Jupiter

This article is about the planet. For the Roman god,see Jupiter (mythology). For other uses, see Jupiter(disambiguation).

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largestplanet in the Solar System. It is a giant planet witha mass one-thousandth of that of the Sun, but is twoand a half times that of all the other planets in the So-lar System combined. Jupiter is a gas giant, along withSaturn (Uranus and Neptune are ice giants). Jupiterwas known to astronomers of ancient times.*[11] TheRomans named it after their god Jupiter.*[12] Whenviewed from Earth, Jupiter can reach an apparent mag-nitude of −2.94, bright enough to cast shadows,*[13] andmaking it on average the third-brightest object in thenight sky after the Moon and Venus.Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quar-ter of its mass being helium, although helium only com-prises about a tenth of the number of molecules. It mayalso have a rocky core of heavier elements,*[14] but likethe other giant planets, Jupiter lacks a well-defined solidsurface. Because of its rapid rotation, the planet's shapeis that of an oblate spheroid (it has a slight but notice-able bulge around the equator). The outer atmosphereis visibly segregated into several bands at different lat-itudes, resulting in turbulence and storms along their in-teracting boundaries. A prominent result is the Great RedSpot, a giant storm that is known to have existed since atleast the 17th century when it was first seen by telescope.Surrounding Jupiter is a faint planetary ring system and apowerful magnetosphere. Jupiter has at least 67 moons,including the four large Galilean moons discovered byGalileo Galilei in 1610. Ganymede, the largest of these,has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury.Jupiter has been explored on several occasions by roboticspacecraft, most notably during the early Pioneer andVoyager flyby missions and later by the Galileo orbiter.The most recent probe to visit Jupiter was the Pluto-bound New Horizons spacecraft in late February 2007.The probe used the gravity from Jupiter to increase itsspeed. Future targets for exploration in the Jovian sys-tem include the possible ice-covered liquid ocean on themoon Europa.

1 Formation and migration

Main article: Grand Tack HypothesisSee also: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

Earth and its neighbor planets may have formed fromfragments of planets after collisions with Jupiter de-stroyed those super-Earths near the Sun. As Jupiter cametoward the inner Solar System, in what theorists call theGrand Tack Hypothesis, gravitational tugs and pulls oc-curred causing a series of collisions between the super-Earths as their orbits began to overlap.*[15]Astronomers have discovered nearly 500 planetary sys-tems each with multiple planets, and typically these sys-tems include a few planets with masses several timesgreater than Earth's (super-Earths), orbiting closer totheir star than Mercury is to the Sun, and Jupiter-like gasgiants are also often found close to their star.Jupiter moving out of the inner Solar System wouldhave allowed the formation of inner planets, includingEarth.*[16]

2 Structure

Jupiter is composed primarily of gaseous and liquidmatter. It is the largest of the four giant planets in theSolar System and hence its largest planet. It has a diame-ter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at its equator. The densityof Jupiter, 1.326 g/cm3, is the second highest of the giantplanets, but lower than those of the four terrestrial plan-ets.

2.1 Composition

Jupiter's upper atmosphere is composed of about 88–92% hydrogen and 8–12% helium by percent volume ofgas molecules. Because a helium atom has about fourtimes as much mass as a hydrogen atom, the compositionchanges when described as the proportion of mass con-tributed by different atoms. Thus, Jupiter's atmosphere isapproximately 75% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass,with the remaining one percent of the mass consistingof other elements. The interior contains denser materi-als, such that the distribution is roughly 71% hydrogen,24% helium and 5% other elements by mass. The atmo-sphere contains trace amounts of methane, water vapor,

1

2 2 STRUCTURE

ammonia, and silicon-based compounds. There are alsotraces of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen,phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the at-mosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia.*[17]*[18]Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements, traceamounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have alsobeen found.*[19]The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium areclose to the theoretical composition of the primordialsolar nebula. Neon in the upper atmosphere only consistsof 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth asabundant as in the Sun.*[20] Helium is also depleted, toabout 80% of the Sun's helium composition. This deple-tion is a result of precipitation of these elements into theinterior of the planet.*[21]Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be simi-lar in composition to Jupiter, but the other giant plan-ets Uranus and Neptune have relatively much less hy-drogen and helium.*[22] Because of the lack of atmo-spheric entry probes, high-quality abundance numbers ofthe heavier elements are lacking for the outer planets be-yond Jupiter.

2.2 Mass and size

Jupiter's diameter is one order of magnitude smaller (×0.10045)than the Sun, and one order of magnitude larger (×10.9733)than the Earth. The Great Red Spot is roughly the same size asthe Earth.

Jupiter's mass is 2.5 times that of all the other planets inthe Solar System combined—this is so massive that itsbarycenter with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at1.068 solar radii from the Sun's center. Although witha diameter 11 times that of Earth, it is much larger, itis considerably less dense. Jupiter's volume is that ofabout 1,321 Earths, but it is only 318 times as mas-sive.*[4]*[23] Jupiter's radius is about 1/10 the radius of

the Sun,*[24] and its mass is 0.001 times the mass of theSun, so the density of the two bodies is similar.*[25] A"Jupiter mass" (MJ or MJup) is often used as a unit todescribe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolarplanets and brown dwarfs. So, for example, the extrasolarplanet HD 209458 b has a mass of 0.69MJ, while KappaAndromedae b has a mass of 12.8 MJ.*[26]Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter hadmuchmoremass than it does at present, it would shrink.*[27] Forsmall changes inmass, the radius would not change appre-ciably, and above about 500M⊕ (1.6 Jupiter masses)*[27]the interior would become so much more compressed un-der the increased pressure that its volume would decreasedespite the increasing amount of matter. As a result,Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter asa planet of its composition and evolutionary history canachieve.*[28] The process of further shrinkage with in-creasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ig-nition is achieved as in high-mass brown dwarfs havingaround 50 Jupiter masses.*[29]Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times asmassive to fuse hydrogen and become a star, the small-est red dwarf is only about 30 percent larger in radiusthan Jupiter.*[30]*[31] Despite this, Jupiter still radiatesmore heat than it receives from the Sun; the amount ofheat produced inside it is similar to the total solar radia-tion it receives.*[32] This additional heat is generated bythe Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism through contraction.This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 2 cm eachyear.*[33] When it was first formed, Jupiter was muchhotter and was about twice its current diameter.*[34]

2.3 Internal structure

Jupiter is thought to consist of a dense core with a mixtureof elements, a surrounding layer of liquid metallic hydro-gen with some helium, and an outer layer predominantlyof molecular hydrogen.*[33] Beyond this basic outline,there is still considerable uncertainty. The core is oftendescribed as rocky, but its detailed composition is un-known, as are the properties of materials at the tempera-tures and pressures of those depths (see below). In 1997,the existence of the core was suggested by gravitationalmeasurements,*[33] indicating a mass of from 12 to 45times the Earth's mass or roughly 4%–14% of the totalmass of Jupiter.*[32]*[35] The presence of a core duringat least part of Jupiter's history is suggested by models ofplanetary formation that require the formation of a rockyor icy core massive enough to collect its bulk of hydro-gen and helium from the protosolar nebula. Assuming itdid exist, it may have shrunk as convection currents ofhot liquid metallic hydrogen mixed with the molten coreand carried its contents to higher levels in the planetaryinterior. A core may now be entirely absent, as gravita-tional measurements are not yet precise enough to rulethat possibility out entirely.*[33]*[36]

3.1 Cloud layers 3

The uncertainty of the models is tied to the error marginin hitherto measured parameters: one of the rotationalcoefficients (J6) used to describe the planet's gravitationalmoment, Jupiter's equatorial radius, and its temperatureat 1 bar pressure. The Juno mission, which launched inAugust 2011, is expected to better constrain the valuesof these parameters, and thereby make progress on theproblem of the core.*[37]The core region is surrounded by dense metallic hydro-gen, which extends outward to about 78% of the ra-dius of the planet.*[32] Rain-like droplets of helium andneon precipitate downward through this layer, deplet-ing the abundance of these elements in the upper atmo-sphere.*[21]*[38]Above the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparentinterior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the tem-perature is above the critical temperature, which for hy-drogen is only 33 K.*[39] In this state, there are no dis-tinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in asupercritical fluid state. It is convenient to treat hydro-gen as gas in the upper layer extending downward fromthe cloud layer to a depth of about 1,000 km,*[32] andas liquid in deeper layers. Physically, there is no clearboundary—the gas smoothly becomes hotter and denseras one descends.*[40]*[41]The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increasesteadily toward the core, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtzmechanism. At the“surface”pressure level of 10 bars,the temperature is around 340 K (67 °C; 152 °F). Atthe phase transition region where hydrogen—heated be-yond its critical point—becomes metallic, it is believedthe temperature is 10,000 K (9,700 °C; 17,500 °F) andthe pressure is 200 GPa. The temperature at the coreboundary is estimated to be 36,000 K (35,700 °C; 64,300°F) and the interior pressure is roughly 3,000–4,500GPa.*[32]

This cut-away illustrates a model of the interior of Jupiter, with arocky core overlaid by a deep layer of liquid metallic hydrogen.

3 Atmosphere

Main article: Atmosphere of Jupiter

Jupiter has the largest planetary atmosphere in the So-

lar System, spanning over 5,000 km (3,107 mi) in alti-tude.*[42]*[43] As Jupiter has no surface, the base of itsatmosphere is usually considered to be the point at whichatmospheric pressure is equal to 1 MPa (10 bar), or tentimes surface pressure on Earth.*[42]

3.1 Cloud layers

This view of Jupiter's Great Red Spot and its surroundings wasobtained by Voyager 1 on February 25, 1979, when the space-craft was 9.2 million km (5.7 million mi) from Jupiter. The whiteoval storm directly below the Great Red Spot is approximately thesame diameter as Earth.

Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds composed ofammonia crystals and possibly ammonium hydrosulfide.The clouds are located in the tropopause and are ar-ranged into bands of different latitudes, known as tropi-cal regions. These are sub-divided into lighter-hued zonesand darker belts. The interactions of these conflictingcirculation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Windspeeds of 100 m/s (360 km/h) are common in zonaljets.*[44] The zones have been observed to vary in width,color and intensity from year to year, but they have re-mained sufficiently stable for astronomers to give themidentifying designations.*[23]

This looping animation shows the movement of Jupiter's counter-rotating cloud bands. In this image, the planet's exterior ismapped onto a cylindrical projection. Animation at largerwidths: 720 pixels, 1799 pixels.

The cloud layer is only about 50 km (31 mi) deep, andconsists of at least two decks of clouds: a thick lower

4 4 PLANETARY RINGS

deck and a thin clearer region. There may also be athin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia layer,as evidenced by flashes of lightning detected in the at-mosphere of Jupiter. This is caused by water's polarity,which makes it capable of creating the charge separationneeded to produce lightning.*[32] These electrical dis-charges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as light-ning on the Earth.*[45] The water clouds can form thun-derstorms driven by the heat rising from the interior.*[46]The orange and brown coloration in the clouds of Jupiterare caused by upwelling compounds that change colorwhen they are exposed to ultraviolet light from theSun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the sub-stances are believed to be phosphorus, sulfur or possi-bly hydrocarbons.*[32]*[47] These colorful compounds,known as chromophores, mix with the warmer, lowerdeck of clouds. The zones are formed when risingconvection cells form crystallizing ammonia that masksout these lower clouds from view.*[48]Jupiter's low axial tilt means that the poles constantly re-ceive less solar radiation than at the planet's equatorialregion. Convection within the interior of the planet trans-ports more energy to the poles, balancing out the temper-atures at the cloud layer.*[23]

3.2 Great Red Spot and other vortices

Jupiter – Great Red Spot is decreasing in size (May 15,2014).*[49]

The best known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot,a persistent anticyclonic storm that is larger than Earth,located 22° south of the equator. It is known to havebeen in existence since at least 1831,*[50] and possiblysince 1665.*[51]*[52] Images by the Hubble Space Tele-scope have shown as many as two “red spots”adja-cent to the Great Red Spot.*[53]*[54] The storm is largeenough to be visible through Earth-based telescopes withan aperture of 12 cm or larger.*[55]Mathematicalmodelssuggest that the storm is stable and may be a permanentfeature of the planet.*[56]The oval object rotates counterclockwise, with a periodof about six days.*[57] The Great Red Spot's dimensionsare 24–40,000 km × 12–14,000 km. It is large enough

Time-lapse sequence (over 1 month) from the approach ofVoyager 1 to Jupiter, showing the motion of atmospheric bands,and circulation of the Great Red Spot. Full size video here

to contain two or three planets of Earth's diameter.*[58]The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 km (5 mi)above the surrounding cloudtops.*[59]Storms such as this are common within the turbulentatmospheres of giant planets. Jupiter also has whiteovals and brown ovals, which are lesser unnamed storms.White ovals tend to consist of relatively cool clouds withinthe upper atmosphere. Brown ovals are warmer and lo-cated within the“normal cloud layer”. Such storms canlast as little as a few hours or stretch on for centuries.Even before Voyager proved that the feature was a storm,there was strong evidence that the spot could not be as-sociated with any deeper feature on the planet's surface,as the Spot rotates differentially with respect to the restof the atmosphere, sometimes faster and sometimes moreslowly.In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the south-ern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the GreatRed Spot, but smaller. This was created when severalsmaller, white oval-shaped storms merged to form a sin-gle feature—these three smaller white ovals were first ob-served in 1938. The merged feature was named Oval BA,and has been nicknamed Red Spot Junior. It has sinceincreased in intensity and changed color from white tored.*[60]*[61]*[62]

4 Planetary rings

Main article: Rings of Jupiter

Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed ofthree main segments: an inner torus of particles known

5

The rings of Jupiter

as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outergossamer ring.*[63] These rings appear to be made ofdust, rather than ice as with Saturn's rings.*[32] The mainring is probably made of material ejected from the satel-lites Adrastea and Metis. Material that would normallyfall back to the moon is pulled into Jupiter because of itsstrong gravitational influence. The orbit of the materialveers towards Jupiter and new material is added by addi-tional impacts.*[64] In a similar way, the moons Thebeand Amalthea probably produce the two distinct compo-nents of the dusty gossamer ring.*[64] There is also evi-dence of a rocky ring strung along Amalthea's orbit whichmay consist of collisional debris from that moon.*[65]

5 Magnetosphere

Main article: Magnetosphere of JupiterJupiter's magnetic field is 14 times as strong as the

Aurora on Jupiter. Three bright dots are created by magnetic fluxtubes that connect to the Jovian moons Io (on the left), Ganymede(on the bottom) and Europa (also on the bottom). In addition, thevery bright almost circular region, called the main oval, and thefainter polar aurora can be seen.

Earth's, ranging from 4.2 gauss (0.42 mT) at the equatorto 10–14 gauss (1.0–1.4 mT) at the poles, making it thestrongest in the Solar System (except for sunspots).*[48]This field is believed to be generated by eddy currents—swirling movements of conducting materials—within

the liquid metallic hydrogen core. The volcanoes on themoon Io emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide forminga gas torus along the moon's orbit. The gas is ionizedin the magnetosphere producing sulfur and oxygen ions.They, together with hydrogen ions originating from theatmosphere of Jupiter, form a plasma sheet in Jupiter'sequatorial plane. The plasma in the sheet co-rotateswith the planet causing deformation of the dipole mag-netic field into that of magnetodisk. Electrons within theplasma sheet generate a strong radio signature that pro-duces bursts in the range of 0.6–30 MHz.*[66]At about 75 Jupiter radii from the planet, the inter-action of the magnetosphere with the solar wind gen-erates a bow shock. Surrounding Jupiter's magneto-sphere is a magnetopause, located at the inner edge of amagnetosheath—a region between it and the bow shock.The solar wind interacts with these regions, elongatingthe magnetosphere on Jupiter's lee side and extending itoutward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn. Thefour largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within the magne-tosphere, which protects them from the solar wind.*[32]The magnetosphere of Jupiter is responsible for intenseepisodes of radio emission from the planet's polar re-gions. Volcanic activity on the Jovian moon Io (see be-low) injects gas into Jupiter's magnetosphere, producinga torus of particles about the planet. As Io moves throughthis torus, the interaction generates Alfvén waves thatcarry ionized matter into the polar regions of Jupiter. Asa result, radio waves are generated through a cyclotronmasermechanism, and the energy is transmitted out alonga cone-shaped surface. When the Earth intersects thiscone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the so-lar radio output.*[67]

6 Orbit and rotation

Jupiter is the only planet that has a barycenter with theSun that lies outside the volume of the Sun, though byonly 7% of the Sun's radius.*[68] The average distancebetween Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km (about5.2 times the average distance from the Earth to the Sun,or 5.2 AU) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years.This is two-fifths the orbital period of Saturn, forminga 5:2 orbital resonance between the two largest planetsin the Solar System.*[69] The elliptical orbit of Jupiteris inclined 1.31° compared to the Earth. Because ofan eccentricity of 0.048, the distance from Jupiter andthe Sun varies by 75 million km between perihelion andaphelion, or the nearest and most distant points of theplanet along the orbital path respectively.The axial tilt of Jupiter is relatively small: only 3.13°.As a result, it does not experience significant sea-sonal changes, in contrast to, for example, Earth andMars.*[70]Jupiter's rotation is the fastest of all the Solar System's

6 8 RESEARCH AND EXPLORATION

Jupiter (red) completes one orbit of the Sun (center) for every11.86 orbits of the Earth (blue)

planets, completing a rotation on its axis in slightly lessthan ten hours; this creates an equatorial bulge easily seenthrough an Earth-based amateur telescope. The planet isshaped as an oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameteracross its equator is longer than the diameter measuredbetween its poles. On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is9,275 km (5,763 mi) longer than the diameter measuredthrough the poles.*[41]Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphereundergoes differential rotation. The rotation of Jupiter'spolar atmosphere is about 5 minutes longer than thatof the equatorial atmosphere; three systems are used asframes of reference, particularly when graphing the mo-tion of atmospheric features. System I applies from thelatitudes 10° N to 10° S; its period is the planet's shortest,at 9h 50m 30.0s. System II applies at all latitudes northand south of these; its period is 9h 55m 40.6s. System IIIwas first defined by radio astronomers, and correspondsto the rotation of the planet's magnetosphere; its periodis Jupiter's official rotation.*[71]

7 Observation

Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky(after the Sun, the Moon and Venus);*[48] at times Marsappears brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter'sposition with respect to the Earth, it can vary in visualmagnitude from as bright as −2.9 at opposition down to−1.6 during conjunction with the Sun. The angular di-ameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 29.8 arcseconds.*[4] Favorable oppositions occur when Jupiter ispassing through perihelion, an event that occurs once perorbit.Earth overtakes Jupiter every 398.9 days as it orbits the

Conjunction of Jupiter and the Moon

The retrograde motion of an outer planet is caused by its relativelocation with respect to the Earth.

Sun, a duration called the synodic period. As it doesso, Jupiter appears to undergo retrograde motion with re-spect to the background stars. That is, for a period Jupiterseems to move backward in the night sky, performing alooping motion.Jupiter's 12-year orbital period corresponds to the dozenastrological signs of the zodiac, and may have been thehistorical origin of the signs.*[23]Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside the Earth's, thephase angle of Jupiter as viewed from the Earth neverexceeds 11.5°. That is, the planet always appears nearlyfully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based tele-scopes. It was only during spacecraft missions to Jupiterthat crescent views of the planet were obtained.*[72] Asmall telescope will usually show Jupiter's four Galileanmoons and the prominent cloud belts across Jupiter'satmosphere.*[73] A large telescope will show Jupiter'sGreat Red Spot when it faces the Earth.

8 Research and exploration

8.1 Pre-telescopic research

The observation of Jupiter dates back to the Babylonianastronomers of the 7th or 8th century BC.*[74] The Chi-nese historian of astronomy, Xi Zezong, has claimed that

8.2 Ground-based telescope research 7

A

M

ϕ

θR

e e

r

Model in the Almagest of the longitudinal motion of Jupiter ( )relative to the Earth ( ).

Gan De, a Chinese astronomer, made the discovery ofone of Jupiter's moons in 362 BC with the unaided eye.If accurate, this would predate Galileo's discovery bynearly two millennia.*[75]*[76] In his 2nd century workthe Almagest, the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptole-maeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based ondeferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter's motion rela-tive to the Earth, giving its orbital period around the Earthas 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years.*[77] In 499, Aryabhata,a mathematician–astronomer from the classical age ofIndian mathematics and astronomy, also used a geocen-tric model to estimate Jupiter's period as 4332.2722 days,or 11.86 years.*[78]

8.2 Ground-based telescope research

In 1610, Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moonsof Jupiter (now known as the Galilean moons) using atelescope; thought to be the first telescopic observationof moons other than Earth's. One day after Galileo,Simon Marius independently discovered moons aroundJupiter, though he didn’t publish his discovery in abook until 1614.*[79] It was Marius’s names for thefour major moons, however, that stuck—Io, Europa,Ganymede and Callisto. These findings were also thefirst discovery of celestial motion not apparently cen-tered on the Earth. The discovery was a major pointin favor of Copernicus' heliocentric theory of the mo-tions of the planets; Galileo's outspoken support of theCopernican theory placed him under the threat of theInquisition.*[80]During the 1660s, Cassini used a new telescope to dis-cover spots and colorful bands on Jupiter and observedthat the planet appeared oblate; that is, flattened at thepoles. He was also able to estimate the rotation period ofthe planet.*[18] In 1690 Cassini noticed that the atmo-sphere undergoes differential rotation.*[32]

False-color detail of Jupiter's atmosphere, imaged by Voyager 1,showing the Great Red Spot and a passing white oval.

The Great Red Spot, a prominent oval-shaped feature inthe southern hemisphere of Jupiter, may have been ob-served as early as 1664 by Robert Hooke and in 1665 byGiovanni Cassini, although this is disputed. The pharma-cist Heinrich Schwabe produced the earliest known draw-ing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831.*[81]The Red Spot was reportedly lost from sight on severaloccasions between 1665 and 1708 before becoming quiteconspicuous in 1878. It was recorded as fading again in1883 and at the start of the 20th century.*[82]Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tablesof the motions of the Jovian moons, allowing predic-tions of the times when the moons would pass before orbehind the planet. By the 1670s, it was observed thatwhen Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Sun fromthe Earth, these events would occur about 17 minuteslater than expected. Ole Rømer deduced that sight is notinstantaneous (a conclusion that Cassini had earlier re-jected),*[18] and this timing discrepancy was used to es-timate the speed of light.*[83]In 1892, E. E. Barnard observed a fifth satellite of Jupiterwith the 36-inch (910 mm) refractor at Lick Observatoryin California. The discovery of this relatively small ob-ject, a testament to his keen eyesight, quickly made himfamous. This moon was later named Amalthea.*[84] Itwas the last planetary moon to be discovered directly byvisual observation.*[85]In 1932, Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of am-monia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter.*[86]Three long-lived anticyclonic features termed white ovalswere observed in 1938. For several decades they re-mained as separate features in the atmosphere, sometimesapproaching each other but never merging. Finally, twoof the ovals merged in 1998, then absorbed the third in2000, becoming Oval BA.*[87]

8 8 RESEARCH AND EXPLORATION

Infrared image of Jupiter taken by ESO's Very Large Telescope.

8.3 Radiotelescope research

In 1955, Bernard Burke and Kenneth Franklin detectedbursts of radio signals coming from Jupiter at 22.2MHz.*[32] The period of these bursts matched the ro-tation of the planet, and they were also able to use thisinformation to refine the rotation rate. Radio bursts fromJupiter were found to come in two forms: long bursts (orL-bursts) lasting up to several seconds, and short bursts(or S-bursts) that had a duration of less than a hundredthof a second.*[88]Scientists discovered that there were three forms of radiosignals transmitted from Jupiter.

• Decametric radio bursts (with a wavelength of tensof meters) vary with the rotation of Jupiter, and areinfluenced by interaction of Io with Jupiter's mag-netic field.*[89]

• Decimetric radio emission (with wavelengths mea-sured in centimeters) was first observed by FrankDrake and Hein Hvatum in 1959.*[32] The ori-gin of this signal was from a torus-shaped beltaround Jupiter's equator. This signal is caused bycyclotron radiation from electrons that are acceler-ated in Jupiter's magnetic field.*[90]

• Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmo-sphere of Jupiter.*[32]

8.4 Exploration with space probes

Main article: Exploration of Jupiter

Since 1973 a number of automated spacecraft have vis-ited Jupiter, most notably the Pioneer 10 space probe, the

first spacecraft to get close enough to Jupiter to send backrevelations about the properties and phenomena of theSolar System's largest planet.*[91]*[92] Flights to otherplanets within the Solar System are accomplished at a costin energy, which is described by the net change in ve-locity of the spacecraft, or delta-v. Entering a Hohmanntransfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth or-bit requires a delta-v of 6.3 km/s*[93] which is compa-rable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earthorbit.*[94] Fortunately, gravity assists through planetaryflybys can be used to reduce the energy required to reachJupiter, albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flightduration.*[95]

8.4.1 Flyby missions

Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft have performedplanetary flyby maneuvers that brought them within ob-servation range of Jupiter. The Pioneer missions ob-tained the first close-up images of Jupiter's atmosphereand several of its moons. They discovered that the radi-ation fields near the planet were much stronger than ex-pected, but both spacecraft managed to survive in thatenvironment. The trajectories of these spacecraft wereused to refine the mass estimates of the Jovian system.Radio occultations by the planet resulted in better mea-surements of Jupiter's diameter and the amount of polarflattening.*[23]*[97]Six years later, the Voyager missions vastly improvedthe understanding of the Galilean moons and discoveredJupiter's rings. They also confirmed that the Great RedSpot was anticyclonic. Comparison of images showedthat the Red Spot had changed hue since the Pioneermis-sions, turning from orange to dark brown. A torus ofionized atoms was discovered along Io's orbital path, andvolcanoes were found on the moon's surface, some in theprocess of erupting. As the spacecraft passed behind theplanet, it observed flashes of lightning in the night sideatmosphere.*[17]*[23]The next mission to encounter Jupiter, the Ulysses solarprobe, performed a flyby maneuver to attain a polar or-bit around the Sun. During this pass the spacecraft con-ducted studies on Jupiter's magnetosphere. Since Ulysseshas no cameras, no images were taken. A second flybysix years later was at a much greater distance.*[96]In 2000, the Cassini probe, en route to Saturn, flew byJupiter and provided some of the highest-resolution im-ages ever made of the planet. OnDecember 19, 2000, thespacecraft captured an image of the moon Himalia, butthe resolution was too low to show surface details.*[98]The New Horizons probe, en route to Pluto, flew byJupiter for gravity assist. Its closest approach wason February 28, 2007.*[99] The probe's cameras mea-sured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studiedall four Galilean moons in detail, as well as makinglong-distance observations of the outer moons Himalia

8.4 Exploration with space probes 9

Cassini views Jupiter and Io on January 1, 2001

and Elara.*[100] Imaging of the Jovian system beganSeptember 4, 2006.*[101]*[102]

8.4.2 Galileo mission

Main article: Galileo (spacecraft)So far the only spacecraft to orbit Jupiter is theGalileo or-

Jupiter as seen by the space probe Cassini.

biter, which went into orbit around Jupiter on December7, 1995.*[28] It orbited the planet for over seven years,

conducting multiple flybys of all the Galilean moons andAmalthea. The spacecraft also witnessed the impact ofComet Shoemaker–Levy 9 as it approached Jupiter in1994, giving a unique vantage point for the event. Whilethe information gained about the Jovian system fromGalileowas extensive, its originally designed capacity waslimited by the failed deployment of its high-gain radiotransmitting antenna.*[103]A 340-kilogram titanium atmospheric probe was releasedfrom the spacecraft in July 1995, entering Jupiter's at-mosphere on December 7.*[28] It parachuted through150 km (93 mi) of the atmosphere at speed of about2,575 km/h (1600 mph)*[28] and collected data for 57.6minutes before it was crushed by the pressure (about 23times Earth normal, at a temperature of 153 °C).*[104]It would have melted thereafter, and possibly vaporized.The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid ver-sion of the same fate when it was deliberately steered intothe planet on September 21, 2003, at a speed of over 50km/s, to avoid any possibility of it crashing into and pos-sibly contaminating Europa—a moon which has been hy-pothesized to have the possibility of harboring life.*[103]Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composesup to 90% of Jupiter's atmosphere.*[28] The tempera-tures data recorded was more than 300 °C (>570 °F)and the windspeed measured more than 644 kmph (>400mph) before the probes vapourised.*[28]

8.4.3 Future probes

NASA has a mission underway to study Jupiter in detailfrom a polar orbit. Named Juno, the spacecraft launchedin August 2011, and will arrive in late 2016.*[105]The next planned mission to the Jovian system will bethe European Space Agency's Jupiter Icy Moon Ex-plorer (JUICE), due to launch in 2022,*[106] followedby NASA's Europa Clipper mission in 2025.

8.4.4 Canceled missions

Because of the possibility of subsurface liquid oceanson Jupiter's moons Europa, Ganymede and Callisto,there has been great interest in studying the icy moonsin detail. Funding difficulties have delayed progress.NASA's JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) was can-celled in 2005.*[107] A subsequent proposal for a jointNASA/ESA mission, called EJSM/Laplace, was de-veloped with a provisional launch date around 2020.EJSM/Laplace would have consisted of the NASA-led Jupiter Europa Orbiter, and the ESA-led JupiterGanymede Orbiter.*[108] However by April 2011, ESAhad formally ended the partnership citing budget issuesat NASA and the consequences on the mission timetable.Instead ESA planned to go ahead with a European-only mission to compete in its L1 Cosmic Vision selec-tion.*[109]

10 9 MOONS

9 Moons

Jupiter with the Galilean moons. Seen from Earth at this point intheir orbits, Europa appears closer to Jupiter than does Io.

Main article: Moons of JupiterSee also: Timeline of discovery of Solar System planetsand their moons

Jupiter has 67 natural satellites.*[110] Of these, 51 areless than 10 kilometres in diameter and have only beendiscovered since 1975. The four largest moons, visiblefrom Earth with binoculars on a clear night, known asthe "Galilean moons", are Io, Europa, Ganymede, andCallisto.

9.1 Galilean moons

Main article: Galilean moonsThe orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede, some of

The Galilean moons. From left to right, in order of increasingdistance from Jupiter: Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto.

the largest satellites in the Solar System, form a pattern

known as a Laplace resonance; for every four orbits thatIo makes around Jupiter, Europamakes exactly two orbitsand Ganymede makes exactly one. This resonance causesthe gravitational effects of the three large moons to dis-tort their orbits into elliptical shapes, since each moonreceives an extra tug from its neighbors at the same pointin every orbit it makes. The tidal force from Jupiter, onthe other hand, works to circularize their orbits.*[111]The eccentricity of their orbits causes regular flexing ofthe three moons' shapes, with Jupiter's gravity stretchingthem out as they approach it and allowing them to springback to more spherical shapes as they swing away. Thistidal flexing heats the moons' interiors by friction. Thisis seen most dramatically in the extraordinary volcanicactivity of innermost Io (which is subject to the strongesttidal forces), and to a lesser degree in the geological youthof Europa's surface (indicating recent resurfacing of themoon's exterior).

9.2 Classification of moons

Jupiter's moon Europa.

Before the discoveries of the Voyager missions, Jupiter'smoons were arranged neatly into four groups of four,based on commonality of their orbital elements. Sincethen, the large number of new small outer moons hascomplicated this picture. There are now thought to besix main groups, although some are more distinct thanothers.A basic sub-division is a grouping of the eight inner reg-ular moons, which have nearly circular orbits near theplane of Jupiter's equator and are believed to have formedwith Jupiter. The remainder of the moons consist of anunknown number of small irregular moons with ellipti-cal and inclined orbits, which are believed to be capturedasteroids or fragments of captured asteroids. Irregularmoons that belong to a group share similar orbital ele-

10.1 Impacts 11

ments and thus may have a common origin, perhaps as alarger moon or captured body that broke up.*[112]*[113]

10 Interaction with the Solar Sys-tem

Along with the Sun, the gravitational influence of Jupiterhas helped shape the Solar System. The orbits of mostof the system's planets lie closer to Jupiter's orbital planethan the Sun's equatorial plane (Mercury is the only planetthat is closer to the Sun's equator in orbital tilt), theKirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused byJupiter, and the planet may have been responsible for theLate Heavy Bombardment of the inner Solar System'shistory.*[115]

This diagram shows the Trojan asteroids in Jupiter's orbit, as wellas the main asteroid belt.

Along with its moons, Jupiter's gravitational field con-trols numerous asteroids that have settled into the re-gions of the Lagrangian points preceding and followingJupiter in its orbit around the Sun. These are knownas the Trojan asteroids, and are divided into Greek andTrojan “camps”to commemorate the Iliad. The firstof these, 588 Achilles, was discovered by Max Wolf in1906; since then more than two thousand have been dis-covered.*[116] The largest is 624 Hektor.Most short-period comets belong to the Jupiter family—defined as comets with semi-major axes smaller thanJupiter's. Jupiter family comets are believed to form intheKuiper belt outside the orbit of Neptune. During closeencounters with Jupiter their orbits are perturbed into asmaller period and then circularized by regular gravita-tional interaction with the Sun and Jupiter.*[117]

10.1 Impacts

See also: Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9, 2009 Jupiter im-pact event and 2010 Jupiter impact eventJupiter has been called the Solar System's vacuum

Hubble image taken on July 23 showing a blemish of about 5,000miles long left by the 2009 Jupiter impact.*[118]

cleaner,*[119] because of its immense gravity well andlocation near the inner Solar System. It receives themost frequent comet impacts of the Solar System's plan-ets.*[120] It was thought that the planet served to par-tially shield the inner system from cometary bombard-ment.*[28] Recent computer simulations suggest thatJupiter does not cause a net decrease in the number ofcomets that pass through the inner Solar System, as itsgravity perturbs their orbits inward in roughly the samenumbers that it accretes or ejects them.*[121] This topicremains controversial among astronomers, as some be-lieve it draws comets towards Earth from the Kuiper beltwhile others believe that Jupiter protects Earth from thealleged Oort cloud.*[122] Jupiter experiences about 200times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth.*[28]A 1997 survey of historical astronomical drawings sug-gested that the astronomer Cassini may have recorded animpact scar in 1690. The survey determined eight othercandidate observations had low or no possibilities of animpact.*[123] A fireball was photographed by Voyager 1during its Jupiter encounter inMarch 1979.*[124] Duringthe period July 16, 1994, to July 22, 1994, over 20 frag-ments from the comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (SL9, formallydesignated D/1993 F2) collided with Jupiter's southernhemisphere, providing the first direct observation of acollision between two Solar System objects. This impactprovided useful data on the composition of Jupiter's at-mosphere.*[125]*[126]On July 19, 2009, an impact site was discoveredat approximately 216 degrees longitude in System2.*[127]*[128] This impact left behind a black spot inJupiter's atmosphere, similar in size to Oval BA. Infraredobservation showed a bright spot where the impact tookplace, meaning the impact warmed up the lower atmo-sphere in the area near Jupiter's south pole.*[129]

12 13 SEE ALSO

A fireball, smaller than the previous observed impacts,was detected on June 3, 2010, by Anthony Wesley, anamateur astronomer in Australia, and was later discov-ered to have been captured on video by another amateurastronomer in the Philippines.*[130] Yet another fireballwas seen on August 20, 2010.*[131]On September 10, 2012, another fireball was de-tected.*[124]*[132]

11 Possibility of life

Further information: Extraterrestrial life

In 1953, the Miller–Urey experiment demonstrated thata combination of lightning and the chemical compoundsthat existed in the atmosphere of a primordial Earth couldform organic compounds (including amino acids) thatcould serve as the building blocks of life. The simu-lated atmosphere included water, methane, ammonia, andmolecular hydrogen; all molecules still found in Jupiter'satmosphere. Jupiter's atmosphere has a strong vertical aircirculation, which would carry these compounds downinto the lower regions. The higher temperatures withinthe interior of the atmosphere break down these chem-icals, which would hinder the formation of Earth-likelife.*[133]It is considered highly unlikely that there is any Earth-likelife on Jupiter, because there is only a small amount ofwater in Jupiter's atmosphere and any possible solid sur-face deep within Jupiter would be under extreme pres-sures. In 1976, before the Voyager missions, it washypothesized that ammonia- or water-based life couldevolve in Jupiter's upper atmosphere. This hypothesis isbased on the ecology of terrestrial seas, which have sim-ple photosynthetic plankton at the top level, fish at lowerlevels feeding on these creatures, and marine predatorsthat hunt the fish.*[134]*[135]The possible presence of underground oceans on some ofJupiter's moons has led to speculation that the presenceof life is more likely there.

12 Mythology

The planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times.It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and canoccasionally be seen in the daytime when the Sun islow.*[136] To the Babylonians, this object representedtheir god Marduk. They used Jupiter's roughly 12-yearorbit along the ecliptic to define the constellations of theirzodiac.*[23]*[137]The Romans named it after Jupiter (Latin: Iuppiter, Iū-piter) (also called Jove), the principal god of Romanmythology, whose name comes from the Proto-Indo-

Jupiter, woodcut from a 1550 edition of Guido Bonatti's LiberAstronomiae

European vocative compound *Dyēu-pəter (nominative:*Dyēus-pətēr, meaning “O Father Sky-God”, or “OFather Day-God”).*[138] In turn, Jupiter was the coun-terpart to the mythical Greek Zeus (Ζεύς), also referredto asDias (Δίας), the planetary name of which is retainedin modern Greek.*[139]The astronomical symbol for the planet, , is a stylizedrepresentation of the god's lightning bolt. The originalGreek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno-, used to formsome Jupiter-related words, such as zenographic.*[140]Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter. The older adjec-tival form jovial, employed by astrologers in the MiddleAges, has come to mean“happy”or“merry,”moodsascribed to Jupiter's astrological influence.*[141]The Chinese, Korean and Japanese referred to the planetas the “wood star”(Chinese: 木星; pinyin: mùxīng),based on the Chinese Five Elements.*[142]*[143]*[144]Chinese Taoism personified it as the Fu star. The Greekscalled it Φαέθων, Phaethon,“blazing.”In Vedic astrol-ogy, Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati,the religious teacher of the gods, and often called it"Guru", which literally means the“Heavy One.”*[145]In the English language, Thursday is derived from“Thor'sday”, with Thor in Germanic mythology being theequivalent Germanic god to the Roman god Jupiter(mythology). The Roman day Jovis was renamed Thurs-day.*[146]In the Central Asian-Turkic myths, Jupiter called as a“Erendiz/Erentüz”, whichmeans“eren(?)+yultuz(star)".There are many theories about meaning of“eren”. Also,these peoples calculated the period of the orbit of Jupiteras 11 years and 300 days. They believed that some socialand natural events connected to Erentüz's movements onthe sky.*[147]

13 See also

• Hot Jupiter

13

• Jovian–Plutonian gravitational effect

• Jovian (fiction)

• Juno (spacecraft)

• Jupiter in fiction

• New Horizons

• Space exploration

14 Notes[1] Orbital elements refer to the barycenter of the Jupiter sys-

tem, and are the instantaneous osculating values at theprecise J2000 epoch. Barycenter quantities are given be-cause, in contrast to the planetary centre, they do not ex-perience appreciable changes on a day-to-day basis due tothe motion of the moons.

[2] Refers to the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure

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18 17 EXTERNAL LINKS

[142] De Groot, Jan Jakob Maria (1912). Religion in China:universism. a key to the study of Taoism and Confucian-ism. American lectures on the history of religions 10 (G. P.Putnam's Sons). p. 300. Retrieved 2010-01-08.

[143] Crump, Thomas (1992). The Japanese numbers game: theuse and understanding of numbers in modern Japan. Nis-san Institute/Routledge Japanese studies series (Routledge).pp. 39–40. ISBN 0415056098.

[144] Hulbert, Homer Bezaleel (1909). The passing of Korea.Doubleday, Page & company. p. 426. Retrieved 2010-01-08.

[145] “Guru”. Indian Divinity.com. Retrieved February 14,2007.

[146] Falk, Michael; Koresko, Christopher (1999). “As-tronomical Names for the Days of the Week”. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society ofCanada 93: 122–33. Bibcode:1999JRASC..93..122F.doi:10.1016/j.newast.2003.07.002.

[147] “Türk Astrolojisi”. ntvmsnbc.com. Retrieved April 23,2010.

16 Further reading• Bagenal, F.; Dowling, T. E.; McKinnon, W. B., eds.(2004). Jupiter: The planet, satellites, and magne-tosphere. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-81808-7.

• Beebe, Reta (1997). Jupiter: The Giant Planet (Sec-ond ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institu-tion Press. ISBN 1-56098-731-6.

17 External links• Hans Lohninger et al. (November 2, 2005).“Jupiter, As Seen By Voyager 1”. A Trip intoSpace. Virtual Institute of Applied Science. Re-trieved March 9, 2007.

• Dunn, Tony (2006).“The Jovian System”. GravitySimulator. RetrievedMarch 9, 2007.—A simulationof the 62 Jovian moons.

• Seronik, G.; Ashford, A. R. “Chasing the Moonsof Jupiter”. Sky & Telescope. Archived from theoriginal on July 13, 2007. RetrievedMarch 9, 2007.

• Anonymous (May 2, 2007). “In Pictures: Newviews of Jupiter”. BBC News. Retrieved May 2,2007.

• Cain, Fraser.“Jupiter”. Universe Today. RetrievedApril 1, 2008.

• “Fantastic Flyby of the New Horizons spacecraft(May 1, 2007.)". NASA. Retrieved May 21, 2008.

•“Moons of Jupiter articles in Planetary Science Re-search Discoveries”. Planetary Science ResearchDiscoveries. University of Hawaii, NASA.

• June 2010 impact video

• Bauer, Amanda; Merrifield, Michael (2009).“Jupiter”. Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for theUniversity of Nottingham.

• “NASA Solar System Jupiter”.

• Photographs of Jupiter circa 1920s from the LickObservatory Records Digital Archive, UC SantaCruz Library's Digital Collections

19

18 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

18.1 Text• Jupiter Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter?oldid=669925608 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, Brion VIBBER, Mav,

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Kwamikagami, Kross,Worldtraveller, Shanes, Tom, C1k3, Remember, Art LaPella, Deanos, Femto, CDN99, Causa sui, DevilMaster, Bobo192, Dralwik, NetBot,Hurricane111, Smalljim, Dreish, Flxmghvgvk, Cohesion, Larsie, Vystrix Nexoth, Azure Haights, BillCook, MPerel, Sam Korn, (aeropagit-ica), Krellis, Pharos, Hagerman, Supersexyspacemonkey, Phyzome, TobyRush, Jcrocker, Knucmo2, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Danski14,Bob rulz, Qwe, Nik42, Mo0, Andrewpmk, AzaToth, Lightdarkness, RoySmith, Mlm42, Hu, Bart133, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Dhartung,Schapel, Hadlock, Knowledge Seeker, Yuckfoo, Suruena, Evil Monkey, Tony Sidaway, Amorymeltzer, Alfvaen, Sciurinæ, Inge-Lyubov,LFaraone, Gortu, Gene Nygaard, Paraphelion, Ringbang, HenryLi, Kitch, Dan100, Antifamilymang, Harvestdancer, Adrian.benko, OlegAlexandrov, Tariqabjotu, Zephiris~enwiki, Feezo, Siafu, Kfitzner, WilliamKF, Novacatz, Haverton, Bacteria, Richard Arthur Norton(1958- ), Sanjaymjoshi, Rorschach, OwenX, Woohookitty, TigerShark, PoccilScript, Daniel Case, 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18.2 Images• File:Almagest-planets.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Almagest-planets.svg License: Public do-

main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Spacepotato

18.2 Images 21

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• File:Jupiter_and_Galilean_moons.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Jupiter_and_Galilean_moons.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Jupiter Original artist: stewartde

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• File:PIA02879_-_A_New_Year_for_Jupiter_and_Io.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/PIA02879_-_A_New_Year_for_Jupiter_and_Io.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA02879 Origi-nal artist: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona

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22 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Retrogadation1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Retrogadation1.png License: Public domainContributors: self by W!B: (using StarOffice Draw) Original artist: W!B:

• File:SolarSystem_OrdersOfMagnitude_Sun-Jupiter-Earth-Moon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/SolarSystem_OrdersOfMagnitude_Sun-Jupiter-Earth-Moon.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:

• File:The Sun by the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly of NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory - 20100819.jpg Original artist: Tdadamemd• File:Solar_system.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Solar_system.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Solarsystem3DJupiter.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Solarsystem3DJupiter.gif License: CCBY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lookang many thanks to author of original simulation = Todd K. Timberlake author ofEasy Java Simulation = Francisco Esquembre

• File:Speakerlink-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Speakerlink-new.svg License: CC0 Contribu-tors: Own work Original artist: Kelvinsong

• File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CCBY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Profil by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Profil

• File:The_Galilean_satellites_(the_four_largest_moons_of_Jupiter).tif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/The_Galilean_satellites_%28the_four_largest_moons_of_Jupiter%29.tif License: Public domain Contributors: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA01299 (direct link) Original artist: NASA/JPL/DLR

• File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

• File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded bySimon.

• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

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