2. The Vocalization System 9

1.2.3. Other Symbols 10

1.3. Early Manuscripts 10 1.3.1. The Consonantal System 11

1.3.2. The Vocalization System 12

1.3.3. Other Symbols 12

1.4. The Classical Grammarians 13 1.5. The Malmn 15 1.6. European Grammarians and Philologists 17 1.7. Late Manuscripts of the Received Tradition 18 1.8. Chronology of Events 19

I. The Graphemic Inventory 29 2. Consonantal Graphemes 31

2.1. The Consonantary 31

x Table of Contents

2.2. Mnemonics and Consonantal Subsets 34 2.3. Typology of Consonants 36 2.4. Grapheme Resemblance 37 2.5. Orthographic Variations and Spelling Development 40

2.5.1. lp 41

2.5.2. Waw 44

2.5.3. Y 46

2.5.4. Other Consonants 48

2.6. Homography 49 2.7. Frequency of Occurrence 53 2.8. Alphabetization 55

3. Vowel Graphemes 59 3.1. The Matres Lectionis System 61 3.2. The Pointing System 64

3.2.1. One-Point Vocalization 65

3.2.2. Multi-Point Vocalization 69

3.2.3. The Fully Developed Pointing System 70

3.2.4. Syme as an /e/ Vowel 73

3.3. Alphabetical Linear Vocalization 73 3.3.1. Jacob of Edessa 74

3.3.2. Gabriel aww 76

3.4. Greek Nonlinear Vocalization 79 3.5. Summary of Phonemic to Graphemic Relationships 83 3.6. Vowel Names 84 3.7. Orthographic Variants 87

Table of Contents xi

3.8. Frequency of Occurrence 90 4. Grammatical Graphemes 91

4.1. Phonological Graphemes 92 4.1.1. /d/ vs. /r/ Marker 92

4.1.2. Sound Deletion Markers 92

4.1.3. Schwa Markers 96

4.1.4. Fricatization Markers: Qy and Rkkk 100

4.1.5. Doubling Marker 102

4.2. Morphological Graphemes 103 4.2.1. Verbal Markers 103

4.2.2. The Plural Marker Syme 108

4.2.3. Gender Marking of the Object Pronominal Suffix 112

4.3. Lexical Markers 113 5. Editorial, Liturgical and Musical Graphemes 115

5.1. Punctuation Graphemes 115 5.2. Marking Corrections 117 5.3. Quotation Marks 118 5.4. Abbreviation Mark 119 5.5. Textual Marks 126 5.6. Liturgical and Musical Graphemes 128

6. Ancient Prosodic Graphemes or Accents 131 6.1. Marks above the Line 133

6.1.1. One-Point Marks above the Line 133

6.1.2. Two-Point Marks above the Line 138

6.1.3. Three-Point Marks above the Line 141

xii Table of Contents

6.2. Marks below the Line 142 6.2.1. One-Point Marks below the Line 142

6.2.2. Two-Point Marks below the Line 147

6.2.3. Three-Point Marks below the Line 148

6.3. Marks upon the Line 149 6.3.1. One-Point Marks upon the Line 149

6.3.2. Two-Point Marks upon the Line 150

6.4. The Prosodic Marks by Function 154 7. Numbering Systems 159

7.1. Old Syriac Numerals 160 7.1.1. Numerals in Early Inscriptions 160

7.1.2. Numerals in Manuscripts 163

7.2. Alphabetic Numerals 164 7.2.1. Early Sequential System 164

7.2.2. Early Additive System 165

7.2.3. Standard System 166

7.3. Indic and Arabic Numerals 172 7.4. Greek and Coptic Letters for Numerals 173 7.5. Cipher 173

II. Graphotactics, Writing, and Ductus 175 8. Graphotactics 177

8.1. Background 177 8.2. The Consonantal Tier 178

8.2.1. Allography, Cursivity, and Joining 179

8.2.2. Ligatures 186

Table of Contents xiii

8.3. The Grammatical Tier 192 8.4. The Disambiguation Tier 194 8.5. The Vocalism Tier 194 8.6. The Fricatization Tier 196 8.7. Well-Formedness Condition 196 8.8. Orthographic Space 198

8.8.1. Space on the Consonantal Tier 198

8.8.2. Inter-Tier Spacing 205

9. Writing 209 9.1. Medium and Writing Tools 209 9.2. Directionality 211 9.3. Scripts 214 9.4. Line Fillers 220 9.5. Writing Sequence 224

10. Ductus 227 10.1. Allographic Resemblance 228 10.2. Stroke Types 229 10.3. Graph Anatomy 229 10.4. Cursivity and Pen Lifting 232 10.5. Ductus Characteristics 233 10.6. lap 238 10.7. B 241 10.8. Gmal 243 10.9. Dla and R 245 10.10. H 247

xiv Table of Contents

10.11. Waw 249 10.12. Zayn 251 10.13. 252 10.14. 254 10.15. Y 257 10.16. Kp 259 10.17. Lma 261 10.18. Mm 264 10.19. Nn 267 10.20. Simka 269 10.21. 271 10.22. P 273 10.23. 275 10.24. Qp 277 10.25. R 278 10.26. n 279 10.27. Taw 280 10.28. Ligatures 282 10.29. Ductus of Other Graphs 284

10.29.1. Points 284

10.29.2. Lines 285

10.29.3. Greek Vowels 286

III. Garnography, Adaptation, and Alloglottography 289 11. Garnography I: Syriac as the Target Script 291

11.1. On Garnography 291

Table of Contents xv

11.2. Syro-Arabic 294 11.3. Syro-Armenian 298 11.4. Syro-Greek 304 11.5. Syro-Hebrew 306 11.6. Syro-Kurdish 306 11.7. Syro-Latin 309 11.8. Syro-Malayalam 312 11.9. Syro-Sogdian and Persian 313

11.9.1. Syro-Sogdian 313

11.9.2. Syro-Persian 316

11.10. Syro-Ottoman 319 11.11. Appendix: Syro-English in the Making 321

12. Garnography II: Syriac as the Source Language 323 12.1. Arabo-Syriac 323 12.2. Armeno-Syriac 325 12.3. Greco-Syriac 326 12.4. Hebrao-Syriac 326 12.5. Latino-Syriac 329

12.5.1. Ambrosios Transcription 329

12.5.2. Widmanstetters Transcription 331

12.5.3. Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Transcriptions332

12.5.4. Standard Transcriptions and Transliterations 333

12.5.5. Liturgical Transcriptions 334

12.5.6. Computer Encoding 337

12.5.7. Library Romanization 339

xvi Table of Contents

12.5.8. Chat Alphabet 339

12.6. Malayalo-Syriac 343 12.7. Turco-Syriac 346

13. Nongarnographic Adaptations of the Syriac Script 353 13.1. Christian Palestinian Aramaic 353 13.2. NENA Neo-Aramaic 354 13.3. uroyo Neo-Aramaic 356

14. Alloglottography 359 IV. Technological Developments 363 15. Lithography and Mimeography 365

15.1. Lithography 365 15.2. Mimeography 367

16. Typewriters 369 16.1. Underwood Typewriter 369 16.2. The Adler Typewriter 369 16.3. Olympia Typewriter 372 16.4. IBM Typewriter 373 16.5. Hermes (Potential) Typewriter 373 16.6. The ujd Typewriter 374

17. Digital Typography 377 17.1. Plotter Technology 377 17.2. Bitmap Fonts: The DOS Era 379 17.3. Outline Fonts: The Windows Age 382 17.4. Open-Type Fonts 385

18. Coding Standards 387

Table of Contents xvii

18.1. Language Name Code: ISO 639 387 18.2. Script Name Codes: ISO 15924 388 18.3. Grapheme Codes: Unicode (ISO 10646) 388 18.4. Keyboard Layouts 389

18.4.1. The Standard Keyboard 390

18.4.2. The MLS Keyboard 392

18.4.3. The Windows/Meltho Keyboard 392

Indices 395 Glossary and Linguistic Terms 395 Index of Syriac Grammatical Terms 395 Graph Index 395 Word Index 395

Arabic 395

English 395

Greek 395

Syriac 395

Passage Index 395 Inscriptions Index 395 Manuscripts Index 396 Biblical Citations Index 398 Authors Cited 398 Subject Index 398 Quotations Index 398

xix

PPrreeffaaccee

The treatment of writing and orthography in Syriac grammars is extremely scanty, and what already exists is dated. T. Nldeke (18361930) devotes only 13 pages to the subject in his 1898 Kurzgefasste Grammatik, undoubtedly the most cited of Syriac grammars. Earlier, R. Duval (18391911) covered orthography in more detail in his 1881 Grammaire. C. J. David (18291890), Syriac Catholic bishop of Damascus and the only Eastern scholar to compile a comprehensive grammar after Bar Ebroyo (1225/61286), devoted an extensive chapter to writing. Well over a cen-tury has now passed since these accounts appeared, during which the field of philology gradually became overshadowed by modern linguistics. A linguistically-based field of writing systems emerged half a century ago with the pioneering work of Gelb, followed by Sampson, DeFrancis, Coulmas, Rogers, and Gnanadesikan, and there is even a monograph on computational models of writing systems by Sproat (see bibliography). This volume, the first in a

series, attempts to bring the study of Syriac writing closer to such modern linguistic accounts, while keeping the Syriac scholar in mind.

This is not an introductory text, and it is assumed that the reader is already familiar with the Syriac language and its basic grammar. It is written with the intention that it will be followed by a volume on phonology. As such, discussion of the orthogra-phy-phonology interface is limited to what is necessary for the description of orthography and writing. Matters that pertain to the phonological system are reserved for the subsequent volume.

The reader will no doubt notice that there is a discontinuity in the examples cited from manuscripts (hereinafter, MSS) with a

xx Preface

concentration on early MSS as well as very late ones, but almost nothing in the intervening period. For the early MSS, I have relied on the before me who had direct access to such MSS (e.g. Wright, Hatch, Segal). Cited examples from late MSS are not the result of a systematic study of such MSS; rather, observations made while chanting on the gudo. (Fellow deacons: I was not tex-ting; I was merely taking notes!) As for early printed books, I have examined all the illustrations in Coakleys Typography as well as my private rare book collection. No attempt was made to examine other rare collections. When citing examples, I gener-ously borrowed from earlier grammarians, who in turn borrowed from others, this chain of citation being extremely helpful in de-termining the history of the grammatical tradition.

The presentation here is neither diachronic nor synchronic, but rather thematic. When possible, a diachronic account is given to express the development of the topic at hand (e.g. the vocaliza-tion system in Chapter 3). Chapters 9 and 10 on writing and duc-tus, respectively, are entirely synchronic.

I have tried to be descriptive rather than prescriptive, though I could not help but insert a few prescriptive comments here and there! Having said that, as I rely mostly on the grammatical tradi-tion, some statements here might implicitly be prescriptive. The grammatical tradition does not always agree with what one finds in the manuscript tradition.

X The book is organized as follows: Chapter 1 provides prelimi-

naries and general definitions of terms used throughout the work, as well as a chronological overview of the writing system and its sources. Thereafter, the book is divided into four main parts:

Part I gives an account of all Syriac graphemes or symbols. Chapters 2 and 3 are devoted to segmental graphemes; i.e. graph-emes which correspond to a phonological segment: the former

Preface xxi

presents the consonantal system, while the latter the vocalization system. Chapter 4 presents grammatical graphemes that pertain to phonology and morphology. Chapter 5 accounts for editorial marks such as punctuation marks and various editorial signs, as well as signs found in liturgical MSS. Chapter 6 explores ancient accent signs, most of which are hardly used and whose function is not always clear. Chapter 7 presents numbering systems.

Part II describes how the graphemes enumerated in Part I are arranged together to form words, and how each grapheme is writ-ten. Chapter 8, probably the only chapter to claim originality, presents a theory of graphotactics; i.e. the rules that determine how graphs are arranged together to formulate larger texts. Chap-ter 9 looks at writing in general, while Chapter 10 examines writ-ing at the graph level, and presents the ductus of each graph from a synchronic perspective.

Part III is dedicated to garnography, the use of the Syriac script to write other languages (Chapter 11), as well as the use of other scripts to write the Syriac language (Chapter 12). Chapter 13 looks at the adaptation of the Syriac script to write other forms of Aramaic. Finally, Chapter 14 discusses alloglottography, the art of reading Syriac texts in languages other than Syriac.

Part IV deals with technological developments post movable type including lithography and mimeography (Chapter 15), type-writers (Chapter 16), and digital typography (Chapter 17). Fi-nally, Chapter 18 discusses coding standards.

The book concludes with a number of indices. X

I have relied on many works of the great scholars who came be-fore me, to use a liturgical expression. I have not

xxii Preface

shied from citing many examples from their works,1 and my debt to them will be apparent to the reader.

A number of scholars contributed to sections on garnogra-phy: Mark Dickens and Peter Zieme on Turco-Syriac (12.7), Tho-mas Joseph on Malayalo-Syriac ( 12.6), Nicholas Sims-Williams on Syro-Sogdian and Syro-Persian ( 11.9), Hidemi Takahashi on Syro-Armenian ( 11.3) and Armeno-Syriac ( 12.2), and Benjamin Trigona-Harany on Syro-Ottoman ( 11.10). When quoting from these sections, I suggest that scholars follow the same style used for citing chapters within a collection.

A draft of the entire work was read by Sebastian P. Brock, Lu-cas Van Rompay, Chip (J. F.) Coakley, Andreas Juckel, Daniel King, and Hidemi Takahashi. Their comments helped to make the book a better one. Melonie Schmierer of Gorgias Press carefully copy edited the final draft. All mistakes, of course, remain mine.

My unfamiliarity with Latin, French, and to a lesser degree German has always been a . I am grateful to Daniel King who translated for me Merxs Historia, and Adam McCollum who translated for me the first part of Duvals Grammaire (parts two and three were translated by Michael Penn and Maria Doer-fler). I hope to repay them by publishing their translations.

Mar Emmanuel Yosip answered questions on matters pertain-ing to the E. Syr. ductus, Mor Polycarpus Eugene Aydin on mat-ters uroyo, Daniel Benjamin on matters E. Syr. (and provided his elegant font Assyrian which I use for East Syriac texts), John

1 During my work on this book, my daughter Tabetha published her first book, My Baby Brother Lucian (2010), during which she learned about citation etiquettes, and original writing versus plagiarism. Shocked when she saw me copying down extensive lexical entries from J. Margoliouth for a section on orthographic variants and homography, she rebuked stealing from ?

Preface xxiii

Healey on matters Old Syriac, Heleen Murre-van den Berg on matters Neo-Aramaic, Alessandro Mengozzi on matters Garn, and Richard Sproat on matters linguistics. Mar Awa Royel made me aware of Syriac-into-Swy alloglottography.

Chip Coakley shared his article on the origin of the W. Syr. vocalization system prior to its publication which resulted in a re-write of my presentation on the topic (q.v. 174). Michael Soko-loff shared with me lists extracted from a database version of his Lexicon which helped me study homography (q.v. 113). David Taylor made available his classroom handouts that pertain to writing.

Andreas Juckel, , shared with me his vast knowledge of Syriac MSS over a number of visits. Adam McCollum provided me with numerous examples from MSS he is cataloguing at the Hill Museum & Manuscript Library (HMML). Members of the hugoye-list, the discussion group of Hugoye: Jour-nal of Syriac Studies, answered many queries. Jack Tannous, Hoda Mitwally, Thomas Carlson, James Walters, and Lev Weitz were very helpful in providing me with electronic versions of publica-tions that I had no access to at the Beth Mardutho Research Li-brary. James Walters collated Ser and E. Syr. grapheme exam-ples from MS images for purposes of Chapter 10. My wife Chris-tine adapted the directionality images (365, 445) from The Uni-code 5.0 Standard (p. 47). Diane Collier made many changes to the Serto Jerusalem font, always on short notice. An anonymous toddler in Seat 29E on flight CO 1502 in early 2010 generously shared with me her coloring pencils when I ran out of ink while proofreading an earlier draft. The team at Gorgias Press ran the operation very efficiently allowing me to indulge myself in a sab-batical during 20102011, albeit a part-time one: Christine, Jas-maile, Katie, Doug, Erin, Phoebe, Hoda, Mary Ann, and of course

xxiv Preface

my automation creation Flo Chart thanks for providing a pro-ductive environment at Gorgias that allowed me to play scholar.

Various individuals and institutions provided images for the plates: J. F. Coakley, the Beth Mardutho Research Library, the British Library, Haluk Perk Museum, John F. Healey, HMML (thanks to Columba Stewart and Adam McCollum), Christine I. Kiraz, Museum fr Asiatische Kunst, and Yale University. Objects from my private collection were photographed by Shehnaz Abdel-jaber.

These days college kids have a nickname for every subject un-der the sun. My wife Christine was tutoring some girls at Rutgers University in organic chemistry, or as they called it orgo. I wanted to be hip and cool too, so I began talking about my ortho. Work-ing at times when I should have been giving my children some attention, my then eight-year old daughter Tabetha, a bilingual in Kthobonoyo and English, would often ask, sometimes in frustra-tion: , when is gonna ?, and ? I dedicate this work on Syriac ortho to Tabetha Gabriella, and my sons Sebastian Kenoro and Lucian Nurono. May they develop enough passion for . At the Beth Mardutho Research Library, Piscataway, N.J. June 5, 2012, Commemoration of the asyo

George Anton Kiraz

xxv

Plates and Credits IPA equivalences, when applicable, appear in square brackets, [ ]. Pl. 1 Top. Old Syriac inscription dated A.D. 73; John F. Healey; text

translation from Drijvers and Healey 19394. Bottom. The tomb of Nam Faiq Palak (18631930); Chris-

tine I. Kiraz. Pl. 2 Top. Orpheus Taming Wild Animals; photograph from S. P.

Brock and D. G. K. Taylor, The Ancient Aramaic Heritage (The Hidden Pearl: the Syrian Orthodox Church and its Ancient Ara-maic Heritage I. Rome: 2001, 177; text translation from Healey, A New Syriac Mosaic Inscription.

Bottom. Text of the Orpheus mosaic; John F. Healey. Pl. 3 Old Syriac parchment dated A.D. 9 May 243; Beinecke Rare

Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. Pl. 4 Top. The oldest dated Syriac manuscript. Bottom. A modern Syriac and Garn manuscript; Shehnaz

Abdeljaber. Pl. 5 Top. Palimpsest manuscript; Shehnaz Abdeljaber; photograph

from Cureton, Fragments of the Iliad. Bottom. Liturgical manuscript with a musical symbol; Shehnaz

Abdeljaber. Pl. 6 The Chronicle of Michael Rabo; photgraph from G. Y. Ibrahim,

The Edessa-Aleppo Syriac Codex of the Chronicle of Michael the Great 478 (2009); the Hill Museum & Manuscript Library, Saint Johns University, MN.

Pl. 7 Top. Syro-Persian garnographic Psalter from the Turfan collection; Museum fr Asiatische Kunst, Staatiche Museen zu Berlin, Kunstsammlung Sd- Sdost und Zentralasien; thanks to Erica Hunter, Mark Dickens, and Lilla Russell-Smith.

Bottom. Lining board; Shehnaz Abdeljaber.

xxvi Plates and Credits

Pl. 8 K -nhr arwye from a manuscript dated 1889; Shehnaz Abdeljaber.

Pl. 9 Top. Syriac incised on metal; Haluk Perk Museum. Thanks to Haluk Perk and zcan Geer.

Bottom. Silver Gospel cover; Shehnaz Abdeljaber. Pl. 10 Top. Prima Elementa; Shehnaz Abdeljaber. Bottom. Syriac print punches; J. F. Coakley. Pl. 11 Top. The Maronite Gabriel aww invented; the Hill Mu-

seum & Manuscript Library, Saint Johns University, MN. Bottom. In 1966 Abrohom Nuro proposed; Shehnaz Abdel-

jaber. Pl. 12 Top. A plate from Deir al-Zafarn press. Bottom. Lithographic edition of the m from a copy preserved

at the Venkadathu Qasheeshe Alexandrayos & Joseph Collection, Kottayam; George A. Kiraz.

Pl. 13 ntibh [Awakening]; Shehnaz Abdeljaber. Pl. 14 The Adler Typewriter; Shehnaz Abdeljaber. Pl. 15 Page printed with Multi-Lingual Scholar; Shehnaz Abdel-

jaber. Pl. 16 Puzzles; Shehnaz Abdeljaber.

xxvii

Transcription and Transliteration IPA equivalences, when applicable, appear in square brackets, [ ]. b [v] g g [] j d [] h w z [] [t] [z] y [j] k

[] l m n s p p [f] [s] [d] q r [] t [] schwa

In addition, and are used instead of and , respectively, in proper nouns and grammatical terms; e.g. Bar Ebroyo, maln, Pal. Initial is omitted in kayl terms; e.g. Apel not Apel.

Note on Examples Whenever possible examples are given with full vocalization and rkk/qy marking for uniformity, with the understanding that ancient MSS do not have such markings; e.g. to illus-trate the rkk point from a MS dated 615, a time when Greek vowels did not even exist.

xxix

Abbreviations and Symbols 1st = 1st person 2nd = 2nd person 3rd = 3rd person abs. = absolute act. part. = active participle C = consonant Cd = dual-joining consonant Cr = right-joining consonant cf. = confer, compare co. = column const. = construct CT = consonantal tier DT = disambiguation tier E. = east e.g. = exempli gratia, for example emph. = emphatic f. = folio fem. = feminine GT = grammatical tier i.e. = id est, that is illus. = illustration impf. = imperfect impt. = imperative IPA = International Phonetic Alphabet ln. = line masc. = masculine MS = manuscript MSS = manuscripts n. = note (in a cited reference to refer to a footnote) N.p. = no place, no publisher (in bibliography)

xxx Abbreviations

opp. = opposite p. = page pass. part. = passive participle perf. = perfect Pl. = plate pl. = plural q.v. = quod vide, which see RQT = rkk and qy tier Syr. = Syriac V = Vowel viz. = videlicet, that is to say vs. = versus VT = Vocalism Tier W. = West WFC = well-formedness condition P-C indicates a root or a verb whose first consonant is C; e.g.

is a P- verb. -C indicates a root or a verb whose second consonant is C;

e.g. is a - root. L-C indicates a root or a verb whose third consonant is C; e.g.

is a L- verb. < > enclose graphemic transliterations. [ ] enclose phonetic transcriptions. / / enclose phonemic transcriptions. { } enclose morphemic transcriptions. marks rising intonation. marks falling intonation. : marks a long vowel in a phonetic transcription.

Abbreviations xxxi

+ joins lexemes or morphemes forming one word. - marks syllable boundary. # marks word boundary. reads rewrites, or becomes in a rewrite rule. / marks a context in a rewrite rule. represents an empty string. represents a root. represents a consonant place holder on which a diacritic is

placed. represents space. * is Kleene star in regular expressions; uncanonical form. + is Kleene plus in regular expressions. CAPS indicate orthographic, phonological, or morphological fea-

tures. bold indicates a technical term. Biblical Books. This work follows SBLs abbreviations as follows: Gen. Ex. Num. Josh. Judg. 12 Sam. 12 Kgs. Job Ps. Prov.

Isa. Jer. Lam. Ezek. Dan. Amos Mic. Mt. Mk. Lk.

Jn. Acts Rom. 12 Cor. Gal. Col. Jas. 12 Pet.

For English translations of Biblical verses, use was made of The Antioch Bible when available:

xxxiii

Bibliography Last names of grammarians are used in the footnotes throughout; e.g. Duval = Duvals Trait de Grammaire Syriaque. Initials in ref-erences are used only for disambiguation; e.g. the Assemani cous-ins (J. S. vs. J. A.). In cases where the author has more than one work in the bibliography below or when the abbreviation is not straightforward, the following list can be used as a guide:

Bar Ebroyo, eme = Moberg, Le Livre des Splendeurs. BFBS = The New Testament in Syriac (British and Foreign Bible

Society). Coakley, Typography = Coakley, The Typography of Syriac. Coakley-Robinson = Coakley, Robinsons Paradigms. CSD = J. Margoliouth, Compendious Syriac Dictionary. Elia of oba = Gottheil, A Treatise on Syriac Grammar. GEDSH = Brock et al., Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the

Syriac Heritage. Healey = Healey, Leshono Suryoyo. Kiraz, CESG = Kiraz, Comparative Edition of the Syriac Gospels. Kiraz, Primer = Kiraz, The New Syriac Primer. Manna = Manna, Kitb al-ul al-jalla. Mosul Bible = Biblia Sacra Juxta Versionem Pschitta. Muraoka, CS = Muraoka, Classical Syriac: A Brief Grammar. Muraoka, CS4H = Muraoka, Classical Syriac for Hebraists. Nestle = Nestle, Syriac Grammar with Bibliography. Nldeke = Nldeke, Compendious Syriac Grammar. Segal = Segal, The Diacritical Point. Uhlemann = Hutchinson, Uhlemanns Syriac Grammar.

X Abbeloos, Jean-Baptiste and Thomas Joseph Lamy. Gregorii Barhebraei

Chronicon Ecclesiasticum. 3 vols. Louvain: Excudebat Car. Peet-ers, 187277. Reprint, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2012.

xxxiv Bibliography

Abouna, Albert. Qawid al-lua al-rmiyya (Grammaire de la langue Aramenne). Irbil: Azz Nabt, 2001. [in Arabic]

Abramowski, Luise and Alan H. Goodman. A Nestorian Collection of Christological Texts, vol. 1. London: Cambridge University Press, 1972.

Acurensis, Josephus [Ysif al-qr]. ramaq awk tr mamll -len suryy (Grammatica linguae Syriacae.) Rome: Ex Typogr. Sacrae Congreg. de Propaganda Fide, 1647. [in Syro-Arabic]

al-Abr, Moammad Aiyya, Ali Ann, and Leon Merez. al-Mufaal f qawid al-lua al-suryniyya wa dbih wa-l-muwzana bayn al-lut al-smiyya. Cairo: al-Mabaa al-Amriyya, 1935. [in Arabic]

al-Dibs, Joseph. K -qr a(y) y -dt -anyya -mrnye. Beirut: al-Mabaa al-Ummiyya al-Klkiyya, 1888. [in Syriac]

Al-Jadir, Adil. Numbers and Dating Formulae in the Old Syriac Inscrip-tions. Journal of the Canadian Society for Syriac Studies 6 (2006): 317.

al-Kafr, Nimatallah. Kitb mawrid al-taqq f ul al-rmq, mutaar qallan. Quzayya, 1896. [in Syro-Arabic]

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3 First title is on the title page; second title on book cover.

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. Quaya and Rukkaka: A Historical Introduction. Journal of Se-mitic Studies 34, no. 2 (1989): 48391.

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Young, R. Shorter catechism agreed upon by the Assembly of Divines at Westminster now for the first time translated into the Syriac lan-guage. Edinburgh: Robert Young, 1853.

Zitoun, Zeki. The Book of the Divine Mass of the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch. Sydney: Z. Zitoun, 1992.

Zschokke, Hermanno. Institutiones Fundamentales Linguae Aramaicae seu Dialectorum Chaldaicae ac Syriacae. Vienna: Braumueller, 1870.

1

11.. SSoouurrcceess aanndd tthheeiirr HHiissttoorriiccaall CCoonntteexxtt

The beginning and foundation of orthoepy and orthog-raphy are the written letters.

Elia of oba (9751046), Trr mamll

But this book cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written.

Galileo Galilei (15641642), Il Saggiatore

1. Orthography and the writing system are an integral com-ponent of linguistic description. They interface closely with pho-nological description, and, to a lesser extent, with morphological and syntactic descriptions. In recent years, linguists have built on the terminology used for phonology to describe writing systems. Hence, in writing systems one now speaks of graphs, graphemes, and allographs, terms coined to be conceptually analogous with the terms phones, phonemes, and allophones of phonology, and the terms morphs, morphemes, and allomorphs of morphology. In typography, one speaks of glyphs and ligatures. This chapter in-troduces the terms used in subsequent chapters ( 1.1) and provides a discussion on the sources ( 1.2 ff.). Terms and concepts that are confined to one chapter are introduced in that chapter.

2. Syriac is a dialect of Aramaic with a literature spanning from the 3rd or 4th century until the present day. The earliest ex-amples of writing come from the area of Edessa and its surround-ings in Mesopotamia, which has led scholars to consider Syriac the Aramaic dialect of Edessa. Later, Syriac expanded beyond this

2 Sources and their Historical Context 2.

geographical area to become the main medium of writing for most Christians of the Middle East.

3. As noted by Coakley, Syriac is the name of a language and of a script.1 The script, the earliest example of which in the form of an inscription dated A.D. 6, was used to write not only the Syriac language, but also a wide range of Semitic and non-Semitic languages such as Arabic, Neo-Aramaic, Armenian, Persian, Turk-ish, Malayalam, and others. As a language, while primarily writ-ten in the Syriac script, it has also been written in other scripts. This book is concerned with Syriac as both a language and a script.

1.1. Preliminaries 4. A few technical terms are used throughout the book. A graph is the most basic unit of written language, and typically corresponds to a letter of the alphabet, a diacritic, a punctuation mark, or a digit. For instance, we say that the Syriac word spot, mark consists of three graphs , , and . (Angle brackets, , enclose orthographic trans-literations.) In this case, the initial and final shapes of dif-fer, and, hence, are considered unique graphs.

5. A grapheme is defined at a more abstract level. It is de-fined as the minimally significant unit in the writing system. In the word , for example, the first graph is the letter Mm; so is the last graph. As their shapes differ, they are consid-ered two separate graphs. But the difference in shape is merely contextual: at the beginning of the word the shape is , but at the end the shape is . This is not considered a significant difference, and for this reason it is said that both graphs, and , are the

1 Coakley, Typography 4 n. 18.

6. Sources and their Historical Context 3

same grapheme . Indeed, they are allographs of the same grapheme realized as variants in writing.

6. Segmental graphemes pertain to graphemes that are pre-sent in speech, viz. consonants and vowels. In Syriac writing, however, consonants and vowels are not on equal footing. In fact, the writing system is a consonantary;2 i.e. texts consist primarily of consonantal graphemes. Vowels are rarely written, and in fact were not introduced to the writing system until much later in the history of the language. Hence, the writing system is phonologi-cally underspecified; e.g. our Lord is read /mran/ where both vowels are lacking in the orthography.3 (Solidi, //, enclose phonemic transcriptions.) This consonantal feature of the writing system may have to do with the morphological nature of the language; viz. its root-and-pattern morphology. In such a sys-tem, a consonantal root is rendered into many derivational forms by the imposition of vowels; e.g. can be /ka/ he wrote, /ke/ he writes, and /k/ book ABS.. It is the conso-nants that give the common semantic specification.

2 Most grammars refer to the consonantal letters as the alphabet.

Gelb (147 ff.) argued that the West Semitic writing system, at least prior to vocalization, is not alphabetic but rather syllabic, where each conso-nant represents a CV syllable; so did Segal (7 & 10). However, linguists of writing systems today all agree that our domain here is a consonan-tary, not a syllabary.

3 This is not too far from modern usage of the English language in the genre of texting, where omitting letters saves time and money. The first letters to go are vowels. One finds today advertisements such as TXT FSTR for text faster, which a few decades agoand most probably in the future when this genre becomes obsoletewould have made no sense.

4 Sources and their Historical Context 7.

7. Consonantal graphemes are those segmental graphemes that are part of the alphabet4 proper; i.e. the consonantary. The consonants are always written on the base line, right-to-left, in a predictable order. For this reason, they are called linear ele-ments. Chapter 1 is devoted to the consonantal system. 8. Vowel graphemes are those optional segmental graph-emes that indicate vowels. As they are written above (supralin-ear) or below (sublinear) the consonantal graphemes, they are called nonlinear elements; e.g. the symbols on . Chapter 1 is devoted to the vocalization system. 9. Nonsegmental graphemes (called auxiliary marks or signs by Gelb)5 appear in writing but not in speech. To this category belong punctuation and editorial marks (Chapter 5), as well as digits and numbers (Chapter 7).

10. Syriac has a wide range of what may be called supra-segmental graphemes; i.e. graphemes that affect speech beyond a phonological segment. These pertain to a number of linguistic levels that affect pronunciation. Grammatical graphemes (Chap-ter 4), for instance, are diacritics that encode grammatical infor-mation. Some are obligatory, such as the syme grapheme in kings which represents morphological PLURAL (q.v. 225). Others are optional, such as the supralinear- and sublinear-point graphemes in he wrote which represent the phonological features PLOSIVE and FRICATIVE, respectively (q.v. 210), or the diacritical points that distinguish homographs (q.v. 237). Pro-sodic graphemes (Chapter 6), or accent points, are very ancient points which are also arguably supra-segmental as they mostly

4 I use the term quoted because technically an alphabet consists of both consonants and vowels, such as the Greek and Latin alphabets.

5 Gelb 248.

12. Sources and their Historical Context 5

affect prosody. Their function cannot always be ascertained now with clarity. They were used to instruct the reader on vocalization and intonation, especially in Biblical texts. In earlier periods, these and the punctuation graphemes mentioned above were in-tertwined.

11. Graphotactics is the study of the arrangement of graphs, (cf. with phonotactics, i.e. the study of the arrangement of sounds, and morphotactics, of morphemes). While usually used in western languages to express spelling rules, the term is extended here to study the arrangement of linear and nonlinear graphs which sit on various horizontal tiers or levels. A theory of Syriac grapho-tactics is proposed in Chapter 8. 12. Further terms used throughout include the following: Free graphemes occur independently, such as all consonantal graph-emes. Bound graphemes occur only in combination with other graphemes, such as all vowel and grammatical graphemes which cannot stand on their own. The notion of free and bound can be extended to graphs. A polygraph is a sequence of two or more graphemes which represent one phoneme. There exists only one consonantal polygraph in Greek loan words where the Syriac se-quence represents the Greek phoneme //. Once in Syriac, however, the Greek phoneme is broken into two Syriac phonemes, /k/ and /s/, as evidenced by the application of phono-logical processes on one of the phonemes only; e.g. applying frica-tization on /k/ in foreigner, from Greek . A linear grapheme and a nonlinear grapheme may together form a poly-graph in native Syriac words, usually forming vowel phonemes; e.g. the sequence represents the phoneme // in /pm/ mouth. One may even encounter three phonemes in a polygraph as in he (the vowel , the Waw, and the sublinear point for //). A polyphone occurs when a single

6 Sources and their Historical Context 12.

grapheme represents more than one phoneme (e.g. the English grapheme representing the phoneme sequence /ks/). Syriac has no polyphones.

13. In typography, a glyph is a graphical representation of a written symbol in a particular typeface. While every graph is a glyph, more than one graph can form a unique glyph called a ligature. For instance, the Ser graph sequence is represented by the ligature . Ligatures are of two types: obligatory ligatures, such as Sero , and optional ligatures, such as for the sequence . All Syriac ligatures are nonstructural in the sense that they are not graphemes, nor do they have a place in the alphabetical sequence (unlike the Arabic structural ligature , for the sequence , which has a slot in the alphabet after the letter Waw.) A sort is a piece of (typically metal) type that represents a particular symbol which may be a graph or a ligature. Some print types, for example, have a single sort that combines a character and a vowel such as . 14. As for rule formalism, a formal notation is used amongst linguists to describe historical change, phonological processes, or sound change. In this notation, A B reads A rewrites as B, or A changes into B.6 In diachronic de-scriptions, A usually describes an earlier form of B. Sometimes the change is bound by contextual constraints. A context is usually specified with the notation A B / X___Y

6 It is more common to see the operator > instead of in the lit-

erature. However, borrowing from formal language theory, is used here in order to avoid confusion with the grapheme markers .

15. Sources and their Historical Context 7

which reads A changes into B when preceded by X and followed by Y (the slash separates the transformation from the context and the short line where the transformation takes place). Here, X is the preceding context, and Y the following context.7 For instance, in a phonological description, one may say y / V___V which reads the glottal stop // changes into a /y/ when pre-ceded by a vowel and followed by a vowel as in W. Syr. /qoym/ where the lap is pronounced as if it were Y. The word boundary symbol, #, may also be used to specify context. In such a case, /___# reads word-finally, and /#___ reads word-initially.

15. As for dating, the entirety of Syriac literature belongs to the Christian Era, the first dated writing being from A.D. 6. As such, all dates are A.D. unless explicitly expressed otherwise. When citing examples, the phrase as early as simply indicates the earliest example I have personally encountered. A number of dates appear throughout and are listed here for convenience:

6 is the date of the earliest dated inscription, written in Old Syriac.

240243 is the date of the three legal parchments, also written in Old Syriac.

411 is the date of the earliest dated literary manuscript. 7th century is the period around which one begins to find

distinctiveness between E. and W. Syr. 708 Jacob of Edessa dies.

7 The use of left-context and right-context for X and Y, respectively,

is avoided as these terms are more appropriate for left-to-right lan-guages. Using them to describe right-to-left Syriac will no doubt cause confusion.

8 Sources and their Historical Context 16.

16. As already indicated in the preface, the arrangement in this book is neither diachronic nor synchronic but rather the-matic. Statements regarding a particular phenomenon or rule cannot be generalized over periods of time. The dates of examples can sometimes, but not always, be a dating guide. The remainder of this chapter gives a historical narrative of Syriac writing based on the various available historical sources.

1.2. Old Syriac Sources 17. The earliest evidence of Syriac writing comes from Old Syriac, a form of Syriac that predates Classical Syriac and is known to us from inscriptions, mosaics, coins, and three legal parchments. The earliest dated inscription is from the year 6, while the parchments (three, to be exact) are from the 240s. The following conclusions can be drawn from these texts.

1.2.1. The Consonantal System

18. The twenty-two graphemes of the consonantary are all present in Old Syriac.8 This period, however, differs from the later Classical Syriac period in graphotactics and ductus.

19. In terms of allography, the graphemes in Old Syriac have distinct isolated and final allographs in most in-stances. One dotless grapheme is used for and , viz.. 20. Graphotactically, the joining properties of the graphemes differ substantially from Classical Syriac. I have demonstrated elsewhere9 that graphemes were quite disjointed in the early pe-riods of Old Syriac and became more joined together over time.

8 For a brief discussion and references to the origins of the Syriac

script, see Drijvers and Healey 12. 9 Kiraz, Old Syriac Graphotactics.

24. Sources and their Historical Context 9

Hence, one finds texts such as for in the month of March, the year of10 where the are all disjointed (see Pl. 1). In contrast, at first glance the parchments show a great degree of cursivity in writing, much more so than Classical Syriac (see Pl. 3). Having said that, the graphotactics of the parchments have not been studied in detail.

21. In terms of writing and ductus, the shape of letters differs somewhat from one inscription to the next and varies more in dif-ferent media types. A good description, with charts, is given by Drijvers & Healey.11 In general, letters are closer to Esrangel than Ser. For example, is mostly like Esrangel but some-times approximates Ser. Worth noting is the variant shape of which still exists in late MSS as (q.v. 539). 22. As for orthographic features, is used to represent Semitic //; e.g. for twenty, for witness.

1.2.2. The Vocalization System

23. Early Old Syriac inscriptions and legal parchments exhibit orthographic characteristics that may shed light on the early de-velopment of the matres lectionis system, the earliest form of vo-calization. Here, as in later Classical Syriac, the graphemes , , and are used to mark vowels.12 No other marks are known in this period for vowels.

24. The grapheme is often absent in words which appear with it in Classical Syriac. In Old Syriac, one finds for I shall polish, for you/she shall escape,

10 Inscription As55, ln 1. 11 Drijvers and Healey 516. 12 Drijvers and Healey 23.

10 Sources and their Historical Context 24.

for drawing. In particular, all is written without in the parchments and inscriptions, indicating that and must have coexisted in Classical Syriac. 25. The absence of is less frequent in Old Syriac, but one still finds for house, for theirs, for pupil, and for chair. These examples occur in the inscriptions. The parchments do not seem to have omissions of .

26. The use of as a mater lectionis seems to have already developed by the 3rd century.

1.2.3. Other Symbols

27. Old Syriac does not have any graphemes apart from the consonantary. Even points that distinguish from are absent. Syme, diacritical points, lines, etc. are all not to be found.

28. Old Syriac, however, makes use of an ancient Aramaic sys-tem for numerals which is discussed in 335 ff.

1.3. Early Manuscripts 29. The earliest dated Syriac MS, from 411, sheds some light on early Syriac writing. It demonstrates that Syriac writing has evolved far beyond Old Syriac, even taking into consideration the fact that the 411 codex is a medium that is substantially different from the Old Syriac media (stone, mosaic, coins, and legal parchments). Not only is the consonantary fully developed in the 411 codex, but one now finds an additional system that augments the consonantary: the diacritical point. It is used for various or-thographic and grammatical purposes. Indeed, as King13