Serkan SAYINER, DVM PhD, Assist. Prof.Near East University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Biochemistry

serkan.sayiner@neu.edu.tr

Biochemistry I

1. Introduction to Biochemistry and Biophysical chemistry

2. Bioelements

3. Carbohydrates

4. Lipids

5. Proteins

6. Nucleic Acids

7. Enzymes

Course Content

Glycogen

Hemoglobin

Lipoprotein

DNA,

Nucleobases

1. Ası T (1999). Tablolarla Biyokimya I ve II, Nobel Tıp Kitapları Dağıtım, Ankara.

2. Kalaycıoğlu L, Serpek B, Nizamlıoğlu M, Başpınar N, Tiftik A. (2000). Biyokimya, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara.

3. Karagül H, Altıntaş A, Fidancı UR, Sel T (1999). Temel Biyokimya Uygulamaları. Medisan Yayınevi, Ankara.

4. Engelking LR (2014). Textbook of Veterinary Physiological Chemistry. 3rd Edition. Academic Press.

5. Lehninger AL, Nelson Dl, Cox MM (2012). Principles of Biochemistry, 6th Edition, United States of America.

6. Nizamlıoğlu M, Kurtoğlu F, Başpınar N, Altunok V, Haliloğlu S, Bulut Z (2013). Biyokimya Laboratuvar Uygulamaları. Aybil Yayınları, Konya.

7. Rodwell V, Bender D, Botham KM, Kennelly PJ, Weil PA (2015). Harpers Illustrated Biochemistry 30th Edition. McGraw-Hill Education

8. Sözbilir Bayşu N, Bayşu N (2008). Biyokimya, Güneş Kitabevi.

References

• Purpose;

▫ To recognize and identify chemical events related to living

cells.

▫ To foresee how life begins, how it develops and how it will

evolve.

▫ To be able to make use of technological developments and to

perform them.

• Scope;

▫ Biochemical events that occur anywhere in your life.

Purpose and Scope

1. What are the chemical structures of the components of living organisms?

2. How chemical components interact with the formation of organized structure of cells, multicellular tissues and organisms?

3. How do living things get energy from their environment to survive?

4. How to store and transmit the information needed for growth and reproduction of an organism?

5. What chemical changes occur in reproduction, aging and death of the organism?

6. How to control chemical reactions in living cells?

What questions does Biochemistry respond to?

Genetic

Molecular

Biology

Toxicology

ImmunologyMicrobiology

Virology

Endocrinology

Physiology

Pharmacology

Biochemistry

Clinical

Biochemistry

Cells during biochemical events

1. Nucleolus2. Nucleus3. Ribosomes4. Vesicle5. Granular ER6. Golgi Device7. Cell Membrane8. ER without granules9. Mitochondrion10. Koful/Vakuol11. Cytoplasm12. Lysosome13. Centrosomes

Kaynak: WikiMedia

Golgi Apparatus: Protein storage, secretion

Gra.ER & Ribosomes : Protein Synthesis

Smooth ER: LipidSynthesis

Lysosome: ProteolyticEnzymes, Esterases, Glycosidases

Mitochondria: TCA, β-Oxidation, Urea Synthesis, Electron Transport, Oxidative Phosphorylation Nucleus: Nucleic Acid

Synthesis

Cell Membrane: Receptors, transport

Cytoplasm: Glycolysis, Glyconeogenesis, Pentosecycle

GlucoseFatty acidsMineralsVitaminsAmino acids

WaterCarbon dioxideSynthesis Products

Kaynak: WikiMedia

Basic materials Examples % g

Water - 60

Nitrogen

compoundsProteins, peptides, amino acids, nucleic acids 19

Lipids Neutral oils, sterilizers, phospholipids, candles 15

Carbohydrates Monosaccharides, polysaccharides, amino sugars 1

Minerals Macro and micro (trace) elements 5

Basic materials in an organism

Science Branch Examination level

Anatomy Macroscopic

Histology Microscopic

Physiology Macro-Microscopic

Biochemistry Molecular

Levels of study of organism structure of basic science branches

Water, Important Biophysical Events

Biophysical Chemistry

▪ Water is an indispensable factor in

life.

▪ There is a living thing that can sustain

a lightless or oxygen-free existence,

but there is no living creature that

can protect its life without water.

▪ In adult living organisms, 60-70% of

body weight differs by the amount of

water in individual organs and tissues.

Water

OrganWater

Ratio%

Total Body

Water Share %

Eye 98 0.1

Blood 79 5

Muscle 77 50

Skin 72 7

Skeleton 22 12

Fat 15 2

Teeth 10 < 0.1

• Total amount of body water is fixed for every living thing.

There are regulatory mechanisms that provide protection for

this constant.

• There is an inverse relationship between water fluctuations and

the organizing grade of living being.

• Since metabolic changes are continuous and not uniform, there

is no method that measures the total body water of a living

being.

Water

• The H atoms in the water molecule are asymmetrically located because their electrons are scattered irregularly. For this reason, the formation of two heavily charged molecules, which give a constant dipole character in the water molecule, causes the molecule to polarize in a certain way.

Oxygen Van der Waals radius = 1.2 Angstrom

Van der Waalssheath

O-H covalent bond spacing = 0.958 Angstrom

Physical and Chemical Properties of Water

• The individual water molecules have the potential to become a regular

associative because of the formation of hydrogen bridges. For this

reason, the main structure brings the tetrahedral structure of the

molecule, which is coordinated with four water molecules. Formation of

water alone is referred to as semi-crystallization or ice structure.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Water

• If a substance is dissolved in water, it will undergo substantial

changes.

•All the ions in the aqueous solution are in hydrated form,

where the cations attract the negative charge center (oxygen)

of the water molecule and the anions attract the positive

charge center (H) of the water dipole.

• The count of the charged particles of an attached water molecule is related

to its radius. Small ions bind water more strongly than large ions.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Water

Cl- Na+

1. It is the building block of macromolecules.

➢ Many complex compounds, such as polysaccharides, proteins and

nucleic acids, have the ability to hold water regularly. The

macromolecule and the water molecule are linked by hydrogen bonds.

2. A good building block for small molecules.

➢ It is a solvent in which many metabolism events occur in the water,

where the substrates are transported, and metabolism events are the

result of eliminating many residual products.

Biological Functions of Water

3. Good substrate and co-substrate.

➢Water participates in many reactions of metabolism. Hydrolase and

hydratase group enzymes require water as co-substrate; Oxidases,

respiratory enzymes produce water as a reaction product (oxidation

water).

4. Regularly manages energy.

➢Hydrogen bonds can change to covalent bonds when hydrated, or

vice versa.

Biological Functions of Water

5. It is a good body temperature regulator.

➢The water has a high melting point and evaporation heat.

➢The evaporation of a small amount of water in the organism causes

a lot of heat loss.

➢This is the cooling effect of the body. The emergence of water

vapor through the skin and lungs constitutes an important

mechanism of body temperature regulation.

Biological Functions of Water

• Intracellular Liquid (Intracellular Fluid-ICF): The basic cation of intracellular fluid is K (also found in Na and Mg), its basic anions are P and proteinate. The intracellular fluid contains 70% of the organism water.

• Extracellular Fluid (Extracellular Fluid-ECF): The basic cation of extracellular fluid is Na. K, Ca, Mg are also found. The basic anions are Cl and HCO3

-. It covers 30%.▫ Intercellular (Interstitial): % 20

▫ Intravasal: % 10

• Compartments have a constant water exchange. However, the amount of water varies within a narrow limit.

Functional Distribution of Water

• Free Water (Unbound water)

▫ It is found in body fluids like blood, lymph, CSF, synovial fluid.

• Bound Water

▫ Hydrate Water: Water bound to macromolecules like ions, proteins,

carbohydrates by H bridges.

▫ Intermolecular Water: It is found in fibers and membranes

(connective tissue) and lost its fluidity.

Water Availability

• Exogenous Water▫ It is the Water that is ingested with the foodstuff and drinks.

▫ Exogenous water was made isotonic in the digestive tract. Most of

them are absorbed from the small intestine, the remaining large

intestine (colon).

▫ The water taken into the bloodstream is transported to the tissues

and stored in the interstitial fluid.

▫ When sheep are fed with watery grasses, they can live without

drinking water.

▫ Horses require an additional 40-50 liters of water per day, despite

the water they receive and/or water produced in metabolism.

Metabolism of Water

Kaynak: Ası T. Tablolarla Biyokimya I

• Endogenous Water

▫ It is the water obtained by metabolic events. It also called as

Metabolic water.

▫ It is obtained from the oxidation of hydrogen in organic

materials.

▫ The amount of water synthesized in this way depends on the

nature of the foodstuffs.

▫ Number of hydrogen atoms are directly proportional with the

amount water produced (more hydrogen, more water).

Metabolism of Water

Kaynak: Ası T. Tablolarla Biyokimya I

• Water is excreted mainly in urine.

• In addition, water is also excreted with the body in

stool, saliva, nasal secretions, tears, genital secretions,

sweating and lungs.

• Especially in lactating cows and lactating women,

significant amounts of water are excreted with milk.

• The most important disorders of water metabolism are

water loss (dehydration), water intoxication due to

excessive intake, edema and shock.

Metabolism of Water

Kaynak: Ası T. Tablolarla Biyokimya I

• There is continuous water exchange between the cellular

compartments.

▫ Vasal → Interstitial, interstitial → intracellular.

• The amount of water in compartments is within narrow limits.

• The forces that cause water to move between compartments

are;

▫ Osmotic Pressure,

▫ Colloid Osmotic Pressure (Oncotic Pressure),

▫ Hydrostatic Pressure.

Metabolism of Water

• Osmotic Pressure

▫ The osmotic pressures of intervasal, interstitial, and cellular

compartments result from the concentration of certain particles

with osmotic potency and reach 300-400 mVal/L in all

compartments.

▫ 0.15 (0.85%) M NaCl = Osmotic Pressure of Body Fluids

Such solutions are called isotonic or isoosmotic solutions.

Metabolism of Water

• Colloid Osmotic Pressure

▫ Proteinous substances in the plasma can not pass through the cell

membrane.

▫ In plasma, the concentration of proteins is five times higher than

that of intercellular fluid.

▫ Part of the osmotic pressure in the capillaries is formed by these

proteins.

▫ This is called the oncotic pressure or colloid osmotic pressure,

which is caused by the colloid materials that can not pass through.

Metabolism of Water

• Hydrostatic Pressure▫ Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at

equilibrium at a given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity.

▫ There is a hydrostatic pressure fluctuation that is caused by a continuous fluid flow between the interstitial space of veins and tissues.

▫ Because the hydrostatic pressure on the arterial side is much, the blood is filtered toward the tissue (filtration), and on the venous side, the hydrostatic pressure is small, so the tissue is absorbed into the blood.

Metabolism of Water

• Looking at the water balance, it is seen that as the age increases, the amount of water taken decreases and the half-life increases.

• Young people have more water excretion.

• The main organ involved in the water balance is the kidneys. Apart from this, the intestinal tract, skin and lungs have also involved.▫ In the kidneys, 1 mL of urine is removed per hour for

approximately 1 kg body weight.

Metabolism of Water

• Polyhydri : The body is the absolute increase in water. It is especially related to the interstitial space (edema)

Venous stasis, heart failure, hypoproteinemia..

• Hyperhydri:It is the relative increase of body water.▫ It is seen in situations such as excessive water intake or adrenal

insufficiency.

• Oligohydri: It is the absolute decline of body water. Excessive sweating, urination, vomiting, diarrhea.

• Hypohydri: Relative decrease of body water. Electrolyte is seen in case of increase in quantity.

Metabolism of Water

Dehydration

• DIFFUSION

▫ It is the net movement of molecules or atoms from a region of high

concentration (or high chemical potential) to a region of low

concentration (or low chemical potential).

▫ This is also referred to as the movement of a substance down a

concentration gradient.

▫ In this case, as the particles become smaller and the heat

increases, the diffusion speed increases.

▫ There is no membrane between the two phases in the diffuser.

Important Biophysical Events

High concentration Low concentration

• The Importance of DIFFUSION

▫ Diffusion plays key roles in the matter exchange of organism,

▫ Oxygen flow from the air to the blood and then to tissues,

▫ Passage of foodstuffs into the bloodstream and,

▫ Spreading of drugs where they are injected.

Important Biophysical Events

Source: Wiki

• OSMOTIC PRESSURE

▫ Osmosis is the movement of water from an area of low concentration of solute

to an area of higher concentration of solute. A solute is atoms, ions, or

molecules dissolved in a liquid. The rate of osmosis is determined by the total

number of particles dissolved in the solution. The more particles dissolved, the

faster the rate of osmosis.

▫ If a membrane is present, water will flow to the area with the highest

concentration of solute. Osmotic pressure is the pressure created by water

moving across a membrane due to osmosis. The more water moving across the

membrane, the higher the osmotic pressure.

Important Biophysical Events

Source: Chemwiki.UCDavis

Source: Wiki

Source: Chemwiki.UCDavis

• The importance of OSMOTIC PRESSURE

▫ The osmotic pressures of intracellular and extracellular fluids in humans

and animals are equivalent to the osmotic pressure of 0.9% (0.85%) NaCl

solution.

▫ Cells and blood cells maintain their normal functioning in this neutral

environment with this osmotic pressure.

▫ Intravenous serum and injections must always be solutions with this

osmotic pressure.

▫ Use of physiological saline instead of water for treatment of delicate

membranes such as eyes and nasal cavities prevents any pain.

Important Biophysical Events

Source: Cooljargon

• DIALYSIS

▫ It is the separation of large

complex molecules through

a membrane that allows

small, simple molecules

other than water or ions to

pass through.

Important Biophysical Events

Source: SchoolWorkHelper

• The importance of DIALYSIS

▫ Used as a preparative step in electrophoresis techniques in

laboratories.

▫ Forms the principle of artificial kidney devices.

▫ It is partly due to the fact that the articles are now thrown out of

the body.

▫ In laboratories, diphtheria and tetanus antitoxins are dialysed from

their excess electrolytes.

Important Biophysical Events

Kaynak: SchoolWorkHelper

• SURFACE TENSION

▫ The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are

responsible for the phenomenon known as surface

tension.

▫ The molecules at the surface do not have other

like molecules on all sides of them and

consequently they cohere more strongly to those

directly associated with them on the surface.

▫ This forms a surface "film" which makes it more

difficult to move an object through the surface

than to move it when it is completely submersed.

Important Biophysical Events

• SURFACE TENSION

▫ Surface tension allows insects (e.g. water

striders), usually denser than water, to float and

stride on a water surface.

▫ Bile makes lipids particles clear to the effect of

lipase by reducing the surface tension of lipids.

Important Biophysical Events

• The Importance of Surface Tension▫ Without surface tension, even the smallest objects would sink

underwater. The large particles of dust would not float on the

water, but instead the particles would sink to the bottom and kill

all of the marine life, causing the collapse of ecosystems.

▫ Water particles at the atomic level help keep the cell membrane

from collapsing on itself. Water is a critical component in

cytoplasm (the jelly-like substance that fills the cell), this means

that the surface tension of water allows the cytoplasm to hold-up

the cell membrane. If the pressure is too extreme, then the water

breaks down the cell membrane and the cell "drowns".

Important Biophysical Events

• The Importance of Surface Tension▫ The high surface tension of water is also essential for processes

such as water and blood transport in plants and animals respectively. The concave motion of the surface of the water allows it to be "pulled up" by plants from the ground.

▫ Overall, surface tension is a necessary property that contributes tremendously to our lives. I have not even started to explain the relevance that surface tension has with modern technologies (raincoats, car wax, etc.). Substances that increase surface tension: Inorganic materials.

Substance reducing substances: Organic substances such as oil, soap, bile.

Important Biophysical Events

• ADSORPTION

▫ It is an effect associated with surface tension

▫ All surfaces in an environment have unbalanced force fields and

free valences.

▫ These surfaces can bind other molecules to themselves. This is

called adsorption.

▫ Adsorption is directly proportional to surface width and amount

of adsorbing material, inversely proportional to ambient heat.

Important Biophysical Events

• ADSORPTION

▫ A substance that attracts other materials or particles to its surface

is called an adsorbent.

▫ Adsorption methods are often used to separate and purify certain

substances from mixtures.

Large molecules and colored substances are adsorbed by animal

charcoal and other adsorbents and are distinguished from those solved.

The color of the urine can be destroyed by rinsing with animal

charcoal, which is a good adsorbent.

Hormones and enzymes are adsorbed by Al2O3 at a specific pH and can

be separated from each other when they change pH.

Important Biophysical Events

• DECREASED FREEZING POINT

▫ Dissolved substances reduce the freezing point of the solvent in

which they dissolve.

▫ If 1 mole of a non-ionizing substance is dissolved in 1 liter of water,

the water freezing point is reduced by 1.86°C.

▫ Osmotic pressure can be calculated from the drop of the freezing

point.

▫ It is calculated in this way whether the water is added or not.

Important Biophysical Events

Disperse Systems, Protective Colloids, Molar and Equivalent

Concentrations, Percentage Solutions.

Solutions

• The term "Disperse System" refers to a system in which one

substance (the dispersed phase) is distributed, in discrete units,

throughout a second substance (the continuous phase or

vehicle).

• There are 3 types of disperse system depending on the size of

disperse phase particles.

▫ True Solutions

▫ Collaidal Solutions/Dispersion

▫ Suspensions/Dispersion

Disperse System

Disperse SystemsTrue Solution Colloidal Solution Suspensions

It has particles

<1 nm.

It has particles

between 1 and 100 nm.

It has particles

>100 nm .

Homogeneous mixture. Heterogeneous mixture. Heterogeneous mixture.

Behaves like a third unit other than

soluble and solvent.

Low viscosity. Viscosity is high. Viscosity is veryhigh.

Osmotic pressure is high. Osmotic pressure is low. Does not show osmotic pressure.

When the light passes, the definition of

the light is illuminated

When light passes, it gets foggy. This is

called tyndall effect.

Particles can not be seen even with the

most powerful optical and electronic

systems

Particles can be seen with an electron

microscope.

Particles can be seen with light

microscopy or even with the eye.

Particles make molecular movements. Brownian motion is seen in particles.Slow Brownian motion is seen in the

particles.

Filtering the particles through the filter

paper is not possible by dialysis.

The particles are separated by filtration

through filter paper, separated by

dialysis.

The particles is separated by filtration

through filter paper or by dialysis.

Brownian Motion Tyndall Effect

Important terms of the colloidal state

Disperse PhaseColloidal solution is given to the particles of solute in the

solution.

Dispersion Medium The solvent in the colloidal solution is given to the liquid.

Suspensoid (Lyophobic system)

Colloid particles do not have affinity to the molecules of solvent

Mostly complexes of inorganic particles which do not have affinity

to the solvent.

HydrophobicIn the case of Suspension, the dispersion medium is called

hydrophobic.

Emulsoid (Lyophilic System)a mixture of two or more immiscible liquids, one liquid (the

dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the continuous phase).

HydrophilicIf the dispersion medium is water in emulsified , such system is

called hydrophilic.

Disperse Systems

Viscosity states of emulsions

SOL

The viscosity is low,

Close to the true solution,

is called a colloidal system that

can flow from one vessel to

another.

GEL

Viscosity increased,

Taking a jellylike shape,

It is called colloids which must

be pressurized to provide

fluidity.

Disperse Systems

• Emulsoids are much more durable than suspensoids.

• If a small amount of an emulsoid is added to the suspension, the

suspension is more stable.

• The emulsoid forms a protective layer around the suspended

particles and gives the emulsoid most of its own strength. The

emulsions used in this way are called protective colloids.

Protective Colloids

• Except for globulins, various proteins have protective

effect.

• Many water-insoluble substances in blood plasma can be

transported without collapse by the protective colloids in

the plasma.

• Lipids dissolve as colloids under the influence of proteins.

Protective Colloids

• Insoluble substances, such as calcium phosphate and

uric acid, are brought to the extraction door by the

action of protective colloids in the urine without causing

undue and oversaturated solubilizing.

• It has been reported that the reduction of the

protective colloids contained in the urine may make

urinary stones possible.

Protective Colloids

•Mole = 6,02 x 1023

Avogadro number (Amedeo AVOGADRO)

•1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 = grams (atomic mass)

•1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 = grams (molecular mass)

• 56Fe, 27Al

Mole Unit

1 mole3 moles

5 moles

0.5 mole

Mole Unit

1. How much grams should we weigh to prepare 2 moles of NaOH? (

Na=23 g/mol, O=16 g/mol, H=1 g/mol)

2. How many moles KCl in 7.45 g? (K=39.0 g/mol; Cl=35.5 g/mol)

3. What is the mole number of 19.6 g H2SO4? (H=1 g/mol, S=32

g/mol, O=16 g/mol)

4. How many moles of Sn atom that contains 3.01x1023 particles?

• The most common measure of concentration in the laboratory is

molarity - the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.

• Symbol = M or mol/L

• Preparing Molar Concentration from solid chemicals.

▫ NaOH MW= 40 g

• Preparing Molar Concentration from acids.

▫ H2SO4 MW= 98 g Density= 1.84 g/ml % 98

Molar Concentration

M = Molecular Weight (g) x wanted M x Desired Volume (mL))

Density x Percentage x 1000

• A molal solution is a solution that contains 1 molecular weight

(mole number) of solute in a kilogram of solvent. A solution of

concentration 1 mol/kg is also sometimes denoted as 1 molal.

• Symbol= m veya mol/kg

• Preparing Molal Concentration from solid chemicals.

▫ What is the molality of a solution of 10 g NaOH in 500 g water?

(MW= 40 g/mol)

Molal Solutions (Molality)

Molarity =mole (solute)

L (solution)

Molality =mole (solute)

Kg (solvent)

!

• We prepared a 500 ml of solution with using 23.4 g NaCl. So, What is the molarity of the solution? (NaCl MW=58.5 g/mol)

• Prepare 0.5 M 400 mL HCl solution (MW=36.5 g/mol - Density=1.2 g/mL - 36.5%).

• 32.5 g of NaF is dissolved in 425g of water. Calculate the molality of the solution (NaF MW=42 g/mol).

• 30.8 g of KOH is dissolved in 1100 g of water. Calculate themolality of the solution (KOH MW=56 g/mol).

Molarity & Molality Problems

• How many grams of KNO3 should be added to 250 g water to prepare a 0.200 m KNO3 solution? (KNO3: 101.1 g / mol)

• How many mL of HNO3 solution should be used to prepare an 100 mLof 100 mmol/L HNO3? (MW = 63.01 g / mol - Density = 1.51 g / ml -70%)

• How many grams of CaCO3 is required to prepare a 500 g of 0.5 mol/kg CaCO3 solution? (CaCO3: 100.08 g / mol)

• A solution of 74.5 g of CaCl2 in 560 g of water was prepared. The density of the solution is 1.15 g/mL. Calculate the molality and molarity of this solution? (CaCl2 MW = 110.98 g/mol)

Molarity & Molality Problems

• Osmole = Molecular Mass: Osmotically active particle number

• NaCl dissociates to Na and Cl ions in aqueous solution. Since each molecule forms two osmotically active particles, 1 osmolegrams of NaCl 58.5/2 = 29.25 grams. So, to prepare 1 osmolarsolution of NaCl, we should weigh 29.25 g NaCl.

• 1 osmolar glucose is 180 grams. Because glucose is dissolved in the molecular state and 1 active particles.

• Ionic - Nonionic compound difference is important.

Osmole Unit

• It is the measure of solute concentration, defined as the number of osmoles (Osm) of solute per litre (L) of solution.

• Symbol= Osm, Osm/L veya osmol/L

• Osmolarity can be used to predict whether water will pass from one side of a semipermeable membrane to the other (also referred to as water retention).

• How much grams should we weigh to prepare 2 Osm of 4 L NaCl? (NaCl MW=58 g/mol)

• Plazma Osmolarity (Osm) = 2 Na + Glucose + Ure (all in mmol/L)

Osmolar Solutions (Osmolarity-Osmotic Concentration)

• Osmolality is the number of osmoles of solute in a kilogram of

solvent.

• Symbol= Osmol/kg

Osmolality Solutions (Osmolality)

Osmolarity =osmole (solute)

L (Solution)

Osmolality =osmole (solute)

Kg (Solvent)

!

• Normality is another way of expressing the concentration of a solution. It is based on an alternate chemical unit of mass called the equivalent weight.

• The normality of a solution is the concentration expressed as the number of equivalent weights (equivalents) of solute per liter of solution. ▫ The equivalent concentration or normality of a solution is defined

as the molar concentration divided by an equivalence factor.

• Equilibrated grams are found by dividing the molecular weight of the substance to be prepared by the solubility value by the valency of the substance to be prepared.

Equivalent Concentration (Normality)

• A normal solution contains one equivalent of solute per liter

of solution.

• For acid-base reactions, an equivalent is the amount of a

reactant that can produce or consume one mole of hydrogen

ions (using the Brønsted-Lowry definition).

• So, for example, a mole of HCl or NaOH is one equivalent, but a

mole of H₂SO₄ or Ca(OH)₂ is two equivalent.

Equivalent Concentration (Normality)

Equivalent Concentration (Normality)

Normality =

Equivalent grams of

the solute

L (Solution)

• Symbol= N/eq/L/Val/L

• Preparing normal solution from solid chemicals.

▫ NaOH MW= 40 g

• Preparing normal solutions from acids

▫ H2SO4 MW= 98 g Dansite= 1.84 g/ml % 98

Equivalent Concentration (Normality)

N = Molecular Weight (g) x Desired M x Desired Volume (mL)

Density x Percentage x Equivalence Factor x 1000

• A 250 ml of solution was prepared with using 18.5 g Ca(OH)2.

What is the normality of the solution? [Ca(OH)2: 74 g mol)]

• How many grams of NaOH is required to prepare a 250 mL of 0,2

N NaOH solution? (NaOH= 40 g/mol)

• A 0.1 L solution of 4.9 g of H2SO4 was prepared. Calculate the

Normality of this solution? (H2SO4 MW=98 g/mol)

Normal Solutions (Normality)

• A percentage solution is an amount or volume of chemical or

compound per 100 mL of a solution. It is a relative expression

of solute to solvent: X amount/100 ml = X%.

• Weight/Volume

▫ 250 ml % 10 NaOH Preparation

• Volume/Volume

▫ Preparation of 100 ml of ethyl alcohol of 40% by using 96% ethyl

alcohol

• Weight/Weight

▫ % 5 NaOH Preparation

Percentage Solutions

• Dilution is the process of decreasing the concentration of a

solute in a solution, usually simply by mixing with more

solvent like adding more water to a solution.

• To dilute a solution means to add more solvent without the

addition of more solute. It is usually prepared from stock

solutions of known concentration.

• n1v1=n2v2 / m1v1=m2v2 / c1v1=c2v2

Dilution

• What is the normality when 400 mL of water is added to 100 mL

of 0.5 N H2SO4 solution?

• How to prepare 50 ml of a 0.1 M HCl solution from a 15 M stock

HCl solution?

• How to prepare 400 mL of 40% C2H6O from 96% C2H6O?

Dilution

• ppm= parts per million▫ One ppm is equivalent to 1 milligram of something per liter of water

(mg/l) or 1 milligram of something per kilogram soil (mg/kg).

• ppb= parts per billion▫ Parts per billion (ppb) is the number of units of mass of a contaminant

per 1000 million units of total mass. Also µg/L or µg/kg.

• ppt= parts per trillion▫ ng/L

• ppq= parts per quadrillion▫ pg/L

PPM and PPB

• Solvent/Solute

▫ Solid-liquid solutions: Saltwater

▫ Solid-solid solutions: They are alloys. Steel, C and Fe mixture

▫ Solid-gas solutions : Iodine steam and air mixture

▫ Liquid-liquid solutions : Vinegar, acetic acid and salt mixture

▫ Liquid-solid solutions : Amalgam; Mercury and silver mixture

▫ Liquid-gas solutions : Water vapor and air mixture

▫ Gas-Gas solutions : Air

▫ Gas-liquid solutions : Soda; CO2 and water mixture

▫ Gas-solid: Mixture of hydrogen and palladium

Solutions according to physical form of components

• Diluted/Dilute solution

▫ Contains a small amount

of solute per litre of

solution.

• Concentrated solution

▫ Contains a a large

amount of solute per

litre of solution.

Solutions according to dissolved amount

• Unsaturated solution: An unsaturated solution is a chemical

solution in which the solute concentration is lower than its

equilibrium solubility.

• Saturated solution:A saturated solution is a chemical solution

containing the maximum concentration of a solute dissolved in

the solvent.

• Supersaturated solution: A supersaturated solution is a solution

with more dissolved solute than the solvent would normally

dissolve in its current conditions. Supersaturation is achieved by

dissolving a solute in one set of conditions, then transferring it

to other conditions without triggering any release of the solute.

Supersaturated solutions are extremely unstable

Solutions according to the resolution of solute

Unsaturated

solution

Saturated

SolutionSupersaturated

solutionPrecipitate

• Electrolyte solution: An electrolyte solution is a solution that

generally contains ions, atoms or molecules that have lost or

gained electrons, and is electrically conductive. For this reason

they are often called ionic solutions, however there are some

cases where the electrolytes are not ions (for example Salt-

NaCl).

• Non-electrolyte solution: Nonelectrolytes are compounds that

do not ionize at all in solution. As a result, solutions containing

nonelectrolytes will not conduct electricity (A common example

of a nonelectrolyte is glucose, or C6H12O6. Glucose-sugar readily

dissolves in water).

Solutions according to electrical conductivity

Non-electrolyte

solution

Weak

Electrolyte solution

Strong

Electrolyte solutionEthanol / Distile Water Acetic acid solution KCl

Source: PhilSchatz

Solutions according to the electrical conductivity

• For the transmission of electricity from a matter;i. There must be electrons in the free state.

ii. Anion (-) and cation (+) must be found in the structure.

iii. The compounds do not conduct electricity in solid state. In liquid form and in solution state, the ionic compounds conduct electrical current.

iv. As the number of ions in a solution increases, or as the temperature increases, the conductivity of the solution increases (at endothermic solubility).

v. The electrical conductivity of the metals is due to the electron flow (translational motion), the event is physical.

vi. The electrical conductivity of aqueous solutions of the compounds is by chemical means.

vii.Solvents in water-soluble (water-insulated) materials do not transmit electrical current.

pH, Amphoterism, Buffers

Kaynak: Learner

• Acid-Base balance are provided with a highly compatible operation by liver, lung and kidneys.▫ It must be balanced by the excretion of [H+] produced in

the living being.

▫ pH= It is the negative logarithm of the concentration of [H+] ions present in a solution (pH=-log [H+]).

▫ If the pH of a solution is less than 7, it is an acid. If it is greater than 7, it is a base, if it is 7, it is a neutral solution.

▫ Plasma [H +] is kept in fairly narrow limits with no abnormality.

Hydrogen Ion Concentration

Body Fluids pH Values

Plasma 7,38 – 7,44

Pancreatic liquid 7.5 – 8.00

Saliva 6.35 – 6.85

Gastric juice 0.9 – 1.6

Milk 6.6 – 6.9

Urine 4.8 – 7.5

Hydrogen Ion Concentration

• Although intensified at plasma pH, the viability of the cell at the

intracellular pH is critical for normal enzyme function and other

metabolic processes (mean 7.0).

• Cells have defensive mechanisms against pH changes in the

extracellular environment.

• Marginal pH changes in the extracellular environment may

severely degrade metabolism by affecting the integrity of the

intracellular environment and may even cause cell death.

Hydrogen Ion Concentration

• [H+] balance, in other words acid-base balance;▫ The amount of H+ taken in the diet + endogenous

metabolism is preserved as a result of mutual balancing of the amount obtained and the amount taken from the body.

▫ Thus, the balance of the extracellular fluid (ECF) is kept within the physiological limits and viability is maintained.

▫ To ensure equilibrium; Volatile acids are removed by respiration (such as CO2)

H+ and HCO3- are removed or retained by the kidneys.

It forms complex with non-volatile H+ chemical buffers and is discarded.

Hydrogen Ion Concentration

• Volatile acid production▫ Mitochondrial.

▫ Produced by the oxidation of carbohydrates (CO2 + H2O) and

the β-oxidation of fatty acids (CO2 + H2O).

• Non-volatile acid production

▫ Produced by the oxidation of carbohydrates (lactic acid), the

β-oxidation of fatty acids (ketone bodies), the oxidation of

amino acids (urea, HCl, H3PO4) and the oxidation of nucleic

acids (H3PO4).

Hydrogen Ion Concentration

• High acid load is seen in animals grown in grasslands with high

sulphate and phosphate residues or fed with high amount of

grain feed.

• However, normal endogenous acid production may increase in

some pathological conditions. The best example of this is the

increase in ketone body synthesis seen in Diabetes mellitus.

• Organic acid formation may also increase due to toxins or drugs.

▫ For example; Formic acid from methanol, glycolic and oxalic acid

from ethylene glycol, salicylic acid from aspirin.

Hydrogen Ion Concentration

• The fruits are an alkali source.

▫ Contains Na+ and K+ salts of weak organic acids. Their

dissociated anions become H+ acceptors before metabolism.

• Alkalosis appears to be due to the abundance of NaHCO3 or

other alkali salts in animals, but it is more likely due to acid

loss.

▫ For example, loss of gastric acid (HCl) because of vomiting.

Hydrogen Ion Concentration

• For non-volatile acids;

▫ Body hydrogen input sources

Diet, Metabolism, Fecal Base Loss

▫ Body hydrogen output source

Urine

• In a dog;

▫ Average H+ input amount is 1.0 mmol/day/kg LW (Live weight),

while the corresponding amount is excreted from the kidneys.

▫ Average 10 mmol/day/kg LW HCO3- and base equivalents excreted

in the body (mainly by feces), while the corresponding H+ amount is

retained in the ECF.

Hydrogen Ion Concentration

• The techniques used in pH measurement are

examined in two groups.

▫ Electrometric Methods: It is based on the fact that the

potential difference between the two electrodes is

measured by a galvanometer.

Hydrogen Ion Concentration

▫ Colorimetric Methods: It is based on the principle of color change at

certain pH values of some dyes. The substances whose color changes

according to the H ion concentration of the medium are called indicators

(pH indicator).

• An Indicator is a;

▫ Halochromic chemical compound added in small amounts to a solution so

the pH (acidity or basicity) of the solution can be determined visually.

Such solutions are used to determine the end point of the titration.

We can separate indicators as acid base, redox and precipitation indicators.

The point where the indicator changes color is called the turning point.

Indicators are usually weak acids and bases.

They do not give a definite result, they give approximate results.

Hydrogen Ion Concentration

Indicator Name pH limit Color Change

Thymol blue 1.2 – 2.8 Red→Yellow

Bromophenol blue 3.0 – 4.6 Yellow→Blue

Methyl red 4.4 – 6.0 Red→Yellow

Bromocresol purple 5.8 – 6.8 Yellow→Purple

Phenol red 6.8 – 8.0 Yellow→Red

Methyl orange 2.9 – 4.0 Red→Yellow

Phenolphthalein 8.3 – 10.0 Colorless→Pink

Litmus 7.0 Red→Blue

Hydrogen Ion Concentration

Hydrogen Ion Concentration

• Acidosis is an increased acidity in the blood and other body tissue (i.e. an increased hydrogen ion concentration.

• Alkalosis is the result of a process reducing hydrogen ion concentration of arterial blood plasma (alkalemia). In contrast to acidemia, alkalemia occurs when the serum pH is higher than normal.

• A number of functions in the body are affected by the pHvalue. ▫ The ability of hemoglobin to bind oxygen,▫ Hydrogen bridges between protein charges and protein

molecules,▫ Bone making and destruction.

The Importance of pH Value in Health

• The ability of some chemicals to act either as an acid or a base is called amphoterism. Whether an amphoteric chemical acts as an acid or a base depends on what other chemicals happen to be around.

• Specifications;

1. They form cations in acidic medium and anions in alkaline environment.

2. An ampholyte carries the same number of negative and positive charges at a

given pH. This pH is called ampholytic isoelectric point.

The isoelectric point (pI, pH(I), IEP), is the pH at which a particular molecule

carries no net electrical charge in the statistical mean.

3. An ampholyte moves to cathode in acid reaction; move to anode in alkaline

reaction; does not move at isoelectic point.

Amphoterism (Amphoteric Electrolytes)

4. Ampholytes may bind both H+ ions and OH- ions according to the

pH of the medium. Because of this, ampholytes act as buffers

against acids or against bases.

5. The point where the concentrations of H+ + OH- ions are equal to

each other is called the neutral point.

6. The concentrations of H+ + OH- ions are inversely proportional to

each other. Equals the molar concentration of H+ and OH- in pure

water at 25º C and the solution is neutral.

Amphoterics (Amphoteric Electrolites)

• A buffer is a solution whose pH changes very little

when acid or base is added. Most buffers are solutions

composed of approximately equal amounts of a weak

acid and the salt of its conjugate base.

• Buffers are aqueous systems that tend to resist pH

changes when small amounts of acid (H+) or base (OH-)

are added.

Buffers

• All organism reactions occur within certain pH limits.

• PH changes prevent reaction formation.

• When the events that cause the change of pH in the

organism come into play, the buffer

systems/mechanisms that interfere with the pH

change, similar to the buffer systems in the same

laboratory conditions.

Biological Buffers

• The deterioration of the acid-base balance in body

fluids manifests itself with three main elements. These

are;

1. The pH value of the blood,

2. The partial pressure of H2CO3 (pCO2 mmHg)

3. The blood concentration of HCO3.

• The plasma pH is correlated with the H2CO3:HCO3- ratio.

Biological Buffers

• Dilution

• Respiration▫ CO2 excretion

• Renal Mechanism▫ Excess acid or alkaline excreted with the urine, or ammonia is

produced to protect the base.

Buffer Systems▫ In blood plasma: Bicarbonate-Carbonic acid, Phosphate-Phosphoric

acid, Protein-Proteinate Buffer

▫ In erythrocytes: Hemoglobinate-Hemoglobin, Oxyhemoglobinate-Oxyhemoglobin

▫ Lymph, CSF, transudates: Bicarbonate, phosphate buffers

Biological Buffers

• Protein Buffer System▫ COOH or NH2 groups,

▫ The biggest part of the buffers in the body,

▫ Albumin, globulins such as hemoglobin (Hb).

• HCO3- Buffer System

▫ Available in large quantities,

▫ Open system,

▫ The respiratory and kidney systems act on these buffer systems.

▫ The most important buffer of extracellular fluids.

Phosphate Buffer System▫ Low in the extracellular medium, significant (especially muscle tissue) in

the intracellular environment,

▫ Best buffer in kidney and bone.

Biological Buffers

Buffer Systems % Buffering

Non-bicarbonate

Hemoglobin 35

Organic phosphates 3

Inorganic phosphates 2

Plasma proteins 7

Bicarbonate

Plasma 35

Erythrocytes 18

Buffer Systems in Blood

• An ideal buffer must have the following properties;

▫ It must have adequate buffer capacity to the wanted pH limits.

▫ Must be very pure.

▫ It must be resistant to enzymatic and hydrolytic events.

▫ The pH to be formed by the buffer should be affected at the

minimum level by the temperature, the ionic content and the

concentration of the medium.

▫ It should not carry toxic and inhibitory effects (most enzymes are

inhibited by phosphate buffers).

▫ Complexes with cations must be soluble.

▫ Ultraviolet and visible field light should not absorb.

Biological Buffers

Isotopes, Radiation

• Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons

bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more

protons and typically a similar number of neutrons.

• Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element which

differ in neutron number. The difference between isotopes

comes from neutron numbers.

• Radioactive Isotope and Stable Isotope

Isotopes

▫ Stable isotopes are common in nature and do not show fragmentation.

▫ Radioactive isotopes are isotopes that are broken up by emitting a variety of nuclei and are artificially obtained. This is called radioactive decay.

•The importance of isotopes in

biochemistry;

▫Metabolism monitoring

▫Thyroid Function TestsRIA (Radioimmunoassay)

▫Percentage of fat found in meat

Isotopes

• It is the release of radient energy.

• Radioactive materials emit rays like alpha, beta, gamma and

X-.

Radiation (Radiance)

• Most affected organs; Lymphocytes, erythrocytes, gastrointestinal tract,

eyes, hypophysis anterior lobe, egg follicles, mucous membrane.

• Radiation;

▫ Increases the breakdown rate of carbohydrates and lipids.

▫ Breaks bonds in proteins and nucleic acids.

▫ Breaks down chromosomes, stop mitosis.

▫ Reduces absorption in the gut, extends the period of gastric emptying.

▫ Induces bone development disorders and anomalies in teeth.

• Ası T (1999). Tablolarla Biyokimya I, Nobel Tıp Kitapları Dağıtım,

Ankara.

• Kalaycıoğlu L, Serpek B, Nizamlıoğlu M, Başpınar N,Tiftik A

(2000). Biyokimya, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara.

• Engelking LR (2014). Textbook of Veterinary Physiological

Chemistry. 3rd Edition. Academic Press.

• Sözbilir Bayşu N, Bayşu N (2008). Biyokimya, Güneş Kitabevi.

References

• ............ is the separation of large complex molecules

through a membrane that allows small, simple molecules

other than water or ions to pass through.

A. Diffusion

B. Dialysis

C. Ozmosis

D. Absorption

E. Adsorption

Question 1

Cevap: b

• Which of the following statements is correct about true

solutions?

a. Size of particles 1-100 nm

b. The osmotic pressure is low.

c. Homogeneous.

d. Viscosity is high .

e. When light passes, it gets foggy. This is called tyndall effect .

Question 2

Cevap: c

Any questions?

The next title is;

BIOELEMENTSMacro and Microminerals