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"DESIGN AND OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS

FOR

INJECTION OF LIQUID WASTES"

Twenty First

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON INCINERATION

AND

THERMAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

MAY 2002, NEW ORLEANS, LA, U.S.A.

Prepared by:

OLAVO CUNHA LEITE

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IT302 Conference, May 13-17, 2002, New Orleans, Louisiana

1

DESIGN AND OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS

FOR

INJECTION OF LIQUID WASTE

Olavo C. Leite

THERMICA Technologies

Exton, PA 19341Telephone 610-524-6932

Email [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses the design and operation considerations for atomizers in liquid injection

incinerators, used to convert industrial liquid waste into environmentally benign by-products.

Liquid fuels and wastes must be converted to a dispersed aerosol form i.e., atomized before

introduction into burners, waste combustors or incinerator chambers where ignition and thermal

oxidation occur. Good atomization is a key requirement for good combustion efficiency. It is

fundamental for a liquid injection incinerator to be provided with proper atomizers, considerations

for which include design, materials, location, size and number, spray direction and distribution. The

design should be simple and rugged for reliability as well as convenience for operation and

maintenance. The use of lower grade fuels and wastes requires the application of sophisticated,

clean-burning and yet reliable burner injectors and waste disposers. Atomizer design used for a

specific application may not be compatible with the all the process objectives, however it should

meet all the necessary requirements, including emissions. The design and operation

considerations presented in this paper for the liquid injection of fuels and wastes are based on

proven technology, are commercially available and meet the required combustion and destruction

efficiencies.

INTRODUCTION TO ATOMIZATION

Atomization is the physical breaking up of a liquid into a fine droplet spray using the liquids own

pressure or the atomizing media (steam or air) flow and pressure. Liquid fuels can burn in twodistinct ways, after vaporization and after atomization. Atomization of liquid fuels increases the

evaporation speed and promotes a fast access mixing with the required air (oxygen). Liquids must

be converted to a dispersed aerosol form to increase the exposed surface area through atomization

before introduction into the burners, waste combustors or combustion chambers where ignition and

thermal oxidation occur.

Good atomization will minimize the non-evaporated droplets a key factor for complete

decomposition of the hydrocarbon compounds, improving combustion efficiency and destruction

of the liquid wastes. By oxidizing waste liquid at a high temperature, organic matter in the waste

liquid is decomposed and oxidized completely. The most important factors for good combustion

and destruction efficiencies are the atomizing quality and the supply of oxygen in order to have an

optimum fuel/oxygen mixture.

Finer atomized droplets are easier to vaporize and provide faster ignition and burning due to better

mixing. The atomizer operation is judged by the size of the droplets produced, as well as the spray

shape, angle and flow density. For the same liquid flow rate and in a homogeneous spray, the total

surface area of the droplets is inversely proportional to the droplet diameter. This relationship

exists because the droplet surface area is a direct square function of the droplet diameter, while

the number of droplets is an inverse cubic function of the droplet diameter.

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The liquid droplet size can be determined by several equations for different types of atomizing

injectors, medium, liquid, etc. A simplified form illustrates the most important variables

qualitatively. The largest diameter of oil droplets atomized by air is given by the modified Weber

criteria, by the following simplified equation:

d = We ts / w Vr2 , m

Where We = Weber number

ts = oil surface tension, Kg/s2

w = density of the atomizing media, Kg/m3

Vr = relative velocity, m/s

The fuel constant dependent on viscosity and surface tension is given by K = We ts, typically K =

13ts for light to medium viscosity oils, based on the average critical We of 13.

Also, the following equation is commonly used to give the a Sauter mean diameter of the oil droplet

using atomizing air:

dm = 2840/Vr+ 446 va0.45 / (Wa /Wl)

1.5, microns

Where va = absolute viscosity, poise

Wa /Wl = mass flow ratio of atomizing air and liquid

The effect of pressure, viscosity, density grades and burner configuration are important in the

design and operating performance characteristics of liquid fuel atomizers. Smaller droplet sizes are

achieved under the following conditions:

Atomizer with smaller capacities and more uniform sizes of droplets

Larger spray angles and more disperse patterns

Lower viscosity (va) and density of liquid Higher liquid pressure

Smaller liquid surface tension (ts)

Larger relative velocity between atomizing media and liquid jets (Vr)

Larger ratio of atomizing air and liquid (Wa /Wl)

Larger atomizing media pressure and density (w)

The increase of the liquid viscosity results in an increase of the droplet sizes. Larger droplets

require additional burning time to reach the boiling point of the liquid waste, thus slowing down the

total reaction time. Viscosity should be reduced to the proper point by elevating the temperature, if

required. The fluid needs to be thinned or heated to lower the viscosity to obtain a fine spray,

otherwise poor ignition and combustion will result.

The droplet burning time is a function of its molecular weight, droplet diameter, oxygen partial

pressure and absolute temperature. Rapid mixing and radiation from the flame produce a high heat

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transfer rate promoting the combustion of the liquid fuel. The simplified equation given by EPA

AP-51 for vaporization and burning time of a droplet is as follows:

t = 29800 M do2 /P T1.75, seconds

where M = molecular weight

do = initial droplet diameter, cmP = oxygen partial pressure, atm

T = absolute temperature, K

The single droplet combustion mechanism is not representative of spray combustion where the

droplets distributed in a small volume compose the combustion spray and most of the droplets do

not burn individually. Fuel vapor from the liquid droplets burns in a jet, like a gas diffusion flame,

where the turbulent mixing of a fuel vapor and air is the combustion controlling mechanism.

A liquid spray consists of a number of variable size droplets, suspended in an air stream. A

diffusion flame around the evaporated droplet of light fuels burns the fuel vapor in the presence of

oxygen from the air. In dilute sprays a droplet evaporates and the fuel vapor together with the air

burn in a diffusion flame around the droplet. This type of spray is practically homogeneous it is

totally evaporated when it reaches the flame zone. In most furnaces, air velocities must be high

enough to promote mixing through turbulence. In dense sprays complete evaporation of the

droplets may precede burning, which is controlled by the diffusion of the vapor into the air or gas

to gas mixing.

When atomizing heavier fuels, the evaporation of the lighter components of the fuel occurs first,

followed by cracking of the heavier components producing coke (carbon). The carbon particles

burn at higher temperatures. Under this scenario and operating with low excess air (oxygen), the

combustion products contain soot, ash and unburned particles.

Spray combustion containing larger droplets generates fuel rich flames, displaying a yellowluminosity. A properly designed High Intensity Swirl (HIS) burner together with an atomizing

injector can minimize the particulate emissions when operating with these heavy fuels, Fig. 1. They

can provide flame improvements that make the spray act similar to a pre-mixed flame. These

burners and atomizers should provide the following features to optimize the fuel/ air ratio:

High degree of swirl and recirculation

High combustion intensity

High quality of atomization and spray distribution over a wide range of liquid flow rate

Fast response to flow fluctuations and instabilities

Uniform radial and circumferential distribution of the spray

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Particle combustion is a three-step process: heating, evaporation and superheating to combustiontemperature in the presence of oxygen. The particle needs to receive the radiation and convection

heat almost instantaneously and be surrounded by a high temperature environment rich in oxygen.

For small particles, the heating time is small compared to the particle combustion time. For the

larger size particles, the shrinking particle model can be integrated to give the total time for a

particle to disappear. If the chemical kinetic controls the rate of reaction, the residence time

required to consume the particle is proportional to the particle radius. If diffusion controls the

reaction, the residence time is proportional to the square of particle radius. The shrinking particle

model is very similar to the liquid fuel model.

FUEL AND LIQUID WASTE ATOMIZERS

The injector tip or nozzle of a liquid injector gun is commonly known as the atomizer, a key

component that determines the quality of atomization. The atomizers should introduce the liquidflow rates in a particular location, with a specific spray pattern and with sufficient penetration

and kinetic energy. Atomizers should be selected based on flow rate, pressure, temperature,

specific gravity viscosity, chemical composition, solids content and particle size. They should

provide a good spray pattern and with the maximum droplet size, in the range of 100 to 180

microns, to achieve vaporization plus a fast and more complete oxidation; if the droplets are too

large, unburned hydrocarbons can exit. Flow passage area should be considered because small

passages can plug due to polymerization. The ideal atomizer spray pattern should have multiple

jets to increase the surface area in contact with the surrounding combustion air. Various types of

atomizers are available for the different kinds of liquid fuels and wastes, as follows:

Mechanical atomizing

External atomizing

Internal atomizing

Sonic atomizing

Rotary cup atomizing

Hybrid atomizing

Mechanical atomizers are hydraulic spray nozzles working on liquid pressure only, where the

liquid break up is caused by the collapse of unstable jets. The fuel supply pressure needs to be very

high to achieve a proper turndown, unless a return flow type injector is used. Droplet sizes are

Fig. 1. High Intensity Swirl (HIS) Burner

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largely affected by exit velocity, viscosity and also, to a lesser extent, surface tension and specific

gravity. Mechanical atomization is normally used with burners of high heat release, when the

atomizing media is not available and with clean fuels to avoid fouling. Mechanical atomizing

burner injectors are more sensitive, requiring lower viscosity fluids for good atomization. They are

not effective when used as liquid waste injectors.

External mixing atomizers, Fig.2, are nozzles typically used as organic waste injectors, operating

at a low liquid pressure. Liquids to be burnt are usually blended in mixing tanks and sometimes also

heated for easier pumpability and combustibility. Liquids with small particles up to 3-mm can flow

without clogging the single bore injector tips and the typical liquid turndown is up to 4 to 1. They

can handle pumpable high viscosity liquids when heated to give an equivalent viscosity below 30

cS at the injector. The atomizing media impinges at the liquid surface after the liquid leaves the

nozzle bore, directed to the stream center at a given angle, generating the required spray. It also

entrains combustion air due to the generated low-pressure zone. The atomizing steam or

compressed air is introduced at a constant pressure and flow rate, without further controls (set and

forget), resulting in high consumption at low liquid rates. Atomizing Steam consumption is

constant at about 30-35% and atomizing air consumption is constant at about 40-45% of the liquid

mass flow at the design conditions and a pressure of about 5-barg. For purposes of cooling the tip,

the atomizing media flow rate should be 10-20% of normal rate and the alarm set at 0.1 bar above

backpressure. The Y type atomizer, Fig. 3, is a multi-bore variation of the single bore external

mixing atomizer, operating with excellent results of atomization within a wide range of flow rates,

at higher liquid pressures and smaller consumption of atomizing media.

Internal mixing atomizers, Fig. 4, are used to atomize fuel oils or cleaner waste fuels,

providing a finer droplet size but lacking the ability to burn low grade or high viscosity materials

without constant maintenance. The liquid fuel is required at a viscosity of about 20 to 35 cS, 45

cS maximum, at the injector. Pre-heating the oil may be necessary to achieve the required

viscosity. Internal mixing is accomplished by impinging and mixing the atomizing media and

liquid inside of a chamber. Internal mixing yields lower atomizing media consumption needed

Fig. 2. External Mix Atomizer, SB Type

Fig. 3. External Mix Atomizer, Y Type

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for proper liquid atomization. As liquid pressure decreases atomizing media pressure also

decreases, maintaining a constant pressure differential. Steam consumption is in the order of 30%

weight ratio and atomizing air consumption as high as 50% weight ratio. The turndown is 3.5 to

1 maximum, based on atomizing media pressures varying from 5.5 to 7 barg.

Sonic atomizers work based on liquid break up provoked by an acoustic energy transfer between

the nozzle exit and the air resonator, resulting in high frequency oscillations. These nozzles

perform well with variations in viscosity, providing small mass droplets and good distribution of the

liquid with the minimum over-spray. This narrow spray has low forward velocity and low

penetration. Nozzle position needs to be reviewed because the vortex action can cancel their

atomization, resulting in local agglomeration and larger droplets. They are not effective with high

intensity swirl burners but they operate effectively downstream of the burner without clogging and

with minimum erosion, spraying the aqueous waste into the combustion chamber.

Rotary Cup atomizers are mechanical nozzles where the liquid is atomized by high-speed rotation

of a motorized swirling chamber. The resultant centrifugal force throws the liquid to rotary cup and

atomization occurs at the cup rim. This design is expensive and less reliable due to the use of high

speed moving parts under high temperature exposure.

Hybrid Atomizers incorporate design features of different styles in order to improve

atomization while minimizing the atomizing media consumption. Some include mechanical

design features like the addition of orifices and spinners to break up the liquid in dual fluid

designs, Fig. 5; others use a combination of both external and internal mixing dual fuel design

features, Fig. 6. The Low Pressure atomizers are a variation of the External Mixing type, partial ortotally usingthe combustion air from blowers as the atomizing media to impinge on low flows of

light oil.

Fig. 4. Internal Mix Atomizer

Fig. 5. External Mix and Mechanical Atomizer

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INJECTION OF LIQUID WASTES

It is fundamental to provide the appropriate fuels and liquid waste atomizers based on

considerations ofdesign, location, size, number, and spray direction and distribution, Fig. 7.

Injector tips or nozzles are used to atomize the waste liquid, generating fine droplets and

introducing the liquid waste through the main burner or into the incinerator chamber. All injector

nozzle guns should be designed to allow their removal on the fly without shutting down theincinerator.

The atomizer should be placed in a manner so as to provide the liquid droplets with a spray shape

and kinetic energy to ensure proper distribution and penetration into the hot zones. Waste fuel

droplets receive the heat by convection and radiation, being heated, vaporized and superheated to

Fig. 6. External and Internal Mix Atomizer

Fig. 7. Injection of Liquid Organic and Aqueous Wastes

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ignition point, in the presence of sufficient oxygen to ensure proper oxidation of the droplet

hydrocarbons. Proper atomizer location ensures that the air (oxygen) mixing with the droplets

/hydrocarbons allowsto complete oxidation. Turbulent mixing of the air/droplets will produce

faster burning due to the internal re-circulation of the combustion products. Lack of sufficient

oxygen can crack the hydrocarbons, producing C, CO and H2, resulting in incomplete combustion

of the carbon with smoke and soot formation.

If the liquid waste contains solids, proper design of combustion air introduction and nozzle location

need to be implemented to avoid agglomeration of the small particles into larger ones, requiring

additional time and gradual oxygen to complete the oxidation process. When these particles are

inert, the products of combustion carry the smaller ones, while the larger ones form a molten slag,

falling to the bottom of the chamber by gravity.

The organic waste and the support fuel are introduced through the Burner. Aqueous wastes should

be injected with properly designed and positioned injectors to minimize droplet size and to give

good distribution and mixing with the hot gases. Injectors operating with non-ash-bearing aqueous

waste are placed downstream of the burner combustion chamber into the flame zone. If the waste is

ash bearing, as in the case of salts, the injectors are to be placed downstream of the burner

combustion chamber and directed away from the flame in order to avoid refractory spalling damage,

Fig. 8.

The atomizing media sonic flow provokes a low-pressure zone, just downstream of the injector,

providing recirculation and mixing of the atomizing fluid with the waste liquid. Partially

combustible liquid requires support fuel to sustain combustion. Low-energetic waste, with

stoichiometric secondary combustion air for better oxidation, should be injected downstream of

flame to avoid flame quenching, which exposes it only to the high temperature of the combustion

gases.

The atomizer body material should be selected from an applicable material to achieve long life,

resistant to erosion, high temperature and corrosion. Flame radiation and recirculation of hot gas

into the spray affect atomizer body temperature and corrosion. Ideally the material should show

reduced heat absorption properties in order to develop a low surface temperature to minimize

formation of varnish and carbon deposits. Materials like some austenitic stainless steels, nitralloy

and other high temperature alloys are commonly used to resist the hot operating environment. High

nickel alloys, like alloys C276, C22, 59 and C2000 are used on some applications requiring a higher

Fig. 8. Flame Length, Injector location and Effective Residence Time

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corrosion resistance although sacrificing some of the heat resistance ability. Alloy 625 has

performed extremely well in hot and corrosive applications, compromising high temperature and

corrosion resistance.

OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS

Steam and Compressed Air are the most utilized atomizing media for burner injectors used with

different grades of fuel oil and hydrocarbon wastes. Aqueous waste atomizers typically usecompressed air as the atomizing media, although it is not uncommon touse dry steam. The

atomizing air media is very efficient because it mixes with the liquid waste at the injection point,

reducing the heat load required for the steam and the additional secondary combustion air.

Atomizing steam should be dry and slightly superheated at the burner injector inlet, with a

required pressure of 5 to 7 barg, and as high as 30 barg when atomizing extremely heavy

residuals. Also a high degree of steam superheat can vaporize the oil in the injector gun, causing

vapor lock at the injector tip. Any released gas should be trapped and vented to avoid unstable

fuel feed and burning. Steam itself tends to reduce the soot formation with the heavy oils and

organic wastes.

Compressed atomizing air should be heated to the temperature of the oil in applications where the

heavy fuels or the organic wastes are preheated to reduce their viscosity to acceptable levels for

atomization purposes. As an alternate, the heavy oil should be further preheated to account for

cooling effect of the atomizing media at ambient temperature. Mechanical burner injectors

require a higher preheating temperature to further reduce the viscosity. Oil flow rates should be

measured on a mass basis or a temperature correction needs to be applied, since the volume of

the oil varies with the temperature. Also, the specific heat of the oil varies slightly with the

temperature, and the rule of thumb for the specific heat of oil is about 2.1 kJ/kg-K.

The desired injection viscosity depends on the burner type and method of atomizing, ranging

between 20 and 40 cS, with a most common value at or below 30 cS. The normal temperature limit

to reduce viscosity is as high as 200-260C, but more typically about 100-130C. It is commonpractice to overheat the oil by 15-30C to compensate for unaccounted piping heat losses. Also,

the preheated temperature should be verified to avoid polymerization, nitration or oxidation. If

preheating represents a problem, lower viscosity oil can be added to reduce the overall viscosity.

Insufficient preheating will result in not lowering the viscosity sufficiently for good atomization,

and consequently poor burner ignition, unburned fuel, smoke and carbonization will occur.

Excessive preheating of the oil can provoke cracking and coking the oil in the preheater, blocking

the burner injectors and loosing output heat, as well as provoking vaporization and pulsation of

the pumps and burners. Sometimes when the oil is preheated to just below its flash point, it may

be insufficient to reduce the viscosity to the desired level, but it creates a danger of preignition

causing the burner to puff and pulsate due to the formation of light vapors. In this case, if

possible, the preheating temperature should be somewhat lowered. As an alternative, lower

viscosity fuel can be blended.

The combustion rate decreases and the flame length increases with increasing viscosity, carbon

residue and density. The lower the specific gravity, the lower the carbon contents. Also, the higher

the hydrogen content, the greater the heat of combustion on a weight basis. The proper preheat

temperature should be set not only to make the oil more pumpable but also to obtain proper and

efficient combustion. Heavy fuel oils require additional excess air and smoke tends to occur when

CO increases sharply. Lack of efficient combustion will result in low heat release, wasted fuel and

formation of smoke and soot.

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On some existing installations, High Intensity Swirl (HIS) burners, Fig. 1, in conjunction with

external atomizing tip injectors have been used in very high viscosity applications, like TDI

waste, with the viscosity range of 500 cS at 120C and as high as 1000 cS at 150C. There are

other installations as well, operating with high viscosity liquid wastes, high intensity swirl

burners and single Y type atomizers, Fig.3, with feed rates as high as 2600 Kg/h of organic

waste. High intensity swirl burners in conjunction with a proper atomizer, operating with a

combustion excess air of 15-20%, can minimize the consumption of the additive oil used to blend

to acceptable viscosity levels.

Problems due to viscosity of an organic or oily waste can be the result of either excessive high

viscosity or excessive low viscosity. Too high viscosity leads to difficulty in pumping resulting in

loss of pump suction or lack of flow at burner. It also leads to poor atomization resulting in

incomplete combustion and liquid runs at the burner injector. Too low viscosity can lead to

excessive flow to burner injector causing incomplete combustion and to losses of heat release due

to low energetic value and low gravity.

Fuel oil switching is necessary if the fuel pump and heater sets need repair or cleaning and fuel

gas is not available. By using the same atomizer, a second atomizer can be avoided and the

distillate oil can be substituted for the heavy oil online with no interruption to the operation. The

burner injectors will work with atomizing air, as well as with atomizing steam for either type of

oil. A system can be designed to automatically switch from atomizing steam to atomizing air, if

steam pressure is lost. Also switching from heavy oil to distillate oil can be automated if oil

temperature or pressure leaving the pump and heater drops below set values. The ability to

switch between No. 6 and No. 2 oil without changing atomizers means that this operation can be

done at any load without a shutdown. Operator involvement is only needed to return to steam

atomization or to heavy oil after firing distillate.

ATOMIZER TROUBLES AND CAUSES

When the burner atomizers get eroded or partially clogged, they will not provide good dispersionpatterns, droplets become coarse, and the combustion efficiency drops increasing the CO emissions.

Also, the liquid can impinge on the refractory, causing future failure. When flames impinge

excessively on the sidewalls, they deposit carbon and provoke erosion. Simultaneous high pressure

and low flow conditions is an indication of a clogged atomizer. Simultaneous low pressure and high

flow conditions indicates the atomizer is lost or mechanically deteriorated. Liquid injector guns

should be able to be removed on the fly, for easy cleaning or replacement, avoiding costly

shutdowns. Check burner injector atomizers for wear and clean them when burner smokes.

The most common burner injector troubles and causes when using liquid fuel (or organic waste) are

as follows:

Difficult start, due to incorrect liquid fuel/air ratio, incorrect atomization, excessive atomizing

steam, wet steam, injector partially blocked/plugged, high flash point, wrong oil flow, dirty oil,etc.

Combustion inefficiency, due to deficient combustion air, incorrect fuel/air ratio, incorrect

atomization, low flash point, low calorific value of organic waste, dirty oil, etc.

Lack of atomization, due to incorrect atomizing temperature, pressure or flow, incorrect

atomizing media flow, wet steam, viscosity too high, incorrect oil flow settings, excessive dirt,

injector eroded, plugged or carbonized, unstable oily waste, injector dripping, etc.

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Smoke, due to lack of atomization, incorrect fuel/air ratio, condensate in the steam atomizing

media, flame impingement, cold furnace, pre-ignition, wrong injector position, etc.

Soot, due to high oil ashes or carbon particles, incorrect injector position, etc.

Unstable/pulsating flame, due to oil or atomizing media pressure fluctuations, lack of

atomization, wrong injector position, damaged burner throat, low flash point, excessive preheat,

low injector turndown, air in the oil line, excessive free water, etc.

Burner pre-ignition, due to low flash point, excessive preheats, atomizing media temperature,

etc.

Flame flashbacks, due to low oil flash point, atomizing pressure fluctuations, high oil pressure,

water content, dirty oil, etc.

Carbonization of burner injector, due to deficient combustion air flow, wrong injector position,

excessive viscosity, improper oil blend, deficient atomization, etc.

Burner Injector erosion due to corrosive oil, excessive free water, high content of dirt or salts in

the oil/waste, etc.

Burner Refractory erosion due to excessive dirt, salts and ash content in the oil, wet atomizing

steam, flame impingement, undersized combustion chamber, etc.

SUMMARY and CONCLUSIONSThe use of lower grade fuels and wastes at presently increasing costs call for the application of

sophisticated, cleaner and yet reliable burner injectors and waste disposers. The atomizer is an

indispensable component of a liquid waste burner and is a precision piece of equipment.

Different burners and furnaces configurations may require different combinations of atomizers to

achieve the required performance. The atomizer design and operation should be carefully

selected when used for a specific application; it may not be compatible with the all the process

objectives, but should meet all the necessary requirements, including emissions.

Changing emissions control, efficiencies and performance requirements has been the driving

force for new techniques to enable combustion of these lower grade fuels and wastes. Based on

engineering and economic evaluations, retrofitting thermal systems with properly designed and

operated combustion equipment can offer an alternative to new units in order to achieve therequired efficiencies. Improvements in combustion system design may require capital cost

increases but can result in reducing the operating costs.

Hopefully, the considerations and factors for liquid injection equipment discussed in this paper

will be of assistance in understanding and improving the design and operation of efficient heavy

fuels and waste combustion and incineration systems. They are based on proven technology and

commercially available to meet the required combustion and destruction efficiencies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Delavan Inc., Trade literature

Leite, O.C., "Equipment for Incineration of Liquid Hazardous Wastes", Environmental

Technology, May/June 1996

Leite, O.C., "Design Features and Operating Parameters of Liquid Injection Incinerators for

Aqueous Wastes", 15th IT3 Conference, May 1996

Leite, O.C., "Burning Waste Fuels ", Chemical Engineering, February 2002

Salvi, G. La Combustion, Editorial Dossat, 1975

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