irving - 1991 - islamic renewal in iberia and latin america

7/26/2019 Irving - 1991 - Islamic Renewal in Iberia and Latin America

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/irving-1991-islamic-renewal-in-iberia-and-latin-america 1/10

ISLAMIC RENEWAL IN IBERIA AND LATIN AMERICA

Author(s): T.B. IRVINGSource: Islamic Studies, Vol. 30, No. 1/2, Special Issue on Muslim Heritage in Spain (Spring-Summer 1991), pp. 103-111Published by: Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, IslamabadStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20840028 .

Accessed: 23/03/2014 01:13

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms

of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

.

Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad is collaborating with JSTOR to

digitize, preserve and extend access to Islamic Studies.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 130.132.173.103 on Sun, 23 Mar 2014 01:13:19 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=iriiiu

http://www.jstor.org/stable/20840028?origin=JSTOR-pdf

http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp





http://www.jstor.org/stable/20840028?origin=JSTOR-pdf

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=iriiiu



ISLAMICRENEWAL

IN

IBERIA

AND

LATIN

AMERICA1

T.B.

IRVING

FOREWORD

The

status

f

Islam

in

the berian

world

(Spain,

Portugal

nd

Latin

America)

is

quite

defferent

from that

in

English-speaking

countries,

or

in

the former

French

colonies in

North

Africa,

Black Africa

and

even

in

France

itself.

For

this

reason,

the Islamic

message

needs

to

be

presented

to

Latin

America

and the Iberian

peninsula

in

a

different

fashion

than

to

the

English

speaking

areas or to the French world.

In the

first

place,

the

original

countries

which

are now

called

Spain

and

Portugal

enjoyed

nine centuries

of Islamic

rule,

from the

year

91/711

when

Tariq

ibn-Ziy?d

irst

anded

t

Gibraltar,

themountain that till ears

his

name

(Jabal

l-T?riq

in

Arabic),

until 1610when

King Philip

III

finally

expelled

the

last of the

Spanish

Muslims

from the Iberian

peninsula.

Since that time Islam

has

not

been tolerated there.

Muslims

have

long faced serious persecution in all theSpanish-speaking countries or former

colonies

as

far East

as

the

Philippines

and

as

far

south

as

Argentina.

This is

a

vast

area;

in

size

it

challenges

the Arab

or

Islamic

worlds,

especially

so

far

as

the

difficulty

of

gathering

information

about

it

is

con

cerned.

The

present

survey

is

more

of

an

overview

of

the

situation,

so

that

we

can

consider

what

needs

to

be

done

in

order

to

improve

the

treatment

of

Islam

in those

countries.

HISPANIC ISLAM

The Iberian

peninsula

(Jawtat

al-Andalus)

flourished,

culturally

speaking,

under

Islam.

Those

nine

Islamic

centuries

(711-1610)

were

glori

ous,

and

they

made the

rest

of

Europe

look

pale

and

barbarous

by compari

son.







104

Islamic

Studies,

30:1-2

(1991)

The

southern

portion

f

Spain

that

s still

alled

Andalusia

remains

as al-Firdaws

al-Mafq?d

or 'Paradise Lost' in theNorth African

imagination,

forArab

Spain

was

the

source

of their finest forms

in

art,

letters

and

music;

al-adab al-andalusi

as

this is still known and admired

throughout

the Arab

world.

At

the

same

time,

present-day

Spaniards

and

Latin

Americans have

an

uneasy

conscience about

the

genocide

and

devastation

that

the Catholic

Inquisition

rought

pon

Spanish

Muslims and indeed

upon

the

Hispanic

mind

itself;

even

modern liberal

Spaniards

or

Portuguese

know

surprisingly

little about this heritage if they have read only their own history books,

though

the

monuments

built

by

the

Andalusian

Muslims,

or

the

captive

Mud?

jar

or

Mudajjan

workmen

who lived

after

them,

exist all around them.

This

lack

of

knowledge

is

a

fact

not

only

in

Spain

and

Portugal

but

also in Latin

America

from

Mexico

to

Chile.

Ask

any

contemporary

person

who

speaks

Portuguese

or

Spanish

about what

the Islamic

past

means

in

his

culture,

nd

he will

give

you

only

vague

and

prejudiced

clich?s bout the

"Moors",

as

modern

Spanish

and

European

textbooks still call

the

Spanish

Muslims.

Of

course,

events

ike the eizure f

M?laga

by

the

astilians

in

the

year

1487

nd

the

perfidy

f

the

atholic

monarchs,

erdinand nd

Isabella,

towards

its

disarmed Muslim

citizens who had

surrendered

to

their

mercy,

do

not

make

pleasant

reading

when

contemporary

civil

rights

are

mentioned.

They

gave

up

their

wealth

as

ransom,

and

yet

were

sold

as

slaves.

C?rdoba

(Qurtubah)

and

Seville

(Ishbfliyyah)

ere

likewise

ruelly

depopulated

and

plundered

when

the

northern

Spaniards

seized them in

1236 and 1248

respectively.

Islamic

Spain

and

Portugal

had

great

thinkers

too

like

Ibn-Hazm,

the

first student

of

comparative

religion

in

Europe,

who

wrote

perceptively

on

love;

or

Ibn-Tufayl,

the

Muwahhid

physician

and

minister of

state

who

originated

the

tale

of Robinson Crusoe in

Morocco and

Spain

seven

centuries

beforeDafoe did

so

in

England;

and

his brilliant

tudent bn-Rushd

r

"Averroes",

who

revived the

study

of

Aristotle

in

the late

XII

century

only

a

few decades before

the

rise

of

universities

like

Paris and

Oxford in

Western

Europe.

The

Spanish-Tunisian

philosopher

Ibn-Khald?n

founded

the

science

of

Sociology

nd

the

philosophy

f

history

ong

eforetheWest

picked

them

up

through

Vico and

Saint-Simon,

or

now

with

Spengler

and

Toynbee,

because

the

Tunisian watched

the social and

political

unrest

around

the







Islamic

Studios,

30:1-2

(1991)

105

Mediterranean

at

first

hand,

and he knew

Peter

the

Cruel of

Castile

in

Seville

(where

his

family

ouses still toodamere

century

fter heir

expul

sion)

as

well

as

Tamerlane

inDamascus.

Poets

like

bn-Zayd?n

fC?rdoba and

King

Mu'tamid of Silves and

Seville

sung

as

beautifully

about

love

and misfortune

as

any

poet

during

the

European

romantic

movement.

All

these

men

of

letters

were

Andalusian

Muslims whose

contribution

to

world culture

needs

study

and

revival.

Efforts

should be made

in

Ibero-America with the

object

of

recovering

this

neglected heritage,

and

awakening

interest in it.The

approach

should

be

based

on

genuine

research

and

knowledge

and

not

on

platitudes

reflecting

prejudice

nd

fairy

ales. he Alhambra

was

a

magnificent

omplex

f

public

buildings,

ut

it

was

not

the

whole

of

Andalusia;

it

was a

dying

reflection

from

one

small southern

kingdom

that

for

two

and

a

half

centuries

valiantly

resisted

the northern mountaineers from

Castile

and

Aragon.

This Islamic

heritage

hould

thus

e

made real

to

the

citizens

f the

Hispanic

and

Lusitanian

countries

today.

Moreover,

the

information

gatheredmustbe publicised idely inArabic, Spanish, ortuguese, nglish

and French. The first

place

to

start

must

be

with

reliable

Portuguese

and

Spanish

versions of

the

Qur'?n.

A

few

translations exist

today,

but

they

have been carried

out

using

usual

European

sources

without

taking

into

account

the native Iberian

Muslim

sources.

There

is

a

great

potential

wealth

too

in

Aljamiado

or

Portuguese,

Spanish

and

Aragonese a'jamiyyah

iterature hich shouldbe

revived

ith

consequent

increase

in

discussion and

commentary

on

it.

Contemporary

Western scholars dismiss it

as

having "only linguistic interest",

which is

too

often its

spiritual

death in

academic circles.

Yet several

Aljamiado

Qur'?ns

are

waiting

to

be

published

in

theEscorial

Library

in

themountains northwest

of

Madrid

and

in

the National

Library

in

the

Spanish

capital.

Portuguese

universities and archives likewise

are

rich

in

these documents.

There

is

a

need

to

prepare

and

publish

adequate

texts

on

Spain,

on

the

religion

of

Islam

itself,

and

on

the

history

and

culture of the

vast

Islamic

world

from

Spain

and

Portugal

themselves

as

far

West

as

Mexico and the

Philippines,

and

as

far south

as

Chile and

Argentina.

It

must

be

remembered

that there are twenty-odd countries that need to be studied, one by one,

and that each has

its

own

set

of

laws;

but

at

the

same

time,

how

their

own

ignorance

leads

them back

to

the

same

circumstances based

on

the cruel

expulsion

of Islam and the

Spanish

Muslims from

the Iberian

peninsula.







106

Islamic

Studies,

30:1-2

(1991)

HISTORICAL

CONSIDERATIONS

The firstMuslims

who

arrived

n

the

New World

may

have

been

Muslim

sailors from

Lisbon

in

modern

Portugal according

to

the

Moroccan

geographer

al-Idrisi.

Maybe

some

North

Africans followed

them,

although

Moroccan

harbours

have

never

been

known for

their

adventurous

seamen.

The

name

of

"

Antillia"

appears

for

a

distant island

on

Idrisi's

12th-century

map

of the

Atlantic,

and this

fact

is

impressive,

as was

the Moroccan's

knowledge

of

even

the far

Indian

Ocean

where Sindbad

sailed,

all research

that e

had

carried

n

from

his

study

n the

Mediterranean

sland f

Sicily

where he worked.

At

the

same

time there

are

frescos

in

a

temple

in

Chich?n-Itz?

on

the Yucat?n

peninsula

off

eastern

Mexico

dating

from

before

the

year

1002

which show

non-Mayan

sailors and warriors

who

have been

taken

prisoner

in

a sea

battle. Bananas

and

peanuts

are

said

to

have travelled

in

this

way

to

and from America

even

before Columbus.

Arab

seafaring journals

and

archives should be

investigated

carefully;

here

is

where the

new

universities

in the

Near

East

and Ibero-America

can

do

some

of their research.

Then

came

the

berian olonial

period

verseas,

which

might

e called

the American

"middle

ages".

The methods which the

Castilians

and

Aragonese

used

in

conquering

Andalusia

were

put

to

use

inAmerica

where

they

made serfs

of the

Indians,

the

Aztecs

in

Mexico,

the

Mayas

in

Central

America,

the

hibchas

in

Colombia,

and the ncas in

Peru,

by

establishing

what

they

called encomiendas

or

'stewardships'

over

them for

the benefit

of

the

conquerers,

just

as

the

vanquished

Muslim

artisans

had

been enserfed

in

Catholic

Spain.

Some of theseMuslim

workmen,

the so-called

"Mud?jars",

plus

their

Morisco

brothers

who

were

unwilling

converts to

Christianity,

also

crossed

the

Atlantic.

We do

not

know

who

these workmen

were,

formuch of this

travel

was

clandestine and done under

assumed

and

non-Islamic

names.

Generally

the

immigrants

ere

not

allowed

to

bring

heir ives

along

with

them;

yet

nonetheless

hey

ormed

he

basic

population

f

Muslims

in

the

New

World,

especially

the artisan

lasses

in

the

Caribbean

and

Andean

countries. allofsfrom

enegal

were

shipped

s

soldiers

o

hile;

Mandingos

from Mah and Fulani from the

great

savannas

ofWest

Africa

also

came

to

other countries.

All Muslims who

arrived

in

Mexico,

for

instance,

were

eventually

absorbed

into that

society,

where

they

mixed

with

native Indians

rather than

with

Spaniards

or

Creoles.

Estavanico

Dorantes

was a

Moroccan soldier

who became

an

officer

in

the

Spanish

army

and

led

an

expedition

into what







Islamic

Studies,

30:1-2

(1991)

107

is

now

New

Mexico and

Arizona

in

1579.

Belelc?zar

did

the

same

in

Ecuador

and

southern

olombia, founding

he

city

f

Popay?n

n

he atter

ountry.

Colonial

society

was

fluid,

though

ppressive;

but

since

the

cities

were

large,

these

forced

immigrants

had

to

settle

down

there,

and

they

eventually

isappeared.

The

same

thing appened

in

uba,

in

olombia

(or

New

Granada

as

it

was

then

called),

in

Venezuela

and

the

Andean

countries

of

Ecuador,

Peru

andBolivia

(or

Upper Peru)

where

there

ere

silver

mines

and

a

concentration of

urban

wealth that

demanded

fine

craftsmanship.

These

skilled workmen

were

carpenters,

masons,

blacksmiths,

tileworkers in the

Spanish

and

Portuguese

colonies. The Mexico

City

council,

after

many

Spanish

Muslims and

Moriscos

were

enslaved

and

shipped

to

the

colonies

abroad,

passed

ordinances

in

the

early

17th

century

to

deny

them

guild

privileges.

Their

workmanship

can

be

seen

today

in

Guatemala,

not

only

in

the

colonial

buildings

here,

ut

also

in

modern structures

hich

have

adopted

their

style,

especially

in

tiles

on

the

floors

and

walls,

in

metal

grill

work,

both

wrought-iron

brass

and

copper,

and in

fine

cabinetmaking.

Church

ceilingswere built inColombia andMexico byMud?jar workmenwho

adapted

their

areful

arpentry

o

protect

hese

buildings gainst

he

danger

from

earthquakes.

Peruvian

cities

have wooden

balconies

in

front of the

windows like

those

een

along

the

Red Sea coast

and

the

Persian

Gulf,

all

designed

to

catch

a

breeze

through

their

lattices.

Ornamental

doors

made

in

Mud?jar

style

re to

be

found n

the

mining

towns

f

Bolivia.

Thus

Islamic

art

and

Muslim

workmen

were

busy

even

during

the

time of

the cruel

Spanish

colony,

for

as

that

great

practioner

of

genocide,

Cardinal

Xim?nez

de

Cisneros

once

said:

"They

lack

our

faith, but

we

lack

their

works." For

this

reason

even

the

intolerant

Catholic

church

transported

many

of these artisans

to

decorate their

buildings

in

the

Portuguese

and

Spanish

overseas

colonies.

These

workmen

came

without their

wives,

as

has

been

said

earlier,

and

so

they

intermarried

into

local

proletarian

families;

their

Muslim

identity

was

evantually

ost,

ut

their andicraftives

n

in

the

metal

grills,

iles nd

latticework

f

colonial

nd

later

buildings.

oday

the

danger

s that

ny

new

immigrants

to

these

countries,

Caracas

is

said

to

have

as

many

as

30,000

Muslims,

may

become nominal

Muslims,

as is their fate inNorth America

too.

How

can

they

be awakened

to

a

consciousness

of

this

spiritual

need?

They

must

help

themselves

first

before

any

governmental

or

educational

agency

can

assist

them.







108

Islamic

Studies,

30:1-2

(1991)

The Black

people

living

roundBaia inNortheastern

razil and in

theWest Indiesneed torecognise hetrulyslamicfeatures obe found n

their

present

society.

In

Trinidad,

a

Black who is also

a

Muslim is called

a

Mandingo,

showing

that his

ancestors

came

originally

fromMali

or

Gambia

in

West Africa. The

Muslims

living

on

the Dutch island

of

Cura?ao

off the

Venezuelan

coast

are

largely

of East

Indian and Arab

origin.

Others live

in

Demerara

in

Guyana

and

in

Barbados.

Yet

in

Surinam

the

qiblahs

in the

mosques

face

west

as

they

o

in

Indonesia

from which

these Muslims

came,

not

East towards Makkah.

This

remindsne of theGreatMosque in ?rdoba inSpain,where itfaces outh

as

they

do

in

many

mosques

inNorth Africa.

Since

these

immigrants

are

assimilated

into

society,

any

study

of this

sort

must

be

sociological

and

historical,

so

the

new

universities

springing

up

through

Ibero-America

and theMiddle

East

have

a

duty

to

promote

such

research. Scholars

need

to

study

Latin America

country

by

country,

all

twenty

of

them,

in

order

to

rewrite theMuslim

history

since

the

discovery

of America

by

Columbus,

and from

even

before

that

date.

They

should

study

how

their

Islamic conscience and

personality

can

be

revived

psychologically

o

that entral

and

South

America

can

rebuild

their

heritage

nd lines

f communication

ith the

slamic

world inAfrica

and the

Middle East. Contacts

with

both

ends

are

difficult,

as

could be

seen

in theXXX

Orientalist

ongress

that

was

held

in

Mexico

City

in

August

1976,

where

none

of

this

vast

heritage,

rich

though

it is

in

Mexico

itself,

was

brought

to

the fore

and

explained

to

theirMiddle

Eastern

visitors

by

any

Mexican. The

visiting

Orientalists likewise

ignored

it.

The

population

of Latin America thus

comprises

the descendants of

people

from West

Africa,

Spain,

Portugal

and

theMiddle

East

who

were

already

Muslims

in their

original

homelands.

In

Trinidad and

the

Guyanas

there

further exist East

Indian

groups

from the Indian subcontinent and

Indonesia whose

culture and

religion

have been

neglected

and muffled

by

the utch

and Britishcolonial authorities.

ith

independence

oday

they

can

win back

that

heritage

and

regain

their

pride

in it

again.

Like the

new

Nation of Islam

in the

United

States,

these forced

migrants from Africa to the Caribbean area and Brazil were not all slaves

or

serfs,

but

Hispano

American laws have been construed

against

them,

to

make

them conform

and

disappear

into

Christian

society.

The

Portuguese

and

Hispanic

colonies

bred

legislation

and

engendered police

mathods that

enforced

hese isabilities

ithin

ociety

tself.

uslims could

not

pray

reely

in

any

Spanish

country;

the

prevailing

official attitude

was

actively

hostile,







Islamic

Studios,

30:1-2

(1991)

109

and

this

mood

was

reinforced

ublicly

ince

it

was

written nto he

Spanish

laws

themselves.

It

was

a

harsh

and

cruel

life for

the

victims,

whose

history

has

never

been

properly

ecorded;

nly

Henry

Lee,

a

Quaker

historian

rom

hiladel

phia,

tried

o

write

it

up

at

the

beginning

f

this

entury,

nd

few

persons

now

read

his

writings

bout

this

heartless

eriod.

Unfortunately,

many

of

these

attitudes

still

prevail.

In

Argent?na,

for

instance,

only

Omar

can

be

legally

used

today

as a

male

name;

Islamic

and

non-Christian

ames are

forbidden

by

law,

a

legacy

rom

the

Inquisition.The entire chool

system

asbeen

working

n these inesfor enturies: he

modern

republic

of

Colombia

has

a

concordat

or

treaty

with

the

Vatican

that

supervises

all

textbooks used

not

only

in the

Church

schools

but in all

the

public

schools

also.

This

practice

exists

still

in

Spain

itself,

here

the

terms

Moors"

(moros)

and

"Mohammedan"

(mahometano)

are

used

loosely

and

with

pre

judice. Passports

are

not

issued

to

persons

who cannot

produce

a

birth

certificate,

hich is

only

given

by

their atholic

parish.

Burial

used

to

be

subject

to a similar

problems

inmany

Spanish-speaking

countries.

Spanish

and

Hispanic

laws

are

encrusted

with

such

disabilities.

BRAZIL AND

THE PORTUGUESE

LANGUAGE

The

huge

country

of Brazil

stands

out

as a

special

case

in

this

study

because its

language

is

Portuguese,

and

since

its linkswith

West Africa

have

been closer

than

most

of

Latin

America.

At

least,

a

quarter

of

a

million

Brazilians

re

said

to

be

Muslims

today,

hile

as

late

s

1905

t

the

eginning

of the present century, at least half of those ofAfrican ancestry in theBaia

region

in the

northeast

of

Brazil that

lies

closest

to

Africa,

were

still

practising

Muslims.

An

underground

of Islamic

culture functioned

there: the

Mal?

cult

is still

practised

in

Brazil,

as

a

disguised

form of

Islam.

The

Mal?

movement

as

a

concealed

form of

Islam

must

have

come

(like

the

Mandingos

in

Trinidad)

from he

West African

country

f

Mali,

another

name

that has

only

recently

reappeared

for

a

newly

independent

nation.

Mali,

so

distant

in

both time and

space,

yet

so

pregnant

with

impor

tance

for the Islamic

world

These Mal?

once

formed

powerful

lack

minority,

hough hey

have almost

disappeared

so

that

some

effort

must

be made

to

retrieve their

heritage.

They

have

secret

mosques

with "Oriental"

customs

such

as

taking

off

their

shoes before

entering

them. Brazilian

monuments

and

social

customs

of

this

sort

need

to

be

catalogued

and

classified

for

their

Islamic

content.







110

Islamic

Studies,

30:1-2

(1991)

Going

back into

istory,

he aliant almares

republic

as

established

byWest AfricanMuslims in thepresent tates fPernambuco ndAlagoas

during

he

17th

entury

long

the ines

f the nland

empires

f

West

Africa

like ancient Ghana

and

Songhay.

This

movement

almost

liberated

Brazil

from colonial

and Catholic rule

two

centuries before this

event

actually

took

place.

Macaco

was

the

capital

of

Palmares,

which held

out

as

an

independent

state

for almost half

a

century.

Many

of these enslaved

Africans

were

literate,

especially

if

they hap

pened

to

be

Muslims,

as were

the

Malay

aristocrats

whom

the

Dutch

captured

and

shipped

o

South

Africa

at

the

ame

period

in

rder

to

break

the

ower

of Islam

in

ndonesia.

ducated slaves n

both

SouthAfrica

and

Brazil

(and

even

in the

United

States

and

Cuba),

were

thus

generally

Muslims,

often

from

the

Hausa,

Fulani and

Mandingo

elite;

Arabic lurked

in

their

background

as

their

prestige

tongue.

Eventually

some

determined

Portuguese-speaking

freedmen

went

back

to

Benin

(or Dahomey)

and

Nigeria;

Lagos,

Forcados,

Escravos and

Porto

Novo

are

clearly Portuguese

names

they

gave

to

the

new

cities which

they

founded

at

that

time.

Such

uprisings

ere

witnessed

inBrazil

not

only

during

the

17th

century^

but

during

the 19th

also,

for Brazil

was one

of

the last

countries

on

earth

to

retain

slavery

as

an

institution

(till

as

l?te

as

1883).

However,

in

1889,

once

the

slavery

was

abolished,

the

Brazilian

archives

on

that

subject

were

burned

under

the

new

republic

(Brazil

had

been

an

empire

until

then).

Many

Lebanese

and

Syrians

have

arrived

in Brazil

during

the

past

century,

and

they

all

speak

Portuguese

now;

perhaps

these

immigrant

groups

which are now active, might be encouraged to accomplish such research,

with the

help

of

either

the Brazilian

universities

or

some

Near

Eastern

educational

foundation.

It should

also be

rembembered that

Portuguese

is

not

only

the

lan

guage

of Brazil and

Portugal today,

but also that of

Guinea-Bissau,

Angola

and

Mozambique.

Thus both

Spanish

and

Portugu?s

languages

are

equally

necessary

forwork in Latin America.

CONCLUSION

The

Iberian

peninsula

and Latin America thus need

to

be

brought

back into

full

fellowship

with the

Islamic

conscience,

so

that

the

genocide

and

vandalism

of

recent

centuries

are

remembered

and

yet

forgotten.

It will

take

a

different and

specialized

corps

of teachers

and

research workers

to

accomplish

this

task,

especially

since

the method

must

be

different

from







Islamic

Studies,

30:1-2

(1991)

111

those used in

North

America

or

Europe.

It

must

be based

on

two

languages,

Spanish

and

Portuguese,

which are new for theMiddle

East,

as well as on

Arabic

and

English;

this alone will

require

special

training

of

new

workers

or

investigators.

Unfortunately,

little

of

such research has been done

in

either

Europe

or

North

America,

let alone

in Latin

America

or

the Arab

world.2

NOTES

AND

REFERENCES

1. A

presentation

for

the

Seminar

on

Islamic

Civilisation

held

at

the

University

of

Brasilia,

1981.

2.

Partial

bibliography

:

El

Koran,

tr.

Rafael Cassinos

Assens,

(Madrid:

Aguilar,

1951,

2nd

printing 1973).

This is

full

of

notes

using

European

sources

and

criteria,

but

never

Islamic

ones.

Thus

a new

version

in

Spanish

and

Portuguese

is

a

prime

need.

Almaz?n, Pascual,

Un

hereje

yun

musulm?n

(Mexico

City:

Editorial

Porr?a

1972,

3rd

ed.,

Ist

ed.,

1870).

A

19th

century

novel

portraying

the usual Mexican and

Spanish

attitudes

towards Islamic

life

in

Spain

and Mexico.

Chinchilla

Aguilar,

Ernesto,

La

Inquisici?n

en

Guatemala

(Guatemala:

Editorial del

Minis

tario de

Educaci?n

P?blica,

1953).

A

detailed

study

of

repressive

inquisition

in

one

Hispanic

country of Central America.

Laa,

Henry

Charles,

The

Inquisition

in

the

Spanish

Depencedcies

(New

York:

Macmillan,

1922).

A

broad

study

of the

suppression

of Islam and Protestantism

in

the

Spanish

colonies.

-,

The Moriscos

of Spain

(New

York:

Greenwood,

1968,?reprint).

The

continuing

disabilities and

persecution

suffered

by

the

Muslims

in

Spain

during

the 16th and 17th

centuries.

Mecham,

J.

Lloyd,

Church and

State

in

Latin

America

(Chapel

Hill,

N.

Car.: Univ.

North

Carolina

Press

1934).

As

with

Laa,

above,

this

is

still

the best

study

of the

subject

in

English

today.

Medina,

Jos?

Toribio,

Historia

de

la

Inquisici?n

en

Cartaqena

de

las

Indias

(Santiago

de

Chile: Elze

vira,

1899).

A

study

of

the

suppression

of

non-Catholics

in

Colombia.

Medina

has studias like

this

on

most

South American countries.

S?nchez

Albornoz, Claudio,

La

Espolia

musulmana,

2

vols.,

(Buenos

Aires:

Ateneo,

1964).

Good documentation

with

maps

and

excellent

illustrations;

though incomplete,

the

best

history

in

Spanish

of the Islamic

period

in

Spain.

Toro,

Alfonso,

La

iglesia

y

el

estado

en

M?xico

[('Church

and

State

in

Mexico]'?M?xico

:

Archivos

Generales

de

la

Naci?n,

1927).

A detailed

study

of

relations

between

the

Catholic

church and the Mexican

Republic,

where

attempted

control of

ecclesiastical

arrogance by

the federal

government

has led

to

several

civil

wars.

Toussaint, Manuel,

Arte

mud?jar

en

Am?rica

(M?xico,

D.F: Edit.

Porr?a,

1945).

A

study

of

Spanish

Arab

art

in

Hispanic

America. Needs

updating

and

a

better

explanation

for Islam

itself;

also

perhaps

a

translation

into

English

and Arabic.

Fresher illustrations

might

be

made,

especially

in colour.

Watt, W. Montgomery,

Islamic

Spain (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1965).

A

Spanish

edition

also exists.

T?ni?"?r

irving - 1991 - islamic renewal in iberia and latin america

Documents