QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGYHMEF5093

SEMINAR 1IntroductionResearch DefinedResearch Methodology: An OverviewDoing Quantitative ResearchConstructs & VariablesTheory and Review of Literature

Research is a scientific or systematic process of steps used to gather and analyze information to increase our understanding of a phenomenon (topic or issue)Examples of phenomena: What is the motivation level of my students in learning English?Can cooperative learning improve the students performance in Mathematics?What is research?

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: An OverviewRESEARCHQUANTITATIVE(Positivist Approach)QUALITATIVE(Phenomenological Approach)STATUS STUDYINTERVENTIONSTUDYSTATUS STUDYSurveyExperimentalCase StudyEthnographyAction ResearchGeneric Qualitative methodINTERVENTIONSTUDYCorrelationalCausal-comparativeQuasi-Experimental

Preliminary Understanding of Quantitative & Qualitative ResearchExamine the two research studies on Reasons for discipline problems in school and decide which is quantitative and which is qualitative. Justify your answers.Researcher A identifies factors that influence/ affect discipline, develop a questionnaire and administer it to a sample of problem students. He then analyses the data and identify significant factors or rank the factors in order of dominance. Researcher B interviews a sample of problem students individually or as a small group. He interacts with them and observes their behaviours. He also examines counsellors reports and school report cards. He records all the information obtained and analyses it for patterns that emerge.

Quantitative ResearchQualitative ResearchPhilosophyPositivism:Knowledge can only come from positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific methodPhenomenologyKnowledge is discovered through an open, unbiased description of experiencePurpose/GoalTo study relationship, cause and effectTo test hypotheses & to make predictionsTo study social phenomena or things as they appear in our experience.To explain, interpret and describe phenomenaFocusQuantity (Variables - How much & How many)Quality (Features- What)DesignStructured, predetermined(Developed prior to study)Flexible, emerging(Evolves during study)MethodExperiment, quasi-experimental, survey, etcEthnography, case study, etcSampleLarge, random, representationSmall, purposefulData CollectionTests, questionnaires, controlled interventionInterviews, observation, documents, artifactsAnalysis Statistical methodsNarrative/descriptive and interpretation by researcherFindingsSpecific, precise & numericalHolistic, detailed & descriptive

ResearcherDetachedImmersed

DEDUCTIVE APPROACH IN RESEARCH4. Confirm or revise theory based on the hypotheses tested/answers to research questions3. Conduct the study to collect data2. Design an empirical study to test hypotheses/answer research questions1. Formulate research questions and/or hypotheses based on available theory/theories

INDUCTIVE APPROACH IN RESEARCH4. Formulate and generate theory based on rich descriptive data 3. Formulate tentative hypotheses & gather further information2. Look for patterns in the forms of themes, categories that emerge.1. Conduct observation (Participant/non-participant)

Doing Quantitative Research:The Research Process

STEPS IN CONDUCTING QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

(1) Generating research ideas(2) Formulating the research problem(3) Developing hypotheses/research questions(4) Designing a study to test hypotheses/answer research questions(5) Collecting data(6) Analysing and interpreting data(7)Communicating results

Gap-filling Research- To solve a knowledge-deficiency problem (gap in literature)

Problem-solving Research- To solve an ecological problem (problems in research setting)

Problem-solving & Gap-filling Research- To solve an ecological problem as well as a knowledge-deficiency problem

Doing Quantitative Research

Gap-filling Research: (Generating Research Ideas)Identify a general research area of interestRead extensively to identify the GAP to establish the research problem (RP)Questions need to be asked:What has been researched? What has not been researched? What needs to be further researched? Why?Gap-filling research will ultimately lead to Problem-Solving as a contribution ( Significance of the Study)

Problem-Solving Research: (Generating Research Ideas)Conceptualise and contextualise an ecological problemRead extensively to find solutions to the problem in order to establish the research problem (RP)Questions need to be asked:What has been researched ? Can the ecological problem be solved with currently available research findings? If not, why? What needs to be researched?

Generating Research Ideas(Finding a research problem)Identify a broad problem in your areaConduct a systematic programme of readingRelate your research problem to a theory/theories

Comprehension PerformanceReading InstructionReading materialsReading strategiesReading Comprehension

Reading problemsReading programmeReading assessmentTheories of visual learningSchema theoryReading modelsReading ActivityInformation processing theory

Comprehension PerformanceReading MaterialReading ActivityRecallIllustrationPre-reading activityEffects of illustration on the reading comprehension of expository text by ESL LearnersGenerating research ideasFormulating Research Problem

(2)Formulating the Research Problem (Writing the statement of the problem)Research Problem Statement:

describes what the research is about and its aimsfocuses on the variables involved and the direction of the researchcan be stated in declarative or question formDeclarative form:The effects of illustration as a prereading activity on the reading comprehension performance of expository text among Year 4 pupils

Question FormHow does illustration as a prereading activity affect the reading comprehension performance of expository text among Year 4 pupils?

A good problem statement shouldexpress a relation between two or more variables,e.g. illustration, reading ability, content familiarity and reading comprehension

be stated clearly and unambiguouslyExample of unclear and ambiguous:The effects of reading materials on reading comprehension

imply possibilities of empirical testingCan the variables be measured and the relationship tested?

Class DiscussionThe Use of Computer Technology in schoolsThe leadership style of school principalsThe methods of teaching science in primary schoolCan you make the following statements clearer and unambiguous so that they can be used as research problem statements?The effects of using courseware X on Mathematics achievement of form 4 studentsThe leadership style of school principals and its relationship with the job satisfaction of secondary school teachersThe effects of the discovery learning approach on the science achievement of Year-6 pupils.

(3)Developing Hypotheses/Research QuestionsThe research problem is broken down into subproblems to be expressed in hypotheses or research questionsExamples of research question:Is there any significant difference in the reading comprehension performance of Year 4 pupils when they read expository text with and without illustration? (Analysis focused research Question)OR Does illustration have any affect on the reading comprehension performance of Year 4 pupils when they read expository text? (Finding focused research question)

Examples of HypothesesThere is no difference in the reading comprehension performance of Year 4 pupils when they read expository text with and without illustration?IMPORTANT:The decision on which methodology (esp. research design and method of data collection & analyses) to use depends the research problem & research questions/hypotheses

(4) Collecting DataDevelop Instruments

Reading comprehension text IllustrationsComprehension test - comprehension performance

Administer instruments to a sample of Year 4 pupils

(5) Analysing & interpreting Data

Quantitative Data AnalysesDescriptive StatisticsInferential Statistics

Communicating ResultsThesis/Dissertation/ProjectConferences/seminarsPublications in Journals/Books

Characteristics of ResearchResearch begins with a problemResearch requires a planResearch demands a clear problem statementResearch deals with the main problem through subproblems operationalised as research questions/hypothesesResearch seeks direction through research questions/hypothesesResearch deals with facts and their meaning

CONSTRUCTS & VARIABLESConstructs are theoretical concepts that are used to describe specific attributes.e.g. intelligence, motivation, self-esteem, reading comprehension performance, etc.In research, a construct is loosely referred to as a variable (i.e. something that varies) because it can take on different numerical values or classification labels.e.g. intelligence (IQ 50 -150),reading comprehension performance (Score 1 100), gender (Male; Female), SES (Low, Middle, High), etc

(A) Variables In Quantitative Research Independent Variable - Can be manipulated e.g. Illustration (With & Without) Dependent Variable Cannot be manipulated e.g. Reading comprehension performance score

Class DiscussionCan you identify the independent and dependent variables in the following research?

You are interested to find out if students who are exposed to project-based method (PBM) would perform better in science than those who are taught using the traditional lecture method (TLM). Besides, you want to know if it would benefit high achiever more or low achiever more

Independent VariablesDependent VariablesTeaching MethodPBMTLMScience PerformanceAcademic AchievementHighLow

2 x 2 Factorial Design

PBMTLM

High AchieverLow Achiever

(B) Variables In Quantitative ResearchContinuous Variable

- capable of taking on an ordered set of values within a certain range (1, 2, 3.20)e,g. temperature, height, weight, attitude score, achievement score, etc

Categorical Variable - measures of differences in type, not number or amount, providing label classificationse.g. race (Malay, Chinese, Indian, Others); gender (M, F); SES (High, Middle, Low), Proficiency level (Good, Poor)

Conversion

SubjectReading Score (20)Type of Reader15Poor27Poor36Poor48 ContinuousPoor Categorical513 VariableGood Variable616Good719Good820Good

Operational definition of variablesVariables used in a study must be operationally defined as they are used in the context of the study. This is especially important when they have different definitions in different contexts or when you are using them in a way different from the commonly held definitions. Clear operational definition of variables will eliminate confusion.Variables need to be operationally defined to facilitate measurement. Not all variables are directly observable, thus they cannot be measured directly. For instance, we cannot observe and measure learning directly but we can see its effect on performance. We can thus operationally defined learning as an increase in performance. So, if we give a test to students after a learning process and their performance improves, we can conclude that learning has occurred.

Constitutive Definition Vs Operational definitionGiven below are two definitions on reading comprehension ability

The ability of pupils to read and interpret written or printed material with understandingThe performance of pupils in interpreting written or printed material as expressed by numerical scores in the reading comprehension test devised by the class teacher.

Which definition is more appropriate to be used in research?

Data TypesNominal dataE.g. % of students who passed/failed a testOrdinal dataE.g. Ranking scoresInterval dataE.g. Attitude scores, IQRatio DataE.g. Test scores

Theory & Review of LiteratureTheorya statement or set of statements that explain and predict phenomena. a statement that indicates the relationship between two or more events

Ausubels Meaningful Learning TheoryMeaningful Learning takes place when a learner integrate new information with old informationWhat does Ausubel.s Theory predict?What variables does the theory try to relate?

THE ROLE OF THEORY IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHTheory provides an important guide or focus for the direction of research by pointing to areas in which meaningful relationships of events (variables) are likely to be found.

Theory provides a rational basis for explaining or interpreting the results of the research.

Theory enables the researcher to make predictions about a wide range of situations

Review of LiteratureAn in-depth account of key works and information available on a research topicAspects normally covered:

specific areas investigated theories & approaches used samples involved variables examined analyses used findings obtained

Sources: research articles (e.g. Journals) & academic writings (e.g. books)How are the studies related to your research?What has been researched & what needs further research?What insights have you obtained about the area to be studied (e.g. approaches, methodologies. analyses and interpretation of findings) and the trends that have emerged?

To gain insights into the theories, approaches and methodologies adopted by different researchers. This will provide sound theoretical and methodological frameworks for the intended study.To identify gaps in the literature so that the intended study can focus on a research area that is significant and that has not been explored adequately. This will ensure that the research done will contribute towards knowledge and/or theory development.To help researchers to delimit the research problem and define it clearly so that it has the right focus. Delimiting the research problem can only be achieved if the researcher reads extensively and intensively available literature about the problem to be investigated.

PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

To ensure that research to be done is on the right track in line with the current trends. Such information can be obtained from the section, Recommendations for further research, that is found in every research study. These recommendations are useful because they represent the insights of the researcher after he/she has studied the phenomenon.To provide the intellectual context for the research to be done, enabling the researcher to position his/her work relative to other work. This is possible because the review will show what has been done in the field and how the new study relates to earlier research.

Sources of Literature Review

Secondary SourcesMaterials written based on the works of others (e.g. reference books, text books, published academic writings, etc) Primary SourcesMaterials written by someone who actually conducted the investigation 1st hand information. (e.g. research articles published in journals.)Note: Research articles also contain information from secondary sources when the writers quote the works of other people

Common weaknesses in Lit. ReviewMere presentation of research information without relating it to the intended study*Mere presentation of research information without any critical evaluationMere listing of past studies in isolation without making any connection among them differences & similaritiesHeavy reliance on secondary sources and/or outdated studiesPoor citations (Refer to APA)Plagiarism

* Note: Refer to the module for the guidelines

GOOD LUCK & HAPPY STUDYING

THANK YOU

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