jay's phd dissertation defense
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The Effectiveness of Computer Assisted Language Learning
Programs for Enhancing EnglishLearning among Students of Limited
English Proficiency
A Dissertation Defense
by
Cheng-Chieh Lai
October 06, 2008Chair: David E. Herrington, Ph.D.
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Committee Members
David E. Herrington, Ph.D.
( Dissertation Chair)
Pamela Barber-Freeman, Ph.D. William Allan Kritsonis, Ph.D.
(Member) (Member)
Camille Gibson, Ph.D. Tyrone Tanner, Ed.D. (Member) (Member)
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Dissertation Defense Format
1. Background of the Problems
2. Purpose of the Study
3. Conceptual Framework
4. Research Questions
5. Significance of the Study
6. Research Methods
7. Major Findings and Literature Support
8. Conclusion
9. Recommendations for Further Study
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Background of the Problems
Foreign students contribute about $13.5 billion to the U.S. economy each year through their tuition and fees and living expenses.
Every 31 seconds a new immigrant enters USA, but 60% are
Limited English Proficiency (LEP) (Camarota, 2005). 47 million people speak language other than English, and 23 million
people speak English less than “very well” (U. S. Census Bureau,2005).
CALL programs has become a new solution for ESL education. Definition of CALL programs: An approach to language teaching
and learning, where the computer is used to assist the presentation,reinforcement, and assessment of the learning material (Davies,2002).
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Purpose of the Study
to gain a comprehensive understanding of theeffectiveness of Computer Assisted LanguageLearning (CALL) programs on English as aSecond Language (ESL) education for diverseEnglish language learners and instructors
to provide the results as a reference to
educational leaders and administrators whoare considering the use of CALL programs fortheir English instruction programs.
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Conceptual Framework
Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, 1989)
Perceived
Usefulness
Perceived
Ease of Use
Attitude
Toward use
Behavioral
Intention
To use
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Conceptual Framework (cont.)
Theory of Customer Value
(Woodruff & Gardial, 1996)
Attributes
of the product
Results
after usingNeeds and wants
of the customers
Customer Value
Intention to
Purchase and Use
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Research Question
Quantitative
1. What personal factors influence LEP students’perceived usefulness of CALL programs for
English learning?
2. What personal factors influence LEP students’perceived ease of use of CALL programs for
English learning?
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Research Question (cont.)
Qualitative
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of CALL programs in actual ESL teaching and
learning?
4. What is the role of CALL programs in currentESL instruction?
5. What are the second language learningefficiency expectations of LEP students andESL instructors utilizing CALL programs?
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Ho1~Ho5:
There is no statistically significant difference in LEP students’ perceivedUsefulness of CALL programs for enhancing their English learningamong (between) their
Ho6~Ho10:
There is no statistically significant difference in LEP students’ perceived
Ease of Use of CALL programs for enhancing their English learningamong (between) their
Native languages.
Age groups.
Genders.
Previous educational levels.
Previous technology experiences.
Native languages.
Age groups.
Genders.
Previous educational levels.
Previous technology experiences.
Null Hypotheses
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Significance of the Study
May provide educational leaders and administratorsa view of the problems associated with current uses of technology in ESL education
May present an assessment tool that educationalleaders and administrators may use to determine thedegree to which technology investments are effective within specific populations
May encourage ESL instructors to adopt CALLprograms as a viable educational alternative andinspire students to promote language abilitiesthrough the application of CALL programs
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Research Methods
A combination of Quantitative and
Qualitative research methods wasutilized for the study
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Research Methods (cont.)Quantitative TAM in CALL Questionnaire was modified from Davis’ Technology
Acceptance Model
Six language translation versions: English, Spanish, French,
Korean, Traditional Chinese, and Simplified Chinese. The response scale was a 5-point Likert scale which assigned numerical values
for each response:
Strongly Agree = 5 Agree = 4 Neutral = 3
Disagree = 2 Strongly Disagree = 1
Descriptive statistics were used to describe demographic data
One-way ANOVA statistical method was employed to examine thedifference between LEP students’ individual backgrounds and their“Usefulness” and “Ease of Use” perceptions of CALL programs.
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Research Methods (cont.)
Qualitative
Nine interview questions based on the Customer Value Theory were asked during the interviews inorder to identify:
1. Advantages and disadvantages of CALL programs
2. Roles of CALL programs in actual ESL classrooms
3. Expectations for future CALL programs
Data analysis included coding, generating categories,and writing interview summaries
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Subjects of the Study
Quantitative 329 LEP students taking ESL courses and using CALL
programs in college level schools or adult educationalinstitutions in the Houston area of Texas during summer
semester of 2008
Participated School Frequency Percent
University of Houston (Main campus,UH)
213 64.7
Houston Community College (HCC) 67 20.4
Chinese Community Center (CCC) 49 14.9
Texas Southern University 0 0
Rice University 0 0
Total 329 100.0
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Participants’ Native Languages
Native Language Group Frequency Percent Valid Chinese Speaking Group 84 25.5
Spanish Speaking Group 78 23.7
French Speaking Group 46 14.0
Korean Speaking Group 23 7.0
OthersSpeakingGroup
Vietnamese 21 6.4
Arabic 28 8.5
Bambara 2 .6
Gujarati 2 .6
Turkish 7 2.1
Russian 9 2.7
Portugues 5 1.5
Kazakh 3 .9
Tajik 2 .6
Thai 2 .6
Gorane 2 .6
Hindi 1 .3
Japanese 1 .3
Indian 1 .3
Farsi 1 .3
English 2 .6
Super-total 89 27.1
Total 320 97.3
Missing System 9* 2.7
Total 329 100.0
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Participants’ Age Groups
Under20 years
old
21-30 years
old
31-40 years
old
41-50 years
old
51-60 years
old
Above60 years
old
HoustonCommunity College
1 17 28 13 3 1
University of Houston 71 125 15 1
ChineseCommunity Center
3 9 10 9 12
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Participants’ Genders &Educational Levels
1435
90
160
29
1
0
50
100
150
200
Elementary
school
Secondary
school
High school College or
university
Postgraduate Missing
147
180
20
0
50
100
150
200
Male Female Missing
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Participants’ Technology Experiences
Frequency Percent
Valid Under 1 year 27 8.2
1-3 years 50 15.2
4-6 years 69 21.0
7-9 years 56 17.0
More than 10 years 104 31.6
Total 306 93.0
Missing System 23* 7.0
Total 329 100.0
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Subjects of the Study
Qualitative
Twenty participants joined in the face-to-faceinterviews.
Participated School Instructors Students
University of Houston (Main campus)4 3
Houston Community College3 4
Chinese Community Center0 6
Total7 13
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Research Instrument Validity
A. The construct validity : based on Twoprevious theories.
1. Technology Acceptance model
2. Customer Value Theory
B. The content validity : checked by a panel of experts.
1. Dissertation chair
2. One ESL instructors (HISD)
3. One EFL assistant professor (Taiwan)
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Research Instrument Reliability
Six Statement N Mean Std. Deviation
Using computers and the Internet in my English learning can enable me to achievea higher English level more quickly 324 3.81 1.080
Using the computer software, such as Word, PowerPoint, and Multimedia, canimprove my English learning performance 323 3.76 1.036
Using email, electronic discussion board, or online chat-room can provide memore opportunities for communicating and interacting with my ESL teachers andpeers
324 3.82 1.110
Using the computer learning software and the Internet's World Wide Web canhelp me get more ESL learning resources and materials to enhance my Englishlearning
324 3.87 1.059
Using the computer learning software and the Internet's World Wide Web canexpose me to the American culture as well as learning English 324 3.77 1.081
I believe that computer technologies and ESL learning software are useful forfulfilling my ESL learning goals 324 3.86 .990
Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items
.926 .926 6
Perceived “Usefulness” of CALL programs
The result showed that this instrument is reliable.
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Research Instrument Reliability
Six Statement N Mean Std. Deviation
I am willing to study English with the computer because I find that itis easy to get the computer to do whatever I want it to do, wheneverand wherever I choose
318 3.57 1.184
It is easy for me to use the computer software, such as Word,PowerPoint, and Multimedia, as tools for showing my Englishlearning progress
318 3.66 1.068
I have no problem using email, electronic discussion board, oronline chat-room to communicate and interact with my ESLteachers and peers
318 375 1.063
When I use the computer learning software and the Internet’s World Wide Web, I find that it is easy to gain the ESL learningresources and materials what I need them.
318 3.75 9.76
I find that it is easy for me to learn more basic knowledge of Englishand American culture through the computer and the Internet 318 3.64 1.022
I believe that operating the computer and using computer assistedlanguage learning programs is easy 318 3.80 .993
Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items
.914 .916 6
Perceived “Ease of Use” of CALL programs
The result showed that this instrument is reliable.
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Major FindingsResearch Question One
What personal factors influence LEP students’ perceived usefulness of CALL programs for English learning?
Independent Variable:
Dependent Variable:
Sum of the scale scores relating to the “Usefulness” of CALL programs for enhancing English learning.
Personal factors
Native LanguageGender
Age group
Educational level
Technology Experience
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Major FindingsResearch Question One (cont.)
Null Hypothesis One
There is no statistically significant difference in LEP students’perceived “Usefulness” of CALL programs for enhancing Englishlearning among their native language backgrounds as measured by
TAM in CALL Questionnaire.
The null hypothesis was rejected.
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
BetweenGroups
823.220 4 205.805 7.487 .000*
WithinGroups 8493.748 309 27.488
Total 9316.968 313
* p < 0.05
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Major FindingsResearch Question One (cont.)
To further examine the differences, a Scheffe test was conducted
(I) Native Languages (J) Native Languages Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.
Others SpeakingGroup
Chinese SpeakingGroup -3.161(*) .804 .004
Spanish SpeakingGroup -3.903(*) .820 .000
French SpeakingGroup -2.083 .963 .324
Korean SpeakingGroup -.013 1.251 1.000
* p < 0.05
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English learner’s native language was a factor that yielded a significant difference in LEP students’perceived “Usefulness” of CALL programs forenhancing English learning
Three reasons may contribute to the result:
1. Digital Divide (International Telecommunication Union, 2003)
2. Levels of English Proficiency
3. Translation Versions
DiscussionNull Hypothesis One
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A student who lives in a higher Digital Access Index (DAI)scoring country may have more opportunities to get the benefits of computer technologies and the Internet, and cangain more opportunities to increase their individual computerliteracy skills (International Telecommunication Union, 2003).
Students of varying levels of English proficiency in English dohave differing perceptions of the use of technology (Doll, 2007).
Lower level of English proficiency students were enthusiasticabout the CALL environment; higher level of Englishproficiency students need more significant learning inputs andmight be difficult to perceive an improvement through regularCALL programs for their English skills (Hayes & Hicks, 2004)
Related Literature Support
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Major FindingsResearch Question One (cont.)
Null Hypothesis ThreeThere is no statistically significant difference in LEP students’perceived “Usefulness” of CALL programs for enhancing Englishlearning, as measured by TAM in CALL Questionnaire, amongdifferent age groups.
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
BetweenGroups 639.943 5 127.989 4.528 .001*
Within Groups8649.173 306 28.265
Total9289.115 311
* p < 0.05
The null hypothesis was rejected.
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Major FindingsResearch Question One (cont.)
To further examine the differences, a Scheffe test was conducted.However, there were no the mean difference between each age groupand a p value shown in Scheffe test.
A Least Significant Difference (LSD) test was conducted.
The result yielded a significant difference between the following pairsof age groups:
1. “under 20 years old” and “31 to 40 years old” age groups ( p = .002)
2. “under 20 years old” and “41 to 50 years old” age groups ( p = .002)3. “21 to 30 years old” and “31 to 40 years old” age groups ( p =.001)
4. “21 to 30 years old” and “41 to 50 years old” age groups ( p =.002)
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LEP student’s age range was a factor that causedsignificant differences toward students’ “Usefulness”perceptions when using CALL programs
Three reasons may contribute to the result:
1. Generations
2. Levels of English Proficiency
3. Duties
According to the qualitative interviews, the older students hadto spend more time on their jobs and household duties. They had very little time for English study or computer use at home.This might account for some of the difference in “Usefulness”scores between age groups.
DiscussionNull Hypothesis Three
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The age difference could not be regarded as an influentialfactor affecting older adults engaging in Web-searchingactivities…….. If we can provide more trainings and
opportunities to older adults, older adults may overcomethe age difference and enjoy the benefits of computertechnologies more than younger users (Kubeck, Miller– Albrecht, & Murphy, 1999) .
Related Literature Support
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Major FindingsResearch Question One (cont.)
Null Hypotheses Two, Four, and Five
There is no statistically significant difference in LEP students’ perceived“Usefulness” of CALL programs for enhancing English learning among theirgenders (previous educational levels, and previous technology experiences).
* p < 0.05
the p value is greater than the criterion p value of .05 which indicates a failure toreject Null Hypotheses Two, Four, and Five .
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Gender
Between Groups 50.731 1 50.731 1.734 .189 Within Groups 9334.092 319 29.260
Educational Level
Between Groups 159.058 4 39.765 1.355 .249
Within Groups 9301.218 317 29.341
Technology Experience
Between Groups 13.716 4 3.429 .111 .978
Within Groups 9086.214 295 30.801
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Major FindingsResearch Question Two
What personal factors influence LEP students’ perceived ease of use of CALL programs for English learning?
Independent Variable:
Dependent Variable:
Sum of the scale scores relating to the “Ease of Use” of CALL programs for enhancing English learning.
personal factors
Native LanguageGender
Age groups
Educational level
Technology Experience
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Major FindingsResearch Question Two (cont.)
Null Hypothesis Six
There is no statistically significant difference in LEP students’perceived “Ease of Use” of CALL programs for enhancing Englishlearning among their native language backgrounds as measured by
TAM in CALL Questionnaire.
The null hypothesis was rejected.
* p < 0.05
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
BetweenGroups
286.232 4 71.558 2.546 .040
Within Groups 8544.254 304 28.106
Total 8830.485 308
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Major FindingsResearch Question Two (cont.)
To further examine the differences, a Scheffe test was conducted
(I) Native Languages (J) Native Languages Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.
Chinese SpeakingGroup
Spanish SpeakingGroup
1.474 .847 .554
French SpeakingGroup
1.701 .984 .560
Korean Speaking
Group 1.952 1.273 .671
Others SpeakingGroup
2.564(*) .821 .047
* p < 0.05
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English learner’s native language was a factor that yielded significantly differences in “Ease of Use” of CALLprograms
Two reasons may contribute to the result:
1. Digital Divide
2. Language Version of CALL programs
DiscussionNull Hypothesis Six
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Student’s native language and culture background may influence his or her perception regarding the use of computer technology for enhancing their learning (Zoe &DiMartino, 2000).
Through the qualitative interview, one ESL instructorpointed out that Asian students are often good at computertechnology. Their countries usually have more technology infrastructure, so they can get more technology exerciseopportunities.
The transfer of prior linguistic and cognitive knowledgefrom the first language to the second language is arequisite learning process for LEP students (O’Malley &Chamot,1990) .
Related Literature &Qualitative Interview Support
M j Fi di
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Major FindingsResearch Question Two (cont.)
Null Hypotheses Seven, Eight, Nine, and Ten
There is no statistically significant difference in LEP students’ perceived “Ease of Use” of CALL programs for enhancing English learning among their genders ( agegroups, previous educational levels, and previous technology experiences).
* p < 0.05
the p value is greater than the criterion p value of .05 which indicates a failure toreject Null Hypotheses Seven, Eight, Nine, and Ten .
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Gender
Between Groups 25.067 1 25.067 .898 .344
Within Groups 8766.056 314 27.917 Age Group
Between Groups 219.161 5 43.832 1.559 .172
Within Groups 8464.501 301 28.121
Educational Level
Between Groups 128.724 4 32.181 1.143 .336
Within Groups 8782.702 312 28.150
Technology Experience
Between Groups 111.673 4 27.918 .974 .422
Within Groups 8308.443 290 28.650
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Major FindingsResearch Question Three
What are the advantages and disadvantages of CALL programs inactual ESL teaching and learning?
CALL programs have a positive influence on their ESL teaching andlearning.
Major Advantages:
1. Increase access to authentic materials for teaching and learning English
2. Provide more opportunities for practice through experiential learning
3. Offer more varied learning situations that enhance learning motivationand achievement.
LEP students: more online interactive opportunities; more learningresources.
ESL instructors: prefer the traditional face-to-face interactions. Focus onevaluation and record students’ learning progresses.
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Major FindingsResearch Question Three (cont.)
Major Disadvantage
ESL instructors:
1. may not totally align with beginning level English learners’needs;
2. may reduce English learners’ opportunities to explore otherlearning resources; and
3. may increase the teaching and learning loads
LEP students: over-use of CALL programs may influencetheir spelling ability . The spell-correcting function of CALLprograms may help to recheck their writing, but it may prevent them from learning to spell.
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Related Literature Support
“The use of the computer does not constitute a method.Rather, it is a medium in which a variety of methods,approaches, and pedagogical philosophies may beimplemented” (Garrett, 1991, p. 75).
No matter what many functions CALL programs provide,they are still no more than media for teaching andlearning. The effectiveness of CALL programs does notlie in the medium alone but in how the programs areused and the quality of personal teaching and guidancethat accompany them.
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Major FindingsResearch Question Four What is the role of CALL programs in current ESL
instructions?
Time spent on CALL programs:
ESL instructors: 1. the length of the semester
2. the content of textbook
LEP students: technology experience backgrounds
Without technology background or with little technology
knowledge, students spend little time or none on usingtechnology to enhance their learning.
Students who have rich technology experiences often spendmore than ten hours per day for using the computer and theInternet.
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Major FindingsResearch Question Four (cont.)
Most Important Role of CALL programs
0 2 4 6 8 10
Tutor
Tool
Tutee
No comment
Student
Instructor
j i di
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Major FindingsResearch Question Four (cont.)
“Tool” role: 1. vary their teaching and learning paths
2. provide more interactive activities
3. facilitate the effectiveness of teaching and learning.
“Tutor” role:
CALL programs can offer reading, vocabulary, and other kinds of practice to evaluate students’ works and keep their records.
“Tutee” role: Each student has individual learning needs and the computer is not
able to adapt to different learning styles of the student. CALLprograms should follow and satisfy English learners’ needs.
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Related Literature Support
Computers play various roles that deeply impact ESLteaching and learning methods (Warschauer & Kern,2000; Wiazowski, 2002)
The theoretical framework underlying CALL programs is very difficult to define because CALL programs exist inso many different forms. The specific role of CALLprograms often depends upon different needs anddifferent situations (Kemmis, Atkin, & Wright, 1977;Higgins, 1988, Taylor, 1980).
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Major FindingsResearch Question Five
What are the second-language learning efficiencyexpectations of LEP students and ESL instructorsutilizing CALL programs?
Satisfaction of current CALL All ESL instructors: Current CALL programs are good
enough for ESL education.
Four LEP students: CALL programs are not perfectenough to meet their learning needs. (For example:Translation Function)
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Major FindingsResearch Question Five (cont.)
English skills can be improved effectively
A. The variety of CALL programs permits different users to addressdifferent learning goals and produce different learning results.
B. Because there are no solid guidelines and standards, some instructors andstudents become confused with the functions and abilities of current CALLprogram.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Listening
Reading
Writing
Speaking
No comment
Student
Instructor
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Major FindingsResearch Question Five (cont.)
Expectations of future CALL programs:
1. The price of computer, CALL software, and Internetconnection should be reduced
2.The future CALL programs should be easier to use
“To beginning level learners, computers or CALLprograms are difficult to operate sometimes”
3. Should have more human intelligence to understandlearners’ needs and can give students correct feedback immediately
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Related Literature Support
Software of CALL programs is still imperfect, and theirfunctions are limited. Due to the limitations of computer’s artificial intelligence, current computertechnology is unable to deal with learner’s unexpected
learning problems and response immediately as teachersdo (Warschauer, 1996).
The reasons for the computer’s inability to interacteffectively can be traced back to a fundamental difference
in the way humans and computers utilize information(Dent, 2001).
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Conclusion
LEP students come from different countries and havedistinct learning habits and attitudes toward the use of technology for enhancing English learning. It is importantthat educational leaders and ESL instructors pay greater
attention to students’ personal factors and their learningneeds.
When investments in CALL programs are made, it isimportant that the CALL programs be useful and easy to
use for all populations served. Failure to evaluate CALLapplications continuously and to make improvements inthe development and deployment of CALL software canresult in non-use or ineffective use.
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Conclusion (cont.)
Lack of technology knowledge is a major barrier to realizethe advantages of CALL programs. Educational leadersand administrators should face the problem and developtechnology training plans to ensure that all ESL teachers
and LEP students have the knowledge and skills to apply CALL programs in their teaching and learning.
To identify what role CALL programs played in the
classroom is important because each instructor’s andstudent’s perceptions of the roles of CALL programs willfurther influence their decisions on how to apply CALLprograms in their language teaching and learning.
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Conclusion (cont.)
To overcome the price problem and ensure each studenthas the equal opportunity to get CALL programs forenhancing their English Learning, educational leadersand administrators may have to negotiate with computer
producing factories and software companies to reduce theselling prices of computers and CALL software.
To improve the artificial intelligence and the ease of use
problems, educational leaders and administrators may have to communicate with software designers to designmore appropriate CALL programs for ESL teaching andlearning.
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Recommendationsfor Further Study
A study could be conducted at the state level or national level. A study could be conducted that focused on the same student’s
English level.
A study could be conducted that focused on specific software of
CALL program. A study could be conducted of the student’s learning style
associated with CALL programs.
A study could be conducted of the effectiveness of pedagogiesassociated with CALL programs.
A study could be conducted of the curriculum design associated with CALL programs.
A study could be conducted of the students’ learningachievements associated with CALL programs.
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Recommendationsfor Further Study (cont.)
A study could be conducted to address different learninggoals that produces different results.
A study could be conducted to focus on more humanintelligence of CALL programs to understand the language
learners’ needs. A study could be conducted on personal factors related to
students’ learning needs and personal circumstances.
A study could be conducted on how educational leaders and
administrators can develop policies and strategies that willsupport more effective and efficient systems for purchasingand maintaining CALL applications that will assist Englishteaching and learning.
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Recommendationsfor Further Study (cont.)
A study could be conducted on how educational leaders andadministrators can develop and implement training plansto ensure that all ESL teachers and students have theknowledge and skills to apply computer technology in their
teaching and learning. A study could be conducted about the role of computer
technology within the context of the second languageinstruction.
A study could be conducted that specifically focuses on thethree major barriers: price, artificial intelligence, and easeto use.
A study could be conducted on ways technology has becomea powerful force in education.
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References
Camarota, S. A. (2005). Immigrants at mid-decade: A snapshot of America's
foreign-born population in 2005. Report released by the Center for
Immigration Studies, a Washington-based think tank that supports lower
levels of immigration. Retrieved on June 30, 2006, from
http://www.cis.org/articles/2005/back1405.html
Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user
acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly , 13(3), 319-339.Dent, C. (2001). Studer: classification v. categorization. Retrieved June 28,
2006, from
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Doll, J. J. (2007). Using English language learner perceptions of technology to
your advantage. Instructional Technology & Distance Learning , June 2007,
4(6). Retrieved July 30, 2008, from
http://www.itdl.org/Journal/Jun_07/article03.htm
Garrett, N. (1991). Technology in the service of language learning: trends and
issues. Modern Language Journal, 75 (1), 74-101.
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References (cont.)
Hayes, B. E., & Hicks, S. K. (2004). Speaking in the CALL environment.Proceedings of CLaSIC 2004, シンガポール国立大学言語研究センター/Pac
CALL 2004抄録(CD-ROM), pp. 954-961. Retrieved August, 27, 2008, from
http://www.paccall.org/2004/2004proceedings_papers/hayes.pdf
International Telecommunication Union. (ITU, 2003). Digital Access Index: World’s
first global ICT ranking- education and affordability key to boosting new
technology adoption. Press release 19 November 2003, Geneva. Retrieved
August, 11, 2007, from
http://www.itu.int/newsroom/press_releases/2003/30.html
Kubeck, J. E., Miller-Albrecht, S. A. & Murphy, M. D. (1999). Finding information on
the World Wide Web: exploring older adults’ exploration. Educational
Gerontology , 25 (2), 167-83.National Center for Education Statistics. (2004). Computer and Internet use by
children and adolescents in 2001: Statistical analysis report . Retrieved March 02,
2006, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2004/2004014.pdf
O’Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language
acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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References (cont.)
U. S. Census Bureau. (2005). Language spoken at home. Washington, DC: U. S.
Census Bureau. Retrieved July, 28, 2007, from http://factfinder.census.gov/
Warschauer, M. (1996). Computer-assisted language learning: An introduction.
Retrieved March 12, 2006, from http://www.gse.uci.edu/markw/call.html
Warschauer, M., & Kern, R. (eds.) (2000). Network-based language teaching:
Concepts and practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wiazowski, J. (2002). Computer-assisted language learning as a bridge to social
inclusion of blind learners in mainstream schooling . Retrieved July 17, 2007,
from http://www.icevi.org/publications/ICEVI-WC2002/papers/01-topic/
Woodruff, R. B. & Gardial, S. F. (1996). Know your customer: New approaches
to understanding customer value and satisfaction. Cambridge, MA: BlackWellBusiness.
Zoe, L. R., & DiMartino, D. (2000). Cultural diversity and end user searching: An
analysis by gender and language background. Research Strategies, 17 (4),
291-305.
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Note
“In Katy ISD, there are approximately 70 different
languages represented by the thousands of students
that attend classes in the district. [Katy ISD has]
received a special waiver from the state allowing it tocover several other languages in its program including
Mandarin Chinese, Vietnamese, Arabic, and Korean.”
Bradley, D.(2008, October 1). District becoming more diversified. Katy
Times 95 (78), 1, 3.
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謝謝!! (xie xie)
Thank YouFor joining in my presentation