invited paper stateoftheartinstereoscopic ...€¦ · by hakan urey,senior member ieee, kishore v....
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INV ITEDP A P E R
State of the Art in Stereoscopicand Autostereoscopic DisplaysThis overview covers most of the 3-D displays that are in use today and
presents recent developments and advances in this field.
By Hakan Urey, Senior Member IEEE, Kishore V. Chellappan,
Erdem Erden, Student Member IEEE, and Phil Surman
ABSTRACT | Underlying principles of stereoscopic direct-view
displays, binocular head-mounted displays, and autostereo-
scopic direct-view displays are explained and some early work
as well as the state of the art in those technologies are re-
viewed. Stereoscopic displays require eyewear and can be
categorized based on the multiplexing scheme as: 1) color
multiplexed (old technology but there are some recent devel-
opments; low-quality due to color reproduction and crosstalk
issues; simple and does not require additional electronics
hardware); 2) polarization multiplexed (requires polarized
light output and polarization-based passive eyewear; high-
resolution and high-quality displays available); and 3) time
multiplexed (requires faster display hardware and active
glasses synchronized with the display; high-resolution com-
mercial products available). Binocular head-mounted displays
can readily provide 3-D, virtual images, immersive experience,
and more possibilities for interactive displays. However, the
bulk of the optics, matching of the left and right ocular images
and obtaining a large field of view make the designs quite
challenging. Some of the recent developments using uncon-
ventional optical relays allow for thin form factors and open up
new possibilities. Autostereoscopic displays are very attractive
as they do not require any eyewear. There are many possibi-
lities in this category including: two-view (the simplest
implementations are with a parallax barrier or a lenticular
screen), multiview, head tracked (requires active optics to
redirect the rays to a moving viewer), and super multiview
(potentially can solve the accommodation–convergence mis-
match problem). Earlier 3-D booms did not last long mainly due
to the unavailability of enabling technologies and the content.
Current developments in the hardware technologies provide a
renewed interest in 3-D displays both from the consumers
and the display manufacturers, which is evidenced by the
recent commercial products and new research results in this
field.
KEYWORDS | Autostereoscopic; head-mounted displays; head
tracked; multiview; parallax barrier; stereoscopic; volumetric;
3-D displays
I . INTRODUCTION
The display industry is witnessing a major change from 2-D
to realistic 3-D as evidenced by the success of recent 3-D
movies and consumer 3DTV product offerings. It can be
envisioned that within the next few years a major share of
current displays will be replaced by 3-D displays or at least
by 3-D-capable displays and stereoscopic and autostereo-
scopic technologies are likely to play a major role.
The human brain extracts the depth information andperceives the stereoscopic views by fusing together the two
images acquired by the eyes. The disparity in these two
images (i.e., binocular disparity) is the most widely uti-
lized visual cue in displays to render a stereoscopic view.
Although this requirement was understood by Euclid, the
first stereoscopic device did not appear until 1832 when
Charles Wheatstone introduced the stereoscope [1]. For
producing a stereoscopic image there are many technol-ogies described in the scientific and patent literature
ranging from simple anaglyph methods to advanced auto-
stereoscopic and interactive techniques.
Manuscript received April 2, 2010; revised October 4, 2010; accepted
November 19, 2010. Date of publication January 28, 2011; date of current version
March 18, 2011. This work was supported by the European Commission within FP7
under Grant 215280 HELIUM3D. The work of H. Urey was supported by TUBA-GEBIP
Award.
H. Urey is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Koç University, Istanbul
34450, Turkey (e-mail: [email protected]).
K. V. Chellappan is with the University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg,
MS 39406 USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
E. Erden is with the Center for Research and Education in Optics and Lasers (CREOL),
University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816 USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
P. Surman is with the Imaging and Displays Research Group, De Montfort University,
Leicester LE1 9BH, U.K. (e-mail: [email protected]).
Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/JPROC.2010.2098351
540 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 4, April 2011 0018-9219/$26.00 �2011 IEEE
Stereoscopic and autostereoscopic displays generally
exhibit accommodation–convergence (AC) mismatch
where the eyes converge at the apparent point of fixation
in the image but focus on the screen [2], [3]. This is an
unnatural condition that disrupts the correlation between
vergence and focal distance. The mismatch must be kept
within certain limits in order to prevent visual discomfort.
As AC mismatch occurs when the virtual position of anobject in the image is away from the plane of the screen
there is a limit below which the mismatch is acceptable. It
has been determined that the depth range should not exceed
13% of the viewing distance [4]. Other research [5] indicates
that the actual tolerable conditions for comfortable viewing
could be less restricted than those given in [4] and [6]. There
are also several solutions suggested in the literature to
overcome this limitation; these are reviewed later.Fig. 1 provides a classification for stereoscopic and
autostereoscopic technologies as well as an outline for this
paper. Direct view in the section titles refers to images
appearing on a flat screen, which can be a flat-panel display
or a projection system. Each section provides information
about how the technology works and gives an overview of
the literature and state of the art and provides examples of
commercially available products wherever possible. Otherimportant categories of 3-D displays such as holographic
and volumetric displays are discussed in other articles in
this issue. Sections II–IV give an overview of different
technologies and Section V summarizes the pros and cons
of each type of 3-D display reviewed in the paper and gives
author opinions about future directions.
II . STATE OF THE ART IN DIRECT-VIEWSTEREOSCOPIC DISPLAYS
This section reviews the current status of 3-D displays,
which require the viewer to wear special glasses in order to
perceive 3-D.
A. Color-Multiplexed ApproachThe classic example of a color-multiplexed 3-D visual-
ization method is that using anaglyph glasses. This is an
inexpensive solution to the 3-D visualization problem and
can be applied whenever common color video equipment
is available. Anaglyph 3-D images are produced by combin-
ing the images for the left and right eyes using a compli-
mentary color coding technique. This method has been
understood since the mid-1800s [7].The most common anaglyph method uses the red chan-
nel for the left eye and the cyan channel for the right eye.
The viewer wears a pair of colored glasses so that the left
and right eyes receive the corresponding images only. The
main drawbacks of this type of display are the loss of color
information and the increased degree of crosstalk. The
spectral response of the display and the anaglyph glasses,
image compression methods and image encoding, as well astransmission protocols have been cited as sources of cross-
talk [8], [129]. Anaglyph images are usually created either
by capturing the images with a binocular camera or by using
the depth information of the objects and only one image as
recently shown [9]. For reducing the crosstalk and in-
creasing the quality of the images, methods such as image
alignment, color component blurring, and depth map ad-
justment have been demonstrated with significantly im-proved image quality [10], [11], [130]. The anaglyph
viewing filters sometimes cause chromatic adaptation
problems in the viewer. Commercially available NVIDIA
and iZ3D drivers can output the imagery in this format [12].
ColorCode 3-D uses the color-multiplexed approach to
produce full color 3-D images, which are viewed with
amber and blue colored glasses. The 3-D information is
written as small variations in color and the full colorimages have faint halos of golden and bluish tints when
viewed with the naked eye [13]. The advantage is that it
works with the standard display hardware and can offer
full-color images at lower cost. The patented technique has
also been applied for the production of movies, games, and
mobile content. Ghosting and color reproduction issues
have not been completely overcome in this technology.
Another display which fits in this category but offers adistinctively higher image quality is the interference filter-
based method from Infitec GmbH (Ulm, Germany). Fig. 2
shows the projection scheme with these filters for
producing 3-D. Two full-color projectors are fitted with
narrowband interference filters, each having its own three
narrow transmission bands lying within the spectral
response of the red, green, and blue receptors of the eye.
The right and left images are projected onto a normaldiffusing screen through these filters and the eye wear
with the corresponding filters separates the full-color
image for left and right eyes. The crosstalk is reported to be
less than 1% for the entire spectral range [14]. The
technology is compatible with most of the image projection
methods available but requires the application of a color
gamut transformation algorithm to retain the original color
Fig. 1. Organization of the article.
Urey et al. : State of the Art in Stereoscopic and Autostereoscopic Displays
Vol. 99, No. 4, April 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 541
gamut. This system has been implemented at virtual reality
theaters with performance figures better than that of other
passive technologies discussed above [15]. An Infitec filter
wheel-based approach eliminates the cost and complexity
of using two projectors and the associated alignment
issues. In this case, the left and right images are presented
in a time sequential fashion by a single projector and a
rotating Infitec filter is used to encode the stereo pair.Images are projected onto a matte screen and the passive
Infitec filters worn by the viewers separate the images.
B. Polarization-Multiplexed ApproachIn this method, the state of polarization (SOP) of light
corresponding to each image in the stereo pair is made
mutually orthogonal. Linear or circular polarization can be
employed but the latter allows more head tilt before cross-
talk become noticeable. The viewer uses eyewear withappropriate polarizers to block the image not intended for
that eye. Images are produced by a two-projector setup in
which one projector produces either the left or right eye
images with a polarization state orthogonal to that of the
other projector. This method also requires the use of a
special screen that preserves the SOP. For rear projection,
a combination of Fresnel-lenticular surface can be used for
preserving the SOP while for front projection a silverscreen is used. A commercially available screen for front
projection is 3-D Virtual Grey from DaLite. For rear pro-
jection, Da-Lite produces a screen called 3-D Virtual Black.
Both screens are claimed to maintain 99% of polarized
light and have a gain of more than 1 [16].
Another method which reduces the complexity of using
two projectors uses a single projector equipped with an
electrically controllable polarization rotator synchronized
to the frames being displayed [17]. This method is cost
effective and requires no alignment. Such a device, called
ZScreen, is commercially available from RealD. This de-
vice utilizes a wire grid polarizer [18] combined with a
cleanup sheet polarizer and pi cells [19] for effectively
controlling the polarization direction [20]. Improved
device design by providing antireflection coatings to corecomponents, using more efficient polarizers and other
modifications has been recently reported [21]. As these
devices have a finite response time, blanking is necessary
between the left and right images in order to reduce
crosstalk; this in turn increases the light loss.
The difficulty in aligning two projectors, increased
cost, and power consumption may also be eliminated by
employing a single projection unit [22], [23]. In thismethod, light-emitting diode (LED) illumination was
used for the generation of two full-color images with
orthogonal polarization states by a single modulation unit
containing four liquid crystal on silicon (LCOS) devices
(two for each eye) and some polarization controlling
optics. HDI-US Inc. (Los Gatos, CA) developed a laser-
based high-definition (HD) display with a single light
engine module with two high-speed LCOS devices. Thisrear projection display has high frame refresh rate of
360 Hz and a screen diagonal size of 70–12000. It has also
been claimed to outperform most of the current display
technologies in terms of energy efficiency, color gamut,
picture brightness, and resolution [24]. A commercial
product with polarization multiplexing is the recently
announced single lens 3-D projector named CF3D from
LG Electronics (Seoul, Korea) [25].
Fig. 2. Schematic setup of the Infitec system for 3-D content display. The slightly differing spectral transmission curves of the filters
are also shown. From [14], with permission from The Society for Information Display.
Urey et al. : State of the Art in Stereoscopic and Autostereoscopic Displays
542 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 4, April 2011
For the flat panel display (FPD) types, available tech-nologies are micropolarizer based (�-pol or X-pol) [26],
patterned retarder based [27], active retarder based, and
dual-panel type. The first two cases work by reserving half
of the total horizontal lines of pixels for the right eye and
the other half for the left eye. Alternate horizontal pixel
rows are orthogonally polarized by the line-interleaved
micropolarizers attached to the display. Stereo pair images
are displayed in a horizontally interleaved format and thepassive polarizer glasses at the viewers eyes separate the
images. Although it loses half of the available resolution,
this system has the advantage of requiring only low-cost
passive glasses.
It has also been reported that a �-pol-based display can
be converted to an autostereoscopic display by adding two
more �-pol sheets, where one is movable [26]. The pat-
terned retarder approach also utilizes the same principlesbut uses different hardware and modified versions of the
technique for higher performance by reducing polarization
artifacts and dispersion [27], [28]. The optics of a pat-
terned retarder-based display is shown in Fig. 3. Methods
for fabricating these patterned retarder structures are also
described in the literature [29], [30]. Display products
utilizing this type of technology are available from
Hyundai (Korea) and JVC (USA). The problem of limitedviewing angle in the patterned retarder type displays can
be resolved by reducing the glass spacing between the
retarder layer and the liquid crystal layer [31], [32].
Dual-panel-type 3-D displays such as the ones from
iZ3D (San Diego, CA) use two stacked liquid crystal
display (LCD) panels of which one displays the images and
the other controls the outgoing polarization [33]. This
display is viewed with passive polarizer glasses.Although polarizing filters can cause chromatic aber-
ration, these types of 3-D displays offer high resolution and
the color quality issues are generally negligible, unlike the
anaglyph-based displays. Ghost images, hot spots, or abrupt
falloff of intensity could also arise due to an improper
choice of the projection lens focal length or the screen [34].
C. Time-Multiplexed ApproachThese displays exploit the persistence of vision of the
human visual system to give 3-D perception. In this tech-
nique, the left and right eye images are displayed on the
screen in an alternating fashion at high frame rates, usually
120 Hz. This is referred to as alternate frame sequencing
and the viewer is required to wear battery powered active
shutter glasses, which are synchronized to the content
being displayed. This is done either by using an infraredemitter or by the so-called DLP Link (Texas Instruments,
Dallas, TX), which uses encoded white light flashes
detected by the shutter glasses in between the left and
right frames. The liquid-crystal-based glasses block the
left-eye images from reaching the right eye of the viewer
and vice versa. An immediate disadvantage is the cost of
the active shutter glasses and the excess video bandwidth
required compared to 2-D. The single lens projectormodel PG-D45X3D from Sharp (Mahwah, NJ) utilizes the
DLP Link technology for 3-D capability [35].
Time-multiplexed 3-D displays are common in the
market with Samsung (Korea) and Mitsubishi (Japan)
leading with their 3-D-capable rear projection TVs [36]. A
time-multiplexed display with the capability of allowing
the user to interact with the images has been demonstrated
at Stanford University, Stanford, CA. The display, calledResponsive Workbench, used head tracking to render the
correct perspective [37].
Another commercially available projector with a single
projection unit and time-multiplexed output is the DepthQ
HD projector from Lightspeed Design, Inc. [38]. This pro-
jector uses a digital light processor (DLP) module from
Texas Instruments for forming images that are viewed with
active liquid-crystal-based shutter glasses. The advantagesof this type of 3-D display are that they do not require a
special screen and a single projection unit with a higher
video bandwidth is sufficient.
The time-multiplexed approach has also been em-
ployed in immersive displays; one notable example is the
Cave Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE) system from
Fig. 3. The structure of a patterned-retarder-type display. Linearly polarized light is used to illuminate the LCD panel with a patterned
retarder plate where alternate strips offer half-wave retardation, which rotates the plane of polarization by 90�; the full quarter wave plate
transforms the linearly polarized light into left and right circularly polarized light. At the viewer’s eyes circular polarizer (combination of
quarter wave plate and a linear polarizer) glasses are used to separate the views. Only half of the horizontal lines of pixels on the LCD are used to
form the right or left image. From [27], with permission from The Society for Information Display.
Urey et al. : State of the Art in Stereoscopic and Autostereoscopic Displays
Vol. 99, No. 4, April 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 543
the University of Illinois, Chicago [39]. The system was acube of 10 ft3 in size where the walls served as screens onto
which the images were rear projected. This system offered
an immersive feeling to the viewer inside the cube; the
development of later versions of this system has been
discussed in [40].
Having considered most of the promising stereoscopic
3-D display technologies it is clear that each technology
has its own advantages and limitations. For the hometheater market projection systems employing a Zscreen
and passive polarizer glasses could be a lower cost solution
as the polarizer glasses required for each viewer are
inexpensive and do not require the careful handling of the
expensive shutter glasses. Possible disadvantages with this
approach are the difficulty in setting up a reflective screen,
the need to minimize the artifacts mentioned earlier, and
ghosting effects due to the imperfect polarizers and screen.For portable desktop displays there exists a multitude
of choices employing different techniques explained
before. Here also, the choice is between shutter-glass-
based or polarizer-based displays. Passive glass-based dual-
panel displays offer full resolution and the reduction in
luminance can be compensated by using more powerful
backlight sources. Frame-sequential-type displays (also
known as page flipping displays) also offer full resolutionover line-interleaved-type micropolarizer-based systems.
Though the choice is up to the viewer, presumably one
would prefer a system with low cost, high resolution, good
luminance, and less sophisticated viewing aids.
III . HEAD-MOUNTED DISPLAYS
Developing display systems that can provide the viewerwith a sense of immersion is another active topic of re-
search. This section briefly discusses the techniques and
progress in this area.
A. Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs)Head-mounted stereoscopic displays are binocular sys-
tems with two separate image generators and they employ
relay optics [41]. As these are head-worn by the user, mo-bility is available without interrupting the 3-D view giving
a feeling of immersion in the scenes being displayed. At-
tempts to provide the viewer with a feeling of immersion
dates back to the late 1950s when Morton Heilig im-
plemented the Sensorama Simulator [42]. Now such sys-
tems are far more advanced and widely used for training
purposes in the medical, military, and industrial fields and
employ HMDs for producing the virtual environment.Augmented reality (AR) systems, a subclass of mixed real-
ity (MR) systems, make use of see-through HMDs to
enhance the viewer’s understanding of the real-world in-
formation by providing him/her with computer-generated
information superimposed on the real-world scenes [43].
The video see-through approach superimposes the real-
world images acquired through a video camera with the
virtual world information from a computer whereas the
optical see-through method uses precision eye-pupil track-
ing. Thus, video see-through methods generally produce
better results than the optical see-through approach where
registering the real-world scene with the virtual image
is difficult [44]. One of the notable advances is in themedical field where surgeons can have detailed computer-
generated information superimposed on the patients
in real time: the so-called computer-aided surgery
(CAS) system. Ferrari et al. recently reported such an
MR system (Fig. 4) in which both real-world information
and computer-generated images were superimposed uti-
lizing a video see-through approach [45].
Achieving large field of view (FOV) and high resolutionsimultaneously has been a problem in the case of HMDs.
Optical tiling, presenting a small high-resolution inset
image and a low-resolution background based on user
pupil tracking, is one of the solutions proposed to address
the requirement of high FOV and high resolution [46],
[47]. Sensics Inc. (Columbia, MD), one of the pioneers in
HMD technology, offers high-resolution displays with up
to 180� diagonal FOV [48]. The unit, named piSight,utilizes 12 microdisplays to create a concave wraparound
display for each eye as shown in Fig. 5.
There are many HMD products currently available
from different companies such as Vuzix Corporation
Fig. 4. An MR system setup and the mixed reality views through
the HMD. From [45], with permission of IEEE.
Fig. 5. The Sensics piSight HMD showing tiled microdisplays.
Image courtesy of Sensics Inc.
Urey et al. : State of the Art in Stereoscopic and Autostereoscopic Displays
544 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 4, April 2011
(Rochester, NY), Fifth Dimension Technologies (Irvine,CA), Cybermind (Maastricht, The Netherlands), i-O
Display Systems LLC (Sacramento, CA), etc.
In common with other 3-D display technologies, 3-D
HMDs also have the problem of AC mismatch and the
problem becomes less noticeable as the image plane is
moved towards infinity [5]. To solve the AC mismatch
issue, systems with discrete (multifocal) or continuously
variable (vari-focal) focal plane locations have been pro-posed [49]. The systems can be made with active optics,
which forms virtual images with focal plane adjustment
based on the feedback from a user-gaze detection circuit
[50] or with no moving parts [51]. Optical see-through
HMDs with large focal depth have been proposed for solv-
ing the AC conflict utilizing a modified Maxwellian view
with increased viewing area. This method utilizes holo-
graphic optical elements and claims that 3-D images can beproduced at any distance from the viewer [52]. Recently, a
liquid lens with adjustable focal length has been utilized in
making HMDs, which can operate either in multifocal or
vari-focal mode [53]. Moving the location of the virtual
image of the display screen by means of a relay lens
movable along the optic axis is also a technique that was
proposed to eliminate the AC mismatch problem [54].
In order to reduce the form factor of the HMD, theoptical path may be folded using prism arrangements [55].
One of the main challenges associated with the develop-
ment of these types of binocular 3-D display is the visual
discomfort due to the differences in the left and right eye
images resulting from the mismatch in the optical per-
formance of each channel. As the human visual system
depends on many visual cues and internalized patterns to
interpret a 3-D scene, even the smallest errors can give riseto visual discomfort. HMDs utilize two separate displays;
thus mismatch in any of the optical properties or alignment
issues of the components used in the optical train of the left
and right channels becomes critical [56], [57]. Refer to [58]
for a discussion on the optical design problem of HMDs.
IV. STATE OF THE ARTIN AUTOSTEREOSCOPICDIRECT-VIEW DISPLAYS
Autostereoscopic displays create images with the required
disparity at the exit pupils without requiring any form of
special glasses or other user-mounted devices. Two-view
(binocular) and multiview systems with fixed viewing
zones and head/pupil tracked and super multiview (SMV)
systems are different types of autostereoscopic displaysdiscussed in detail in the following sections. In two-view
displays, only a single stereo pair is displayed, whereas in
multiview displays, multiple stereo pairs are produced to
provide 3-D images to multiple users. In autostereoscopic
displays, large Fresnel lenses, lenticular arrays, parallax
barriers, or other components such as holographic ele-
ments (HOEs), mirrors, micropolarizers, and prisms are
used to control light paths and to form exit pupils. Inautostereoscopic displays with fixed viewing zones, these
components are used to create fixed exit pupils where the
user’s left/right eyes must be positioned. On the other
hand, head/pupil tracked displays create exit pupils ac-
cording to the viewer’s eye pupil locations and enable the
viewer(s) to see stereo comfortably without having to
remain stationary. In SMV systems, a large number of
views are produced in order to create smooth motionparallax across the viewing field.
A. Two-View Autostereoscopic DisplaysTwo-view systems are 3-D displays where a single pair
of parallax views is produced. In two-view systems, the
stereo pair can be formed at a single location or the pair
can repeat itself in multiple zones in space (i.e., multi-
viewer). The viewers’ eyes have to be in the correct loca-
tion within the ideal distance to perceive a stereoscopic
image. Two-view systems with a head tracker can provide
the same stereo pair to a single viewer or to multipleviewers and enable a greater freedom of movement.
1) Parallax Barrier Systems: LCD elements are commonly
used in 3-D displays since they offer good pixel position
tolerances and high position stability, have carefully con-
trolled glass thickness, and can be successfully combined
with different optical elements [59]. Image quality issues
of 3-D displays based on LCD panels and solutions to im-prove their performance are available in the literature [60].
LCDs and other pixelated emissive displays are suitable
for autostereoscopic displays as they can be combined with
parallax barriers. As can be seen in Fig. 6, left and right eye
image columns are placed alternately on the display and
the parallax barrier, which is composed of vertical aper-
tures separated by black masks, allows light to pass only to
the desired viewing zone. The ratio of the display pixel
Fig. 6. Parallax barrier working principle illustration. The same stereo
pair repeats itself along the viewing zone. If the parallax barrier can
be turned on/off electronically, the system is 3-D/2-D switchable.
Urey et al. : State of the Art in Stereoscopic and Autostereoscopic Displays
Vol. 99, No. 4, April 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 545
width to the barrier pitch depends on the distance betweenthe right and left viewing points [61]. The system de-
scribed below creates repeated viewing zones along the
width of the display; therefore it can also be used to create
a multiview system.
The loss of brightness caused by the barriers and the
loss of spatial resolution caused by using only half of the
pixels for each viewing zone are the two problems asso-
ciated with the parallax barrier systems. There is also atradeoff between light efficiency and crosstalk level due to
the aperture size. It has been shown that with a slanted
barrier system, higher efficiency can be achieved while
keeping the same crosstalk level [62]. Using aperture grills
as a parallax barrier instead of black stripes on an acrylic
increases the contrast by eliminating the reflection on the
surface and provides better transmittance [63], [64].
In parallax barrier systems, the optimum viewing dis-tance is proportional to the distance between the display
and the parallax barrier and inversely proportional to the
display pixel size. As the display resolution gets higher, the
optimum viewing distance of the system gets longer. A
method to improve the resolution using four views instead
of two views employs parallax polarizer barriers combined
with a special backlight [65].
Using two LCD elements and directing their content totwo different eyes with the help of two parallax barriers is
another method of increasing the spatial resolution of the
parallax barrier systems. Sharp has produced a twin LCD
display in which the viewing zones for left and right eyes
are formed by two LCD displays where each includes a slit
array and a microlens array. These are combined with a
beam combiner and the images are transmitted to the
viewer’s corresponding eyes [66]. The display includes ahead tracker and the viewing zone positions can be
changed dynamically by moving the two parallax slit arrays
simultaneously along the LCD plane [59].
In 1994, Sharp announced their first single-panel 3-D
display [67] based on the parallax barrier method. In 1996,
the design was improved with the invention of viewing
position indicator (VPI). VPI is a solution to the practical
problem of finding the best viewing position. As explainedbefore, the parallax barrier system creates repeating
viewing zones for left and right eyes and if the viewer’s
left eye is placed in a right eye viewing zone, a reversed
stereoscopic (pseudoscopic) image is perceived. In systems
with VPI, a few rows of pixels at the bottom of the display
are used for displaying color indicators to aid the user to
find the correct viewing location.
Parallax barrier systems can be 2-D/3-D switchable byremoving the optical function of the parallax elements
[67]. The barriers can be optically switched by using
polarization-based electronic switching systems. In 2001,
Sharp produced a display that could be electronically
switched between two different modes [68]. In this sys-
tem, the 2-D/3-D switching is achieved by the use of a
patterned retarder parallax barrier, which includes a com-
ponent that can rotate the polarization of light (3-D) orleave it unaffected (2-D). Crosstalk and white level varia-
tion in the 3-D mode of this display were estimated by
using a model based on Fresnel diffraction [69]. The im-
provements in OLED technology increased their usability
in 3-D displays and Samsung announced a new 1400 WXGA
full resolution 2-D/3-D OLED display prototype with fast
switching parallax barrier [70].
Another design parameter for parallax barrier systemsis the location of the parallax barrier relative to the display
unit. Placing the parallax barrier at the rear of the display
(between the backlight and LCD) results in lower cross-
talk. On the other hand, placing the barrier in the front
(between LCD and the user) results in better intensity
uniformity and an optimum barrier pitch is required for
reducing the crosstalk in this configuration [67].
In fixed parallax barrier systems, the pitch of thebarrier is determined before the system is constructed and
cannot be changed later. This causes a fixed viewing dis-
tance and viewing zone depth. When the system is used for
more than one viewer with head tracking, calculation of
optimum barrier parameters gets more difficult.
A solution for eliminating the fixed viewing distance
and fixed viewing zone limitations can be obtained by
dynamic parallax barriers instead of static ones. Dynamicparallax barrier system, Dynallax, uses a dual-stacked LCD
monitor and a dynamic barrier and the system has a longer
operating range. The dynamic barrier is rendered on the
front display, and a modulated virtual environment, which
is composed of two or four channels, is rendered on the
rear display [71]. It is a 2-D/3-D switchable system, which
supports two viewers with the use of a head tracker. The
system has less brightness, resolution, and contrast com-pared to a static barrier system. Synchronization between
the front and rear screens is critical for good image quality.
Parallax barriers can be used with projectors to create
autostereoscopic 3-D projector systems as shown in Fig. 7
[72]. The system is composed of multiple 2-D projectors, a
projection screen, and two parallax barriers. The first
parallax barrier controls the output of the projectors such
that the size of image pixels on the projection screen ismatched with the second parallax barrier’s pitch. The
second parallax barrier works as a regular parallax barrier
and directs the parallax images to the viewers’ eyes.
2) Lenticular Systems: As can be seen in Fig. 8, lenticular
systems combine cylindrical lenses with FPDs to direct the
diffused light from a pixel such that it can only be seen in a
certain viewing angle in front of the display. The displaycreates repeating viewing zones for the left and right eyes
(shown with green and red colors). Similar to parallax
barrier systems when the viewer’s left eye is placed in a
right eye viewing zone the viewer observes a pseudoscopic
image. Information about efficient lenticular lens design,
analysis methods, and recent advances in the technology
can be found in [73] and [74].
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546 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 4, April 2011
The alignment of the lenticular array on the displaypanel is critical in lenticular systems. This alignment gets
more difficult as the display resolution increases and any
misalignment can cause distortions in the displayed
images. Software-based solutions that compensate for the
production errors can be used to improve the quality of the
lenticular systems [75]. Another problem with the lenti-
cular systems is the intensity variation along the viewing
zone due to beams coming from the subpixel regions of thedisplay panels. As the viewer changes the viewing angle, a
pattern of dark and bright bands is observed. This effect
can be decreased by slanting the lenses and adjusting the
focal length and pitch of the lenticular array elements [76].
As explained before, 2-D/3-D switchability is a usefulfunctionality for 3-D displays. A lenticular display can
switch between two viewing modes by using lenticular
lenses filled with a special material that can switch be-
tween two refracting states. Boer et al. used liquid crystal
(LC)-filled lenticular lenses that can be switched elec-
tronically between refracting (3-D) and nonrefracting
(2-D) modes [76]. The disadvantage of this display com-
pared to parallax barrier switchable displays is the residuallens effects at oblique angles even when the display is
working in the 2-D mode.
B. Multiview Autostereoscopic DisplaysIn multiview displays with fixed viewing zones, multi-
ple different stereo pairs are presented across the viewing
field. Users’ left and right eyes lie in two adjacent regionsthat have different perspectives. The number of views in
multiview displays is too small for continuous motion
parallax, but various methods have been used to keep the
apparent image content close to the plane of the screen
and minimize the large transitions between the views [77].
Newsight GmbH (New York) produces multiview displays
with reduced transition zones and suppressed glare with
screen sizes up to 18000 (the world’s largest) [78].As discussed before, static parallax barriers combined
with pixelated emissive displays create repeated viewing
zones. In multiview parallax barrier systems, more than
two images can be created in the viewing zone to produce
motion parallax. Sanyo has produced a multiview image
integration system such that seven parallax video images
can be combined together into a single video that can fit
into the special step barrier they developed [79], [80].Endo et al. used parallax barriers to create a cylindrical
3-D display that is based on parallax panoramagram to
show 3-D images to multiple viewers from 360� of arc
horizontally without 3-D glasses [81]. A cylindrical paral-
lax barrier and a rotating 1-D light source array are used in
an experimental cylindrical display system with the reso-
lution of 1254 pixels circularly and 128 pixels vertically.
Each pixel has a 60� viewing angle that is divided into 70views to create a smooth parallax around the display.
Time multiplexing is another method that can be used
to produce multiview autostereoscopic displays with
parallax barriers. Choi et al. fabricated a 3-D display with
increased viewing zones by using dynamic barriers located
between the lens array and the display panel [82].
Lenticular arrays combined with pixelated emissive
displays can also be used to create multiview 3-D displays.The problem with lenticular systems is the reduction in
resolution with the increase in the number of viewers. In
vertically aligned lenticular arrays, the resolution de-
creases in the horizontal direction only, however if the
lenses are slanted the resolution loss is distributed into two
axes [76]. Philips (Eindhoven, The Netherlands) produced
a slanted lenticular screen that can support 7–15 views
Fig. 8. Illustration of the working principle of a lenticular screen.
The same stereo pair repeats itself along the viewing zone. If refraction
through lens is turned on and off electronically, the system switches
between 2-D and 3-D.
Fig. 7. Parallax-based autostereoscopic 3-D projector. The first
parallax barrier controls the output of the projectors and the second
parallax barrier directs the parallax images to the viewers’ eyes.
Adapted from [72].
Urey et al. : State of the Art in Stereoscopic and Autostereoscopic Displays
Vol. 99, No. 4, April 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 547
depending on model, and the structure of the screen is
shown in Fig. 9 [83].
The figure shows the relationship between the pixels
and the slanted lenticular sheet for a seven-view display. Asthe LCD is located in the focal plane of the lenticular sheet,
the horizontal position on the LCD corresponds to the
viewing angle. Therefore, all points on line XX direct view 3
in a given direction, and all points on line YY direct view 4
in another direction. The way in which the effect of flipping
is reduced is evident by examining line XX where view 3
predominates, but with some contribution from views 2
and 4. Similarly, for the angle corresponding to line YY,view 4 with some contribution from views 3 and 5 is seen.
Implementing autostereoscopic methods in mobile
displays is a promising field of study due to increased
public interest in 3-D displays. Sharp introduced the first
mobile phone with 3-D capability in early 2000 and sold
more than 1 million units [84]. Different mobile 3-D ap-
proaches can be found in the literature. Bilkent University,
New York, NY, leads a consortium of academic and indus-trial groups that address various aspects of 3-D mobile
phone technology [85]. In a recent study, an autostereo-
scopic 3-D solution for mobile displays has been demon-
strated by using 3-D film, directional backlight, and an
LCD panel. In this time-sequential autostereoscopic 3-D
display approach, the two different views created by
changing the direction of the light in a light guide are
directed to two different eyes by using a specially designed
3-D film [86]. New directional backlights for autostereo-scopic display applications that can be scanned 16� have
also been announced [87]. The multiview approach can
also be applied to mobile displays. The images captured by
a calibrated multi-imager camera array can be projected
onto a retroreflective screen by using multiprojectors [88].
In this configuration, multiple views can be created along
the viewing field. Special screens play an important role in
mobile 3-D displays [89].
C. Head-Tracked DisplaysHead-tracked displays can be divided into the following
principal categories: Fresnel lens, lenticular, projection,
and parallax barrier. In addition, other techniques
including prismatic and holographic can be employed.
In the 1990s, Sharp Laboratories of Europe developed a
system where the images from two LCDs are combinedwith a semisilvered mirror [90]. A display operating on a
similar principle was described by the Japanese Sea Phone
company [91] where the illumination is provided from two
monochrome displays, and the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) Media Lab described the use of an SLM
that rotates the polarization by 90� in order to produce exit
pupils [92]. The Korea Institute of Science and Technology
display projects the images of two LCD panels on to aFresnel lens [93].
The simplest lenticular screen method is to place a
screen with vertical lenses in front of an LCD and swap the
images on the pixel rows to ensure that the eyes never see
pseudoscopic images [94]. Sharp developed a display where
a novel LCD mask structure provides contiguous light
across the viewing field [59]. The majority of projection
stereoscopic displays operate on the principle of formingreal images of the projector lenses in the viewing field.
The four main classes of projection display are
determined by the screen type. These are all described in
[95] and are: retroreflecting [96], [97], double lenticular
screen [98], [99], mirror [100], and lens [101].
Parallax can be used in various ways in a head-tracking
display. In a method proposed by Hattori [102], a parallax
barrier was used to block the light from a pair of projectorsthat form exit pupils by utilizing a large convex mirror. In
the Varrier display of the University of Illinois, a physical
parallax barrier with vertical apertures is located in front of
the screen [103]. Light is steered with the use of a dynamic
virtual barrier. The parallax display of New York Univer-
sity (NYU), New York, uses a fast dynamic parallax barrier
located in front of the display [104].
There are several methods of producing a head-trackingdisplay; among these are prismatic arrays, macrolens
arrays, and HOEs. Dresden University, Dresden, Germany,
has developed a display that replaces a parallax barrier with
a prism array [105]. Exit pupils can also be produced by
HOEs [106].
The single-user Free2C display developed at Fraunhofer
Heinrich Hertz Institute (HHI) overcomes the problems of
Fig. 9. Illustration of the working principle of a slanted lenticular
screen. LCD is located one focal length behind the lenticular sheet.
From [83], with permission from SPIE.
Urey et al. : State of the Art in Stereoscopic and Autostereoscopic Displays
548 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 4, April 2011
restricted viewer movement by using head tracking to makethe viewing sweet spot follow the position of the head
[107]. A head tracker determines this position and controls
a vertically aligned lenticular screen located in front of an
LCD to enable the viewer movement in both X and Z
directions. It achieves this by moving the lenticular screen,
also in the X and Z directions, with mechanical actuators.
This display can also be incorporated into a kiosk (Fig. 10)
where user’s gestures are recognized; this enables simpleintuitive handling of objects within the image. Three-
dimensional objects floating in front of the display can be
rotated by using gestures, and virtual buttons can be
pressed simply by pointing at them (virtual 3-D touch
screen). The Free2C kiosk is perfectly suited for applica-
tions in high-tech showrooms, convention halls, airports,
shopping malls, and department stores.
The SeeFront company in Germany produces a single-user 2200 head-tracked display that, like the Fraunhofer
HHI display, uses a lenticular screen in front of an LCD
[108]. In this case, there are no moving parts and the
images are directed to the viewer’s eyes by switching the
LCD subpixels.
There are also holographic and hybrid display solutions
with viewer tracking where both conventional and
holographic technologies are employed such as the SeeRealdisplay system [109]. The MUTED display system [110]
developed within a European-Union-funded project is also
a hybrid approach and uses a multiuser head tracker, and its
output is a spot pattern that is converted by the optical array
into a series of collimated beams that intersect at the
viewers’ eyes. The intersection regions are referred to as
exit pupils and are capable of movement over a large region.
A multiviewer laser-based 3-D autostereoscopic displayis under development in the HELIUM3D project [111],
[112]. Fig. 11 is a simplified schematic diagram. The system
does not incorporate a flat panel display and image infor-
mation is supplied by a fast light valve (LV) that controls
the output of red, green, and blue (RGB) lasers. The high
display frame rate permits many modes of autostereosco-
pic operation to multiple mobile viewers due to the ability
of the display to present a different image to every eye.
D. Light Field Displays
1) Super Multiview: An SMV display is a multiview dis-
play where the number of discrete images presented is
sufficiently large to give the appearance of continuous
motion parallax [114]. There is no AC mismatch and re-
search has been carried out into the number of views re-
quired for this condition. According to Takaki from Tokyo
University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan,
when the angle pitch of the directional rays is 0.2�–0.4�,more than two directional rays passing through a point in
3-D space enter the viewer’s eye simultaneously so that the
viewer’s eye can focus on that point as illustrated in Fig. 12
[115]. No discrepancy appears between the convergence
function and the accommodation function so that the dis-
play does not induce visual fatigue. Takaki presents an
SMV projection configuration with 64 views on a 9.2-in
screen size.A system has been demonstrated at CeBIT 2010 by
Sunny Ocean Studios (Singapore) [116] that can supply 64
viewing zones. This capability qualifies this as being SMV
but still does not quite fulfil the criteria set out in the
references for smooth motion parallax.
In some other types of displays, discrete beams of light
that vary with angle radiate from each point on the screen.
Fig. 10. Free2C interactive kiosk. User handling a multimedia
application on the computer without using keyboard or mouse
made possible with contact-free interaction technology and
autostereoscopic displays.
Fig. 11. HELIUM3D simplified schematic diagram of display. Multiple
exit pupils are formed dynamically by controlling light directions with
an SLM during the period of a horizontal scan [111], [113]. The pupil
tracker uses digital cameras and custom software to acquire and track
user’s eye pupil locations and serves as the dynamic feedback for
adjusting the exit pupil locations. Reprinted with kind permission of
the HELIUM3D consortium, which the authors are part of.
Urey et al. : State of the Art in Stereoscopic and Autostereoscopic Displays
Vol. 99, No. 4, April 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 549
These can take two forms. In the first type, optical modules
provide multiple beams that either converge and intersect
in front of the screen to form real image Bvoxels[ or diverge
to produce virtual Bvoxels[ behind the screen (Fig. 13). The
screen diffuses the beams in the vertical direction only
allowing viewers vertical freedom of movement without
altering horizontal beam directions. As the projectors/optical modules are set back from the screen, mirrors are
situated on either side in order to provide virtual array
elements on either side of the actual array.
Each screen pixel has a number of discrete emission
angles controlled by the image generators behind the
screen. Although this class of display is not volumetric, the
term Bvoxel[ is used to refer to the regions of image space
over which an apparent solid pixel is formed.
Examples of this type of display are Holografika
(Budapest, Hungary) [117], QinetiQ (Hampshire, U.K.)
[118], and Koc University, Istanbul, Turkey [119]. Holo-
grafika refers to its display as pseudoholographic displayand can currently supply a 3200 display using 9.8 megapixels
and a 7200 version with 34.5 megapixels [120]. The QinetiQ
display (see Fig. 14) appears to operate on the same
principles but uses projectors instead of the optical
modules of Holografika. Koc University also developed a
concept based on using an array of scanners made of
standard printed circuit board (PCB) material [121], where
each module carries an array of LEDs on the movingplatform to replace the array of microdisplay panels used by
Holografika (illustrated in Fig. 15) [119]. Another type of
display uses a fast frame-rate projector in conjunction with
a horizontally scanned dynamic aperture as in Fig. 14.
Although the actual embodiment appears to be totally
different from the multiple beam approach, the effect is the
same; in the case of the dynamic aperture the beams are
Fig. 12. Three-dimensional supermultiview images displayed with
high-density directional rays (reproduced from [115] with permission
from IEEE).
Fig. 13. Holographika display. Multiple beams either converge and
intersect in front of the screen to form real image ‘‘voxels’’ or diverge
to produce virtual ‘‘voxels’’ behind the screen.
Fig. 14. Dynamic aperture display. A horizontally scanned vertical
dynamic aperture directs the light from images produced on
a fast projector located behind it.
Fig. 15. Display developed at Koc University using a large array of
FR4 scanners [121] integrated with LED array and lenses.
Urey et al. : State of the Art in Stereoscopic and Autostereoscopic Displays
550 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 4, April 2011
formed in temporal manner. An early version of this type ofdisplay used a mechanically scanned aperture with the
images supplied by a cathode ray tube [122]. More recently,
this has been developed further at Cambridge University,
Cambridge, U.K., with the use of a fast digital micromirror
device (DMD) projector and a ferroelectric shutter [123].
Kajiki developed a concept called focused light array that
uses an array of light sources and scanners to create an SMV
display [124].Integral imaging displays, an early light field technique
first proposed in 1908, use an array of small lenses used to
produce a series of elemental images in their focal planes.
If the lens array is a 2-D fly’s eye lens, then motion parallax
in both horizontal and vertical directions is provided.
NHK, Japan, has carried out research into integral
imaging for several years; this includes one approach using
projection [125]. In 2009, NHK announced it had devel-oped an Bintegral 3DTV[ achieved by using a 1.34-mm
pitch lens array that covers an ultrahigh definition panel.
Hitachi has demonstrated a 1000 Bfull parallax 3-D display[that has a resolution of 640 � 480. This uses 16 projectors
in conjunction with a lens array sheet [126] and provides
vertical and horizontal parallax. There is a tradeoff be-
tween the number of Bviewpoints[ and the resolution;
Hitachi uses sixteen 800 � 600 resolution projectors andin total there are 7.7 million pixels (equivalent to a reso-
lution of 4000 � 2000 pixels).
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND THEFUTURE OF 3-D DISPLAYS
Three-dimensional displays have many applications and a
large range of 3-D demonstrators and products have re-cently been introduced to the market. This section pro-
vides the authors’ opinions about the future research
directions with the conviction that 3-D display users are
unlikely to accept a compromise on image quality and re-
solution while switching from 2-D to 3-D displays.
One of the important requirements for wide accep-
tance from the users is that products must allow seamless
switching between 3-D and 2-D modes. Though choice isup to the viewer, presumably one would prefer a system
with no restriction on user movement, low cost, high re-
solution, good brightness, and absence of (or at least low
cost and maintenance-free) viewing aids. Visual discom-
fort due to asymmetries in brightness, geometry, and im-
perfect temporal parallax are also issues that need to be
addressed. Crosstalk is another serious artifact present in
almost all types of stereoscopic displays but this can bebrought to an acceptable level by employing suitable image
processing algorithms and optimized display and capture
hardware. A display technique with zero crosstalk and ac-
ceptable image quality is still not available.
1) Stereoscopic Direct-View Technologies: Anaglyph meth-
ods are simpler than others; however, the image quality is
not sufficient for wide adoption due to the poor color re-production and crosstalk issues. These technologies are
likely to be limited for distribution of 3-D pictures in
printed media and as multimedia content that can be seen
on regular 2-D TV sets with simple and low-cost glasses.
Polarization-based 3-D displays offer important advantages
for the eyewear as they are very inexpensive, lightweight,
and passive (no batteries).
In the stereoscopic category, high resolution andbrightness can be obtained from both polarization-
multiplexed displays and the time-multiplexed shutter
glasses-based displays. As an example, dual-panel archi-
tecture (e.g., iZ3D), or those that use dual projectors can
have full resolution without any compromise in brightness.
In terms of the eyewear, passive glasses have the advantage
as they are simple and lightweight, do not require battery
replacement, and are low cost.Polarization-based flat panel displays (�-pol, active
retarder, etc.) typically lose half of the spatial resolution to
produce a stereo pair image. Furthermore, when those
displays are used in 2-D mode, 50% of the light is lost to
polarization components. When patterned micropolarizers
can be integrated into the panel production, the system
can be made more light efficient. Users are not likely to
give away the high-resolution and brightness advantages togo from 2-D to 3-D. Therefore, shutter-glass-based systems
have a resolution advantage over the polarization-based
systems. The drawbacks of the shutter-glass-based systems
are the requirement for faster LCD/LCOS switching times
and more complex and heavier shutter glasses that need
battery replacement. In this case, the major cost of the 3-D
capability is placed in the high-speed panels, electronics,
and eyewear. Which approach is better for an applicationdepends on many factors; passive eyewear may be more
favorable for applications where many people or long
duration use is involved.
For 3-D projection displays (rear projection and front
projection), full HD resolution can be maintained by
utilizing two projectors or a time-multiplexing scheme
with the help of a single-pixel polarization rotator in front
of the projection lens. The approach from HDI, for exam-ple, can be considered a hybrid between temporal and
polarization multiplexing. It features a dual-panel projec-
tion engine that allows polarization glass-based rear pro-
jection system and employs high-speed LCOS devices and
RGB laser illumination. The system provides 2-D/3-D
capability and uses simple low-cost polarization glasses
without sacrificing resolution or brightness.
2) Head-Mounted Systems: HMD optical design is
challenging due to the wide FOV and large exit pupil size
requirements in high-resolution displays. The size and
weight of HMDs are often quite large and the user comfort
is typically low. Displaying 3-D images on HMDs brings
additional challenges with subpixel accuracy requirements
in registration of images and optical distortion. Gaming is
Urey et al. : State of the Art in Stereoscopic and Autostereoscopic Displays
Vol. 99, No. 4, April 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 551
one important area for 3-D HMDs and there are alreadysuccessful products with a large FOV.
3) Autostereoscopic Technologies: For two-view and
multiview systems, simple 2-D/3-D switching should be
possible for a winning technology. For mobile and com-
puter monitor applications (e.g., gaming, CAD/CAM de-
sign, kiosk browsing, etc.), two-image systems should be
sufficient and multiview capability is not needed. A stereoimage pair that can change dynamically with the head-
tracked viewer head position could also be a winning
combination. For TV, cinema, or table-top 3-D displays,
multiview and multiviewer capabilities are important, but
current systems do not meet the needs of these segments.
4) Autostereoscopic Head-Tracked Displays: These enable
tracking of the viewing regions to follow the viewers’ eyesso that a pair of images is sufficient to display 3-D with
both horizontal and vertical parallax to the viewer. Motion
parallax can be achieved by presenting only as many
images as there are viewer eyes. This approach may require
dynamic optics/optomechanics, but it avoids displaying
large amounts of redundant information in contrast to
holographic displays. However, the processing required to
render images in accordance with the viewers’ eye posi-tions is challenging. At the present time, head-tracked
displays appear to provide a solution for multiviewer 3-D
until a fully holographic display is available.
5) Autostereoscopic Supermultiview Systems: These dis-
plays provide multiview and multiviewer capabilities but
they require more complex hardware and software com-
pared to two-view systems. SMV displays have the poten-tial to solve AC mismatch in order to provide more realistic
true 3-D display system. Providing two or more viewswithin each eye pupil can be done more easily if the pupil
is tracked and the light beams are redirected using dyna-
mic optics in the display system. If tracking is not em-
ployed, a large amount of information must be displayed in
order to provide true continuous motion parallax with no
AC mismatch. Currently, display panels do not have suffi-
cient native resolution to give this amount of information
without having to resort to the use of complex displayconfigurations. More research and development is needed
in this area. Early adaption of those technologies can be in
advertising, simulators, and gaming kiosks where higher
costs could be afforded.
6) Screen Technologies: Pico and mobile projectors are
advancing rapidly and there are already examples of 3-D
mobile displays and this seems to be an important futuredirection. We believe screen technologies that can form
separate viewing zones for each pupil are essential in order
to expand the capabilities of tiny projectors to 3-D. Note
that laser-based pico projectors are currently limited to
about ten lumens. Gain and ambient rejection capabilities
of screens will be critical for all battery operated devices.
Good candidate screen technologies for 3-D mobile dis-
plays can utilize microlens arrays and retroreflectors [127],[128]. We expect to see a lot of research activity in the area
of screens with special features. h
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank the HELIUM3D
consortium members. Feedback and comments from
C. Chinnock and K. Werner from Insight Media aregratefully acknowledged.
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ABOUT T HE AUTHO RS
Hakan Urey (Senior Member, IEEE) received the
B.S. degree from the Middle East Technical Univer-
sity, Ankara, Turkey, in 1992 and the M.S. and Ph.D.
degrees from Georgia Institute of Technology,
Atlanta, in 1996 and 1997, respectively, all in
electrical engineering.
Currently, he is a Professor of Electrical Engi-
neering at Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey. After
completing his Ph.D., he joined Microvision Inc.,
Seattle, WA, as a Research Engineer and he played
a key role in the development of the laser scanning display technologies.
He was the Principal System Engineer when he left Microvision to join the
faculty of engineering at Koç University, where he established the Optical
Microsystems Research Laboratory (OML). He published 35 journal and
about 80 conference papers, seven edited books, two book chapters, and
he has 20 issued and several pending patents. His research interests are
in optical microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), optical system de-
sign, and laser-based 2-D/3-D display and imaging systems, and
biosensors.
Dr. Urey received theWerner Von Siemens Faculty Excellence Award in
2006 from Koç University, the Distinguished Young Scientist award from
the Turkish Academy of Sciences in 2007, and the Encouragement Award
from the Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) in
2009. He is a member of The International Society for Optical Engineers
(SPIE), the Optical Society of America (OSA), IEEE-Photonics, and the Vice
President of the Turkey chapter of IEEE-Photonics.
Kishore V. Chellappan received the M.Sc. and
Ph.D. degrees in physics from Cochin University
of Science and Technology, Kerala, India, in 2002
and 2009, respectively.
He joined the Optical Microsystems Labora-
tory, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey, in 2008,
where he contributed to the research and devel-
opment efforts of the EC funded BHELIUM3D[
laser-based display project. He is now a Re-
search Associate at the University of Southern
Mississippi, Hattiesburg. His research interests are in laser-based dis-
plays, optical system design, photorefractive polymers, photopolymers,
and infrared spectroscopy. He is a coauthor of several publications
including one book chapter.
Dr. Chellappan is a member of The International Society for Optical
Engineers (SPIE) and the Optical Society of America (OSA).
Erdem Erden (Student Member, IEEE) received
the B.Sc. degree in electrical and electronics
engineering and the M.Sc. degree in electrical
and computer engineering from Koç University,
Istanbul, Turkey, in 2008 and 2010, respectively.
Currently, he is working towards the Ph.D. degree
at the Center for Research and Education in Optics
and Lasers (CREOL), University of Central Florida,
Orlando.
He has worked at Optical Microsystems Labo-
ratory at Koç University as a Research Assistant between 2007 and 2010
and he has recently joined the Optical Fiber Communications Laboratory
at CREOL as a Graduate Research Assistant. His research interests are 3-D
displays, biophotonics, optical fiber telecommunication, and optical
microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).
Mr. Erden received the Vehbi Koç Foundation scholarship and the
Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK)
scholarship during his studies.
Phil Surman received the B.Sc degree in electrical
and electronic engineering from Heriot-Watt
University, Edinburgh, U.K., in 1971 and the Ph.D.
degree in the subject of head-tracked 3-D dis-
plays from De Montfort University, Leicester, U.K.,
in 2003.
He has been investigating 3-D displays for the
last 23 years and holds the patents on the optical
systems for the MUTED and HELIUM3D displays.
He is currently a Senior Research Fellow in the
Imaging and Displays Research Group at De Montfort University and has
been involved in the European Union-funded ATTEST, 3D TV Network of
Excellence, MUTED and HELIUM3D projects that are all in the area of 3-D
displays.
Urey et al. : State of the Art in Stereoscopic and Autostereoscopic Displays
Vol. 99, No. 4, April 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 555