introduction to plant taxonomy and botanical nomenclature · pdf fileplant taxonomy and...

© Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 11

Introduction to

plant taxonomy

and botanical

nomenclature

WHMF121

Session 1

Photograph with permission of Wendy Williams


Subject Objectives1. Describe, explain and demonstrate the application of

botanical terminology, taxonomy and nomenclature

throughout the unit of study

2. Describe, differentiate and demonstrate a sound

knowledge of plant morphology through the application

of botanical keys, spotting characteristics and other

investigative methods for the purpose of plant

identification.

3. Explain, investigate and reflect upon traditional and

current research techniques commonly used in the

Australian complementary medicine industry specific to

the evaluation of dried plant material


Subject Objectives

4. Explain and differentiate between the ecological factors

that can impact on plant conservation and raw material

quality.

5. Explore and critically evaluate current Australian

legislative guidelines as they relate to herbal medicine

growing, manufacture, dispensing and dosage forms

6. Discuss, compare and contrast the advantages and

disadvantages of a range of different herbal

preparations/dosage forms

7. Demonstrate the ability to manufacture a range of

different types of herbal preparations


Prescribed Texts & Readings

Textbooks:

o Capon, B. (2010). Botany for gardeners (3rd ed.).

Portland, OR: Timber Press.

o Adams, J., & Tan, E. (2012). Herbal manufacturing: How

to make medicines from plants. Melbourne,

Australia: Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE.

Useful text:

o Tan, E. (2013). Botany of the flowering plants (4th ed.).

Melbourne, Australia: Northern Melbourne Institute

of TAFE.


Academic Honesty and Plagiarism

• Definition: the intentional or unintentional copying or

presentation of any part of another person’s ideas, words

or work without acknowledgement for the purpose of

presenting the other persons work as one’s own work.

1. Negligent plagiarism – innocent or careless mistakes in

referencing

2. Dishonest plagiarism – knowingly presenting another person’s

work as ones own

• Turnitin®– plagiarism detection software


Student, Policies, Procedures & Forms

• Assessment Policy –

outlines College’s

assessment philosophy

and principles

• Student Integrity Policy

– outlines policy around

academic honesty and

plagiarism

Student Integrity Policy, available at: http://www.endeavour.edu.au/docs/policies-and-handbooks/Student_Integrity_Policy.pdf

Assessment Policy, available at: http://www.endeavour.edu.au/docs/policies-and-handbooks/Assessment_Policy.pdf

http://www.endeavour.edu.au/docs/policies-and-handbooks/Student_Integrity_Policy.pdf

http://www.endeavour.edu.au/docs/policies-and-handbooks/Assessment_Policy.pdf


Assessment for WHMF121

• This subject requires an 80% attendance.

• This means that you can be absent up to twice (per

component) within the course of the semester and still

have a “Pass” grade.

• If you miss a 3rd session you need to apply for Special

Considerations to avoid a “Fail” grade.

• The overall pass rate for this subject is 50%.


Quizzes for WHMF121

o 1st Quiz – Session 11

Mix of Botany & Manufacturing(20 %) - 40 minute MCQs/short answers done in class

o 2nd Quiz – Session 25

Mix of Botany & Manufacturing(20 %) - 40 minute MCQs/short answers done in class


Assessment for WHMF121

o Botany Project – Session 20 (20%)• Hand your Herbarium projects into your lecturer in class

o Manufacturing Project – Session 21 (20%)• Hand your Manufacturing product into your lecturer in class

• Submit the written component online via LMS/Turn-it-IN

o Workbook Botany – (10 %)• Load your workbook onto the LMS by Sunday midnight of WEEK 13

o Workbook Manufacturing – (10 %)• Load your workbook onto the LMS by Sunday midnight of WEEK 13


Botany - Herbarium Project• How to start this project: READ THE CRITERIA

• Read about how to collect specimens

• http://www.qld.gov.au/environment/assets/document

s/plants-animals/herbarium/collecting-manual.pdf

• Start looking for specimens from today - your own

gardens, local parks, bush lands or nurseries

• If you are not certain about the plants, take a photo with

your phone and bring it to class

• Hand your project in when you come to class on week 10

http://www.qld.gov.au/environment/assets/documents/plants-animals/herbarium/collecting-manual.pdf


This is a beautifully

presented project.

What’s wrong with it?


Plant Family Identification

• Endeavour College has been

given permission to use Dr

Lena Struwe’s guide.

• This has the information on

all plant families you may

need to study for exams and

for your Botany Project.

• It is included in your study

material as a reading.


Welcome to the Study of Botany

o Today’s Topic

• Introduction to the study of Botany

• Taxonomy

• Plant Phylum

• Botanical nomenclature


Botany

• From the late Latin ‘botanicus'; early Greek 'botanikos'

meaning “fodder or plants”.

• The study of photosynthetic organisms - green plants,

fungi, various coloured algae and the like are included

in this science.

• Definition: “The biological science that studies plants”.(Wohlmuth, 1992)


Branches of Botany

• Bacteriology: the study of bacteria

• Cytology: the study of plant cells

• Genetics: the study of heredity and its laws.

• Geography: the study of plant distribution

• Morphology: the study of form and structures.

• Paleobotany: the study of fossil plant records

• Physiology: the study of the activities and functions in

plants

• Taxonomy: the naming and classification of plants(Wohlmuth, 1992)


Plant Taxonomy

The science that systematically defines plants according to:

Description - what they look like, colour, shape etc

Identification - is it recognised or unknown to science

Nomenclature - only one scientific name (Latin)

Classification - ranking or relationship between plants


Plant Taxonomy

• Taxonomy is based on phylogeny.

• From the Greek ‘taxis’ – arrangment and

‘namos’ - law

• Phylogeny is defined as the evolutionary or

ancestral relationships between organisms

and is based on the theory of evolution.


Charles Robert Darwin

Charles Darwin, born in 1809,

was a noted English naturalist

and academic.

He studied both medicine and

theology, and it was his book

“On the Origin of Species”,

published in 1859, that rocked

the academic world and

changed history forever.


Theory of Evolution

• Charles Darwin’s ‘On the Origin of Species’, remains

the cornerstone of the theory of Evolution.

• According to this theory, the environment presents

challenges to the organism through:

a) Natural Selection: The organism either adapts to

this change (fitness) or dies out in time

b) Genetic Drift: A genetic modification is random

Genetic make up of populations (group of the same

species capable of breeding) changes over time

(Simpson, 2006).


The Five Kingdoms

The entire biological world can be divided or

classified into 5 kingdoms…

These kingdoms are:

Kingdom Animalia - animals

Kingdom Plantae - plants

Kingdom Fungi - fungus

Kingdom Protista - algae & the like

Kingdom Monera - single cell/bacterium


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The Five Kingdoms

Kingdom Animalia - animals

Kingdom Plantae - plants

Kingdom Fungi - fungus

Kingdom Protista - algae & the like

Kingdom Monera - single cell/bacterium

All living beings that we know off fall into one

of these above mentioned categories.

Kingdoms are the first and largest officially

recognised category, or taxa, of taxonomy.


Living Things

Classified or ranked accordingly:

1) Kingdom

2) Phylum

3) Class

4) Order

5) Family

6) Subfamily

7) Tribe

8) Genus

9) Species


Human Ranking

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Primates

Family: Hominidae

Genus: Homo

Species: sapiens

Latin: Homo = man

Sapiens = wise, rational


Plant Ranking

•Kingdom: Plantae

•Phylum: Magnoliophyta

•Class: Magnoliopsida

•Family: Asteraceae

•Subfamily: Cichorioideae

•Tribe: Lactucae

•Genus: Taraxacum

•Species: Taraxacum Officinale (Keng, 2007)


The Twelve Phylum or Divisions of plants

1. Phylum Hepaticophyta (liverworts)

2. Phylum Anthocerophyta (hornworts)

3. Phylum Bryophyta (starting point of primitive mosses)

4. Phylum Psilophyta (mosses)

5. Phylum Lycophyta (club mosses)

6. Phylum Equisetophyta or Sphenophyta (horsetails)

7. Phylum Polipodiophyta or Filicophyta (ferns)

8. Phylum Cycadophyta (cycads)

9. Phylum Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo biloba)

10. Phylum Coniferophyta (conifers)

11. Phylum Gnetophyta (Ephedra spp.)

12. Phylum Magnoliophyta (flowering plants)


Plant Categories


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Keeping Track of Plants

o Kew Gardens in the United Kingdom, is home to

botanical specimens from all over the world.

o Take a moment to look at the broader picture

o Video: The Plant Family Tree (2013)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DwtPYkOQEsk



Non-Vascular Plants

Comprises of the three most primitive Phyla:

• Phylum Hepatophyta (liverworts)

• Phylum Anthocerophyta (hornworts)

• Phylum Brytophyta (mosses)

• Most common in warm and moist regions.

• Are sensitive to air pollution so are not common in

densely populated areas.

• Circa 23000 species.

• Small simple nonvascular land plants


Non-Vascular Plants

Lunularia cruciata, a thallose liverwort.

Dendroceros sp., hornwort, growing on a tree


Non-Vascular Plants• No leaves, but have leaf like structures.

• Gametophyte is the dominant visible stage, albeit thesporophyte grows upon and is nutritionally dependentupon the gametophyte.

• No flowers, fruit or seeds, therefore gametes needwater for fertilisation to occur.

• No roots, stems or vascular system

• Absorb water directly through the body surface.


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Medicinal Mosses


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Non-Vascular Plants

o One traditional medicinal plant that sits between lichen &

algae is Usnea barbata

o Also known as Usnea longissimi/filipendula/nidulifera

[Australian]

o Part of the Fungi Kingdom – commonly known as Old

Mans Beard.

o http://urbol.com/usnea-lichen/


Phylum Psilophyta

• Evolved vascular tissues that conduct fluid around the plant

with increasing sophistication, some have true leaves, stems

and roots

• Only two living genera: Psilotum (eg whiskferns) & Tmesipteris

(eg hanging fork-ferns)

• Sporophyte is the dominant stage for reproduction.

• Whiskferns are small plants with branching stems, Possess

rudimentary vascular system but no roots or leaves.

• There are no flowers, fruit or seeds.

• Water is absorbed into the underground part of the stem and

carried to the aerial parts. Water is needed for fertilisation.


Phylum PsilophytaPsilotum nudumTmesipteris tannensis

(Woodard, 2011)

(Forest & Starr, 2004)


Phylum Lycophyta• Approximately 1000 living species in 5 genera.

• Examples include: Club mosses, spike mosses and quillworts.


• Distinct roots - the first plants to evolve roots

• Stems and leaves as well as a vascular system to service these structures.

• There are no flowers, fruits or seeds and require water for fertilisation.


Lycopodium clavatum, a

spore bearing vascular

plant belonging to the club

moss family.

Phylum Lycophyta


• 1 genus called Equisetum - 25 species.


• Small scale like leaves, specialised vascular tissue for transport of water and nutrients from the roots.

• Organs that produce the spores are called strobili (cone like structure born on the end of a stem).

• No flowers, fruit or seeds. Water needed for fertilisation.

• Examples include: horsetails, scour rushes

Phylum Sphenophyta


Phylum Sphenophyta

(Photograph with permission of Wendy Williams)


Phylum Filicophyta AKA the ferns, of around 12000 species.

Larger plants with more sophisticated vasculature to meet the needs of their size.

Ferns have no have flowers, fruit or seeds.

Ferns have true leaves, roots and stems

Water is required for fertilisation.

The fern plant is the sporophyte body, the spore producing organs can often be found on the underside of the fern fronds.

Spores germinate into a flat, heart shaped gametophyte


Phylum Filicophyta

(Photograph with permission - Wendy Williams)


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Filicophyta - Sporophytes


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Phylum Filicophyta

The fern plant is

the sporophyte

body, the spore

producing organs

can often be

found on the

underside of the

fern fronds.

Spores germinate

into a flat, heart

shaped

gametophyte


Phylum Filicophyta

Observe the

spores

contained on

the underside

of the fronds,

indicative of

ferns.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Doodia_aspera_(Pri

ckly_Rasp_Fern)_-_cultivated_3.jpg viewed on 4/7/16Doodia aspera (Prickly Rasp Fern)

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Doodia_aspera_(Prickly_Rasp_Fern)_-_cultivated_3.jpg


Seeded PlantsEvolutionary advantage on primitive plants as they evolved to

have:

• Seeds that contain a starchy food source so the embryo

can survive until conditions are optimal

• Protective outer coat so the embryo is protected from the

environment until it germinates

• Pollen, which transports sperm so the plants are not

dependent on water for fertilisation but wind or air

movement

• Woody secondary growth giving plants structural

strength so they can grow bigger.


Seeded Plants

• These seeded plant phylums are called gymnosperms

• Gymno - naked and sperm - seed

• The seeds are not enclosed in fruit - they are fruitless

plants

• These include:

• Cycadophyta

• Ginkgophyta

• Coniferophyta

• Gnetophyta


Phylum Cycadophyta

• Roughly 240 species of cycads in 10 genera.

• Prehistoric plants that have been around since the

dinosaurs.

• Resemble palm trees with frond like leaves growing

directly from the trunk.

• Trunk is covered in the bases of shed leaves.

• Reproductive organs are found in cones in the centre of

the leaves at the top of the trunk.

• Mode of reproduction is specialised.

• Male & Female cones on separate plants.

• No flowers or fruit in this phylum.


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Phylum Cycadophyta

Leaves of Cycads

are vascularised,

but not the stems

Uncoiling like a

fern – circunate

vernation

Fern frond pic - http://fr.academic.ru/dic.nsf/frwiki/629376

http://fr.academic.ru/dic.nsf/frwiki/629376


Phylum Cycadophyta

Male Cycuas revoluta(Photograph with permission - Wendy Williams)


Phylum Cycadophyta

Female Cycas revolutahttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-_brewbooks_-

_Megasporophylls_of_Female_Cycas_revoluta.jpg viewed 4/7/16

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-_brewbooks_-_Megasporophylls_of_Female_Cycas_revoluta.jpg


Phylum Ginkgophyta

• Only one species in this entire division.

• This is Ginkgo biloba (maidenhair tree) is a slow growing tree, they have a sophisticated woody vascular system.

• Male and female reproductive organs grow on separate plants.

• The pollen is produced in groups of strobili on male plants.

• Ovules exist on the branches of the female plants.

• Ginkgo fact:

• Fertilisation occurs on the tree after the ovules have fallen to the ground. No flowers or fruit.


Phylum Ginkgophyta



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Ginkgo biloba

http://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/ginkgo-biloba



Ginkgo biloba

male strobili

(Photograph with permission – David Stelfox)

female ovules

Male & female trees, the

ovules develop into nuts

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Ginkgo_biloba#med

iaviewer/File:Ginkgo_biloba_-_female_flower.JPG

viewed 4/7/16

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Ginkgo_biloba#mediaviewer/File:Ginkgo_biloba_-_female_flower.JPG


Phylum Coniferophyta• Seeds develop in the open on the cone scales

• Conifers include Pines, Firs, Cypress, Juniper etc.

• Circa 550 species grouped into 50 genera.

• Largest tree in the world Sequoia sempervirens (see

picture)

• Reproduction is highly specialised, with male and female

cones found on the same plant.

• The larger female cones near the bases of branches and

small male cones towards the tips - reproduction is

similar to cycads

• No flowers or fruit in this group


Phylum Coniferophyta

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pine_cones,_male_and_female.jpg

Viewed 4/7/16

Male pine cone

Female pine cone

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pine_cones,_male_and_female.jpg


Phylum Coniferophyta

Sequoia sempervirens, a

member of this division,

are some of the largest

and oldest plants known.

This photograph was

taken in 2006 in the

Sequoia National Park -

the man is dwarfed by the

size of the tree trunk



Phylum Gnetophyta• Only 100 species in 3 genera:

• Gnetum

• Ephedra

• Welwitschia

• Present a number of advanced characteristics:

• Sophisticated vascular system

• Reproductive organs resemble those of the angiosperms.

• Although the strobili resemble flowers, members of this

division do not possess any flowers or fruit.


Ephedra sinica• Used in traditional Chinese

medicine for over 2000 years

• Specifically for asthma,

allergic rhinitis, URT infections

and as a general stimulant

tonic.

• It is a scheduled herb in

Australia due to the content of

ephedrine.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ephedra_californica_2.jpg viewed 4/7/16

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ephedra_californica_2.jpg


Welwitschia mirabilis

Watch the video

ohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PVLACJsoGjk

Permission Secret Life of Plants – David Attenborough

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PVLACJsoGjk


Flowering Plants

• The most evolved plants: Phylum Magnoliophyta

• Advantage of seeds - future generations

• Advantage of flowers - streamline sexual reproduction

by attracting pollinators rather than leaving it to chance

(wind dispersal)

• Advantage of fruit - more efficient seed dispersal.


Phylum Magnoliophyta

Angiosperms

• From the Greek 'angion' meaning vessel and

'sperma' meaning seed

• Most highly evolved in the plant kingdom

• 352,000 species, that grow in a myriad of shapes and

sizes. http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/

• Highly sophisticated reproductive and vascular systems.

• Plant body is the sporophyte stage

• Gametophyte stage is the pollen and ovules produced in

the male and female organs of the flower.

http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/


Phylum Magnoliophyta

Divided into two classes based on the number of

cotyledons or seed leaves that they have:

• Class Liliopsida - one seed leaf

• Called monocotyledons or monocots for short

• Divided into groups of 20 orders

• There are about 62,000 species - including grasses,

lilies, irises, orchids and palms

• Class Magnoliopsida - two seed leaves

• Called dicotyledons or dicots

• Divided into groups of about 70 orders.

• There are about 290,000 species.

» (We will discuss these next week)


Botanical Nomenclature• Phylogeny (evolutionary or ancestral relationships

between organisms) is the basis of taxonomy (system of

organising living things), in which the species is the basic

unit.

• This is essential to the understanding of taxonomy.

• Nomenclature is defined as: “The procedure of assigning

names to the kinds and groups of organisms listed in a

taxonomic classification”.

• Latin is used because that was the language used by

scholars during the 18th century when many of the

species were first identified and named. Greek is also

sometimes used…


Botanical Nomenclature

Carl von Linné / Linnaeus (1707 – 1778) was the man who pioneered the system of classifying all living organism

Binomial nomenclature is the system of naming plants – 2 names

Linnaeus based his plant classification on floral characteristics

Modern taxonomy combines a number of techniques to classify plants:

o Comparative DNA

o Comparative morphology & anatomy

o Comparison of chemical compounds



A Latin binomial by convention is written in italics and

consists of two words:

1.Generic name

o - Always has a capital letter.

o - Is the name of the genus to which the species

belongs.

2.Specific epithet

o - Does not have a capital letter

o - Is specific to, or defines the species within the

genus.



Let’s look at how the herb Peppermint is botanically

classified:

• Kingdom: Plantae

• Phylum: Magnoliophyta

• Class: Magnoliopsida

• Order: Lamiales

• Family: Lamiaceae

• Genus: Mentha

• Species: piperita.



• The specific epithet may be used in combination with

different generic names to name different species. It will

often describe the species in some way:

• “piperita” means peppery

• “vulgaris” means common

• “sativa” means “of the fields”

• “tinctora” means it was used as a dye

• “longa” describing the length of leaf, stem etc

• “alba” meaning white

• “odorata” meaning fragrance

• “nigrum” meaning black



•Hundreds of herbs have the specific epithet “officinalis” or

“officinale”

• This is because they were official medicines included in

published Materia Medica (books that tell you how the use

the herbs) at the time Linnaeus set about to give each

species on earth it’s own specific name.

• Taraxacum officinale

• Zingiber officinale

• Rosmarinus officinalis

• Symphytum officinale


Activity

o Refer to the reading:

o “Botanical Latin - The Poetry of Herb Names”

• Find 6 medicinal plants you know, find their Botanical

names and the meaning of their names

• Why does the spelling of the word officinalis / officinale

differ?


Hybrid Plants• Plants of two different species do not usually interbreed

• When interbreeding does occur the offspring is said to be a hybrid.

• Hybrid species have not evolved like other species but have been bred by crossing parents of different species.

• Hybrids are named using both parents names separated by “x”

• Digitalis lutea crossed with Digitalis purpurea would be “Digitalis lutea x D.purpurea.



• Herbalists do not use common names and always use the

herbs scientific name to avoid confusion.

• Dirr’s Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, 5th Edition.

• Nymphaea alba L. (White Waterlily) has:

• 15 common names in English

• 44 common names in French

• 81 common names in German

• – but only one Latin name


The International Code of

Nomenclature for algae, fungi and

plants (ICN)• Most plants have a common name which varies from country to

country and regionally within countries.

• The ICN formalises the convention for the scientific or botanical naming of plants, especially the names of species.

• Formed in 1867, it regularly meets every six years to discuss changes to plant names or the naming of new species.

• According to the ICN, Latin names used in print are either italicised or underlined.

o Example: Mentha x piperita or Mentha piperita


Botanical Names can Change•Classification and names can be changed for 3 reasons:

1. To be consistent with new conventions

2. More information or material becomes available

3. Information is reinterpreted or a different opinion

becomes accepted.

•More information regarding ICN:http://courses.washington.edu/bot113/summer/WebReadings/PdfReadings/BOTANICAL_NOMENCLATURE.pdf

4/7/16

http://courses.washington.edu/bot113/summer/WebReadings/PdfReadings/BOTANICAL_NOMENCLATURE.pdf


These names changed at the last meeting of the ICBN in

2012 in Melbourne & validated by the Australian Register of

Therapeutic Goods as the correct medicinal plant names.

Old Name New Authenticated Name

Aloe barbadensis Aloe vera

Anthemis nobilis Chamaemelum nobile

Cassia senna Senna alexandrina

Cimicifuga foetida Actaea cimicifuga

Cimicifuga heracleifolia Actaea heracleifolia

Cimicifuga racemosa Actaea racemosa

Pulsatilla vulgaris Anemone pulsatilla


Changes to naming of Plant

Families

Common name Former name Current name Typical genus

Parsely family Umbelliferae Apiaceae Apium

Daisy family Compositae Asteraceae Aster

Cabbage family Cruciferae Brassicaceae Brassica

Bean family Leguminosae Fabaceae Faba

Mint family Labiatae Lamiaceae Lamium

Grass family Graminae Poaceae Poa


Next Week

o Preparation:

• Read through the readings supplied, for Session No. 1 if you

haven’t already done so.

• Read the section in your textbook on this area:

– Plant taxonomy

– Nomenclature

– Plant diversity

• Complete this weeks section in your workbook

o Next Week:

• The life cycle of flowering plants

• Seeds – we will be germinating some seeds


Suggested Reading

Clarke, I., & Lee, H. (1987). Name that flower: The identification of

flowering plants. (pp. 50-51). Carlton, Vic: Melbourne University

Press.

Bisset, N., & Wichtl, M. (2004). Herbal Drugs and

Phytopharmaceuticals (2nd ed.). Stuttgart, Germany: Medpharm

Scientific Publishers.

Mauseth, J. (2014). Botany: An introduction to plant biology (5th ed.).

(pp. 440-459). MASS: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.

Stearn, W.T. (2004). Botanical Latin (4th ed.). (pp. 14-38). OR: Timber

Press Publishers.


References

Texts:

Clarke, I., & Lee, H. (1987). Name that flower: The identification of flowering

plants. Carlton, Vic: Melbourne University Press.

Darwin, C.R. (1859). On the Origin of Species. Retrieved from

http://www.literature.org/authors/darwin-charles/the-origin-of-species/

Simpson, M.G. (2006). Plant systematics. MASS, USA: Elsevier Academic

Press.

Tan, E. (2013). Botany of the flowering plants (4th ed.). Preston, Vic: Northern

Melbourne Institute of TAFE.

Wohlmuth, H. (1992). An introduction to botany and plant identification (2nd ed.).

Lismore, NSW: MacPlatypus Productions.

http://www.literature.org/authors/darwin-charles/the-origin-of-species/


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ReferencesPictures:

All pictures, photos and diagrams have been obtained in the public domain or

permission has been given from their owners for display as a resource.Forest, & Starr, K. (2004). Psilotum nudum (habit) [Image]. Retrieved from

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Psilotum_nudum#mediaviewer/File:Starr_04013

1-0017_Psilotum_nudum.jpg

Fern Life Cycle

http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/Resources/Botany/Pteridophytes/Ferns/Fern%20life%20cycle%20.

jpg

Ginkgo pic autumn - http://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/ginkgo-biloba

Keng, T.C. (2007). Close up photo of a dandelion [Image]. Retrieved from

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Top_view_of_a_dandelion.JPG

Nowness, (2013). The plant family tree. Kew Gardens.


Woodard, P. (2011). Tmesipteris truncate [Image]. Avondale Creek Turramurra. Australia. Retrieved

from

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tmesipteris#/media/File:Tmesipteris_truncata_T

urramurra.jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Psilotum_nudum#mediaviewer/File:Starr_040131-0017_Psilotum_nudum.jpg

http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/Resources/Botany/Pteridophytes/Ferns/Fern life cycle .jpg


https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Top_view_of_a_dandelion.JPG

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tmesipteris#/media/File:Tmesipteris_truncata_Turramurra.jpg


COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA

Copyright Regulations 1969

COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA

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