introduction to european studies lectures
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Factors of division in European historyFactors of division in European history
languageslanguagesthe strongest indicators of national identities (without thisthe strongest indicators of national identities (without thisproblem unification of the U.S. was much easier)problem unification of the U.S. was much easier)
overlapping historiesoverlapping histories (mostly regular wars) stressing differences between(mostly regular wars) stressing differences betweencountries rather than unificationcountries rather than unification -- integration is mainly a reactive idea ofintegration is mainly a reactive idea ofending the past conflictsending the past conflicts
colonial pastcolonial past -- colonial interests drove European countries apart from onecolonial interests drove European countries apart from oneanotheranothereven today some countries have closer links with their formereven today some countries have closer links with their formercolonies than with other European countries, e.g.colonies than with other European countries, e.g. the Commonwealth, lathe Commonwealth, laFrancophonieFrancophonie
national identitiesnational identities
religionsreligions
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Factors of division in European historyFactors of division in European history
no single European raceno single European race, instead, instead European nationsEuropean nations
every European state hasevery European state has national minoritiesnational minorities
several European minorities are split with state border lines, eseveral European minorities are split with state border lines, e.g. Irish,.g. Irish,
BasquesBasques
a large number of geographically nona large number of geographically non--European people living in EuropeEuropean people living in Europe
frontier societies in the intermediate landsfrontier societies in the intermediate lands : Balkans, Turkey, Cyprus,: Balkans, Turkey, Cyprus,
MaltaMaltaalways difficult to define their Europeannessalways difficult to define their Europeanness
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Factors of division in European historyFactors of division in European history
Different political structuresDifferent political structures in the past (empires, republics,in the past (empires, republics,dictatorships, all possible political systems). A legacy ofdictatorships, all possible political systems). A legacy ofmonarchies in Europe is the distinction between head of statemonarchies in Europe is the distinction between head of stateand head of government (U.S. does not have such). Today:and head of government (U.S. does not have such). Today: constitutional monarchiesconstitutional monarchies
figurehead presidents, elected or appointed, (Italy, Switzerlanfigurehead presidents, elected or appointed, (Italy, Switzerland, Germany)d, Germany)
dual executive or presidential/parliamentary systemdual executive or presidential/parliamentary system
variety of political parties; different electoral systemsvariety of political parties; different electoral systems
variety of administrative systemsvariety of administrative systems
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Factors of unity in European historyFactors of unity in European history
Europe becameEurope became unifiedunified only in the face ofonly in the face of
invasions or threats from the outside, e.g.invasions or threats from the outside, e.g. the Hunsthe Huns5th c.5th c.
the Arabsthe Arabs7th c.7th c.
the Turksthe Turks15th15th -- 17th c.17th c. the Sovietsthe Soviets20th c.20th c.
However,However, attempts and dreams of unityattempts and dreams of unity havehave
existed since the Early Middle Ages.existed since the Early Middle Ages.
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Europe identificationsEurope identifications
In history there wereIn history there were threethree different identifications of the termdifferent identifications of the termEUROPEEUROPE, rediscovered and reused in the 19th century; all of, rediscovered and reused in the 19th century; all ofthem based on oppositions:them based on oppositions:
1.1. the concept of liberty/freedomthe concept of liberty/freedomancient Greece,ancient Greece,5th c. B.C.5th c. B.C.
2. Christendom2. Christendom15th c. AD15th c. AD
3. Civilization3. Civilization18th c. Enlightenment18th c. Enlightenment
After 1945After 1945 -- INSTUTIONALIZATIONINSTUTIONALIZATION -- the dreamsthe dreamsand attempts are finally and gradually beingand attempts are finally and gradually beingimplemented.implemented.
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LEGEND OF EUROPA IN GREEKLEGEND OF EUROPA IN GREEK
MYTHOLOGYMYTHOLOGY
Legend of Europa is attributed to:Legend of Europa is attributed to:
Moschus of SyracuseMoschus of Syracuse c. 150 B.C.c. 150 B.C. OvidOvidss (43 B.C.(43 B.C.17 A.D.)17 A.D.)MetamorphosesMetamorphoses(2(28 A.D)8 A.D)
Europa was aEuropa was aPhoenicianPhoenicianprincess, daughter of Agenor King ofprincess, daughter of Agenor King ofTyre. She was seduced by Zeus, disguised as a snowTyre. She was seduced by Zeus, disguised as a snow--white bull, andwhite bull, and
swam with her on his back from her homeland in what is nowswam with her on his back from her homeland in what is now
Lebanon to Crete, when she later married the King of Crete. SheLebanon to Crete, when she later married the King of Crete. She
gave birth later to gave birth later to MinosMinos , becoming the progenitrix of the most , becoming the progenitrix of the mostancient branch of Mediterranean civilization.ancient branch of Mediterranean civilization.
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Legend of EuropaLegend of Europa
connotationsconnotations
EuropaEuropas ride wass ride was from the east to the west, i.e.from the east to the west, i.e. from thefrom thesunrise to the sunsetsunrise to the sunset
European culture was transplanted from earlier centers ofEuropean culture was transplanted from earlier centers ofcivilizations of the eastcivilizations of the east
EuropaEuropas ride is a mythical link between Ancient Egypt ands ride is a mythical link between Ancient Egypt and
Ancient GreeceAncient Greece N. Davies (Phoenicia was in the spheres ofN. Davies (Phoenicia was in the spheres ofEgyptian pharaohs)Egyptian pharaohs)
CadmusCadmus, brother of Europa, founded Thebes and introduced, brother of Europa, founded Thebes and introducedGreek alphabet from Phoenicia: the oldest European writingGreek alphabet from Phoenicia: the oldest European writing
systems are in Crete: Linear A and Bsystems are in Crete: Linear A and B European civilization, in fact, sprang out of theEuropean civilization, in fact, sprang out of the MinoanMinoan
civilizationcivilization in Cretein Crete
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EUROPEEUROPE -- EtymologyEtymology
Greek words meaningGreek words meaningbroadbroad ((euryseurys) and) and faceface ((opsops).).
Semitic wordSemitic wordgharoobgharoobwhich meanswhich means "sunset"."sunset". From aFrom aMiddle Eastern viewpoint, the sun sets over Europe,Middle Eastern viewpoint, the sun sets over Europe,c.f. Phoenicianc.f. Phoenician 'ereb'ereb"evening; west" and Arabic"evening; west" and ArabicMaghrebMaghreb,, HebrewHebrewma'ariv, Mount Erebusma'ariv, Mount Erebus
Pheonicians were definitely predecessors of GreekPheonicians were definitely predecessors of Greekcivilization and formed a model for Greeks:civilization and formed a model for Greeks:
coloniescoloniesmostly in the same areasmostly in the same areas moneymoney
political institutionspolitical institutions
writing systemswriting systemsPhenician alphabet was adopted by GreeksPhenician alphabet was adopted by Greeks
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Ancient views of EuropeAncient views of Europe
Homer (8th c. BC)Homer (8th c. BC)
ForFor HomerHomer (8th c. B.C.),(8th c. B.C.), EuropaEuropa (Greek:(Greek: ) was a) was a
mythological queen of Crete, not a geographicalmythological queen of Crete, not a geographicaldesignation.designation.
LaterLater EuropaEuropastood for mainland Greece and by 500 B.C.stood for mainland Greece and by 500 B.C.
its meaning was extended to lands to the north.its meaning was extended to lands to the north.
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Ancient views of EuropeAncient views of Europe
Classical Greece (5thClassical Greece (5th--4th c. B.C.)4th c. B.C.)
Identification with freedom (5th c. BC)Identification with freedom (5th c. BC)
Starting with the Persian Wars in the 5th century; facing the thStarting with the Persian Wars in the 5th century; facing the threat fromreat from
Persia the Greeks start to think about their distinct identityPersia the Greeks start to think about their distinct identityEurope isEurope isbeginning to be definedbeginning to be defined in opposition to Asia.in opposition to Asia.
The Greek cityThe Greek city--states facing the Persian invasion begin to see themselves asstates facing the Persian invasion begin to see themselves asdifferent in terms of:different in terms of: language vs. barbarianslanguage vs. barbarians
customscustoms languagelanguage
religionreligion
andand PRIMARILYPRIMARILYpolitical systempolitical system
IDENTIFICATIONS:IDENTIFICATIONS: GreeceGreece--EuropeEuropeembodiment of freedom and democracyembodiment of freedom and democracyrespect for anrespect for an
individualindividual
Persia/AsiaPersia/Asiaembodiment of despotism and absolute ruleembodiment of despotism and absolute ruleno respect forno respect for
an individualan individual
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Ancient views of EuropeAncient views of Europe
Herodotus (5th c. B.C.)Herodotus (5th c. B.C.)
HerodotusHerodotusfather of historiographyfather of historiographywrote, he didwrote, he did
not know why the world had been considered to benot know why the world had been considered to bedivided intodivided into threethree parts, bearingparts, bearingfemininefeminine names:names:
EuropeEuropemost civilized and the strongestmost civilized and the strongest
AsiaAsiacivilized but politically and militarily weakcivilized but politically and militarily weak
AfricaAfrica
uncivilized, with the exception of Egyptuncivilized, with the exception of Egypt
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Ancient views of EuropeAncient views of Europe
Hippocrates (5thHippocrates (5th--4th c. B.C.)4th c. B.C.)
Defined Europe in opposition to Asia in terms ofDefined Europe in opposition to Asia in terms ofCLIMATECLIMATE
changes in climate were to make people more flexible and activechanges in climate were to make people more flexible and active Climate was to affect political systems and behaviorsClimate was to affect political systems and behaviors
AsiansAsiansmore tamed, less passionate, due to more stable climatemore tamed, less passionate, due to more stable climatefighting to glorify the ruler.fighting to glorify the ruler.
EuropeansEuropeansmore brave, warlike, courageousmore brave, warlike, courageousfighting tofighting to
glorify themselves and fighting for freedomglorify themselves and fighting for freedom
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Ancient views of EuropeAncient views of Europe
Aristotle (4th c. B.C.)Aristotle (4th c. B.C.) AristotleAristotle lived in Greece under Macedonian occupation, whichlived in Greece under Macedonian occupation, which
had an impact on his views of Europe, being generallyhad an impact on his views of Europe, being generallymodification of Hippocratesmodification of Hippocrates..
AsiansAsianswise, skilful but lacked courage, strength of will andwise, skilful but lacked courage, strength of will andremained servantsremained servants
EuropeansEuropeansbarbarians product of cold climate, courageousbarbarians product of cold climate, courageousnot very wise or skillful, independentnot very wise or skillful, independent
GreeksGreekscombined the best features of Asians and Europeanscombined the best features of Asians and Europeans intermediate geographic positionintermediate geographic position
free and courageousfree and courageous
best political institutionsbest political institutions able to rule other peopleable to rule other people
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Ancient views of EuropeAncient views of Europe
Strabo (1st c. B.C.)Strabo (1st c. B.C.)
Greek geographer under Roman ruleGreek geographer under Roman rule
Points for the first timePoints for the first time to theto the diversitydiversity andand
wealth of the continentwealth of the continentcombination ofcombination ofpeacepeace--loving and warlike nations.loving and warlike nations.
Europe is a continent free from foreign rule.Europe is a continent free from foreign rule.
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Europe and the Biblical commentaryEurope and the Biblical commentary
The term EUROPE does not appear in the BibleThe term EUROPE does not appear in the Bible
Indirectly, it appears as a place of identification withIndirectly, it appears as a place of identification with
Christianity (New Testament)Christianity (New Testament)
Europe appears in a number ofEurope appears in a number ofBiblical commentariesBiblical commentaries
andand Christian teachingsChristian teachings
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Noah and his three sonsNoah and his three sons
The Greek tripartite division of the world corresponds to theThe Greek tripartite division of the world corresponds to the
Biblical story of Noah and his three sons, who after the floodBiblical story of Noah and his three sons, who after the floodbecome ancestors of the entire human race:become ancestors of the entire human race:
ShemShem -- SemitesSemites
HamHam -- HamitesHamites
JaphethJaphethJaphethitesJaphethites
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Noah and his three sonsNoah and his three sons
Josephus FlaviusJosephus Flavius,, a Jewish scholar and historian (1sta Jewish scholar and historian (1st
c. AD) (first nonc. AD) (first non--Christian mentioning of Jesus Christ)Christian mentioning of Jesus Christ)locates the descendants of Noahlocates the descendants of Noahs sons in threes sons in three
continents:continents:
ShemShemAsiaAsia SemitesSemites --AsiansAsians
HamHamAfricaAfrica (cursed by Noah)(cursed by Noah) HamitesHamitesAfricansAfricans
JaphethJaphethEuropeEurope JaphethitesJaphethites -- EuropeansEuropeans
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Noah and his three sonsNoah and his three sons
St. Augustine (4thSt. Augustine (4th--5th A.D.)5th A.D.)
With development of the Christian Church this divisionWith development of the Christian Church this division
is further refined, with prophetic implications of theis further refined, with prophetic implications of thenames, bynames, bySt Augustine (4St Augustine (4--5th c A.D.)5th c A.D.)
ShemShemthe named/blessed one (Israel)the named/blessed one (Israel)the place forthe place forJesus to be bornJesus to be born
HamHamhot climate and heresies; his offspring (Canaan)hot climate and heresies; his offspring (Canaan)to be slave to Shem and Japhethto be slave to Shem and Japheth
JaphethJaphethextension of Christianityextension of Christianity
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T and O maps of the worldT and O maps of the world
((orbis terraeorbis terraecircle of the earth)circle of the earth)Most popular world maps of the world in the Middle AgesMost popular world maps of the world in the Middle Ages
referred to the ancientreferred to the ancient triparite division of the worldtriparite division of the world
The world was circularThe world was circular The shapeThe shapeTT signified the Mediterranean Seasignified the Mediterranean Sea
The shapeThe shape OO signified the encirling Oceansignified the encirling Ocean
TheThe center of the world wascenter of the world wasJerusalemJerusalem AsiaAsiaoccupied half of the known worldoccupied half of the known world --Africa and EuropeAfrica and Europe
togethertogether -- the restthe rest
BoundariesBoundaries inin antiquityantiquity
Europe/AsiaEurope/AsiaDon/AzovDon/Azov
Asia/AfricaAsia/Africathe Nilethe Nile Europe/AfricaEurope/Africathe Mediterraneanthe Mediterranean
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Europe and the Roman EmpireEurope and the Roman Empire
(3rd c. B.C.(3rd c. B.C.5th c. A.D.)5th c. A.D.)
For the first timeFor the first time a substantial part of Europea substantial part of Europe isis
brought underbrought under a common system of governmenta common system of government,,although not exclusively European, but centered on thealthough not exclusively European, but centered on theMediterranean with parts in North Africa.Mediterranean with parts in North Africa.
The Roman EmpireThe Roman Empirewas notwas not a region with commona region with commonidentityidentity
If there was any identity it wasIf there was any identity it was ROMANROMAN rather thanrather thanEUROPEANEUROPEAN
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Europe and the Roman EmpireEurope and the Roman Empire
Christianity becoming an identification with EuropeChristianity becoming an identification with Europe
313313 -- Edict of MilanEdict of Milana letter issued bya letter issued by
Constantine the Great proclaiming religiousConstantine the Great proclaiming religioustolerance in the Roman Empiretolerance in the Roman Empire
380380Christianity becomes the official religion ofChristianity becomes the official religion ofthe Roman Empirethe Roman Empire
Rome = Christianity = EuropeRome = Christianity = Europe
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The Roman EmpireThe Roman Empire
Historical divisionsHistorical divisions
10541054Great SchismGreat Schismdivision into Western Catholicism anddivision into Western Catholicism and
Eastern OrthodoxyEastern Orthodoxy
The most durable religious, linguistic, geographical,The most durable religious, linguistic, geographical,
political and cultural division line in Europepolitical and cultural division line in Europe
The East never experienced:The East never experienced:
ReformationReformation CounterCounter--ReformationReformation
RenaissanceRenaissance
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Europe and the Roman EmpireEurope and the Roman Empire
Common European legacyCommon European legacy
LATINLATINlanguage of religion, education and diplomacy until the 17thlanguage of religion, education and diplomacy until the 17thcenturycentury
Roman lawRoman lawthe basis and terminology of todaythe basis and terminology of todays legal systems ins legal systems inEuropeEurope
Institutions of administrationInstitutions of administration
Networks of roadsNetworks of roads across the continentacross the continent
Relative toleranceRelative tolerance
Rome although destroyed,Rome although destroyed, stillstill recognized asrecognized as spiritual capitalspiritual capital ofofEuropeEurope
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Perceptions of Europe in the Middle AgesPerceptions of Europe in the Middle Ages
Europe becomes perceived as a unity ONLY in the faceEurope becomes perceived as a unity ONLY in the face
of different invasions from the outside, e.g.of different invasions from the outside, e.g.
8th8thArabsArabs
10th10thMagyarsMagyars
1111thth-- (until the 17th century)(until the 17th century)Saracens and TurksSaracens and Turks
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Arabs and EuropeArabs and Europe8th century8th century
8th century8th century-- Europe finds itself under the threat of ArabEurope finds itself under the threat of Arab
invasions; the Iberian Peninsula will remain occupied by theinvasions; the Iberian Peninsula will remain occupied by the
Arabs until 1492.Arabs until 1492.
732732 the Battle of Tours (Poitiers)the Battle of Tours (Poitiers) the Arab army isthe Arab army isdefeated by European knights underdefeated by European knights under Charles the MartelCharles the Martel, after, after
crossing the Pyrenees into Francecrossing the Pyrenees into France -- the Arab expansion intothe Arab expansion intoEurope is stoppedEurope is stoppedturning point in European historyturning point in European history
Dominant position of Christianity in Europe is ensuredDominant position of Christianity in Europe is ensured
Chronicles of the battle talk only aboutChronicles of the battle talk only about European knightsEuropean knights
without a division into subjects of particular kings.without a division into subjects of particular kings.
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Charlemagne and the Holy Roman EmpireCharlemagne and the Holy Roman Empire
800800the pope places Rome under protection of one rulerthe pope places Rome under protection of one rulerCHARLEMAGNECHARLEMAGNEwho becomes crowned as the king of thewho becomes crowned as the king of theFrankish Kingdom but also as the firstFrankish Kingdom but also as the first Holy Roman EmperorHoly Roman Emperor
HOLY ROMAN EMPIREHOLY ROMAN EMPIRE as a continuation of the Romanas a continuation of the Romanlegacy (legacy (title kept by the German kings untiltitle kept by the German kings until18061806))
Voltaire,Voltaire, neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empireneither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire
Charlemagne described in poems as:Charlemagne described in poems as: Rex Pater EuropaeRex Pater Europae(king father of Europe)(king father of Europe)
Europae Veneranda ApexEuropae Veneranda Apex(venerable crown of Europe)(venerable crown of Europe)
EUROPE in the times of Charlemagne seems to indicateEUROPE in the times of Charlemagne seems to indicateonly the sphere of power.only the sphere of power.
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The CrusadesThe Crusadesa peculiar union of Europeansa peculiar union of Europeans
11th century11th centurydue to attacks by Turks against Byzantinedue to attacks by Turks against ByzantineEmpire and the Holy LandEmpire and the Holy Landthe Emperor calls for help.the Emperor calls for help.
Pope Urban IIPope Urban II issues theissues the first crusadefirst crusade at theat the Council ofCouncil ofClermontClermont10951095.. 1099 Jerusalem is captured and small1099 Jerusalem is captured and small
Christian princedoms are established in the East.Christian princedoms are established in the East.
In his speech Urban II refers toIn his speech Urban II refers tothe tripartite division ofthe tripartite division of
the world.the world.
CRUSADESCRUSADES -- although wrong, help to unite Europeansalthough wrong, help to unite Europeans
behind the single causebehind the single cause
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Pierre Dubois (1250Pierre Dubois (1250--1312)1312)
a vision of united Europea vision of united Europe
A French publicist and lawyerA French publicist and lawyer
13061306De recuperatione terrae sanctaeDe recuperatione terrae sanctaea work advocating aa work advocating aEuropean league of nations led by FranceEuropean league of nations led by France
princes and cities of Europe should formprinces and cities of Europe should forma confederala confederal Christian RepublicChristian Republic
it should be overseen by a permanent assemblyit should be overseen by a permanent assembly a panel of judges with the Pope acting as the final court ofa panel of judges with the Pope acting as the final court of
appealappeal
Disputes settled by artbitration, NOT warDisputes settled by artbitration, NOT war
Universal educationUniversal education
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Two identifications of Europe in the 15th centuryTwo identifications of Europe in the 15th century
I. RES PUBLICA CHRISTIANAI. RES PUBLICA CHRISTIANA
Pope Pius II at the time tries to unite Europe against thePope Pius II at the time tries to unite Europe against the
Turks, made an officialTurks, made an official equation between Europe andequation between Europe and
community of Christianscommunity of Christians, based on the same faith., based on the same faith.
The concept disappears as theThe concept disappears as the 16th century brings16th century brings
REFORMATIONREFORMATION and split of Christianity in Europe.and split of Christianity in Europe.The time of religious warsThe time of religious wars -- the era of single Europeanthe era of single European
ChristendomChristendom is gone.is gone.
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Two identifications of Europe in the 15th centuryTwo identifications of Europe in the 15th century
II. RES PUBLICA LITTERARIAII. RES PUBLICA LITTERARIA
Due to development ofDue to development of humanismhumanism in Europe,in Europe,
people come back to the classics, read thepeople come back to the classics, read the samesame
written works of common heritagewritten works of common heritage and form anand form anintellectual bond throughout the continent.intellectual bond throughout the continent.
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Jiri z Podebrad (George of Podebrady) (1458Jiri z Podebrad (George of Podebrady) (1458--71)71)
The idea ofThe idea ofConfederation of EuropeConfederation of Europeoror ChristianChristian
LeagueLeague
Hussite King of Bohemia opposed to Catholic Habsburgs andHussite King of Bohemia opposed to Catholic Habsburgs and
the Pope.the Pope.
Suggested aSuggested a panpan--European Christian leagueEuropean Christian league to oppose theto oppose the
growing Ottoman threatgrowing Ottoman threat, based on loyalty to the state rather, based on loyalty to the state ratherthan to the Church.than to the Church.
Sent an envoy on a tour of European courts to promote thisSent an envoy on a tour of European courts to promote thisideaidea
Commonly considered to beCommonly considered to be the earliest proponent of thethe earliest proponent of theEuropean UnionEuropean Union
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Jiri z Podebrad(George of Podebrady)Jiri z Podebrad(George of Podebrady)
The idea ofThe idea ofConfederation of EuropeConfederation of Europeoror ChristianChristian
LeagueLeague
a plan remarkably similar to the EU:a plan remarkably similar to the EU:
assemblyassembly meeting regularly and moving its seat every fivemeeting regularly and moving its seat every fiveyears (years (like the European Parliamentlike the European Parliament))
college of permanent memberscollege of permanent members using majority vote (using majority vote (like thelike theEuropean CommissionEuropean Commission))
council of kings and princescouncil of kings and princes ((like the European Councillike the European Council))
a court to adjudicate disputesa court to adjudicate disputes ((like the European Court oflike the European Court ofJusticeJustice))
BALANCE OF POWER
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BALANCE OF POWERBALANCE OF POWER16th16th--19th century19th century
One of theOne of the oldestoldest European doctrinesEuropean doctrines
A doctrine assuming A doctrine assumingjust equilibriumjust equilibrium between nationsbetween nationsintended to prevent any one nation from becomingintended to prevent any one nation from becomingsufficiently strong so as to enable it to enforce its willsufficiently strong so as to enable it to enforce its will
upon the rest.upon the rest.
AA guiding motiveguiding motive for visions of Europe until the 19thfor visions of Europe until the 19th
century, expressed by various thinkers.century, expressed by various thinkers.
19th century19th centurythe balance of power is obscured due tothe balance of power is obscured due tonational uprisings and ultimately leads to World Warnational uprisings and ultimately leads to World War
OneOne
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Peace of Westphalia 1648Peace of Westphalia 1648
First treaty betweenFirst treaty between sovereign independent European statessovereign independent European states
recognition of states based onrecognition of states based on territorial sovereigntyterritorial sovereignty
tremendous fragmentation of Germanytremendous fragmentation of Germany rise of France as the dominant European powerrise of France as the dominant European power
concept ofconcept ofreasons of statereasons of state
religious freedom and tolerationreligious freedom and toleration confirmation of the earlierconfirmation of the earlierPeace of AugsburgPeace of Augsburgcuius regio, eius religiocuius regio, eius religio
Regarded asRegarded as thethe beginning of the modern system ofbeginning of the modern system ofinternational relationsinternational relations secular concept of internationalsecular concept of internationalrelationsrelations replacing for ever the medieval idea of a religiousreplacing for ever the medieval idea of a religiousauthority acting as a final arbiter of Christendomauthority acting as a final arbiter of Christendom -- in the 19thin the 19thand 20th century the Westphalia system became a global oneand 20th century the Westphalia system became a global one
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Maximilien de BMaximilien de Bthune, Duc de Sully (1560thune, Duc de Sully (1560--1641)1641)
a visionary of European unificationa visionary of European unification
French minister suggesting the Grand Design of aFrench minister suggesting the Grand Design of a
confederacy of 15 equal European Christian republicsconfederacy of 15 equal European Christian republicsafter defeat of Habsburg Austria and Spainafter defeat of Habsburg Austria and Spain MemoirsMemoirs(1638)(1638)
Very Christian Council of EuropeVery Christian Council of Europe charged withcharged withresolving differences and disposing of a common armyresolving differences and disposing of a common army
The CouncilThe Councilwas to consist of 66 members, serving 3was to consist of 66 members, serving 3--year termyear term
CHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEUCHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEU
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CHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEUCHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEU
Persian LettersPersian Letters(1721)(1721)
An epistolary novelAn epistolary novela fictional travel log of two Persian travelers toa fictional travel log of two Persian travelers toParisParisa satirical view of Louis XIVa satirical view of Louis XIVs France and Europe in generals France and Europe in general
one of the first objective images of Europe using a rhetorical mone of the first objective images of Europe using a rhetorical means of aeans of adiary of someone else, reflecting many Enlightenment views:diary of someone else, reflecting many Enlightenment views: Criticism of social classesCriticism of social classes
Comparison of Christianity and IslamComparison of Christianity and Islam
Criticism of Roman CatholicismCriticism of Roman Catholicism
Europe is seen as a source of constant surprises to the PersiansEurope is seen as a source of constant surprises to the Persians
Montesquieu offers a CULTURAL definition of Europe:Montesquieu offers a CULTURAL definition of Europe: quicker pace of lifequicker pace of life
dynamismdynamism
capitalismcapitalism
mobilitymobility
different mentalitiesdifferent mentalities
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CHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEUCHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEU
The Spirit of LawsThe Spirit of Laws(1748)(1748)
I.I. Classification of governmentsClassification of governments on the basis ofon the basis of
the government manner of conducting policythe government manner of conducting policy
republicanrepublicanbased on virtuebased on virtue monarchicalmonarchicalbased on honorbased on honor
despoticdespoticbased on fearbased on fear
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CHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEUCHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEU
The Spirit of LawsThe Spirit of Laws(1748)(1748)
II.II. Separation of powersSeparation of powersthree branches of power,three branches of power,
each independent:each independent:
LegislativeLegislative
ExecutiveExecutive
JudicialJudicial
Different variations in moden EuropeDifferent variations in moden Europethe most clearthe most clear--
cut implementation in the United Statescut implementation in the United States
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CHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEUCHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEU
The Spirit of LawsThe Spirit of Laws(1748)(1748)
III. Political influence of climateIII. Political influence of climateclimate is besidesclimate is besides
laws, government maxims, and religion, an important factorlaws, government maxims, and religion, an important factorinfluencing the outlook of societyinfluencing the outlook of society
France has the ideal climateFrance has the ideal climate
In Europe there is an extensive temperate zone,In Europe there is an extensive temperate zone,
climate influences formation of stronger statesclimate influences formation of stronger states thatthatcan regain freedom more easily (unlike in Asiacan regain freedom more easily (unlike in Asiahothotclimate leads to laziness prone to despotism)climate leads to laziness prone to despotism)
Visions of Europe in the 17th and 18th centuryVisions of Europe in the 17th and 18th century
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Visions of Europe in the 17th and 18th centuryVisions of Europe in the 17th and 18th century
By the end of the 18th century, Europe as a common idea is takenBy the end of the 18th century, Europe as a common idea is taken forforgranted.granted.
Christianity is still important butChristianity is still important but no longerno longer synonymous withsynonymous with EuropeEurope --the idea isthe idea is CIVILIZATIONCIVILIZATION-- understood as all achievements ofunderstood as all achievements ofEuropeans.Europeans.
Association betweenAssociation between Europe and civilizationEurope and civilizationwas based on:was based on:
ideas ofideas ofthe Enlightenmentthe Enlightenment and progressand progress: Europeans have: Europeans havereached an ideal state.reached an ideal state.
belief that natives in colonies may no longer be converted tobelief that natives in colonies may no longer be converted toChristianity BUT ALSO to European civilization (to be fullyChristianity BUT ALSO to European civilization (to be fullydeveloped in the 19th century, e.g. Rudyard Kipling)developed in the 19th century, e.g. Rudyard Kipling)
belief that CIVILIZATION can ONLY be EUROPEANbelief that CIVILIZATION can ONLY be EUROPEAN
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Visions of Europe in the 17th and 18th centuryVisions of Europe in the 17th and 18th century
18th century also saw emergence of18th century also saw emergence ofphilosophersphilosophers andand thinkersthinkers often perceived asoften perceived as
distant fathers of the League of Nations and thedistant fathers of the League of Nations and the
UN. Many of their ideas were later incorporatedUN. Many of their ideas were later incorporated
in practice.in practice.
Vi i f E i h 1 h d 18 h
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Visions of Europe in the 17th and 18th century:Visions of Europe in the 17th and 18th century:
William Penn (1644William Penn (1644--1718)1718)
The founder ofThe founder ofPennsylvaniaPennsylvania (1681) and author of(1681) and author ofthethe Frame of GovernmentFrame of Government(1682)(1682)
advocated universal tolerance (being a Quaker)advocated universal tolerance (being a Quaker)
An Essay Towards the Present Peace in EuropeAn Essay Towards the Present Peace in Europe(1693)(1693)advocating the idea ofadvocating the idea ofEuropean Parliament:European Parliament:
threethree--fourth majorityfourth majorityvote in caser of disputes (similar tovote in caser of disputes (similar toqualified majority votingqualified majority votingsystem of todaysystem of todays EU institutions)s EU institutions)
votes weighed according to the countriesvotes weighed according to the countries economic power:economic power:
Germany 12, France 10, England 6, etc.Germany 12, France 10, England 6, etc.
Visions of Europe in the 17th and 18th century:Visions of Europe in the 17th and 18th century:
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Visions of Europe in the 17th and 18th century:Visions of Europe in the 17th and 18th century:
CharlesCharles--IrIrnne Castel, Abbe de Sainte Castel, Abbe de Saint--Pierre (1658Pierre (1658--1743)1743)
French influential writer and radicalFrench influential writer and radical
Projet de paix perpProjet de paix perptuelletuelle(1713)(1713)proposition of anproposition of aninternational organization for maintaining peace in Europeinternational organization for maintaining peace in Europe -- aaconfederation with a permanent arbitration council.confederation with a permanent arbitration council.
Suggested establishment ofSuggested establishment offree tradefree trade andand European SenateEuropean Senate
His ideas were later to inspire Frederich Schiller to writeHis ideas were later to inspire Frederich Schiller to writeOde to JoyOde to Joywhichwhichsung to Beethovensung to Beethovens Ninth Symphonys Ninth Symphonyhas become the European anthem.has become the European anthem.
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The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the CitizenThe Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen(1789)(1789)
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gg ( )( )
Sources and inspirations:Sources and inspirations:
Magna CartaMagna CartaLibertatum (Libertatum (1215)1215)
Habeas Corpus ActHabeas Corpus Act(1679)(1679) John LockeJohn Lockenatural rightsnatural rights
Charles Louis MontesquieuCharles Louis Montesquieuseparation of powersseparation of powers
J.J. RousseauJ.J. Rousseausocial contractsocial contract
The Declaration of Independence of the United StatesThe Declaration of Independence of the United States(1776)(1776)
The Virginia Declaration of RightsThe Virginia Declaration of Rights(1776)(1776)
U.S. Bill of RightsU.S. Bill of Rightsadopted at the same timeadopted at the same time (1789)(1789)
The Declaration is aThe Declaration is a codificationcodification of earlier ideas common toof earlier ideas common to
Europeans.Europeans.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the CitizenThe Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen(1789)(1789)
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gg ( )( )
COMMENTARYCOMMENTARY
initially representedinitially represented mostly the interests of the middle clasmostly the interests of the middle classs
Failure to:Failure to:
Mention womenMention womens rightss rights
Revoke the institution of slaveryRevoke the institution of slavery
Ideas reflected in:Ideas reflected in:
all European constitutionsall European constitutions
The Universal Declaration of Human RightsThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights(1948)(1948)United NationsUnited Nations The European Convention of Human RightsThe European Convention of Human Rights(1950)(1950)Council ofCouncil of
EuropeEurope
The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European UnionThe Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union(2000)(2000)European UnionEuropean Union
L f h F h R l iL f th F h R l ti
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Legacy of the French RevolutionLegacy of the French Revolution
PropagandaPropaganda
Revolutionary propaganda makes reference to theRevolutionary propaganda makes reference to the
concept of Europe:concept of Europe:
For supporters:For supporters:
Europe equals citizenship and the rights of manEurope equals citizenship and the rights of man
For opponents:For opponents:
Europe was the previous status quo before theEurope was the previous status quo before therevolutionrevolutiona community larger than a state.a community larger than a state.
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Europe and Napoleon BonaparteEurope and Napoleon Bonaparte
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p p pp p p
LegacyLegacy
French institutions and laws introduced all over the continentFrench institutions and laws introduced all over the continent
thethe Napoleonic CodeNapoleonic Code still being the basis for continentalstill being the basis for continental
legal systemslegal systemscoherence of law and administrationcoherence of law and administration
Rise of nationalist feelingsRise of nationalist feelings (to be seen in force in the 19th(to be seen in force in the 19th
century), either:century), either:
in support of Napoleon, e.g.in support of Napoleon, e.g. PolandPoland
in opposition to Napoleon, e.g.in opposition to Napoleon, e.g. GermanyGermany
Concert of Europe or the Congress SystemConcert of Europe or the Congress System
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p g yp g y
The concept ofThe concept ofconference diplomacyconference diplomacya system ofa system ofinternational conferences to be held at time of crises by the Fiinternational conferences to be held at time of crises by the FiveveGreat Powers, i.e. United Kingdom, France, Austria, Prussia andGreat Powers, i.e. United Kingdom, France, Austria, Prussia andRussiaRussia (elements still used today)(elements still used today)
diplomatic protocol establisheddiplomatic protocol established
the Concert came to an end duringthe Concert came to an end duringthethe Crimean War (1853Crimean War (1853--56)56)
often seen today as theoften seen today as the first world security orderfirst world security order
IntroducedIntroduced great powers stabilitygreat powers stability (visible later in the League of(visible later in the League ofNations and the UN)Nations and the UN)
MaintainedMaintained only the status quoonly the status quonot a vehicle for reformnot a vehicle for reform
Holy AllianceHoly Alliance
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y
inspired byinspired byTsar Alexander ITsar Alexander I, signed by, signed byAustria, Prussia and RussiaAustria, Prussia and Russia
An alliance based on Christian principles by all European rulersAn alliance based on Christian principles by all European rulers, except, except
for:for: the United Kingdom, Turkey and the Pope.the United Kingdom, Turkey and the Pope.
Reactionary, antiReactionary, anti--liberal, very loose association to ensure the old order inliberal, very loose association to ensure the old order inEuropeEurope
Prevention of nationalism, liberalism, democracy and secularismPrevention of nationalism, liberalism, democracy and secularismand, if necessary, military intervention in other countries (e.and, if necessary, military intervention in other countries (e.g.g.November Uprising, Spring of NationsNovember Uprising, Spring of Nations))for the fear of the Holyfor the fear of the Holy
Alliance MonroeAlliance Monroes Doctrine was formulated in America.s Doctrine was formulated in America.
In the rhetoric of the Holy Alliance the concept ofIn the rhetoric of the Holy Alliance the concept ofEUROPAEUROPACHRISTIANACHRISTIANAreappears as a new ideal attempted to be destroyed byreappears as a new ideal attempted to be destroyed by
atheism and the French Revolution.atheism and the French Revolution.
Spring of Nations 1848Spring of Nations 1848
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Wave of revolutions and demands of change across theWave of revolutions and demands of change across thecontinent affecting all countries apart fromcontinent affecting all countries apart fromRussiaRussiaThe Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman EmpireThe United KingdomThe United KingdomThe NetherlandsThe Netherlands
Idealistic withIdealistic with a multitude of aims:a multitude of aims: social, economic, liberalsocial, economic, liberaland nationaland national
aimed at democratization in the interest of particular smalleraimed at democratization in the interest of particular smallernations within larger empiresnations within larger empires
All upheavals brutally supressedAll upheavals brutally supressed
We have been beaten and humiliated . . . scattered, imprisoned,We have been beaten and humiliated . . . scattered, imprisoned, disarmeddisarmedandand gagged. The fate of European democracy has slipped from ourgagged. The fate of European democracy has slipped from ourhands.hands.
Pierre Joseph ProudhonPierre Joseph Proudhon(1809(1809--1865)1865)anarchist ideologueanarchist ideologue
Spring of NationsSpring of Nations
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Spring of NationsSpring of Nations
Victor Hugo (1802Victor Hugo (1802--85)85)
In the rhetoric of the Spring of Nations,In the rhetoric of the Spring of Nations, the concept of Europethe concept of Europebecomes present in pronouncements, manifestations, leaflets.becomes present in pronouncements, manifestations, leaflets.
In 1849, speaking at the Paris International Peace Conference,In 1849, speaking at the Paris International Peace Conference,Victor HugoVictor Hugo favoured:favoured:
A supreme sovereign senate, which will be to Europe whatA supreme sovereign senate, which will be to Europe whatParliament is to EnglandParliament is to England
The nations of Europe, without losing their distinctiveThe nations of Europe, without losing their distinctive
qualities orqualities orglorious individuality, will merge closely into aglorious individuality, will merge closely into ahigher unity and will form the fraternity of Europehigher unity and will form the fraternity of Europe Two hugeTwo huge
groups will be seen,groups will be seen, the United States of Americathe United States of AmericaandandthetheUnited States of Europe,United States of Europe, holding out hands to one anotherholding out hands to one another
across the ocean.across the ocean.
Perceptions of European integration afterPerceptions of European integration after
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Perceptions of European integration afterPerceptions of European integration after
WWIWWI A lesson learntA lesson learnt is to prevent Great War fromis to prevent Great War from
happening again,happening again, institutionalizationinstitutionalization of Europeanof European
unity not only SHOULD but MUST be placed inunity not only SHOULD but MUST be placed inpractice.practice.
Discussion about European unity starts involvingDiscussion about European unity starts involvingnotnotonly intellectuals but also politicians.only intellectuals but also politicians. Europeans areEuropeans aremore receptive to the ideas of unity because theymore receptive to the ideas of unity because theyremember the horrors of WWI.remember the horrors of WWI.
Interwar period brings new and hopeful internationalInterwar period brings new and hopeful international
projects, flood of publications, all of them fail, butprojects, flood of publications, all of them fail, butpoint to the need of institutionalization to be fullypoint to the need of institutionalization to be fullyimplemented after 1945.implemented after 1945.
N (1860N (1860 1919)1919) G li i l d i l h i hi b kG li i l d i l h i hi b k
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Naumann (1860Naumann (1860--1919)1919)German political and social theorist, his bookGerman political and social theorist, his book
MitteleuropaMitteleuropa
(1915) (BESTSELLER) provided the vision of a postwar German(1915) (BESTSELLER) provided the vision of a postwar German
cultural and economic imperium in central Europe, providing Germcultural and economic imperium in central Europe, providing Germany wins.any wins. positive view of Germanypositive view of Germanys winning the wars winning the war justification of Germanyjustification of Germanys war aimss war aims need to transform the link between Austria and Germany into a cuneed to transform the link between Austria and Germany into a cultural,ltural,
economic and political neareconomic and political near--unificationunificationa global power in Europea global power in Europe assumption that France and Russia would pose no threat in the fuassumption that France and Russia would pose no threat in the futureture MITTELEUROPAMITTELEUROPA Basically, hegemonic plan of creation of an overstate (OberstadtBasically, hegemonic plan of creation of an overstate (Oberstadt) which will) which will
guarantee a common market and good defence, around the core of Gguarantee a common market and good defence, around the core of Germanyermany--
Austria. Loose confederation.Austria. Loose confederation. Membership:Membership: Germany (in the shape in 1915, incl. Belgium, Poland, Courland aGermany (in the shape in 1915, incl. Belgium, Poland, Courland and northernnd northern
France)France)featuring precision and harmonyfeaturing precision and harmony AustriaAustria--Hungary (in the shape in 1915, incl. Ukraine)Hungary (in the shape in 1915, incl. Ukraine)good taste andgood taste and
harmonyharmony Balkan states (natural joining)Balkan states (natural joining) Italy (possibly?, natural joining)Italy (possibly?, natural joining)
MASARYK TomasMASARYK Tomas Czech philosopher and politician; afterCzech philosopher and politician; after
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MASARYK, TomasMASARYK, TomasCzech philosopher and politician; afterCzech philosopher and politician; after
1918 became the first President of Czechoslovakia.1918 became the first President of Czechoslovakia. For the duration of WWI he was in Britain and USA (advisingFor the duration of WWI he was in Britain and USA (advising
and inspiring Thomas Woodrow Wilson); the condition forand inspiring Thomas Woodrow Wilson); the condition forcreation of democratic states in Europecreation of democratic states in Europedismemberment of thedismemberment of theAustrian empire.Austrian empire.
In Britain he published an influential magazine calledIn Britain he published an influential magazine called The NewThe NewEuropeEurope,, in 1918 published in a book form.in 1918 published in a book form.
For Masaryk, new European democratic states (incl.For Masaryk, new European democratic states (incl.Czechoslovakia) would serve as a buffer, insulation betweenCzechoslovakia) would serve as a buffer, insulation between
Germany and Russia (not democratic in MasarykGermany and Russia (not democratic in Masaryks view)s view)futurefuturein small European states.in small European states.
Democratic states must function on two levels:Democratic states must function on two levels: individualindividualfreedom of individual citizens (not guaranteed byfreedom of individual citizens (not guaranteed by
Russia, Germany or Austria)Russia, Germany or Austria) collectivecollectivenation states must interact democratically.nation states must interact democratically. Also, minorities should be protected under the internationalAlso, minorities should be protected under the international
rule.rule.
MasrykMasryks models included: France, Britain, USAs models included: France, Britain, USA
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MasarykMasaryks and Naumanns and Naumanns ideas seemed verys ideas seemed very
different, showing two different understandingsdifferent, showing two different understandingsof European unity:of European unity:
NaumannNaumanncentralization (Oberstadt)centralization (Oberstadt)
MasarykMasarykincreased autonomyincreased autonomy
Both were very SINCERE in their proposals,Both were very SINCERE in their proposals,
but neglected the possibility of war emergingbut neglected the possibility of war emergingfrom these two visions.from these two visions.
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Count Richard CoudenhoveCount Richard Coudenhove--KalergiKalergiss
I.I.The PanThe Pan--European Union (1922)European Union (1922)a pressure group fora pressure group for
tangible solutions of international agreements. The aim was totangible solutions of international agreements. The aim was tocreate a supranational, federal Europecreate a supranational, federal Europe -- UNITED STATES OFUNITED STATES OFEUROPEEUROPE
After WWII, it was continued by theAfter WWII, it was continued by the European MovementEuropean Movement
(formal association took place in 1952)(formal association took place in 1952) European MovementEuropean Movementinternational organization a pressureinternational organization a pressure
group with its own institution: International Councilgroup with its own institution: International Council
Present at many congresses in history of European integrationPresent at many congresses in history of European integrationespecially Paneuropean Congress in 1926especially Paneuropean Congress in 1926
It achieved however merely a fringe group statusIt achieved however merely a fringe group status
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Arms race among European states = permanent state of crisis, toArms race among European states = permanent state of crisis, toid iid i
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avoid it:avoid it: Proposal of a fourProposal of a four--stage process to achieve European union:stage process to achieve European union: a conference of representatives from 26 European statesa conference of representatives from 26 European states the agreement of treaties for the settlement of European disputethe agreement of treaties for the settlement of European disputess development of a customs uniondevelopment of a customs union drafting of a federal European constitutiondrafting of a federal European constitution English becoming the common second language for EuropeEnglish becoming the common second language for Europe
(observing its growing dominant role in the world).(observing its growing dominant role in the world). PANEUROPA functions:PANEUROPA functions: common defensecommon defensePaneuropean alliancePaneuropean alliance European courtsEuropean courtslegal institutions to introduce obligatorylegal institutions to introduce obligatory
arbitrationarbitration Common European marketCommon European marketabolishment of trade and customsabolishment of trade and customs
barriersbarriers Creation of SMALL nation statesCreation of SMALL nation stateseach nation should be able toeach nation should be able to
create its own nation statecreate its own nation state Common European Magna Carta of ToleranceCommon European Magna Carta of Tolerancefor protectionfor protection
of national minorities in Europe.of national minorities in Europe.
The Briand Memorandum 1930The Briand Memorandum 1930
Memorandum on the Organisation of a System ofMemorandum on the Organisation of a System of
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Memorandum on the Organisation of a System ofMemorandum on the Organisation of a System of
European Federal UnionEuropean Federal Union
Document calling for a EuropeanDocument calling for a EuropeanFEDERATION WITHINFEDERATION WITHIN the League ofthe League ofNations, on behalf of France, based on:Nations, on behalf of France, based on:
a permanent regime ofa permanent regime ofsolidaritysolidaritybased on internationalbased on internationalagreements for the rational organization of Europeagreements for the rational organization of Europe
moral union of Europemoral union of Europe
the general subordination of the economic problem to thethe general subordination of the economic problem to the
political onepolitical one
The Briand Memorandum 1930The Briand Memorandum 1930
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The Briand Memorandum 1930The Briand Memorandum 1930
first usage of terms:first usage of terms: common marketcommon marketandand EuropeanEuropeanUnionUnion
Listing specific policy needs, e.g. transListing specific policy needs, e.g. trans--EuropeanEuropeantransporttransport
Creation of two bodies:Creation of two bodies:
1.1. Permanent Political CommitteePermanent Political Committee for executivefor executivedecisionsdecisions
2.2. European ConferenceEuropean Conference for debatefor debate
Europe and World War TwoEurope and World War Two
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During the warDuring the warvisions ofvisions ofFEDERALFEDERAL EuropeanEuropeanunity are present to prevent or end the conflictunity are present to prevent or end the conflict
the war was a boost to European federalismthe war was a boost to European federalism
Attention is paid to Britain, as the only EuropeanAttention is paid to Britain, as the only European
power to fight Germanypower to fight Germany
19391939Labour leaderLabour leader Clement AttleeClement Attlee (1883(1883--
1967):1967):
Europe must federate or perishEurope must federate or perish
The Federal UnionThe Federal Union
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A BRITISH intellectual group founded in 1938 toA BRITISH intellectual group founded in 1938 to
campaign for European unity as the last hopecampaign for European unity as the last hope
Still lobbying for European federationStill lobbying for European federation
During the war Federal Union publications helpedDuring the war Federal Union publications helped
unite antiunite anti--fascists all over Europefascists all over Europe
The Ventontene Manifesto (1941)The Ventontene Manifesto (1941)
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Towards a Free and United EuropeTowards a Free and United Europe One of the first federalist programs for afterwar Europe draftedOne of the first federalist programs for afterwar Europe drafted byby
Altiero SpinelliAltiero Spinelli andand Ernesto RossiErnesto Rossileaders of resistance againstleaders of resistance againstMussolini based on the British federalist ideas:Mussolini based on the British federalist ideas:
the clean precise thinking of the English federaliststhe clean precise thinking of the English federalists
If a post war order is established in which each state retains iIf a post war order is established in which each state retains itstscomplete national sovereignty, the basis for a Third World Warcomplete national sovereignty, the basis for a Third World Warwould still exist even after the Nazi attempt to establish thewould still exist even after the Nazi attempt to establish thedomination of the German race in Europe has been frustrateddomination of the German race in Europe has been frustrated
Called for a secret grouping of Resistance leaders from eight coCalled for a secret grouping of Resistance leaders from eight countries,untries,including Germanyincluding Germanylater gave rise to the European Union oflater gave rise to the European Union of
FederalistsFederalists
PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII Europe
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INSTITUTIONALIZATIONINSTITUTIONALIZATION to prevent anotherto prevent anotherwarwarcomplex and painful until todaycomplex and painful until today
WWII leaves the continent in ruinWWII leaves the continent in ruinINTEGRATIONINTEGRATIONis the most creative answer to what become of Europeis the most creative answer to what become of Europe
Emergence ofEmergence oftwo new superpowerstwo new superpowersEuropeans inEuropeans inthe middle, uncertain about their own security.the middle, uncertain about their own security.
Postwar reconstruction effort is a STRONG NEWPostwar reconstruction effort is a STRONG NEWARGUMENT for unification of the continent.ARGUMENT for unification of the continent.
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SovietSoviet--ledled integrationintegration of Eastern and Centralof Eastern and CentralEuropeEurope
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EuropeEurope
The Warsaw Pact or Warsaw Treaty Organization (1955The Warsaw Pact or Warsaw Treaty Organization (1955--1991)1991)
Set against potential NATO threatSet against potential NATO threatin fact beingin fact beinga nuclear threat to Europe during the Cold Wara nuclear threat to Europe during the Cold War
Immediate causeImmediate causeadmission (admission (remilitarizationremilitarization))of West Germany into NATO in 1955of West Germany into NATO in 1955
Treaty signed in the Presidential Palace inTreaty signed in the Presidential Palace inWarsawWarsaw
The Warsaw PactThe Warsaw Pact
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The Supreme Command was always SovietThe Supreme Command was always Soviet
Activities:Activities:
19561956Hungarian RevolutionHungarian Revolution 19681968Prague SpringPrague Spring
Interventions justified by theInterventions justified by the Brezhnev DoctrineBrezhnev Doctrine (1968)(1968)::
"When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the devel"When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of someopment of somesocialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a probsocialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of thelem of thecountry concerned, but a common problem and concern of all sociacountry concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialistlist
countries."countries."
The Warsaw PactThe Warsaw Pactdisintegrationdisintegration
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19881988Gorbachev'sGorbachev'sSinatra DoctrineSinatra Doctrine
19891989the Autumn ofthe Autumn ofNationsNations
19911991formalformaldissolutiondissolution
PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII EuropeYugoslaviaYugoslavia
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YugoslaviaYugoslavia
Remaining independentRemaining independentleader of the nonleader of the non--alignedalignedmovementmovement
Bloody disintegration and ethnic cleansing in the 1990sBloody disintegration and ethnic cleansing in the 1990s
PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII EuropeFranceFrance
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it had gone to war with Germany, three times in less thanit had gone to war with Germany, three times in less thana century!!!a century!!!
destabilized after the war: both by war damage anddestabilized after the war: both by war damage andcollaboration (Vichy)collaboration (Vichy)
facing further blows at bloody decolonization (Indochinafacing further blows at bloody decolonization (Indochina1954, Suez 1956, Algeria 1960)1954, Suez 1956, Algeria 1960)
perceived as an initiator of many European projects,perceived as an initiator of many European projects,but not necessarily federalbut not necessarily federal
PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII Europe
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GermanyGermany tremendous destruction,tremendous destruction,introversion and guiltintroversion and guilt
occupied by allied powersoccupied by allied powers((19491949West GermanyWest Germany andand
East GermanyEast Germany))
Reunification inReunification in 19901990
thanks to Konrad Adenauerthanks to Konrad AdenauerWest Germany is drivenWest Germany is driven
towards full integration intowards full integration in
many field withmany field withwestern allieswestern allies
PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII EuropeAustriaAustria
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divided into Allied zones of occupation until 1955divided into Allied zones of occupation until 1955
relatively undamagedrelatively undamaged
in 1955 independence and declaration of neutralityin 1955 independence and declaration of neutrality-- economicallyeconomically
pulled towards the westpulled towards the west
PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII Europe
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ItalyItaly
similar to Germany, tremendous destruction,similar to Germany, tremendous destruction,
introversion and guiltintroversion and guilt
Prime MinisterPrime MinisterAlcide de Gasperi'sAlcide de Gasperi's (1945(1945--53)53)propro--European policies lead to Italy's integrationEuropean policies lead to Italy's integration
with Europewith Europe
PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII Europe
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the United Kingdomthe United Kingdom its resistance to Nazism strengthened the British sense ofits resistance to Nazism strengthened the British sense of
national identitynational identity
wealthier and more powerful than France and Germany,wealthier and more powerful than France and Germany,
however heavily destroyedhowever heavily destroyed
beginning of decolonization; however,beginning of decolonization; however, the Commonwealththe Commonwealth
remains more important to the British and Europeanremains more important to the British and Europeanmatters are initially sidelinedmatters are initially sidelined
PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII Europe
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IrelandIreland
neutral during the warneutral during the war
economically tied to Britaineconomically tied to Britain
PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII Europe
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Spain and PortugalSpain and Portugal
Both neutral during the warBoth neutral during the war
Emerged poor and politically marginalizedEmerged poor and politically marginalized
fascist governments:fascist governments:
SpainSpainFrancisco Franco since 1939Francisco Franco since 1939
PortugalPortugalAntonio Salazar since 1928.Antonio Salazar since 1928.
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PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII Europe
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Low CountriesLow Countries
all occupied by the Germansall occupied by the Germans
19441944the threethe threegovernmentsgovernments--inin--exile inexile inLondon agree to promoteLondon agree to promote
economic cooperation aftereconomic cooperation afterthe warthe war
after the war the threeafter the war the three
governments becomegovernments becomeconcerned about theirconcerned about theirinability to protectinability to protectthemselvesthemselves
PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII EuropeBeneluxBenelux
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19481948Benelux CustomsBenelux CustomsUnionUnion
19581958 -- Benelux EconomicBenelux EconomicUnion signed (operative inUnion signed (operative in1960)1960)
Treaty of Rome (1957) explicitlyTreaty of Rome (1957) explicitlyprovided for the Benelux Unionprovided for the Benelux Unionwithin a wider communitywithin a wider community
20062006the Beneluxthe BeneluxOrganization of IntellectualOrganization of IntellectualPropertyProperty
PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII EuropeScandinaviaScandinavia
19461946 -- Committee onCommittee onLegislative CooperationLegislative Cooperation
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unification of national lawsunification of national lawsunified and encouraging aunified and encouraging acommon Nordic position in thecommon Nordic position in theworldworld
19521952NORDIC COUNCILNORDIC COUNCIL
signed bysigned byDenmark,Denmark, Sweden,Sweden,
IcelandIceland andand NorwayNorway
FinlandFinland joined in 1956joined in 1956
later dependent territorieslater dependent territorieswere admitted:were admitted: Greenland,Greenland,
Aland Islands, Faroe IslandsAland Islands, Faroe Islands
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STAGES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATIONSTAGES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION
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Stage I (1945Stage I (19451951)1951)::
the end of WWIIthe end of WWII -- foundation offoundation ofthe European Coal andthe European Coal andSteel CommunitySteel Community
Stage II (1951Stage II (1951 -- 1957)1957)::
formation of the ECSCformation of the ECSCTreaties of RomeTreaties of Rome (foundation of(foundation ofthe European Economic Communitythe European Economic Communityandand the Euratomthe Euratom))
Stage III (1958Stage III (19581967)1967)::coming into force of the Treaties of Romecoming into force of the Treaties of Romethe Mergerthe Merger
TreatyTreaty
STAGES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATIONSTAGES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION
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Stage IV (1967Stage IV (19671973):1973): the Merger Treatythe Merger Treatythe 1st enlargementthe 1st enlargement
Stage V (1973Stage V (1973 -- 1979):1979): the 1st enlargementthe 1st enlargementthe European Monetary Systemthe European Monetary System
(ecu)(ecu)
Stage VI (1979Stage VI (19791981):1981): EMS/ecuEMS/ecuthe 2nd enlargementthe 2nd enlargement
STAGES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATIONSTAGES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION
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Stage VII (1981Stage VII (1981 -- 1987):1987):
the 2nd enlargementthe 2nd enlargementthe Single European Actthe Single European Act
Stage VIII (1987Stage VIII (19871993):1993): he Single European Acthe Single European Actthe Treaty on European Unionthe Treaty on European Union
Stage IX (1993Stage IX (19931995):1995): the Treaty of European Unionthe Treaty of European Unionthe 4th enlargementthe 4th enlargement
STAGES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATIONSTAGES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION
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Stage X (1995Stage X (19951997):1997):
thethe 4th enlargement4th enlargementthe Treaty of Amsterdamthe Treaty of Amsterdam
Stage XI (1997Stage XI (19972002):2002):the Treaty of Amsterdamthe Treaty of Amsterdamthe European Councilthe European Council
Summit in CopenhagenSummit in CopenhagenStage XII (2002Stage XII (20022004):2004):the Copenhagen Summitthe Copenhagen Summitthe 5th enlargementthe 5th enlargement
STAGES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATIONSTAGES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION
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Stage XIII (2004Stage XIII (20042007):2007):
the 5th enlargementthe 5th enlargementthe 6th enlargementthe 6th enlargement
Stage XIV (December 13, 2007Stage XIV (December 13, 2007 -- ?):?):The European Union Reform TreatyThe European Union Reform Treaty-- ??????
Winston ChurchillWinston Churchill
The Sinews of Peace SpeechThe Sinews of Peace Speechoror Iron Curtain SpeechIron Curtain Speech
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Neither the sure prevention of war, nor the continuous rise of wNeither the sure prevention of war, nor the continuous rise of worldorldorganisation will be gained without what I have calledorganisation will be gained without what I have calledthe fraternalthe fraternalassociation of the Englishassociation of the English--speaking peoples. This means aspeaking peoples. This means aspecialspecialrelationshiprelationship between the British Commonwealth and Empire andbetween the British Commonwealth and Empire andthe United States.the United States.
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, anFrom Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an IRONIRONCURTAINCURTAINhas descended across the Continent. Behind that line,has descended across the Continent. Behind that line,lie all the capitals of the ancient states of central and easterlie all the capitals of the ancient states of central and eastern Europen Europe Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade,Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade,Bucharest, and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populationBucharest, and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populationssaround them lie in what I must callaround them lie in what I must call the Soviet spherethe Soviet sphere (...) This is(...) This isnot the liberated Europenot the liberated Europewhich we fought to build up.which we fought to build up.
Westminster College, Fulton, MissouriWestminster College, Fulton, MissouriMarch 5, 1946March 5, 1946
Winston ChurchillWinston ChurchillThe United States of Europe SpeechThe United States of Europe Speech
University of Zurich SwitzerlandUniversity of Zurich Switzerland September 19 1946September 19 1946
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University of Zurich, SwitzerlandUniversity of Zurich, SwitzerlandSeptember 19, 1946September 19, 1946
We must build a kind of United States of Europe. In this way only
will hundreds of millions of toilers be able to regain the simple
joys and hopes which make life worth living. The process is
simple. All that is needed is the resolve of hundreds of millions of
men and women to do right instead of wrong and to gain as their
reward blessing instead of cursing.
Much work, Ladies and Gentlemen, has been done upon this taskby the exertions of the Pan-European Union which owes so much
to Count Coudenhove-Kalergi and which commanded the services
of the famous French patriot and statesman Aristide Briand.
The Marshall Plan or European Recovery ProgramThe Marshall Plan or European Recovery Program
(announced 1947; implemented Apr 1948(announced 1947; implemented Apr 1948 Dec 1951)Dec 1951)
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(announced 1947; implemented Apr 1948(announced 1947; implemented Apr 1948-- Dec 1951)Dec 1951)
U.S.U.S.--sponsored program designed to rehabilitate thesponsored program designed to rehabilitate theeconomies ofeconomies of17 European17 European nations in order to createnations in order to create
stable conditions in which democratic institutions couldstable conditions in which democratic institutions couldsurvive.survive.
Background:Background:
great need in Europe for capital investmentgreat need in Europe for capital investmentTHETHEUSA: the readiest source of capitalUSA: the readiest source of capital
US point of view:US point of view:
reconstruction of Europe vital to its own economic interestsreconstruction of Europe vital to its own economic interests fear that postwar poverty, unemployment and dislocation mayfear that postwar poverty, unemployment and dislocation may
appeal to communist partiesappeal to communist parties
THE MARSHALL PLANTHE MARSHALL PLAN
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The U.S.S.R. early on withdrew from participation in the plan,The U.S.S.R. early on withdrew from participation in the plan,however, and was soon followed by the other eastern Europeanhowever, and was soon followed by the other eastern Europeannations under its influence.nations under its influence.
This left the following countries to participate in the plan:This left the following countries to participate in the plan:
Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Iceland, Ireland,Italy,Italy,Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden,Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden,Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, West Germany.Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, West Germany.
THE MARSHALL PLANTHE MARSHALL PLAN
U.S. sideU.S. side
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ECONOMIC COOPERATION ADMINISTRATIONECONOMIC COOPERATION ADMINISTRATION(ECA)(ECA)
a specially created bureau, distributed over the next four yearsa specially created bureau, distributed over the next four yearssomesome $13 billion$13 billionworth of economic aid, helping to restoreworth of economic aid, helping to restoreindustrial and agricultural production, establish financialindustrial and agricultural production, establish financial
stability,stability,and expand trade.and expand trade.
oneone--fourth of funds earmarked for Britainfourth of funds earmarked for Britain
oneone--fifth of funds earmarked for Francefifth of funds earmarked for France
THE MARSHALL PLANTHE MARSHALL PLAN
European sideEuropean side
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COMMITTEE OF EUROPEAN ECONOMICCOMMITTEE OF EUROPEAN ECONOMICCOOPERATIONCOOPERATION
later replaced bylater replaced by
Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC)Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC)and then byand then by
Organization for Economic Cooperation andOrganization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (OECD 1960)Development (OECD 1960)
THE MARSHALL PLANTHE MARSHALL PLAN
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TheThe Marshall PlanMarshall Planwas very successful; the several westernwas very successful; the several westernEuropean countries experienced a rise in their gross nationalEuropean countries experienced a rise in their gross nationalproducts of 15 to 25 percentproducts of 15 to 25 percent
It has no peer in the history of enlightened selfIt has no peer in the history of enlightened self--interestinterest(N. Davies)(N. Davies)
Definite help to economic and political recovery in EuropeDefinite help to economic and political recovery in Europe
Binding closely economic and political interests between theBinding closely economic and political interests between theUSUS
and Europeand Europe
Very profitable investment for the USVery profitable investment for the US
It encouraged Europeans to work together:It encouraged Europeans to work together:
European integration will be based on the west.European integration will be based on the west.
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THE HAGUE CONGRESS 1948THE HAGUE CONGRESS 1948
It called for:It called for:
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It called for:It called for:
recognition ofrecognition ofsupranationalitysupranationalityneed for states toneed for states tosurrendersurrender
part of their sovereignty in the interests of commonpart of their sovereignty in the interests of commoninstitutionsinstitutions
political and economic unionpolitical and economic union
European AssemblyEuropean Assembly
European Court of Human RightsEuropean Court of Human Rights
liaison committee to keep the aims of the Congress aliveliaison committee to keep the aims of the Congress alive
THE HAGUE CONGRESS 1948THE HAGUE CONGRESS 1948
ConsequencesConsequences
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EUROPEAN MOVEMENT 1948EUROPEAN MOVEMENT 1948
COUNCIL OF EUROPECOUNCIL OF EUROPEMay 5, 1949May 5, 1949
COLLEGE OF EUROPE in Bruges (later secondCOLLEGE OF EUROPE in Bruges (later second
campus in Natolin)campus in Natolin) -- 19491949
Theories of integration in EuropeTheories of integration in Europe
THE HAGUE CONGRESS
1948
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Federalists Unionists
Unionists ConfederalistsConstitutionalists Functionalists
Neo-functionalists
1958
FEDERALISTSFEDERALISTS
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need to establish aneed to establish a suprantational organizationsuprantational organization
pooling of sovereigntypooling of sovereigntywith supranational institutionswith supranational institutions strong, federal executivestrong, federal executive
supranational parliament appointed from nationalsupranational parliament appointed from nationalassembliesassemblies
authority division into European (central), national,authority division into European (central), national,
regional, local(regional, local(todaytodays Committee of Regionss Committee of Regions))
FEDRALISTSFEDRALISTS
major basismajor basis:: ChurchillChurchills Zurich speech 1946s Zurich speech 1946
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major basismajor basis:: ChurchillChurchills Zurich speech 1946s Zurich speech 1946
idea followed byidea followed byItaly, West Germany, BeneluxItaly, West Germany, Benelux
idea opposed byidea opposed byFrance and BritainFrance and Britain (for different reasons though);(for different reasons though);e.g.e.g. federalistfederalistwas deleted from the Treaty of Maastricht due towas deleted from the Treaty of Maastricht due toBritish pressureBritish pressure
federalist ideas included in many treaties and institutionsfederalist ideas included in many treaties and institutions (EC,(EC,Council, Commission, ECJ)Council, Commission, ECJ)
SUPPORTERS:SUPPORTERS: Winston Churchill, Altiero Spinelli, KonradWinston Churchill, Altiero Spinelli, Konrad
Adenauer, Walter Hallstein, Paul H. Spaak, Duncan SandyAdenauer, Walter Hallstein, Paul H. Spaak, Duncan Sandy
UNIONISTSUNIONISTS
British ledBritish led
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European integration = cooperation of sovereignEuropean integration = cooperation of sovereignstatesstates
European Parliament should not be supranational but aEuropean Parliament should not be supranational but acoordinative body of European integrationcoordinative body of European integration
Institutions:Institutions:
European ConferenceEuropean Conferencemembers nominated bymembers nominated bynational governmentsnational governments Council of MinistersCouncil of Ministersadvisory bodyadvisory body NATONATOin charge of European defencein charge of European defence OECEOECEin charge of economic issuesin charge of economic issues
SUPPORTERS: Ernest Bevin, Clement AttleeSUPPORTERS: Ernest Bevin, Clement Attlee
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FUNCTIONALISTSFUNCTIONALISTS
S l i iS t l i t ti f l l if t l l ti
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Sectoral integrationSectoral integrationprocess of natural selectionprocess of natural selectionand evolutionand evolution
Primary objective:Primary objective: economy with benefits for alleconomy with benefits for all
ECONOMY BEFORE POLITICSECONOMY BEFORE POLITICS
Pooling of sovereignty should be gradual andPooling of sovereignty should be gradual andspontaneousspontaneousparticular functions of states willparticular functions of states will
be transferred to European institutions, ifbe transferred to European institutions, ifobjectively necessaryobjectively necessary-- INVISIBLE HANDINVISIBLE HAND ofofintegrationintegration
FUNCTIONALISTSFUNCTIONALISTS
E i ill h h t ill b b tt f iE i ill h h t ill b b tt f i
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Experience will show what will be better for economicExperience will show what will be better for economicintegrationintegration
Results of economic integration will NATURALLY leadResults of economic integration will NATURALLY leadto integration in all other areasto integration in all other areas
Main basis: David Mitrany's definition:Main basis: David Mitrany's definition: Functionalism isFunctionalism isan attempt to link authority to a specific activity, to break awan attempt to link authority to a specific activity, to break awayayfrom the traditional link between authority and a definite terrifrom the traditional link between authority and a definite territorytory
Third way between federalism and unionismThird way between federalism and unionism
SUPPORTERS:SUPPORTERS: de Gasperi, Monnet, Schumande Gasperi, Monnet, Schuman(Schuman's(Schuman'sDeclaration is of functionalist nature)Declaration is of functionalist nature)
NEOFUNCTIONALISTSNEOFUNCTIONALISTS
Criticism of the functionalists' division between politicsCriticism of the functionalists' division between politics