introduction to qualitative analysis

7/26/2019 Introduction to Qualitative Analysis

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Introduction to Qualitative Analysis

and writing up your analysis:

Thematic Analysis

Dr. Shaun Ruggunan

Discipline of Human ResourcesManagement


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Why Thematic Analysis

Qualitative Analysis is varied and nuanced.

Discourse, Narrative, phenomenological

but common across most qualitative analysisis some form of Thematic Analysis.

So if we get the foundation right then it

becomes more manageable regardless of thetheoretical approach or method you use.


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Structure of Presentation

The best way to do this is to talk through

some of the qualitative projects I have worked

on and supervised. So some bias towards my

experiences.

So not everything can be covered in detail but

you will have a sense of how to structure your

methodology chapter and organise yourdiscussion.


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Writing your methods Chapter

A key heading in your methods chapter needs to

be philosophy of research or something similar.

This is missing 90 percent of the time from

positivist/quantitative projects esp in

management studies.

Statistics and statistical analysis are not

atheoretical or neutral. Say more than you are adopting a qualitative

approach. Its about voice, theory, argument.


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Use the correct terms

Qualitative methods and Analysis has a

technical language of its own: USE IT!

Common sense versus academic/scientific

terminology.

For example story telling, interviews, coding,

axial coding, hierarchical coding, nodes,

patterns, themes have very specific meanings.

This means you have to read.


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Some Terminology that students

should use but dont use in writing

Data Corpus

Data Set

Axial coding Open coding

Hierarchical coding

Latent themes Semantic meanings etc


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Using the right language

So please pay careful attention to the

technical language that you use in your

proposal, methods chapter and discussion

chapter.

Id like to see more than generic references to

coding and patterns.


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Presentation of your Sampling

Ruggunan,2013

Gender Race Sector

2 female 1 White South African 7 Private Sector

14 male 2 Black South African 9 Public sector

13 Indian South African

Table 1 Participants Demographics


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Sampling example 2

Groh et al, 2011


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Sampling example 3

Ruggunan 2013


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Sampling example 4

(Sidat,2007)


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Writing up your sampling section

Must have a narrative. Detailed description as

possible.

Most journals I have published in have asked

for a tabular representation as well.

Percentages not always useful with small

numbers.

No one perfect tabular representation.


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Thematic Analysis: Method or Tool?

You need to know what your data corpus is.

Then determine your data set.

HRD of South African seafarers: Data Corpus is

interviews, websites, labour market reports,focus groups, notes made at maritimeconference, youtube interviews with keystakeholders.

Data set 1 are all my interviews only, data set twomay be my focus groups only etc.

Really important for big projects. Eg. Medical labspecialist project.


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Thematic Analysis

Unlike quantitative research, where surveyinstruments can be administered effectively bythird parties or electronically, I suggest that youdo as much of your qualitative data collection by

yourself. Esp interviews, focus groups

Exceptions may be where ethical conflicts exist.

Rationale is that it makes subsequent steps easierbut not always possible with larger samples,global research sites etc. Use your discretion.

Aim is data reduction


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Step 2 Generate initial codes

Code interesting features of the data in a systematic fashionacross the entire data set. (semantic or latent)

Collate/ organise data relevant to each code.

Code manually or use software. Be strategic in your choice.

Your interview schedule questions are NOT your codes. You can either go in blind or you can read the literature on

your topic first.

Related to theoretical approach

Eg. Seafarers (blind) medical lab specialists (read theoryfirst first)

Data driven or theoretical driven


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Code for as many potential themes.

Seafarer and nationality/race/ethnicity example.

Professional status/ hierarchy example

Code with context

Extracts can be multiply coded

Code minority and contradictory features

You are trying to establish patterns from your

codes.


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Medical Specialists example

And I think one of the biggest [challenges] is the remunerationbecause the public sector cannot compete with the private sector(Interview: Participant 1)

Pay is lower and they [are] struggling to retain people in the public

sector (Interview: Participant 3).

it is common sense to move out of the public sector, as the privatesector pays higher salaries than the public sector. There areattempts by the public sector to improve salaries but at this pointits far, far more lucrative to be employed by the private sector.(Interview: Interview: Participant 5).

Coded for 1. pay differentials(semantic), 2 . Tension between public-private sector (latent)


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Theory driven coding

The code pay differentials eventually

developed into the theme REMUNERATION

Remuneration was identified as pull factor

from the public sector to the private sector.

Fitted into the debates on push pull theory in

the literature which identifies remuneration as

a known push factor amongst health

professionals.


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Data Driven coding

Sometimes we dont know much about an

empirical case or we want to develop our own

model or theory from the data.

Seafaring example

Seafarers identity instrumental to

employment practices.

Added new element to diversity perspectives

in HRD


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Step 3.Discovering themes/searching

for themes

Active process. Please write in an active way.

Dont use passive themes emerged.

Broader level of analysis. Codes become

themes/sub-themes

Software/mind maps/ visualisation good for

this.

Iterative/intuitive

Trustworthiness? Multiple coders? examples


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4. Reviewing Themes

You now have candidate themes which have to

be reviewed.

They are candidates because some may not have

enough data to support them for example, or youmay want to merge or separate themes or even

remove certain themes.

You want to reduce data further

You want internal coherence in a theme and

strong distinctions between themes.


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Examples of themes


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Themes examples


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Themes examples

Reasons to migrate out of

the state sector

Number of interviewees

who cited this reason

Percentage of interviewees

who cited this reason

Remuneration 16 100

Working conditions 14

88

Autonomy of work 14 88

Flexibility of working time 13 81

Career pathing. 10 63

Pull Factors from the public to the pri vate sector (n=16)


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Step 5 Defining and naming themes

So this is about describing the themes in away that captures the essence of the theme.

Dont demand too much from a theme.

Maybe Remuneration is too broad a themeand can be defined differently for example?

Sub themes can be named here (private

remuneration/public remuneration etc) Can you describe your theme in one or two

sentences? Thats the test.


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Step 6 Writing the Analysis

Best way to learn this is to read peer reviewed

qualitative articles.

To read journals about Qualitative research.

Do not summarise each interview.

You are not a journalist so do not report facts

only.

You need to provide an analytic narrative


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Writing for a journal

Some journals require a findings section thena discussion section. This format may beuseful for your thesis as well.

Avoid Results opt for findings Under findings you provide the themes you

have discovered with examples of extracts

that have been coded for that theme. You can do this in a matrix form or a narrative

form.


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Writing your findings

Career pathing: Histopathologists have better career pathing in the private sector

A common thread through the various narratives of the participants was their implicit and explicitreferences to career pathing and career mobility. Their narratives demonstrate respondents beliefs thatthe public sector offers minimal career pathing opportunities compared with employment in the privatesector.

Thats an interesting questionmy experience has been that unless I wanted to become head ofdepartment there was no other career path available to me. Now that I am in private employment, I candecide to have a career track towards partnership, or focus more on marketing of the laboratory, orpursue research based projects on my own. Im still young so I havent decided how I want to developbut there are for sure many many options available to me here [in private sector] than at my previousemployer. (Interview: Participant 4)

Long-term career prospects are better in the private sector than in the public sector. As one participantfrom the public sector expressed:

They have frozen posts...the people who qualified are still stagnant, not moving up- no job offers. So, ifjobs are frozen, people are going to leave. They are not going to stay at that level- registrar or whateverlevel because they are now qualified. There is a need for more consultants but they are not opening itup. So there is an exodus at the moment. People are leaving and it is a lot (Interview: Participant 15,2011).


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So writing up your findings is more

descriptive of your data than your discussion.

BUT your discussion needs to be analytical.


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Discussion of the finding on Career

pathingParticipants accounts also revealed a concern with career pathing and the lack of career pathingopportunities in the public sector. Allsop et al[31] emphasise that the decision to migrate from oneemployer to another is often associated with reasons such as the desire to gain additional experience.For example, Maistry (cited in, Hudson, 2011: 22) reports that for a cytologist, returning to South Africaafter having worked three years in Saudi Arabia meant taking a few steps back professionally. Hudson[44] adds that one of the reasons that newly qualified specialists move into the private sector or leavethe country is the unavailability of consultant posts in the public sector. It is evident from the interviewdata that histopathologists need to have a sense of a future career path. That path could develop into

several routes, including but not only a managerial route, research route, or a more operational route.Histopathologists want career choices or tracks to be available to them. Participants expressed a desireto grow professionally beyond their diagnostics skills and roles. It is frustrating for them that thesecareer pathways are not available in the public sector. This is compounded by their having no controlover their careers in the public sector. If histopathologists are to be retained in the public sector, thenclear career pathing opportunities need to be made available for them. While in Ashmores 2013 [36]study medical doctors cited team work, more academically rewarding work and a sense of service,relevance and contribution to the greater public good as reasons why they remain in the public sector,no such sentiments were echoed in the accounts offered by the histopathologists interviewed for this

study.


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Thesis writing

Since you dont have variable here as in quantitativeresearch you may want to divide your discussionchapters according to the themes you have discovered.

In this case there is no separate findings chapter, but a

series of discussion chapters based on your themes.

How are your themes similar to and different from theliterature?

Example of professional status/gendering of work

You are doing interpretive work not journalisticreporting.


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Rigour

You have to provide an explanation of rigourin your data analysis process.

Meaning versus objectivity or whether

participants tell the truth. Triangulation/ verification

Credibility , transferability (not always possible

or needed), dependability (explain in detailthe research process, reflective commentary,confirmability (audit trail)

PRESENTING QUALITATIVE DATA


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QuotationsSimpleTables

Matrices MapsDiagrams

Taxonomies

Scales(Single

...MDS)

Conceptual BehavioralConceptual-Behavioral

FORMS OF DATA PRESENTATION

ETHNOGRAPHIC MODELS

TYPE OFQUALITATIVEDATACOLLECTION

UnstrucutredDirectObservations

StructuredDirectObservations

Key InformantInterviews

Focus Groups

PRA GroupTechniques

Free Lis ts

Pile SortsTriads

PairedComparisons

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PRESENTING QUALITATIVE DATA

* less useful most useful *****less complex more complex


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Matrices


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MatricesReasons to Smoke Outside the WorkplaceMethod Type of Information

obtained

Conclusion Next Investigative

Step

Key

Informant

interview

Direct

Observation

Free Lists

Pile Sorts

Paired

Comparisons

Focus Group

Discussions

Plan an intervention to help

those smoking outside

buildings to stop

Smoking outside buildings

has increased exposure of

people to side stream smoke

NOT born out by our small

sample size, but warrants

further investigation

Changes in l ocations

of where people smoke

as a result of the ban

Confirmation by Focus

Groups, and consideration

of cessation attempts

Observation of the activity

clearer understanding of

reasons people smoke

outside the Workplace

Relative frequency of

where people smoke

People smoke more in

confined locations than

before and expose others and

themselves to side strea

smoke

names for places where

people smoke

varied appearance of

the activity, not clearly

seen as relaxing when

hurriedly done outside

the workplace

confirms addictive

behavior

some people clearly see they

are addicted, others claim

naiveity

general informationregarding people's

perception of smoking

outside the workplace

gather more information

on pl aces people smoke

besides outside the workplace

obtain information on how

much people smoke in

different locations

See how the frequency

of cigarettes smoked

has changed as a result

of the ban

Figure 3

introduction to qualitative analysis

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