internationalization of higher education: opportunities

Internationalization of Higher Education: Opportunities and Challenges, ISBN: ISBN: 978-81-922178-7-1


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INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES

By

MTC Global ® A Global Think Tank in Higher Education

EDITORS Prof. Bholanath Dutta President-MTC Global

& Dr. Paramita Chaudhuri

Principal, LVES, Bangalore


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BRIEF INTRODUCTION MTC Global – a non-for-profit global think tank in higher education having presence in over 30+ countries, over 1000 B-Schools, 30,000 + members, 45 national chapters, 32 international chapters and connected with millions of people across the world through its different initiatives. A participant in United National Global Compact program, United Nations Academic Impact and ISO 9001: 2015 certified organization. Registered with NITI Aayog, Government of India.

I welcome you to join MTC Global family.

I welcome you to join us. Together we can ACHIEVE MORE!

Educate, Empower, Elevate Prof. Bholanath Dutta Founder & President- MTC Global A Global think tank in higher education [email protected] [email protected] I [email protected] I [email protected] +91 96323 18178

www.mtcglobal.org


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CONTENT

INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION: Opportunities and Challenges

Topic Author Page No

The Importance Of Developing An International Strategy For

Indian Higher Education Institutions

Gautam Rajkhowa Senior Lecturer and Programme Lead for MBA at

Newman University, UK.

1-4

Study In India’-India As Destination For International Higher Education: A Critical

Overview

Dr. Indranil Bose Dean and Associate Professor

University of Bolton, International academic centre, Ras Al Khaimah, UAE

& Dr. Jayanta Banerjee

Associate Professor and Area Head-Marketing Institute of Management, Christ University,

Bangalore, Karnataka, India

5-14

Understanding Communication Barriers In The Academic

Institutions: A Gateway To Success

Dr. Nalina Ganapathi International Labour Organisation, Geneva,

Switzerland

15-20

Student Cantered Strategies For Quality International Education

Dr. Neeta Baporikar Namibia University of Science and

Technology, Namibia & University of Pune, India

21-35

Internationalisation Of Higher Education: Underpinning

Rationales And Organisational Structures

Manish Khare MIT Academy of Engineering, Alandi (D), Pune

36-55

International Research And Publications In India

Dr. E. Bhaskaran Deputy Director of Industries and Commerce

(EDP), Department of Industries and Commerce,

Government of Tamil Nadu, Guindy, Chennai

56-65


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How Does Internationalized University In India Look Like?

Nagaraja G Chitradurga Retd. Head Master, DMS, Regional Institute of

Education

Dr. S. Sudha Associate Professor, VELS Institute of Science,

Technology and Advanced Studies

66-77

Teaching Cross Cultural Communication In Globalised

Education

Dr. Padma S Rao Visiting Professor for MBA

78-94

Flying Campus - Transnational Teaching!

Dr. Shakti Vel Rani Principal,

Vyasa Arts and Science Women’s College, Subramaniapuram

95-101

Mentoring In Higher Education

Dr. Shakila M.K Director-MBA

Guru Nanak College, Chennai

102-109

Transformation Of Higher Education From Ancient Period To Modern Education System In

India

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Mahboob Ali Dhaka School of Economics

(Constituent Institution of the University of Dhaka)

110-114

Why Internationalisation Of Education?

Kalyanlakshmi Chitta

115-137

A Swot Analysis On Internationalization Of Higher

Education

Dr. Saikumari. V

Professor & Head of the Department Department of Management Studies

SRM Easwari Engineering College, Ramapuram, Chennai.

138-145

Ethical Issues In Internationalization Of Higher

Education

Dr. Sandeep Poddar Assistant Professor-S.P.D.T. Lions Juhu college of

Commerce

146-152

The Faculty And Student -Mobility

Dr. Natika Poddar Associate Professor-St. Francis Institute of

Management and Research

153-158

International Curriculum

Sneha Ravindra Kanade Assistant Professor, Garden City

University, Bangalore

159-163


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MTC GLOBAL ® : EDUCATE, EMPOWER, ELEVATE Seva-yoga and Vasudevam Kutumbakam – An inspiring leadership case study

In the year 2009, MTC Global started its journey in a very humble way with one man with a vision to bridge the gap between industry-academia and add values to all the stake-holders of higher education through multiple initiatives connecting faculty, student, corporate and foster collaborations among universities in India and abroad to excel in research, publication and teaching-learning process. Registered as a non-for-profit organization in the year 2011 to bridge the gap in education space and further galvanize the momentum.

Today, it has over 30,000 members in 35 countries and representing hundreds of institutions and companies spearheading top initiatives like MTC Centre of Excellence- Conexión, Certified Management Teacher, Corporate Certification Program, Campus Ambassador Program, Knowledge café- Conference Announcement Platform , Globe post – portal for online education petition, Leadership Institute- to offer career oriented certification programs, Career Management Service, hosting seminar / conference / workshop, faculty training, corporate training and many other initiatives.

MTC Global Research Wing has a quarterly top class peer reviewed journal and brings out every year one unique edited book on the emerging areas in higher education.

To connect the start-up ecosystem with the academia and create a strong-platform for synergistic efforts, MTC Global started with ‘Global Entrepreneurs Grid (GED) and already made a strong impact. Thousands of entrepreneurs, mentors, and coach and top executives are already part of it.

But, the journey has never been so simple. There were tough challenges in terms of finance to run the activities as MTC Global is a non-for-profit start-up. It was tough to create visibility and persuade the people about the vision of MTC Global. Many opposed the move and discouraged the momentum. But once one is clear about the purpose then no hurdles can stop the drive. Passion, hard-work and clarity in purpose are the key to success.

But, Prof. Bholanath Dutta, Founder and President of MTC Global kept the things moving. He was determined and very clear about the purpose. Amidst tough challenges, he kept his fingers crossed and kept on working 24 X 7 X 365 for the cause of education. Slowly, many people joined hands and supported the move. Prof. Dutta left teaching job and took it up as full time challenge. Things started changing. His talent, hard-work and expertise in higher education brought him many laurels and also made MTC Global a top global think tank in higher education.


MTC Global is a collective success story based on mutual trust and shared values. Each member contributed directly or indirectly for the growth of the organization without any return. The platform created immense values and energy by the members for the members to the members.

MTC Global is based on seva-yoga model and the principle of vasudevan Kutumbakam. This is an example of ‘Karmic Entrepreneurship’. At present, MTC Global is a globally well-known and highly credible organization- an ISO 9001: 2008 organisation, partner to UN Global Compact Program, UN Global Compact

and registered with Niti Aayog (formerly Planning Commission of India). MTC Global also executed a World Bank Project (2016-18) as a partner organization on Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project (HEQEP) and earned great respect overseas. The most common name in higher education with over 50 odd value added initiatives to foster excellence in higher education and redefining the role of all stake holders. The journey of MTC Global has already been captured by many magazines and media.

Prof. Dutta can be connected at [email protected]

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THE IMPORTANCE OF DEVELOPING AN INTERNATIONAL STRATEGY FOR INDIAN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

Gautam Rajkhowa

Senior Lecturer and Programme Lead for MBA at Newman University, UK. Introduction: This paper presents a set of guidelines that higher education institutions may wish to adopt in crafting their internationalisation strategy. Starting with setting the global context and examining the Indian perspective to internationalisation, the paper looks at some of the benefits such as soft diplomacy, the challenges and opportunities of higher education internationalisation before suggesting a set of guidelines for university internationalisation. The Global Context The global landscape or higher education has been changing dramatically over the last 25 years. The major force influencing this is the growing internationalisation of higher education, which has been driven by rising global student mobility, the expansion of campuses by institutions outside of the home nation (branch campus), the increased presence of validated and franchised degree provision and joint qualification. UNESCOs position paper interprets internationalisation “as one of the ways in which higher education is responding to the opportunities and challenges of globalisation. Internationalisation includes a broad range of elements such as curriculum, teaching/learning, research, institutional agreements, students / faculty mobility, development cooperation and many more “(UNESCO 2003). Globalisation has opened markets for employment globally and students are eager to grasp such opportunities. In this competitive landscape, there is increasing

recognition that the economic and social well-being of a nation and its citizen’s rests on their ability to participate and engage in a global knowledge economy. Globalisation and internationalisation of higher education are thus inextricably linked. The Indian Perspective From an Indian perspective, the focus should be on how global resources can be utilised to increase access, enhance quality, encourage diversity and less on the commercial opportunities associated with the fast-growing global market in higher education. To build capacity and raise quality standards, India needs educational institutions that are globally networked. Just as India has benefitted from liberalising her economy and opening it to the world, the higher education sector too would benefit from strong international partnerships. Only when Indian academics and researchers are collaborating and working with the best in the world, will Indian higher education institutions become more internationally productive and relevant. Such partnerships would not only help build capacity in meeting student demand but also help develop greater awareness of global issues among students and better prepare them to participate and engage more effectively in an increasingly competitive global economy. International students in Indian higher education institutions will enhance the diversity of Indian campuses and over the years international students would help enhance India’s visibility and presence on the world


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social cultural and education space, notwithstanding the tremendous opportunity for soft diplomacy that goes with overseas students returning home from India. Internationalisation - Soft Power Whilst the economic contribution of international students to a nation’s economy is significant and can often be monetised , what is equally if not more important but not easily quantifiable is the intangible benefits through soft diplomacy, relationship building, human capital resources, etc. that international students help build between nations (Albatch ,1998, Adams et al 2011). Highlighting the significance of internationalising education, a former Australian higher education minister and international diplomat commented: “There is no powerful instrument for transforming relationships between nations than for the citizens of each to have been educated for a period of time in the country of the other”. (Adams et al, 2011). International students should be seen as an important part of a higher education institutions’ resource base. As Albtach (1989) highlighted almost a quarter century back they are “one of the most important elements of the international knowledge system……… They are the carriers of knowledge across borders ……They are the embodiment of the cosmopolitan culture …. (and they) are one of the most visible and important parts of the worldwide exchange of knowledge” (Albatch 1989). Such inward mobility would provide opportunities for Indian students who cannot be internationally mobile to develop global awareness and intercultural fluency thus promoting – ‘internationalisation at home’

Opportunities And Challenges Of Internationalisation There are both opportunities and challenges in Internationalising higher education. The opportunities include enhanced capacity, greater access for students, development of joint curriculum, greater diversity of programmes , exposure to a variety of teaching and learning methods, growing comparability of qualifications, exposure to established systems of education administration and management, less brain drain of gifted and bright students to foreign institutions, fusion of cultures, exchange of research ideas and enhancement of research capacity, establishment of multinational and cross disciplinary team and generation of new academic environments. The challenges and risks concern the quality of provision, high fees leading to an elitist provision, inequality of access leading to a two-tier system which is inconsistent with the equity and access philosophy of both the institution and the national government. Important factors in any collaborative arrangement are issues relating to the award of the degrees and the determination and approval of the quality assurance systems and procedures used to approve and accredit the qualifications. Equally important are also issues of international mobility and credit transfer of the qualifications awarded. Therein lies the opportunity for Indian higher education institutions and policy makers in addressing issues related to curriculum delivery, quality of teaching, relevance of course content, learning and teaching strategies used and offering programmes that are both globally and locally relevant.


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Internationalisation Strategy: Some Guidelines Given this background context it is important that individual institutions craft their own internationalisation strategy in order to enhance the attractiveness of their institution and programmes on offer. Listed below are a set of guidelines for the successful design and implementation of a university’s internationalisation strategy.

1. Formalise the strategic process. The first key to success for an international strategy is having one! it is important to have a systematic approach to strategic management factoring in within it some flexibility for changing circumstances. It is extremely important that a university is clear with regards to the position it wishes to secure in the world and hence this should guide its efforts in seeking partners, programmes etc. In doing this it should analyse its own strengths and weaknesses in teaching, research, examine existing relationships and resources at its disposal and work on how to leverage on its strengths. It is often useful to have a look at national and global ranking standards to help inform the strategic management process. A three to five-year strategic plan should be the starting point.

2. Maintain a focus on the agreed

outcome of internationalisation. Define the scope of the strategy very clearly. Very often it is easy to get carried away in different directions. One must remain focussed on agreed outcomes however exciting alternative directions may seem. This would also include developing a clear path for how the

internationalisation strategy is going to be implemented.

3. Maintain a close link between the institution’s resource capability and its external environment. It is always useful to make a list of the institution’s key projects and programmes that can be highlighted when seeking for collaboration and partnerships. Comparing strategic initiatives is often an effective way of exploring avenues for cooperation.

4. Engage all stakeholder groups.

Consulting and soliciting input from across the university community is essential. Establishing a framework to ask for input from faculty, students, alumni, support staff, corporate partners, business community, existing international partners (if any) will be useful in developing a rounded perspective that can be fine-tuned in terms of scope and action plans. Keeping the channels of communication open helps.

5. Define and Refine strategic partnerships. It is important to regularly visit the list of partnerships and assess their engagement and effectiveness. Sometimes it is better to just work on a couple of partnerships which can be sustained over a long period of time. Equally important in any joint venture is to have in place a transparent system that clearly determines the intellectual property ownership and legal jurisdiction.

6. Establish a dedicated professional international team with adequate support from leadership. Without support from


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university leadership and adequate funding the best strategies will remain just that. It is therefore important to have senior leadership with oversight across the institution to champion the efforts.

7. Communicate, Communicate, Communicate. The importance of engaging in every opportunity available to communicate the new strategy cannot be underestimated. A non-confidential version highlighting the key points should be available for a communicating to all stakeholders. This also is a very useful document when seeking out new international partners.

8. Ensure that the strategy is a living document and does not find itself on the top bookshelf once it has been written. Adopt a review system which can monitor, evaluate progress and revise the strategy. Be patient and resist the temptation to make too many changes at the early stages. Implementation often takes a while, but it is equally important not to be complacent and keep the review process live.

Concluding Remarks The test of a good strategy would be to build in safeguards and checks that would facilitate an understanding of and aligning with international quality assurance systems to develop standards that are fit for purpose, context driven locally relevant and globally both acceptable and competitive.

Selected Bibliography Adams ,T.,Banks, M., Olsen,A. (2011) Benefits of international education: enriching students, enriching communities in Davies and Macintosh (ed) Making a difference -Australian International education. Albach, Philip G. (1988), The Knowledge Context: Comparative Perspectives on the Distribution of Knowledge. Albany, State University of New York Press.

Albatch, P., 1989. The New Internationalisim: Foreign students and Scholars. Studies in higher education, 14(2), pp. 125-136.

Albatch, P., 2001. Internationalisationand exchanges in a globalized university. Journal of Studies in International Education , 5(1), pp. 5-25.

Albatch, P., Knight , J., 2007. The Internationalistion of Higher Education: Motivations and Realities. Journal of Studies in International Education, Volume 11, pp. 290-305.

De Witt, H., 1995. Strategies for internationalistionof higher education : A compartaive study of Australia, Canada , Europeand the United States . , Amsterdam: EAIE. De Witt, H., 2011. Globalization and Internationalization of Higher Education. RUSC, 8(2), pp. 241-248 UNESCO (2003) : https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000145505


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STUDY IN INDIA’-INDIA AS DESTINATION FOR INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION: A CRITICAL OVERVIEW

Dr. Indranil Bose

Dean and Associate Professor University of Bolton, International academic centre, Ras Al Khaimah, UAE

& Dr. Jayanta Banerjee

Associate Professor and Area Head-Marketing Institute of Management, Christ University, Bangalore, Karnataka, India

Abstract India is fast emerging as a preferred international destination for higher education. The recent reports published by many government agencies such as the University Grants Commission (UGC), the Association of Indian Universities (AIU) have revealed this growing phenomenon with substantial statistics. However, India still needs to go far away to utilize her huge potentiality to attract much more foreign students to enroll with her universities and institutions of higher learning. Examples of the Asian competitors such as Malaysia, UAE, Thailand, China, Singapore etc., those have fast emerged as preferred higher education destination regionally and globally can be the waking up call for India. All these countries have much smaller system than India and can offer far less number of courses on their soil, though many of them have surpassed India in attracting foreign students to their universities. Since 1970s, government of India took specific initiatives to attract foreign students on Indian soil, though such efforts were restricted to the cultural relations to a great extent. However, with the growing challenges from the competitors and emergence of education as a major economic and political influencing factor, subsequent Indian governments have applied business policies and strategies to attract more and more foreign students. The present article has attempted to explain the evolution of government policies to attract foreign nationals to study

in India over the period of time. The very recent ‘Study in India’ campaign can be the game changer in this regard and only future will be able to answer it. A small survey has also conducted on 45 students enrolled with three private universities in Bangalore. The survey has clearly indicated that Indian higher education programmes are very much accepted internationally and perceived as superior to many other countries. However, India has not been able to attract vast numbers of foreign students from the developed countries and that should be taken as a major challenge with immediate effect. Introduction India has an outflow of $16 billion as about 2.5 lakh Indian students leave for foreign shores to pursue higher education almost every year. At the same time, Indian universities and colleges attract just 42,000 international students, as against the US with nearly 10.5 lakh students, UK with five lakh and China with about four lakhs. Even France and Australia attract about three lakh foreign students each year (Hindustan Times, 2017). This not only drains valuable foreign currency from India, but India also loses many bright talents from her own soil. A study by Ramalingam (2015), has shown that since, 2000-2010, almost 2 million Indian students have left for foreign countries in search of higher education and almost 37% of them have decided not to return to India. The study has further shown that this might have positioned Indians as one


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of the brightest and best in the international professional scenario, but has also downgraded the image of India as a relatively inferior destination for living and higher education. This trend has definitely effected the image of India globally, when our nation is seriously striving to become one of the most powerful and influential countries in the world, in political, economic and social terms. A recent study has further shown that growing number of foreign students even from our neighboring countries such as Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan etc. are preferring to choose the countries like Malaysia, Thailand etc. rather than coming to India and the same study has shown that lack of international acceptance of Indian qualifications and lack of understanding of huge and robust Indian higher education system has been responsible for this tendency (Singh and Hamid, 2016). Even the countries from Africa and Asia, from where majority of the foreign students are landing in India, such as Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, Cameroon, Trinidad and Tobago, Ghana, Sri Lanka etc. are slowly shifting their choices to the other emerging destinations for higher education (Hamid, 2016). Based on this unpleasant situation, few fundamental questions should be immediately addressed. For example, what are the major impediments of India’s rise as preferred global destination for higher education, what can make our country as preferred destination for many higher education programmes not only from relatively backward countries from Africa and Asia, but also from other developing and developed economies of middle east, Europe, East Asia and even from Americas. A research by Newman and Kings (2009) has concluded that with the growing reputation of higher educational institutions, the respective countries’ global acceptance as a major economic and political powerhouse also increases. He has cited the examples of China, South Korea and Malaysia. According to his

observation, all these countries have never been a preferred international destination for higher education till late 1980s and since early 1990s, mass student influx started in these countries not only from developing economies, but also from many developed economies in these countries. The number of the foreign students, enrolled with higher education institutions in these three countries have increased by 41%-47% over last one decade, the study further concluded. Another research by Churchill and Young (2015), has found that with the growing number of foreign students landing in the newly emerging economies of Asia and Eurasia such as Kazakhstan, Turkey, UAE, Malaysia, China, Korea, Thailand, Vietnam etc. , many foreign universities and institutions of higher learning of the western countries mainly from UK, USA, Canada, France and Germany have set up their branch campuses or affiliated academic institutions in large numbers in those countries. The same study has revealed that during 1990-2010 period a total number of 79 universities or institutions of higher learning have started their operations and have attracted few thousand students from other countries in those locations. The point of discourse in this narration can be an attempt to relating the image of a country with international diaspora in a more robust manner, that can not only facilitate the economic and social prosperity of a country, but also can work as a major boost to the global image, too. India, historically being a global destination of higher learning and research and with having one of the biggest higher education systems in the world, has much better potentiality to attract foreign students in diverse fields and disciplines at a much larger number than many other countries, those are doing better. The present article will attempt to explore different dimensions of this present phenomenon of Indian higher education


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system as a preferred destination for higher education. Historical Background There has been strong historical evidence available that shows the bright position, India used to enjoy as a global destination for higher education. It has been found that the Nalanda University in Pataliputra region (presently in Bihar) was founded in 427 AD and the same university existed until 1197 AD, till it was destroyed by the invaders. This university has been considered by many historians as the first global university of the world. It was a multi-disciplinary university of higher learning devoted to devoted to Buddhist studies, fine arts, medicines, mathematics, astronomy, politics and art of war. It had dormitories to house 10000 students and provided accommodation to 2000 professors and attracted students from Japan, Korea, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey among others. Hsuan Tsang from China studied and later taught here for five years in the 7th century AD when it had 10000 students and 3000 teachers. It had a nine storied library with 9 million manuscripts at the beginning of the 12th century. This library was destroyed by fire which was raging for nearly three months to destroy it. Thus our very own, the Nalanda University could be a benchmark of a truly global higher education institution. A.L. Basham (1954) in his legendary and classic work titled ‘The wonder that was India: a survey of the history and culture of the Indian sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims’ has identified few parameters of excellence of the University and he also highlights the same reasons, those promoted the Nalanda University as the centre of global learning. He identified such reasons as excellent student to faculty ratio with one faculty for 3-5 students (which is unarguably the best in the world even today), 100% residential nature with faculty and students residing on the

campus, international mix of students and faculty with multiple disciplines of students, internationally reputed faculties serving the university on short term and long term associations, an excellent library with 9 million books/ manuscripts (unarguably the biggest in the world at that time). Another classic work by R.C. Majumdar (1977) titled ‘Ancient India’ has discussed on another great University, that also emerged as true global destination of higher learning from almost 40 countries across Asia and Europe at that point of time. back to 5th century BC until its destruction in 5th century AD. It was best known for its association with Chankya, who wrote the famous economics treatise ‘Arthshastra’ here. Ayurvedic healer Charak also studied here who was pioneer in the field of ayurvedic system of medicine. Vedic studies, 18 different art types which embedded skills such as archery in training students were taught here in addition to medicine, law and military science. As already mentioned, like Nalanda, Takshila also attracted students from all over the world. Other ancient universities included Odantipuri in Bihar, Somapura now in Bangladesh, the Vikramshila in Bihar and Pushpagiri in Odisha. Thus as our ancient heritage, India was indeed a global destination for higher education and we need to seriously ponder over to regain our past glory, by benchmarking with best practices of those times. A recent research on ancient Indian higher education institutions by Ramanujan (2010) has highlighted few common features, most of these great institutions used to practice such as globally relevant curricula, innovation through research and collaboration, best of the class faculties, resource supports and international recognition and respect for their education. This last feature of the common feature, i.e., international recognition and respect for their education has definitely emerged as the key determinant for success of any globalization initiative by any


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contemporary university, anywhere in the world. Trends of Inflow of International Students in Indian Universities and Institutions of Higher Learning-An Overview It has been found from the databases provided by the AIU and the UGC, that the Indian universities and colleges or institutions of higher learning started admitting students from almost 90 countries as early as 1988-89. Since then, this number of countries sending students to India kept increasing. A study by Ramanujan (2010) based on the data provided by the Indian higher education regulatory bodies has shown that the students kept coming not only from the developing and underdeveloped nations, but also from the advanced and developed nations such as USA, UK, Canada, Australia, countries of the European Union and Japan. During 1990s, the number of foreign students joining the Indian universities and institutions of higher education increased steadily. However, this trend got stagnated till the first half of 2000 (till 2002). However, the number started increasing again and during the year 2007-2008, the number reached highest level till then at 21206 ( NUEPA occasional paper, 2010). The inflow of the foreign students however kept increasing and by 2016-2017, the number got doubled at more than 40000. While analyzing the report published by NUEPA (2016), a clear distribution of the students joining Indian universities and higher institutional institutions could be understood. The report clearly shows that since 2005-2006 onwards, the share of foreign students from Asian countries in Indian universities and institutions of higher learning has remained highest (approx.. 73%). The report further highlighted that the absolute number of inflow of foreign students from Africa though increased, yet their share in total foreign students in India reduced

since 1993-94 period. However, since 2009-2010 onwards, this trend has found to be reversed and again the African students’ share started increasing. The other countries from Asia and Africa, from where large number of students enrolled with Indian universities and institutions of higher learning during 2000-2009 are China, Japan, North Korea, Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain, Yemen, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Mauritus, Maldives, Myanmar, Thailand etc. Another noteworthy trend has been mentioned by Singh and Hamid (2016) in their research. He has noted that despite of the fact of increasing number of foreign students enrollment in Indian universities and institutions of higher learning, the student enrollment from the European countries and America (including Canada and USA) has remained stagnated since 2000-2010. A typical tendency has however been identified by the Open Doors 2008 reports. The report has shown that though the enrollment of American, Canadian and European students have not seen any reasonable growth from 2000-2010, yet a significant number of students from those countries have joined Indian universities and higher educational institutions to study non-traditional programmes such as Yoga, Ayurveda, Indian Classical Music and Dance, Indology etc. The recent report by the AIU (2016), has also indicated that out of the top ten countries contributed maximum number of students to India, four are low income countries (such as Nepal, Ethiopia, Afghanistan, Kenya0, two are lower middle income countries (Iran, Sri Lanka) and five are from high income countries ( such as UAE, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and Oman). However, the students from the majority of the high income countries mentioned have been found to be NRI children. The report published by AIU (2016) has found following universities and institutions of higher learning in India


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as the major places of study of the foreign students such as the University of Pune, University of Mysore, Manipal University, University of Delhi, Osmania University, Alagappa University, Jamia Hamdard, Indira Gandhi National Open University (under the distance education), Symbiosis international university. The same report has further shown that majority of the foreign students enrollment in the Indian universities and institutions have happened in the discipline like humanities and arts (approx.. 25%), Science (approx.. 18%), Communication and Management and Commerce (approximately 25%) , Engineering and Technology (approx.. 10%), medical sciences (approx.. 13%) etc. Snehi and Wizarat (2012) in their research have shown that maximum number of foreign students in India have enrolled with the undergraduate programmes, followed by the students from post-graduate and doctoral students. The same study has further revealed that few important reasons, those are responsible for selecting India as the destination of higher learning such as quality of higher education, international recognition of Indian degrees, lack of opportunities of higher education in home countries of the foreign students, relatively lower cost of higher education in India etc. Major obstacles faced by the students as identified by the same research have been found as absence of student support services at the Indian universities or institutions of higher learning, inadequate scholarship facilities, language barrier, many times lack of faculty support at government institutions, inadequate boarding facilities, stringent and complicated banking system etc. Government and Policy Support- A Brief Overview On April 28, 2018 a significant policy prerogative was unfolded by the Government of India. It was declared at a mega event at New Delhi and was attended

by the Union minister for external affairs, Sushma Swaraj, minister of state for HRD, Satyapal Singh and diplomats from 30 countries, based in New Delhi. Two major declarations were made in this conference and these could be a paradigm shift in the horizon of Indian higher education scenario, if delivered the result , even closed to the goals set. It was clearly said that the Government of India set the target to enroll almost 2 lakh international students by 2023 and for that purpose, a total number of 160 premier universities and institutions (including IITs and IIMs) were identified. The new policy further clarified the government plan of keeping 15000 seats initiatially for foreign students enrolments and out of these 55% remained completely with heavily discounted seats. To attract meritorious students from foreign countries, the government also declared it’s plan to offer complete fee waiver to top 25% students, followed by 50% fee waiver to next 25% and 25% fee waiver to next 25% students. This clearly shows the sincerity of the government to initiate a major policy, also named ‘Study in India’ with immediate effect. The initiative can be found like the admission exercises conducted by the respective governments of Australia, Malaysia, Singapore and Canada. This recent development of aggressive proactiveness can however be considered as a culmination of long tail of policy initiatives by the government of India to attract the foreign students to enroll with the Indian universities and the institutions of higher learning (Hindustan Times, 2017). It is a well-known fact that the universities in Europe and USA, emerged as the prominent centres of global learning during the nineteenth century and early part of twentieth century. The universities located in the former colonial powers such as United Kingdom, France, Portugal, Germany etc. came into prominence not only for their advanced education


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deliveries, but also by the influx of students from their erstwhile colonies in large numbers (University Education Commission Report, 1949; Kothari Commission Report, 1966; Powar, 2003). However, this exodus of students from these erstwhile colonies got restricted since a large number of domestic universities and institutions of higher learning were set up in those countries, after they got independence. India remains a great example of this trend. In the post- independence period, the university education system in India has grown tremendously to become the third largest in the world, after China and USA. There was some reversal in the trend and India, too, began to attract foreign students mainly from Asian, African and Arab sub-continents on a very modest scale. Despite the presence of foreign students on the campuses of our metropolitan Universities, the modest number of foreign students in India could not attract the attention of policy makers for long time (Powar and Bhalla, 2000). In India, higher education has remained largely inward looking. It must be mentioned here that till 1990s, the movement of foreign students in Indian campuses was looked at from the point of view of strengthening cultural relations, not as lucrative business and international prestige enhancement opportunities. With the setting up of Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), an autonomous organization, attempts were started to facilitate exchange of scholars and academicians in a selective way through the award of scholarships (Aggarwal, 2008). However, with the increasing importance of services sector including education services, education is now recognized as a tradable service sector under the General Agreement on Trade and Services (GATS) in many countries across the globe, including India. Such, change in shift was witnessed at a significant level in India, when the University Grants Commission (UGC) reported in its Tenth Five Year Plan

Document that “promotion of internationalisation and export of higher education including the study of India abroad programme” as one of the thrust areas (UGC, 2002). Further, the Association of Indian Universities (AIU) was also made responsible for equivalence and mutual recognition of qualifications; those actually streamlined the equalization process of the Indian qualifications with the foreign qualifications to a great extent. Thus, the efforts towards increase in student and professional mobility gained impetus since the year 2000. In another significant development, the AIU on behalf of the Indian universities signed an agreement on co-operation in higher education in 1999, with Australian Vice-Chancellors’ Committee (AVCC) which provided for sharing of information, staff and student exchanges, mutual recognition of qualifications, staff development, researchers’ exchange programme and university management. This was indeed a great development at that point of time, which facilitated mutual mobility of academic stakeholders between these two countries. Subsequently, the scope was broadened by the Government, by permitting 15% supernumerary seats in all the institutions for foreign/NRI students. Besides, the Government also constituted the Committee on Promotion of Indian Education Abroad (COPIEA) in April 2002, under the chairmanship of Secretary, Department of Secondary and Higher Education. The major aim was that COPIEA would monitor all activities aimed at promoting Indian education abroad and to regulate the operation of foreign educational institutions to safeguard the interests of the students and the larger national interest as well. It was decided to initiate a system of registration under which institutions were required to furnish information on operations and adhere to certain guidelines relating to publicity, maintenance of standards, charging of fees, granting of degrees, etc. It was expected that the COPIEA would,


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over a period of time, develop sectoral policy on foreign direct investment in the education sector (10th FYP, Vol.2). Under the “Promotion of Indian Education Abroad” (PIHEAD), during the 10th Five Year Plan (2002 – 07), UGC identified several countries for targeting to attract international students to India. These countries were identified, based on several criteria such as country profiles (demographic and economic) taking into consideration, present state of their Higher Education and Training System, skill gaps, programmes in demand in them. UGC also participated in NAFSA 58th Annual Conference, at Montreal Quebec, Canada in May 2006 with the strong and clear intention of promoting the Indian higher education system to a broader international academic community. MHRD authorized Educational Consultants (India) Limited (Ed.CIL), a public sector undertaking of the government, to act as a single window agency for recruiting international students for Indian universities and institutions of higher learning. The government also created an exclusive scheme called ‘Direct Admission of Students Abroad (DASA)’, wherein 15 % seats were reserved in premier technical institutions such as the National Institutes of Technology (formerly the Regional Engineering Colleges) and the centrally funded institutions for Foreign Nationals/People of Indian Origin (PIOs)/Non-Resident Indians (NRIs). Besides this, Ed.CIL also took up schemes to promote Indian Education Abroad by representing Indian higher education institutions in Educational Fairs in other countries also. In the year 2008, Prime Minister Shri Manmohan Singh constituted an inter-ministerial committee, headed by former Director General of Indian Council of Cultural Relations, regarding ‘Welfare of Foreign Students in India’. The Report of the Committee was submitted in the year end and approved for circulation among stakeholders. Recommendations made by the committee regarding measures that

include making proper advertisement in foreign countries about Indian culture, education system, reputed universities and courses offered by them, easing of admission process, on-line admission and urgent visa clearance for research scholars and so on. Detailed modalities for implementation of the measures were worked out. Establishing of International Students' Centres in every University was also made as the major suggestion for which UGC was asked to provide funds to the universities. Thus, it is apparent that initiatives to promote student mobility from abroad to India have occupied a prominent place in the government's agenda since 2000. The recent ‘Study in India’ is the culmination of all these long efforts in it’s present shape. Minor Research Project A small survey has been conducted as the part of the present article. A total number of 42 students from five different countries, presently enrolled with three private universities at Bangalore have been surveyed through a structured questionnaire, exclusively designed for the present research. The questionnaire has been made by incorporating six major factors for selection of India as their preferred academic destination. These factors have been taken from the published work by Snehi and Wizarat (2012). Five point likert scale has been used to record the feedback from the respondents. The six major factors identified for the present research are perception of India as a destination for study abroad programme (no.1), perceived quality of higher education in India (no. 2), perception of the international acceptance and recognition of Indian degrees and diplomas (no.3), perception of superiority about the Indian education than the specific education offered by the universities/institutions back home (no.4), relative low cost of higher education in India (no 5), getting an unique and


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diverse cultural experience in India and uniqueness of the specific programme the student is enrolled (no.6). The students surveyed in the research have been found to be enrolled with the programmes like engineering, business management, humanities (economics and sociology), India centric courses (Yoga, Indian classical music etc.), medicine and biological sciences. Feedbacks received through questionnaire have been analysed based on specific questions (Q.1-Q.6) asked in the questionnaire and following table (Table 1) depicts the overall response patterns. Table 1: Question wise over-all response patterns: Q’ No.

Strongly agree

Agree No opinion

Disagree Strongly disagree

1 8 32 (76.19%)

1 2 2

2 10 30 (66.66%)

4 1 0

3 4 41 (91.11%)

0 0 0

4 1 40 (88.88%)

4 0 0

5 5 11

2 27% (60%)

0

6 5 16 4 20 (44.44%)

0

The above response pattern clearly indicates that most of the surveyed foreign students have opted for Indian degree/ diploma programmes mainly for their favourable perception of the international acceptance and recognition of Indian degrees and diplomas (Q. 3: 91.11%) and positive perception of superiority of the Indian education than the same education offered by the universities/institutions back home (Q. 4: 88.88%) than other reasons. This clearly shows that the positive perception and credibility of Indian degrees/diplomas still are two major factors, those attract foreign nationals to study in India. Cost is also a

factor, but in the present study, it has not emerged as a major factor as many respondents have disagreed (Q. 5: 60%) on the observation that they opted India for cost benefit purposes. These findings support the observations made by Lincoln and Rowdan (2010). On a research conducted on approximate 500 foreign students enrolled in Malaysian universities, they found the same pattern of responses as important determinants for choosing an overseas location by the international students. Findings and Conclusion The above discussions have clearly revealed the trends, patterns, pros and cons of foreign student’s enrollment in the Indian universities and institutions of higher learning. Moreover, by analyzing the policies and strategies adopted by many of the leading foreign destinations of higher learning, it can be understood that the number of foreign students in India cannot be increased only by basic amenities or facilities improvement, but also by improving international standings of the Indian degrees or diplomas in global market. There have been many policy attempts before by the central government to attract more foreign students in India, but none of them have yield beyond small improvements. Time will give the answer, whether the present ‘Study in India’ campaign will be a real game changer or will remain a short term boost as before. Based on the detailed studies conducted by many scholars, including Snehi and Wizarat (2012), following areas of interventions have been identified, those can provide support to improve the situation drastically. These are continuous up-date of policy and strategy, best possible branding campaigns, international student support and collaboration, implementing reaching out globally, infrastructure development, international benchmarking of the Indian programmes and curriculum, faculty benchmarking etc.


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As India has immense potential to market its educational programme abroad, internationalization of higher education in the country in will and spirit at all stakeholder level needs to be implemented with systematic and urgent attention. India can use the cultural soft-power to attract many more Indian origin people with foreign nationalities as China has been successfully doing since last two decades (Ling and Edward, 2016). The overall possibilities are immense and can yield most desirable outcomes through well coordinated, aggressive and strategically supported initiatives. References: Agarwal, P. (2008), India in the context of international student circulation: status and prospects’, in Hans de Wit and others (Eds.), The dynamics of international student circulation in a Global Context, Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. AIU (2016), Report on internationalization of Indian traditional education, New Delhi. Basham, A.L. (1954), The Wonder that was India, London. Churchill, S. and Young, E. (2015), Asia, the biggest battle field for global education? , Higher Education Research Review, Vol. 9 (4), pp. 67-71. Hamid, A. (2016), International Education and Student mobility , Asian Journal of Service Management, Vol. 8(1), p. 67. Kothari Commission (1966), National Commission on Education, New Delhi. Lincoln, D. and Rowdan, S. (2010), What markets higher education in South East Asia: A case approach on Malaysia, Journal of Higher Education and Learning, Vol. 5 (4), pp. 200-212.

Ling, C. and Edward, T. (2016), Diaspora strategy in promoting domestic education: The Chinese experiments, Strategy Journal, Vol. 34 (2), pp. 601-617. Majumdar, R.C. (1977), Ancient India, Kolkata. Newman, S. and Kings, R. (2009), What happens in student marketing in competitive world? , Journal of Business Competitiveness, Volume. 21 (1), pp. 1047-1055. NEUPA (2010), Occasional paper XI, International students in India, New Delhi. NEUPA (2016), Occasional paper XVI, International students in India, New Delhi. Powar, K.B. and Bhalla , V. (2000), International students in Indian universities, New Delhi, Association of Indian Universities. Powar, K.B. (2003), ‘Transnational Education’, in InternationalIsation of higher education: focus on India, Amity University Press, New Delhi. Ramalingam, D. (2015), Overseas Education: A mass exodus from India? , Higher Education Weekly, Issue 98, pp. 5-7. Ramanujan, K. (2010), Classic universities in the ancient world, London. Sanyal, T. and Martin, K. (2006), International student mobility: a trend analysis, Journal of service marketing and global economy, Vol. 6(3), pp. 90-112 Singh, K. and Hamid, A. (2016), Higher Education in International Business Market: A critical analysis, Journal of International Business and Economics, Vol. 34(2), pp. 341-346.


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Nehi, N. and Wizarat, K. (2012), ‘Report of Research study ‘Foreign Students in India’, NUEPA, New Delhi. ‘Study in India’, National Edition, Hindustan Times, December 27, 2017

UGC (1949), The report of the university education commission, New Delhi


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UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION BARRIERS IN THE ACADEMIC INSTITUTIONS: A GATEWAY TO SUCCESS

Dr. Nalina Ganapathi

International Labour Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland Abstract The leaders of educational institutions encourage multicultural education to a great extent as that helps to attain significant academic standards, thus creates models of academic excellence in the society. Today institutional settings have become competitive and products have become knowledge-based. Due to globalisation, the workforce has become culturally diverse. Educational establishments are becoming increasingly included in the global education market and they are facing growing competition for the best students. In the institutions, the value of international students is substantial as they symbolise diversity, bring in new skills, innovative solutions and add to the research capacity. International students are key to facilitating institutions and represent countries to address skill shortages and in contributing to the economy. For students, learning and inhabiting fully in a new and multicultural environment has advantages and disadvantages. While multiculturalism brings skills and innovation, it also brings challenges. International students confront many challenges, especially when they are in the transition to adapt themselves to new surroundings. These include academic demands, homesickness, loss of social support and status, the need for self-esteem, lack of study skills, and confidence. Additionally, the language and emotional barriers play significant roles as they can lead to communication breakdown among themselves and between faculties and students.

The objective of this empirical research study is to understand the need for effective communication amongst and between faculties and students in educational institutions. To work on simple but effective strategies to overcome the communication barriers would be the distinctive part of this research. (This paper was written in the author’s private capacity. The opinions expressed therein are those of the author and in no way reflect any endorsement by the International Labour Office.) Introduction The evolution of any educational institution depends on effective and efficient communication. It is a unique tool that is used to direct the board of management to act in an ideal way to be successful. Effective communication is vibrant not only to develop good human relationships but also helps institutions to develop in a positive manner. Both verbal and non-verbal communications are considered to be significant for the effective institutional climate as they greatly impact institutional success. Knowledge sharing and clear communication are compulsory to satisfy students, faculties, and to improve work quality. Thus it becomes the responsibility of the management to motivate faculties and students to understand diversity and encourage an application of transparent communication. Today the corporate setting is highly competitive, and the workforce has become culturally and academically diverse. Diversity obviously brings communication challenges and misunderstanding can easily occur. Thus communication methodology can be


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distressed. In such cases, understanding diversity is the key to effective cross-cultural communication. When students from different cultures interact, as they carry different perspectives, approaches, ideas, and expectations, communication can be challenging but also interesting. It is the feature and understanding of a group of people different by background, religion, race, social factors, language, religion, habits, and food. Culture and communication are so intertwined that it is easy to conceive that culture is communication and or communication is culture. Cultures shape the way of thinking which then defines the way of behaviour. Good culture endures impacting human communications, effort, gender beliefs, and wellbeing (Brislin, 1993). Intercultural communication occurs when students with different background and values create shared resources. It helps to build trust with each other and develop relationships. Clear and transparent intercultural communication is an outstanding tool to focus on success. The style of communication is created by the leadership of the institution and deep routed in the competencies, based on which the business executed every day (Ganapathi, 2018). Communication is one of the most intricate and long-term activities of human beings. Communicating is an ever-continuing development and is the natural act of expressing ideas. In reality, it is vital to human life's existence. It is a basic process from where all the other functions of the institutions originate. Thus communication designs have an eloquent power on the transparency of communication. The anomalies in the flow of patterns bring upon barriers and obviously that affects the regular functions of the institutions. Being social animals, human beings enjoy communicating and in fact, cannot live without it. In a persistent shifting world, businesses are being driven by the need for an efficient system to meet the goals of the

enterprise. Primarily, in the academic institutions, that efficient system has to be transparent communication that helps to lessen the misinterpretations at the level of management, faculty, and students. To date, the influence of technology changes the way the institutions are structured when a new system is introduced and it can help to reduce the communication complexity (Ganapathi, 2016). To assure the clear understanding of information among faculties or between faculties and students and or among students the possible communication barriers have to be foreseen and an action plan has to be instigated to overcome. A communication barrier is anything that stops the process of transferring messages or thoughts or ideas from receiving and understanding. In other words, barriers to communication can be expressed as the aspects or conditions that interrupt the effective exchange of ideas or thoughts. The message expressed is considered external whereas feelings and ideas are considered internal (Ganapathi, 2019). It is possible that the intended messages and the required information have difficulties to pass-through in the expected desired form due to the existence of possible communication barriers.The factors that could cause hindrance for effective communication be personal interests, trust, fear, stress, status and, organizational, physical and or emotions. And so, the patterns of communication are the essential requisite for the stability of institutions. Without employing capable faculties, the goal of the institution could be difficult to achieve. Therefore, highly motivated and committed faculties are the key essentials for the success of any institutions they in turn nurture students to be good.

Literature Review Both students and teachers in the colleges should be equipped with knowledge of nonverbal communication says Huang (2010) as nonverbal communication plays


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a significant role and it has a powerful influence on classroom teaching. Western scholars believe that the role of nonverbal communication in classroom teaching is greater than that of formal teaching for students’ learning and the teachers are required to learn to use nonverbal communication to improve classroom teaching (Bi Jiwan, 1995). To become successful, a combination of diversity and communication skill development are essential keys says Greene and Burleson (2003). It is a broad, authoritative source and is crucial for scholars and students in the field of disciplines studying social interaction. Likewise, O’Toole (2008) stated that the development of skills in communication is a constant expedition, which entails the alertness of personal prejudices. Overcoming the barriers to effective communication is a positive and rewarding process. A study by Dawan et al. (2014) on cultural communication depicts the difference between verbal and non-verbal communication, identification of communication needs, interpersonal communication skills and the necessity of identifying cultural barriers. Kurylo (2013) introduced to case studies, narratives, examples, and images that reflect the perspectives and provide a depth and breadth of varied cultural experiences in his book on intercultural communication. Enabling students to engage to understand the diversity of people with whom they come into contact to build their network is a key. As well, to deal with unfamiliar cultures can be challenging and so it becomes important that students to learn how to address cultural communication opportunities when interacting in cyberspace (St. Amant, 2005). Effective cross-cultural communication enables businesses to run more effectively and successfully in academic institutions. Understanding cultural differences and overcoming language barriers are some of the considerations management staff of the institutions should have while dealing with individuals of various cultures (Ganapathi,

2014). The growing business opportunities in foreign markets create more and more demand for managers, business people, and professional staff who have developed an international outlook and cross-cultural communication ability. Multicultural education is important to help students from diverse cultural groups to attain the academic skills needed to function in a knowledge society (Maude, 2011). Successful communication in culturally varied workplaces is an essential tool both internally and overseas (Reynolds et al. 2004). Intercultural Barriers In the globe of the multicultural environment, cultural barriers help to communication flourish. While the major difficulty in the successful collaboration among students and between students and faculties is language when it is different. This is due to different background, the different frame of reference, and the emotional difference that could result in dissimilar actions. The difficulties with communication happen when the expressions are not fully understood and or appreciated by the other. When communication difficulties become noticeable and common, finding solutions to problems becomes necessary (Shachaf, 2008). A language is multifaceted when communicated between people speaking diverse languages. It is a distinctive tool for transparent communication. The speaking skill is a requirement for any language. Apart from speaking, listening is nevertheless one of the most essential communication skills as well. The listening process can be fragmented into five different phases of the message, such as receiving, understanding, remembering, evaluating and responding. These benefits segregate the necessary skills required at each individual step in the process. About 80 per cent of waking hours of humans have been spent in some form of communication, which includes reading,


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writing, speaking, and listening (Knutson, 2013). The culture has a huge impact on communication. It has its own rules about behaviour that could affect verbal and nonverbal communication apart from showing emotion differently in the academic institutions. Cultural barriers can be seen as both shaping and being shaped by the conservative patterns of communication that is established in academic institutions. Intercultural communication provides value and helps to rule-out risk. Communication is an emblematic procedure by which people generate collective values. Similarly, intercultural communication occurs when people with different cultural perspectives and values create shared resources. It helps to build faith with each other and develop relationships. In spite of all mentioned, due to diversity in cultural thinking, it is possible to run into miscommunication in a multinational setting (Goman, 2011). Faculty-student/student-student relationships can heavily influence important results of institutions such as commitment, performance and as well as revenue. Culture, therefore, gives a sense of identity for the existence of institutions in the world and to represent who they are, what they stand for and what they do to the society (Ganapathi, 2019). Institutional culture combines morals and actions that contribute to the status situation of an institution (O’Donnell and Boyle, 2008). It is possible that the barriers of communication twist the proposed messages and the required information does not spread in the expected form (Damanpour, 2012). In principle, the faculties and students lack knowledge about their institutions. However, inappropriately structured institutions, unclear communication processes, and several other common barriers ultimately obstruct the institutional climate. The barriers of communication lead to inconsistent setting and generate

disconnected professional relationships among colleagues (Kokemuller, 2016). Findings Despite the acquaintance of the topic on the communication and as observed during the literature survey, there is no in-depth research work done to understand the level of transparency and complexities focusing academic institutions. Conclusion

In the business world, effective operative communication is vital that has an influence on the success of the institutions (Sullivan, 2011). Without a clear and transparent internal communication, the business of the institutions can face challenges and that eventually lead to its demise. In order to guarantee success and stability of the academic institutions, it is important to understand the importance of effective communication, the barriers that affect the free flow have to be identified and take mandatory actions to eradicate. To enrich success it is important for the management of the academic institutions to work on simple but effective strategies to identify hindrances such as organizing an open forum to discuss and obtain the feedback from faculties and students. Most importantly the feedback has to be evaluated open-mindedly and plan for operative actions. For the welfare of the academic institutions and for the personal benefits, the faculties and students have to have in-depth knowledge about their institutions, respecting and adhering to objectives are the important points to be kept in mind. While encouraging the level of open communication among students and students and faculties by the management, respecting the reputation of the institution, feeling responsible and inclusive by the students are quintessential. No doubt, this can lead to the great stability and this would be the best gateway to the success of academic


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institutions in the era of globalisation (Ganapathi, 2019).

References Bi Jiwan. (1995). Nonverbal Communication : In a Dictionary of British and American Culture edited by Hu Wenzhong. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Brislin, R. (1993). Understanding culture’s influence on behaviour. Fort Worth: Harcourt. Damanpour, F. Devece, C. Cuej, C.C. and Pothukuchi, V. (2012). Organisational culture and partner interaction in the management of international joint ventures in India. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Volume 29, Issue 2, pp. 453–478. Dawan, D. Hunter, A. McGhie, V. Horn, J.M. and Conrad, D. (2014). Workplace Communication Problems: Inquiries by Employees and Applicable Solutions. Ganapathi, N. (2019). The need for Intercultural Communication Skills in the Multicultural Settings. Ganapathi, N. (2019). Workplace Communication: Influence of Emotional Barriers in a multicultural setting. Ganapathi, N. (2018). Relevance of Internal Communication in Multicultural Organisation. Ganapathi, N. and Panchanatham, N. (2016). Corporate Governance – The Importance of Communication and Culture. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, Volume 9(33). Ganapathi, N. and Panchanatham, N. (2014). The Role of Human Resource Management in Cross-Cultural

Environment – The Way to Managerial Communication. Goman, C.K. (2011). Communicating Across Cultures. Greene, J.O. and Burleson, B.R. (2003). Handbook of Communication and Social Interaction Skills. Group of Eight Australia (2014). Policy Note – International students in higher education and their role in the Australian economy. Huang (2011). Mitigating the Negative Effects of Geographically Dispersed Teams. Knutson, C. (2013). Which Communication Skill Is Most Important? Kokemuller, N. (2016). Some barriers of communication lead to conflicting ambiance and detached professional relationships among colleagues. Kurylo, A. (Ed.) (2013). Inter/Cultural Communication: Representation and Construction of Culture. Lee, S. and Bradley, D.K. (2014). Relation between general self-efficacy, assertiveness, spirituality, and acculturative stress among international students Maude, B. (2011). Managing cross-cultural communication: Principles and Practice. O’Toole, G. (2008). Communication: core interpersonal skills for health professionals. Pederson, P. B. (1991). Counseling international students. The Counseling Psychologists, 19, pp. 10-58.


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Poyrazli, S. Arbona, C. Nora, A. McPherson, R. and Pisecco, S. (2002). Relation between assertiveness, academic self-efficacy, and psychosocial adjustment among international graduate students. Journal of College Student Development, 43(5), pp. 632-642. Reynolds, Sana, Valentine and Deborah (2004). Guide to cross-cultural communication. Shachaf, P (2008). Cultural diversity and information and communication technology impacts on global virtual teams: An exploratory study. Information and Management, 45 (2), pp. 131-142.

St. Amant, K. (2005). When Cultures and Computers Collide - Rethinking Computer-Mediated Communication according to International and Intercultural Communication Expectations. Sullivan, J. (2011). Increasing Employee Productivity: The Strategic Role That HR Essentially Ignores. Wu, H-P. Garza, E. and Guzman, N. (2015). International Student’s Challenge and Adjustment to College.


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STUDENT CENTERED STRATEGIES FOR QUALITY INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION

Dr. Neeta Baporikar

Namibia University of Science and Technology, Namibia & University of Pune, India Abstract International education is crucial and strategic in higher education. In fact, the objectives achievement of higher education in general and discipline in particular depend upon the soundness of international education and development. Still, in spite of excellence in international education and development especially in management education, the objectives of management education seem to be far from attainment. After all the goal of management education should be to create global leaders who then with right attributes and holistic inclusive thinking will be able to address global issues in an optimum manner. If that is the goal, then there is need for management educators to look critically at the linkage between pedagogies and international education. Adopting a mixed methods approach the objective of this chapter is to look at linking student centred pedagogy with quality international education for that goal attainment, to enhance and enable the creation of much needed global leaders and citizens for this global economy. Keywords: Achievement, Education, Discipline, Learner, Management, Objectives, Outcome, Programme, University Introduction During the past several decades, with the dramatic development of economy and technology, international trade and internationalization have become a trend and become more widely held by many enterprises and economies (Baporikar, 2016b). This phenomenon has many reasons, such as the reduced barriers make

it ready for firms to access the new market, the companies never stop pursuing to search the cheapest resource, the increasing consumer requirement in the overseas market is also a pull factor for companies to launch their products or service to the foreign market (Doole and Lowe, 2008). As we know, since the early 1980s, the world economy has experienced rapid ―globalizationǁ and over the past ten years, the business area has changed a lot due to the globalization and internationalization (Lee and Slater, 2007). According to Doole and Lowe (2008), the emergence of more open world economy and the unabated construction of global electronic highways increase the inter-dependency and inter-connections of nation economies across the globe. Therefore, the need for managers to develop managerial skills to respond to various pressures affects companies of all sizes (Baporikar, 2014). In addition, the concept of internationalization has drawn many researchers’ attention during past several decades. However, the situations would vary when in different industrial context and in different parts of the world want to internationalize (Baporikar, 2016). The size of enterprises and many other factors would also affect the process of internationalization (Baporikar, 2015). Indeed, many researchers and previous studies have tried to provide different theories and answer the questions within this area from different perspectives (Andersson, 2004; Forsgren, 2002; Harris and Wheeler, 2005). Further, the reasons causing internationalization process to succeed or fail can be traced to various factors both internal factors and external factors. Palich and Gomex-Mejia (1999)


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mentioned the effects of cultural diversity. In addition, the strategic change would also be considered (McDougall and Oviatt, 1996). However, McDougall, Shane and Oviatt, 1994; Harris and Wheeler, 2005; Carpenter and Sanders, 2004), focused on financing decisions, entrepreneur’s relationship, top management team and so on which are more internal in nature. Westhead, Wright and Ucbasaran (2001) claimed that - policy-makers and practitioners with additional insights into the key resource-based factors associated with the decision by new and small independent firms to export sales abroad. There also are some studies examining both external and internal factors, Asakawa, 1996; Forman and Hunt, 2005. Education sector globally is not an exception to this international wave. International education is crucial and strategic aspect in higher education. In fact, the achievement of the objectives of higher education in general and of specific discipline largely depends upon the soundness of international education and development. However, in spite of excellence in international education and development especially in management education, the objectives of management education seem to be far from achievement. After all the goal of management education should be to create global leaders who then with right attributes and holistic inclusive thinking will be able to address global issues in an optimum manner (Baporikar, 2017e). If that is the goal to achieve then there is need for management educators to look critically at the linkage between teaching pedagogy and international education. Adopting a mixed methods approach the objective of this chapter is to look at linking student centred pedagogy with quality international education for that goal attainment. In doing the higher education, enablement to create much needed global citizens for this global economy will enhance.

Thus, this chapter is about student centered strategies for quality international education as internationalization of higher education seems to loom large on the agenda of policy makers in higher education in India. International education is on the horizon large and that certainly presents an array of opportunities and challenges. One of such opportunity as well as challenge would be how to ensure quality in international education. One of the strategic pillar would be to take care of the teaching quality which is benchmarked globally in terms of pedagogy, delivery and technology. Hence, the chapter focuses on the pedagogy and seeks to understand how student centered strategies can enhance and aid for quality international education. Lecturing large classes is not the norm anymore. Universities and HEIs have realised that teaching is not the poor cousin of research. In fact, many of them are responding by making teaching as more focused area for university branding and status. After all, if the students who go through the portals of these universities and institutions lack capabilities, employable and life skills than the very purpose of higher education is questionable. Apart from that, the huge investments, to set up these, also become sunk costs and wise burden the economies. Research and studies have also brought in the realisation that that good teaching is as much a function of an institution-wide infrastructure though it may be a gift to some lucky academics born with it. Various factors influence teaching and learning process and this in turn impacts the students’ retention (Baporikar, 2018). However the main factors, include students’ levels of engagement versus the level of learning activity to achieve the intended learning outcomes in particular context and that can range from ‘describing’ to ‘theorizing’, as shown by dashed lines in Figure 1).


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Figure 1. Students’ Engagement Relation to Learning Activity Level

Source: Adopted from Baporikar, 2018 Student Centered Strategies Good teaching is getting most students to use the level of cognitive processes needed to achieve the intended outcomes. Hence, teachers, staff, developers and administrators – need to immerse themselves in the ‘scholarship of teaching’ (Boyer 1990). Academics have always been teachers, but there priority is to remain update with content discipline and publish. Developing teaching expertise usually takes back seat. Institutional structures and reward systems as much as the individual preference also dictate here. On the other hand, the other side of the coin of what constitutes a good academic is responsibility to address that body of knowledge, which underlines good teaching, Effectiveness of teaching depends on how we view teaching. Teaching perception prevails in three ways. The first is blaming the learner, the second the teacher. The third integrates learning and teaching. It sees effective teaching as encouraging students to use the learning activities most likely to achieve the competences

(Baporikar, 2016c; 2016d). Here there is a need of understanding how students learn. Students adopt surface approach or deep approach to learning. These approaches are the resultant of the low-level or high-level activities in adoption towards teaching learning. Appropriate level of activities will result in appropriate level of learning and achieve the relevant outcomes. Hence, good teaching must support those appropriate learning activities and discourages inappropriate ones. All teachers have some theory of what teaching is: when they are doing it, even if they are not explicitly aware of that theory and their theories deeply affect the kind of learning environment they create (Gow and Kember 1993). Three common theories of teaching exist. See figure 2. It is also a route map towards reflective teaching. Figure 2. Three levels

Source: Self-Developed Level one teacher’s emphasis on the differences between students, and believe there are good students, like X, and poor students, like Y. Level one teachers see their responsibility as knowing the content well, and expounding it clearly. Thereafter, it is depend on the student and the premise is that if X does - good student Y does not – poor student. Here teaching is constant – it is transmitting information, usually by lecturing – so differences in learning are due to differences in students’ ability,


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motivation, what sort of school they went to, good grades/results, and ethnicity and so on. Thus level one focuses on ability thus, teaching is not an educative activity, but an assessment to sort good students from the bad after teaching is over. One of the major drawbacks of this belied that is that curriculum contents are for explanation from the podium, and how the students receive that content and what is their depth of understanding is not of importance nor addressed. This level 1 is founded on a quantitative way of thinking about learning and teaching (Cole 1990). This view of teaching as a transmission process by the university and institutions is so deep that and in wide acceptance that teaching facilities, rooms and media design is for one-way delivery. Thus, a teacher is the knowledge expert, the sage on the stage, and how well students do these things depends, in this view, on their ability, their motivation – even their ethnicity, students frequently being unfairly and inaccurately stereotyped as ‘rote-learners’ (Biggs 1996). Level one thus operates on the blame-the-student theory of teaching. Hence, the responsibility of learning is squarely on the students without consideration to teaching methods, curriculum design education and learning styles. Following comments made by teachers who profess level 1 reflect this:

How can one teach students with poor

schooling?

They lack any motivation at all. These students lack suitable study skills.

These students cannot even write as

sentence.

Students do not have reading skills.

Though these statements may have some truth in themselves, which is the challenge

for teachers, which needs dealing with, and not an excuse for poor teaching. This also means that level one teaching is not reflective and hence, the teachers fail to ask the key propagative question and introspect on what else they must do to ensure that students learn, understand and acquire the knowledge/skills. Level two teachers’ focus on what they do and the view is still on transmission, but transmitting concepts and understandings, not just information (Prosser and Trigwell 1998). In this level, the teacher significantly takes the responsibility for getting the content across and realises that there are many ways in teaching and some more effective than the other is. This is an improvement over level one, as learning is moving from students’ ability to more what the teacher does. It also means that the teacher would have different teaching skills and the effort to make students understand complex concepts could be through use of more than lecture method. For example: After an introduction through an interesting icebreaker, the agenda for the class is given. There may be an exercise or a group discussion. Sometimes the teacher even recapitulation and provided the proposed lesson plan for next class, etc. However, level two has plenty of variation, which does result in better and more students’ response and even positive learning, yet it is entirely teacher centred. It is about what the teacher is doing and not what the learning is. Level two still is resting on traditional approaches to teaching and focus more on what the teacher does. There may be courses and books that provide prescriptive advice on getting it across more effectively. Rules and clear procedures, clarity regarding use clear visual aids and better communication to


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students etc. may be prevailing but all this amounts to classroom management rather than facilitation of learning. Not to say that classroom management is unimportant but that cannot be a substitute for good learning strategies. Thus, level two is also the blame model but here the shift of blame is on teacher and this may suit the administrative approach, which prevails in many universities and institution but does not help to achieve the real objective of higher education. Moreover, competences of teaching like constructing a reliable multiple-choice test, using educational technology, questioning skills, is useful only if it is appropriate and if there is a right timing and proper usage to enhance the learning. After all the focus must be not on the skill in itself, but the deployment will have the desired effect on student learning. Level three teacher is the real way to go about teaching in the current world of knowledge society. It is here that the focus is on what the student does and how that relates to teaching. Level 3 is a student-centred teaching, which focuses on teaching to support learning. It includes not only knowledge expertise of the subject but also the mastery of various techniques of teaching for application and ensuring that the learning occurs and there is attainment of intended outcomes. This implies a view of teaching that is not just about facts, concepts and principles to be covered and understood, but also to be clear about what is meant by understanding the coverage in the way that is stipulated in the intended learning outcomes. It is about teaching/learning activities that are essential to achieve those required levels of understanding. Level one and level two did not address these questions. The first question requires

specification of levels of understanding in relation to a topic and it is not about the array of techniques but about the students learning and the quality of learning. It is also, about whether the learnings are sufficient to help them in the application at their workplace. Otherwise, the very purpose of higher education is defeated. The second question requires the teaching/ learning activities design and tuned to help students achieve those levels of understanding. This leads us to the import aspect of international education. International Education Fraser and Bosanquet (2006) emphasized that staff working in higher education have very different understandings of the term ‘curriculum, as various as

• The structure and content of a unit (subject) • The structure and content of a programme of study • The students’ experience of learning • A dynamic and interactive process of teaching and learning

(Fraser & Bosanquet, 2006). Lattuca and Stark (2009) in their extensive work on curriculum highlighted that staff used similar breakdowns of this term. This lack of a shared understanding of the term ‘curriculum’ can be problematic when staff gather to do international education and development for any discipline, programme or course. They proposed a useful framework where all stakeholders can use the concept of an academic plan. This certainly aids in enhancing the effectiveness of planning process for international education and development. Figure 4 gives the modified framework

Figure 4. Framework for Quality international education


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Source: Adopted from Lattuca and Stark, 2011. Thus, international education has often been in use interchangeably with the term global education. However, we prefer to use the term international education, as we believe that it is a process, is always more fluid, dynamic, and is in the development process more often than a structured design kind of thing especially in management education, which is also always dynamic and socio-culturally contextual. Ornstein and Hunkins (1998, p17) describe that: international education encompasses how a curriculum is planned, implemented, and evaluated. The starting point of a programme design is a) the consideration of the needs and resources for the programme; Diamond (1998) describes this as carrying out a ‘needs analysis’. Some useful interrogations to consider in a needs analysis of a programme include for example: needs of society in which the educational programme exists. Priority for the

programme; academic resources availability within the institution/university to support the programme; sufficiency of other resources to ensure success of the new programme; feedback if any from current students and other stakeholders about existing curricula and the articulation of a vision and set of values i.e. a programme’s educational philosophy. Having an educational philosophy statement at the beginning of a programme can communicate to students and academic staff the rationale for particular teaching, learning and assessment approaches. O’Neill (2014), in the research on international education highlighted that the lack of a common educational philosophy affected programme sequencing and coherence. After evidence gathering regarding the need for a new (or revised) programme, prior to international education it is important to draw together the programme team to consider/discuss views on how


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students learn (Toohey, 2000; Stark, 2000; O’Neill, 2010).

Educational Philosophy Linkage to International Education

An educational philosophy is a statement agreed by a programme team that sets out, the programmes: purpose(s), education and subject/discipline/professional values, the nature of the learning environment for

students, the key approaches to teaching, learning and assessment. The need of composing an educational philosophy is that it will aid the process of writing and assist the international

Education / programme team to dialogue and articulate individual educational and subject/discipline or professional values but at the same time to bring in consistency through negotiated and agree a shared vision and some common values. This will ensure that the outcome of the process of international education not only has a buy-in form the academia but also inform a more coherent choice and sequence of programme outcomes; content; teaching, learning and assessment approaches in the programme. It also enhances the transparency of the programme’s key vision and values to students and other stakeholders. Once the educational philosophy is established, the team should have a shared view of the teaching and learning approaches that they consider important. At this point, a relook

on the suitability of curriculum models for suitability to all or most of the aspects of the programme is crucial. Curriculum models help in designing systematically and transparently map out the rationale for the use of particular teaching, earning and assessment approaches. This not brings in consistency but also enhances the teaching-learning process and facilitates in acquisition of the required graduate attributes of university and professional education programme per se. Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) suggest that although international education models are technically useful, they often overlook the human aspect such as the personal attitudes, feelings and values involved in curriculum making. Hence, it is important to know that these models are

mere parameters and not a recipe and should not be a substitute for using your professional and personal judgement on what is a good approach to enhancing student learning. A commonly described, maybe slightly simplistic version, of polarised curriculum models are those referred to by many authors as the ‘Product Model’ and the ‘Process Model’. The Product Model is traceable to the writings of Tyler (1949) who greatly influenced international education in America (O’Neill, 2010). Models that developed out of Tyler’s work, were criticised for their over emphasis on learning objectives and were viewed as employing very technical, means-to-end reasoning. The Product Model, however, has been valuable in developing and communicating transparent outcomes to

the student population and has moved emphasis away from lists of content. Recent literature in this area suggests that in using this model, ensuring not to be overly prescriptive when writing learning outcomes is critical (Hussey & Smith, 2003; 2008; Maher, 2004). Hussey and Smith maintain that: accepting that student motivation is an essential element in learning, we propose that those who teach should begin to reclaim learning outcomes and begin to frame them more broadly and flexibly, to allow for demonstrations and expressions of appreciation, enjoyment and even pleasure, in the full knowledge that such outcomes pose problems for assessment. (Hussey & Smith, 2003, p367) Knight (2001) expresses the advantages of a more Process Model of curriculum planning in comparison to the Product. He


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notes it makes sense to plan a curriculum in this intuitive way, reassured by the claim from complexity theory that what matters is getting the ingredients— the processes, messages and conditions— right and trusting that good outcomes will follow. This suggests that when working in a more Product Model of learning outcomes, it may be more valuable to consider first what it is you are really trying to achieve in your teaching/learning activities and to write then the programme and/or module learning outcomes. In addition to the Process and Product Model, there is a range of different, more specific, models that individually or collectively could suit your programme design. Some of the curriculum models have grown out of different educational contexts, such as school, higher and adult education. However, many are transferable across the different areas. Some are described as ‘models’ and as they become more specific they may be referred to ‘designs’, i.e. subject-centred designs. Neary (2003) describes the emphasis of the former on plans, intentions, and the latter on activities and effects (The Process Model). In most programmes, there are elements of both of these models, however, the emphasis may vary and one can be more dominant than the other can. Further, according to Stark (2000) contextual filters that influence curriculum decisions are student characteristics, goals, external influences, program and institution goals, pragmatic factors, pedagogical literature, advice, facilities and opportunities availability on campus. These different and other contextual filters are classifiable into international, national, institutional, programme/discipline contexts, which influence the curriculum planning process. However, the difficulty of understanding contextual influences is that they are constantly changing and are unique to the programme, time, place and the persons involved (Baporikar, 2016a).

Genesis of Student Centered Learning Student-centred learning, as the term suggests, is a method of learning or teaching that puts the learner at the centre (cf. MacHemer et al, 2007, p.9; Boyer, 1990). With the application of an SCL approach in higher education, there is necessarily a shift in focus from academic teaching staff to the learner. Student centered approach is undertaken to make higher education programmes more transparent and comparable and to bring in mobility both to the students and staff. The underlying and guiding principle is to build an ethos of greater transparency within higher education (Baporikar, 2017c). Placing greater emphasis on the student, encouraging higher education institutions (HEIs) and academic staff to place students at the centre of their thinking and to help them manage their expectations, be able to consciously, and constructively design their learning paths throughout their higher education experience is crucial in this dynamic and volatile times (Baporikar, 2017c; 2017d). This has necessitated a shift from mere organisational input-oriented curricular design, based on the description of course content, to outcome-based higher education. This has therefore resulted in a re-thinking of higher education course content in terms of learning outcomes; making students more aware of what skills, knowledge and competences they can expect to develop through their studies especially employability and life skills (Baporikar, 2017b). Employability is a combination of hard skills (academic knowledge or IQ) and soft skills that make graduates more likely to gain employment and be successful in their chosen occupation, which benefits themselves, the workforce, the community and the economy. For an employer, employability of a candidate means his/her capability, consistency and compatibility


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to do the job satisfactorily. Life skills are what is also known as soft skills, people skills, interpersonal skills, social skills, survival skills and emotional skills etc. Among these different terms, the one in vogue is life skills. Life skill is the ability for adaptive and positive behavior that enables individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. These competencies assist the people in functioning well in the environment in which they live. The important components herein include communication skill (written, oral, listening and body language), decision-making, problem solving, self – awareness, empathy, critical thinking, creative thinking, interpersonal relationship, coping with stress, coping with emotion. These one can see are essential not only for employability but also in every lifestyle. Student-centred approach has thus, many implications for the design and flexibility of curriculum, course content, and interactivity of the learning process (Baporikar, 2017a). The fact that conventional teaching predominantly places its focus on the design, organisation and follow-through of the perspective of the academic teacher has made it difficult to determine what students perceive and see as constituents of student centered learning. Further, no efforts made to seek students’ views on this. Within the conventional learning approach, the pedagogic method used is traditionally one of ‘lecturing, note-taking, and memorizing information for later recognition or reproduction’ (MacLellan and Soden 2004, p. 254). The student-centred learning approach is diametric, in its ethos, to the philosophy underlying the conventional method of learning. By definition, the student centered learning experience is not a passive one, as it is based on the premise that ‘student passivity does not support or enhance … learning’ and that it is

precisely ‘active learning’ which helps students to learn independently (MacHemer and Crawford, 2007, p. 11). This is based on the idea of teach them how to think’ (Tsui, 2002, p. 740). This method ensures that students take their own steps in order to learn, but that they ‘also … take care of their own monitoring, motivation and feedback process during and after learning’ (Van Eekelen et al, 2005; 451). Zimmerman (2002, p.66) presents eight skills, which are important in identifying student characteristics in self-regulated learning, namely, setting specific goals, adopting powerful strategies, monitoring one’s performance, restructuring self-learning environment, managing one’s time effectively, self-evaluating one’s methods, attributing results to causation; and adapting future methods. Student Centered Strategies Link with International Education Hall and Thomas (2005) note that there has been a growing relationship between Higher Education and employers: the purposes of higher education and its relative importance…, linking education closer to the world of work …have become an increasing focus of attention. (Hall & Thomas, 2005, p69) Planning for employment in the curriculum however is not that simple, as the job of today may not be there tomorrow (Hewitt, 2006). Hence there is a need to explore inter-disciplinary connections and weave the same through curriculum and in curriculum design. For example the subject matter of sustainability cannot be addressed as a standalone concept it needs to be built in various courses so that the coming generation is able to resolve and deal with global issues pertaining to sustainability. That is to say, the least as the economic environment greatly affects the nature of the higher education curriculum and also


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level of investment in higher education varies significantly internationally. Asplund (2008) in Education Economics describes that: there is currently broad agreement on investment in tertiary-level education being a crucial factor for employment, competitiveness, growth and social cohesion. Notwithstanding this, there are still significant differences across countries as to the effort they exert to promote such investments. One explanation of these differences relates to the burden this creates on public expenditure coupled with varying possibilities to resort to private funding. (p 261). The development of clearly articulated graduate attributes both at the discipline level and at the generic skills level has been growing across curricula internationally. Resources at School/Department and programme level also influence the nature of the programmes, for example, the nature and number of staff teaching on the programmes. In addition, many programme are in strong in the discipline location and cognate discipline context. There is a ‘growing recognition over the last decade of the importance of maintaining strong, yet permeable, disciplinary boundaries in higher education’ (O’Neill & McNamara, 2015, p7). Some key writers in this area (Becher & Trowler, 2001; Neuman, 2001) also advocate this. As a way forward from this tension, Trowler suggest that the ‘family resemblances concept allows us to adopt a view of disciplines which is not restrictive’ (Trowler, 2013, p6). Maclellan finds that ‘the teacher is involved in clarifying the subject matter, offering examples, or suggesting arguments for or against a point of view may minimize the students’ need to think’. While, equally, ‘little engagement by the tutor, leaving students to determine both

what and how to learn without any criteria to judge their process, is unsatisfactory, inefficient and makes a nonsense of formal, higher education as a planned and designed system (Maclellan, 2008, p.418). Elen et al (2007, p. 115) argue that the evolution towards student-centred learning results in a revision, rather than a reduction in teachers’ tasks. Indeed, they argue that higher education teachers have as much of a role to play as teachers in student centered approach as they do in teacher-centred, therefore requires the same, and sometimes even more effort from them where there are passive learners. The emphasis to shift to student-centred by higher and professional educationists is more deeper need for developing challenging and safe learning environments in higher education, referred to as ‘powerful’ learning environments (Elen et al, 2007) Solutions and Recommendations Other scholars are also sharing the power of using brief active learning strategies to re-engage students and improve learning. In his book, Small Teaching, Lang (2016) explains how brief activities “have the power to produce as much or more learning than your anxiously over prepared lecture” (p. 8). We know from educational research and from our own teaching experience that students’ attention, focus, and energy decrease as they listen to a straight lecture. “The longer students sit passively in a class, the more attention drifts from the presentation and the longer the drifts last. If you go more than 15 minutes without an activity, you may have lost more than half of your students” (Felder & Brent, p. 128, 2016). Students will be of different kind in any class setting. Therefore, the challenge is both time of the activity and the timing of the activity. When to give the activity depends on the purpose, it can be at the beginning of class to help students review


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course material or connect their pre-class work to the in-class work. It can be at the mid-way lecture to help students re-focus or review main ideas. It can be also at class end to assess learning. Be it so, but the activity time should be brief. Too long activity can lead to waste of time. Moreover, some finish the activity fast and some struggle the whole time, which can increase their frustration. Hence, the activities should be short and focused – anywhere between five seconds and three minutes to avoid both problems (Felder & Brent, 2016). Future Research Directions After no international education should indulge in student-centered strategies to keep bored students busy, as that would be missing the very target of higher and professional international education. In fact, these are tools or aids to pique student interest, make them think, result in learning, and cultivate a desire to know more so that they acquire the requisite skills, competences and attributes. Then is also the concern about the techniques themselves. It is not that the student centered activities which promote think-pair-share, minute papers, exit slips, corners, gallery are in themselves faulty. It is also true, that teaching techniques are an essential part of any active learning endeavors. However, they are and cannot be the centre or the most important part of student learning experiences. Techniques provide the framework, the structure, the context. What really matters is what is in the structure; meaning what students think! Learning starts with things—things in all their details and ambiguities are the stuff of reality—they incite curiosity. That is another way of saying that techniques are secondary; there may not be the need even if we can bring to the classroom the real (tangible or intangible) things. After all the difference between a scholarly essay and a performance of Shakespeare is like the

difference between a ‘menu and a meal’. So there is need to rethink and get past over the techniques. Collecting, selecting, and implementing techniques should not concern us as much as deeper understandings of how student discovery drives learning and the role teachers and the process. Student centered strategies, active learning techniques hold the key to overcoming student passivity, and though they do open the door, the real need is to get inside the door with our students, learn together through collaborative and cooperative approaches. Further, research on what kind of student support, coaching and advisory services will support learning is also required and this need to be discipline specific as there is a need for strategic implementation of student support and advisory services in order to support the student-centred approach (Rott, 2006). Conclusion In view of the deliberations and discussion above it is clear that there is student centred pedagogy nexus to quality international education. It is also clear as to what is the need, first, is a culture shift in teaching and learning within most management education programmes. To close, management education needs to adopt student centred approaches to enhance the effectiveness of teaching learning process and ensure management education fulfils its role of creating leaders who are global players on a sustainable basis (Baporikar, 2013). However, the evidence supporting these is tangential. That makes adoption of these approaches in the field of management education tough and sometimes even cumbrous (Baporikar, 2016b). There is no doubt about the strong nexus between approach method to facilitate management education and creation of global leadership (Baporikar & Parker, 2012). The chapter has done a review of the student centred approach and its nexus with curriculum


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development for better understanding to facilitate in adopting appropriate strategies by management educators. This will also ensure in enhancing the value of management education, which is vital in this turbulent world and pressures from knowledge driven economies (Baporikar, 2013). Indeed, the literature of the past century has yielded a variety of models, sets of assumptions and principles, theories, and explanations that make up the learning knowledge base (Baporikar, 2014). The more educators are familiar with the knowledge base, the more effective their practice can be, and the more responsive their practice can be to the needs of learners. To conclude, the implementation of student centred pedagogy and aligning to quality international education clearly needs to include measures of academic development if it is to be successful. Faculty in higher education need support, if a meaningful shift in teaching practices is to take place (Baporikar, 2015). Paradoxically however, even what may appear promising for the introduction in HEIs may inhibit the required shift to the learning paradigm. It is therefore necessary to take a deeper look at the realities within HEIs in which the relevant policies are to take root. To conclude, based upon the research objectives and the introduction, the purpose and main aim of this chapter was to deliberate on the need to link student centred pedagogy with quality international education. Through in depth literature and contextual analysis of previous studies a theoretical framework is proposed to illustrate the relationship of student centred pedagogy and quality international education. In doing so, there other factors and issue which influence internationalization of education are dwelt upon. Further, national culture plays an important role in the process of internationalization (Baporikar, 2015)

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INTERNATIONALISATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION: UNDERPINNING RATIONALES AND ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES

Manish Khare

MIT Academy of Engineering, Alandi (D), Pune Section I: Introduction It is a generally accepted maxim that like the business sector, the sphere of higher education too is witnessing a wave of internationalization. (Healy 2008; Scott 2005; Altbach 2004) Chandrasekharan (2011) notes that there is a growing trend towards liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation (LPG) in higher education the world over. Altbach (1999) observes that higher education driven by global forces is the fastest growing sector in Central and East Europe. The inclusion of education as a tradable service in the negotiations process of the WTO within the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) framework has formally brought education into the ambit of internationalization driven by trade dynamics and lent legitimacy to the standpoint of viewing education as a ‘commodity’ subject to rules and disciplines of the market mechanism. (see Bhushan & Bhatnagar 2005).These trends indicate that higher education is indeed experiencing a wave of globalisation. An extension of this trend is the reality that forces of internationalization are challenging traditional educational practices and creating an environment for comparison and thereafter competition between countries and its influence has engineered synthesis of knowledge systems beyond local and national configurations to be defined and determined in global contexts. This paper takes a broad overview of the factors shaping current trends in internationalization of higher education within the analytical framework of Modes II and III of the GATS structure. The paper thus seeks to understand the rationales for the growing interest in international

student mobility from the viewpoint of stakeholders like students, educational institutions and governments. The paper also attempts to understand the arguments put forth by advocates of foreign direct investment (FDI) in education. Finally, the paper takes stock of the educational infrastructure in India with respect to policy stance, academic environment and supporting facilities available for international students and tries to identify the challenges and areas of concern therein. International student mobility is the most visible manifestation of the process of internationalization of higher education and experts point out that of the latter’s various forms, is in fact the one having the greatest impact on the academic environment of sending and receiving nations. Though evidences of international student mobility can be traced back to the ancient period, it has assumed significance as an institutionalized phenomenon since the closing decades of the 20th century. International student mobility has emerged as a complex phenomenon, driven by an array of factors ranging from student aspirations for a diversified educational experience and the associated explicit and implicit benefits to policies adopted by educational institutions and Governments for recruitment of international students. Therefore, understanding the factors driving international student mobility is central to understanding the nature, trends and course of internationalization of higher education. Another form of internationalization that is assuming significance in the education space in recent times is by way of universities setting up offshore campuses


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outside their country of origin. In this context it is mention-worthy that international organizations like the OECD and the World Bank recommend the import of tertiary educational services by low-income and small countries on the assumption that it would allow for a greater degree of diversification, ensure greater access and achieve expansion in enrolment rates despite limited resources. (World Bank 2002) Public policy in many developing countries too appears to be in-sink with the standpoint that internationalization is a plausible strategy to build the qualitative and quantitative capacity of their domestic education systems. (Marginson & McBurnie 2003; McBurnie & Xegores 2001; Knight 2002) In the Indian context, as a measure towards autonomously adopted commitments towards liberalization under what may be classified as Mode III of the GATS structure, the Government is chalking out the roadmap for allowing the entry of foreign education providers into the area of higher education (Tilak 2010, Chattopadhyay 2010, Gurukkal 2011). Given the sensitive nature of the role played by education in realizing national endeavors, understanding the viewpoint of advocates of FDI in higher education is important for determining the nature and extent to which the sector can be opened to global forces. The process of internationalization is an uncontested reality today and is irreversible given the ever-increasing scale of integration of nations through trade and business that necessarily have backward linkages with the education sector. Therefore, without going into the merit of whether the presence of international students in domestic institutions is advantageous or not, it is important for policy-makers to take stock of the academic infrastructure and assess its capacity to project itself as a destination for international students.

The paper is organized in the following manner. The present section is introductory in nature and sets out the basic areas of inquiry which the paper seeks to address. Section 2 analyses the factors driving international student mobility in general and from the viewpoint of stakeholders like students, educational institutions and governments of host nations in particular. Section 3 undertakes a detailed discussion of the most common arguments put forth by advocates of FDI in higher education. Section 4 attempts to briefly analyse the socio-cultural and academic environment of educational institutions in India and make recommendations on how the same can be made more compatible with the presence of international students. Section 5 is in the nature of a brief conclusion. Section II: International Student Mobility: Factors Shaping the Changing Landscape International student mobility is the most visible manifestation of the process of internationalization of higher education and experts point out that of the latter’s various forms, is in fact the one having the greatest impact on the academic environment of sending and receiving nations. Though evidences of international student mobility can be traced back to the ancient period, it has assumed significance as an institutionalized phenomenon since the closing decades of the 20th century. Student mobility across national borders is understood to have made a significant contribution to fostering social and political understanding, integration of cultures and knowledge-sharing at a global scale. Thus, as Lawton et al. (2013) rightly point out, international student mobility has been the main driver of internationalization of higher education.”According to estimates of the Institute of International Education (IIE), the number of international students has witnessed acceleration since the 1990s,


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rising from 1.3 million in 1990 to 2.1 million in 2000 and thereafter more than doubling to 4.3 million by 2012. The figure stands at approximately 4 lakh in 2018. Boehm et al. (2002) project this figure to stand at 7.2 million in 2025. OECD estimates show that between 2000 and 2010 the number of international students has registered a phenomenal increase of 99% at an average annual growth rate of 7.1%. (OECD 2012) The rapidly changing scenario of international student mobility may be attributed to increasing impact of market forces on the educational process and the revolution in information and communication technology. Countries like the US, the UK, France, Germany and Australia have emerged as popular destinations for international students while China, India and South Korea are observed to be the most important sending countries. Therefore, current trends indicate that the direction of flow of international students is from the developing to the developed countries, though some developing countries like China, Malaysia and Singapore are making their presence felt on the international scene as emerging destinations. Developed countries are observed to be taking institutionalized efforts to promote internationalization through ‘Study Abroad ‘ programs for their domestic students and aggressive marketing for attracting international students for reasons ranging from revenue-generation and local requirements for skilled immigrants to geo-political considerations. Internationalisation has thus moved from an ‘aid’ to a pre-dominantly ‘trade’ model. This section of the paper takes a broad overview of the factors shaping international student mobility in general and also from the perspective of individual stakeholders like students, educational institutions and governments of host nations. Before undertaking a detailed discussion of the factors shaping the current trends in international student mobility it may be

first useful to place the phenomenon of student mobility within a definite conceptual framework. 2.1 Definition of ‘International Students’ A broad literature survey of the definitions of the phrase ‘International students’ reveals that there is no consensus among international agencies compiling data on student mobility across borders on who constitutes an ‘International student’. For instance, the UNESCO Institute of Statistics has defined international students as “those who have crossed a national or territorial border for the purpose of education and are now enrolled outside their country of origin”. (UNESCO, 2011) It may be pertinent to note here that the UNESCO definition includes only those students who are enrolled in courses and programs of more than one year duration. Thus students enrolled in certificate courses of less than one year duration are excluded herein. Another important source of information on international student mobility, the Institute of International Education (IIE) does not apply the one year criteria in its data compilation and considers any student studying on a temporary visa that allows academic course work to be undertaken, as an international student. Student mobility may be broadly defined as any academic mobility which takes place within a student’s program of study in post-secondary education. The length of absence can range from a semester to the full program of study. Based on the length of the study, student mobility may be generally classified as vertical mobility in which the student is enrolled for a full program, also referred to as Diploma or degree mobility and horizontal mobility in which the student visits the host country for part of a program under a student exchange arrangement, also referred to as credit mobility. Further, student mobility can be observed to occur through


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organized programs as for instance under the European Union’s Erasmus Mundas Program for faculty and student exchange ; or through collaborations among Universities in different countries ; or through free-movers who are mobile students not participating in any formal program of study in the host country. The terms ‘mobile students’, ‘foreign students’ and ‘International students’ are used interchangeably in the literature relating to student mobility. Consequently, the data reported at the international level becomes highly country/context specific and resembles little or no equivalence, thereby making it incomparable across countries. In sum, the term mobile students is nationally defined and each country reports data based on its own criteria. Student mobility has emerged as a complex phenomenon, driven by an array of factors ranging from student aspirations for a diversified educational experience and the associated explicit and implicit benefits to policies adopted by educational institutions and Governments for recruitment of international students. It may be useful to understand the factors driving international student mobility in general and from the perspective of the individual stakeholders in the process of international academic exchange. 2.2 Factors Driving International Student Mobility: The Role of ‘Push’ And ‘Pull’ Factors

On the question of factors driving international student mobility, experts observe that a variety of pull and push factors operating at the global level as also in specific national contexts play a deterministic role in shaping trends and direction of student mobility (Cummings 1984; Altbach 2004; Li & Bray 2007; Mazzarol & Soutar 2002). Push factors may be defined as unfavourable conditions in the domestic higher education sector

such as discriminatory policies or adverse socio-economic or political conditions that tacitly restrict access to certain individuals or groups of individuals. Inadequacy of physical infrastructure such as well-equipped laboratories, intellectual resources, inadequate access to quality higher education institutions in the home country, lack of diversity in educational programs, lack of advanced research facilities, poor quality of instruction, irrationally high entry level requirements and excessive competition in entrance examinations for admissions, political instability and limited opportunities for further education may be identified as some of these factors. Pull factors on the other hand may be defined as opportunities offered by international degrees including tangible benefits such as advanced research facilities, scholarships, incentives and better employment prospects ; as also intangible ones such as choice of education program, accessible admission policies, international exposure and the prestige associated with a degree from a foreign University. However, as pointed out by Davis (1995), “the impact of push and pull factors supplement each other, in that push factors create a generalized interest in overseas education while pull factors provide specific directions to choice of destination and selection of education institutions and programs.” (also see Lee & Bray 2007) Commenting on the relative impact of pull and push factors in a student’s decision-making, Mazzarol & Soutar (2002) note that recent trends reveal that pull factors exert a stronger influence on shaping students’ perceptions about the proposition of international education, choice of location as also choice of program while the role of push factors is on the decline due to advancements in the higher education sector across the world, including in developing countries. Elaborating further on the factors driving international student mobility, Li & Bray (2007) note that the standard push-pull model takes only external factors into


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consideration whereas the phenomenon of student mobility is far more complex and dynamic and to a considerable extent depends on personal characteristics such as socio-economic status, academic ability, gender, age, motivation and aspirations of the student in question. Zheng (2003) observes that both sending and receiving countries are characterized by negative push forces (that have the effect of driving students out) and positive forces (that have the effect of attracting and retaining students) and the ultimate decision of the student is the outcome of the interplay of these opposing forces. Thus, Zheng argues that the present push-pull model focuses exclusively on the educational, economic and political dimensions of sending and host countries and has underplayed the influence of social and cultural factors. Further, Chen (2007) observes that in recent times, positive pull factors rather than negative push factors are driving international student mobility. The above discussion brings out that though student mobility in general is driven by an interplay of pull and push factors, in more recent times pull factors appear to be playing a more deterministic role. (Snehi 2013) It may also be useful to consider the factors driving international student mobility from the standpoint of individual stakeholders. 2.3.1Students’ Perspective Experts point out that exposure to international education plays an important role in shaping a student’s overall outlook and also impacts the student’s subsequent professional career and lifestyle. According to Li & Bray (2007) individual student’s motivation to study abroad can be categorized as follows:

Academic motives which include pursuit of qualifications and professional development;

economic motives which include access to scholarships, estimated returns from study, and better employment prospects ;

social and cultural factors which include the desire to obtain experience and understanding of other societies; and

political motives which include such factors as commitment to society and enhancement of political status and power.

Thus, as Grönroos (1978, 1994) and Levitt (1980) point out, University offerings to international students need to be understood in terms of not only the core educational service, but also in conjunction with secondary/auxiliary offerings of tangible and intangible attributes. In the specific context of outward student mobility from developing countries, Altbach (2004) notes the following reasons for the ever-increasing outflow of students -

Many very able students are unable to obtain entry into local Universities because of lack of space and sometimes very competitive entry requirements. Such students often find it easier to gain entry to good foreign institutions than to local schools.

Many of the world’s brightest students seek opportunities abroad because there are few, if any, “world-class” institutions in developing countries.

Students also leave home when the specializations they want to study, from astronomical physics to aspects of zoology, are unavailable in their own countries, especially at the graduate and professional level.

Some students perceive that the prestige of a degree from a foreign university, especially an American degree, is greater than that of one from a local institution.


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A significant number of international students go abroad to study with the aim of staying in the host country to work and make a career.

In a comprehensive overview of factors motivating international student mobility, Cubilloet al. (2006) have highlighted the role of non-educational factors like

the importance of university and program reputation,

the need of segmentation of prospective students and program suitability ,

wide offer of courses, cost of attendance, financial aid ,

teaching quality and internship opportunities.

Srikatanyoo and Gnoth (2002) have highlighted the role of the ‘country image effect’ in an international student’s choice of tertiary education destination wherein they are observed to place this factor on par with educational institution image and programme evaluation. According to them the perceived image of a country directly influences a student’s attitude towards the educational institutions in that country in a positive or negative way. Specifically, a favourable country image can generate positive sentiments about its academic institutions in general while a negative country image can damage the reputation of even its academically successful institutions. This view is supported by some empirical studies as well. For instance, in an elaborate investigation of factors shaping preferences of international students in Ireland and pre-departure students in Malaysia, Bourke(2000)found that educational reputation of a country emerged as a decisive factor in the choice of destination. This study testifies that students intending to travel abroad for higher studies first select a host country and then choose the institution. Another study by Binsardi and Ekwulugo in 2003, which focused on international students in

the UK, reveals that both education and country-related factors are observed to enter into a student’s decision function regarding choice of destination. However, Peng et al. (2000) have obtained contrary results in their study that sought to model the relative impact of country, corporate and brand image in the evaluation of educational services in which they found that brand image had the strongest effect in determining choice of destination. Cost of pursuing the programme including the tuition fees, accommodation and overall cost of living has also been identified as an important factor shaping preference for one country over another. For instance, as noted by Verbik and Lasanowaski (2007), the rising cost of education for international students in traditional destinations like USA and UK is likely to give emerging destinations like Malaysia and Singapore a competitive edge in the international market for education since it is offered at a comparatively lower costs. In addition to education cost, the relatively higher cost of living in traditional destinations like US and UK are also emerging as important factors entering into a student’s decision function. Varghese (2006) observes that Australia has emerged as a preferred destination for students from India, China and South Korea due to the lower cost of education and living as compared to countries like US and UK. According to Altbach (2004), besides the cost consideration, international students are also observed to accord a high priority to a diversified educational experience in their choice of location since it entails intangible benefits such as increased confidence, maturity, linguistic competence and academic ability (in terms of internationally recognized qualifications)and exposure to other cultural surroundings . In sum, factors such as quality and reputation of the country’s education system as a whole , its accessibility, affordability and the


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employability of the qualification obtained may be considered as important factors in the student’s decision function. Visa and immigration policies that differ across countries have also been observed as important determinants of a student’s choice of location This is evident from the fact that countries that have linked immigration policies with studying in that country have witnessed a rise in inflow of international students. The Australian experience is relevant in this context. In 1998 Australia amended its points-based immigration system in which graduates from Australian Universities were accorded the benefit of additional points. By the beginning of 2002, 50% of immigration applications came from international students who had graduated from Australian Universities and simultaneously, Australia witnessed a 30% rise in enrolment of international students in tertiary education (Hawthorne 2005 cited in Snehi 2013). It may also be useful to note in this context that barriers to mobility of students across nations such as economic barriers, lack of information/motivation, non-recognition of academic merits gained abroad, and discrimination based on gender, age or cultural background may also play a crucial role in determining the choice of country to pursue international education. Knight (2014) has pointed out another intriguing aspect in this context that student mobility has moved from the primarily ‘brain drain and brain gain’ model to the ‘brain train ‘ model. While traditionally it was considered that international students leaving their home country to study and work in some other country resulted in a loss of intellectual resources and skilled manpower to their home countries and a corresponding benefit to the receiving country, there seems to be a shift in this trend. It may be observed today that many students travel

abroad only to train themselves in a cosmopolitan environment, acquire skills that make them globally employable and enhance their growth prospects in their home countries and after completing this ‘training’ process, they choose to return to the home country. For instance, a student from country A may study in country B and thereafter work in country C and after 8-12 years of international experience and exposure to global environment and practices may return to country A. From the above discussion it may be argued that international students are seeking to enhance their personal and professional experience and explore widening horizons through the channel of international education. 2.3.2 Educational Institutions’ Perspective: From the viewpoint of educational institutions of host nations, besides the immediate benefits of recruiting international students like revenue generation to supplement shrinking public funding, there are more long-term and intangible benefits attached. Presence of international students on campus is seen by educational institutions as an indicator of the quality of their service provision. Therefore, institutions are interested in attracting international students to their campuses to elevate their profiles and visibility on the national and international scene. Also, since international students lend diversity to the campus and bring in a cross-cultural perspective, they make a noteworthy contribution to the overall quality of the learning experience. This has a somewhat juggernaut effect wherein institutions offering quality programs are able to attract international students and the presence of international students in turn contributes to building a cosmopolitan environment and enriching the campus with diversity and widening cultural horizons. Besides, the presence of a large


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number of international students serves as an endorsement for the quality of academic life at the institution and therefore has a significant impact on the choice of institution for future aspirants of international education which in effect paves the way for higher international student enrolments. Furthermore, since institutions are permitted to charge differential fees from international students, it emerges as a lucrative possibility from the revenue-generation point of view. This is particularly significant in the wake of shrinking public subsidies to the higher education sector in recent times in all the major education systems across the world. (see Healy 2008; Scott & Scott 2005) In order to augment these benefits from international student enrolments, it may be observed that institutions have shifted gears from accommodating international students as part of student-exchange programs to organized efforts at attracting them to the campus for long-duration programs. Internationalization at an educational institutional level mandates the adaptation of academic practices and environment of the institution to suit the requirements of international students with respect to curriculum and service provision to ensure that the knowledge and skills bestowed by the course remains relevant when the student returns to his/her home country. 2.3.3 Governments’ Perspective: Experts observe that there has been a paradigm shift in the role played by Governments of sending and receiving countries in promoting international student mobility from being passive spectators to becoming proactive facilitators (Powar 2014; Knight 2014; Snehi 2013). In this regard it can be observed that governments are offering logistical support to educational institutions to organize education fairs, branded marketing campaigns and

exhibitions as also taking measures such as offering scholarships and putting effective quality assurance mechanisms in place. Specific measures taken by Governments to promote their education systems as destinations for international students include establishment of international agencies to actively recruit students by countries like USA, UK, Australia and New Zealand (American Council on Education 2006). Commenting on the utility of publicly funded academic exchange programs like the Erasmus Mundas, Erasmus and Sochretus, Erasmus Plus (launched in 2014) and other measures taken by the Governments of Brazil and Saudi Arabia to promote academic exchange, Altbach & Engberg (2014) observe that “These government-sponsored programs, though they form only a small part of the total flow of international students, are important because they send out a message of support.”

From the point of view of developed countries , it has been pointed out that attracting international students to their home campuses is increasingly becoming a strategy to support sustained economic growth. Various studies have revealed that students who studied abroad are more likely to work abroad after the completion of their studies in comparison to other domiciled students (De Grip et al 2009; Findlayet al 2005; Kinget al 2004; Tremblay 2002; Wiers‐Jenssen, 2008). As pointed out by Hercog& De Laar (2012) student migration is construed as a form of knowledge migration also by industrialized countries which are changing their policies in order to become more attractive for students and highly skilled migrants. Therefore, student mobility has evolved as a very useful channel of skilled immigration, considering that the host country receives human capital which is well-adapted to its domestic labour markets. Verbik and Lasanowski (2007) point out that ‘chronic


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skills shortages are furthermore highlighting the importance of attracting international students, in terms of potential short- and long-term gains for institutions and countries’. Elaborating on this viewpoint, Snehi (2013) notes that Western economies are actively seeking to retain international students after graduation, with their industrial sector increasingly interested in recruiting overseas talent to compensate for local skilled workforce shortages and to remain competitive in an era of globalization. Similarly, Australia and Canada are observed to be proactively recruiting international students to supplement their rapidly decreasing and ageing populations. Poear (2014) highlights in this context that Australia and Canada, that require skilled and knowledgeable manpower, see in the longer form of international student mobility a possible source of ‘brain gain’ through emigration (also see OECD 2013; Sabharwal 2014). In sum, Governments of developed countries are interested in promoting inward international student mobility to augment their intellectual resources and skills In view of their ageing native population or supply-side shortages in the labour market. This may be seen as the motivation for Governments in some developed countries to simplify visa procedures. For instance, Snehi (2013) notes that countries like Australia are attempting to attract international students by relaxing visa and immigration policies; United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand and Australia are offering work permits on completion of academic programmes while countries like Germany are offering residency and employment visas. It may be noted here that economic considerations have not been the only and exclusive motivation for promoting international student exchange. For instance, during the Cold War, governments in the United States, USSR and the United Kingdom, used scholarships and funding regimes to attract

foreign students to their Universities to further geo-political ends. As noted by Van Damme (2001)“In the heights of the Cold War the higher education institutions of the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries attracted students from ideologically associated nations and educational exchange between the US and Western Europe after 1945 was developed to foster democracy and developing the Atlantic community.” (Healy 2008). For instance, based on a 1990 study of political leaders from 113 countries across the world, Spilimbergo (2006) reports that 57% of leaders studied had been educated abroad with 22% educated in the United States, United Kingdom and France. Current trends also indicate that besides the explicit and quantifiable economic benefits, trade, cultural and political dimensions of international student exchange are important considerations of policy-makers in designing policies towards international students. This may be seen as the motivation behind designing programmes like the ‘100,000 Strong Initiative’ of the US Government that sought to send one lac American students to China to pursue higher education programmes in Chinese Universities by 2014 and the British Council’s ‘Generation UK’ programme that sought to provide subsidized education and internship positions to 15,000 British students in China. Both these specific measures may be seen as attempts by Western countries to strengthen cultural, economic and political ties with China which has emerged as a major force-to-reckon-with in the international political economy. 2.3.4 Attempts at Multinational Levels to Promote Student Mobility Besides Governmental initiatives, attempts are also being made to forge collaborations in higher education at a multinational level to deliberately popularize some geographical regions as more attractive destinations for international students. The


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most visible example of such an initiative is the ‘The Bologna Process’ which aims at harmonizing academic structures across countries in the European Union in order to attract international students. The initiative sought to make the EU ‘the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world by 2010’ and is claimed to have ‘made Europe, overnight, a major competitor in the international student market’ (NAFSA 2006). The American Council on Education (2006) notes that similar efforts are also underway among Asia-Pacific countries to create a regional higher education space similar to the one in Europe. The Council further notes that new competitors, such as Singapore and the Middle East, have also entered the market in the process of creating regional education hubs The above discussion brings out that international student mobility has emerged as a rather institutionalized phenomenon in recent times. Section 3: Internationalisation through Offshore Campuses

An important form of internationalization that is assuming significance in the education space in recent times is by way of universities setting up offshore campuses outside their country of origin. In this context it is mention worthy that international organizations like the OECD and the World Bank recommend the import of tertiary educational services by low-income and small countries on the assumption that it would allow for a greater degree of diversification, ensure greater access and achieve expansion in enrolment rates despite limited resources (World Bank 2002). Public policy in many developing countries too appears to be in sync with the standpoint that internationalization is a plausible strategy to build the qualitative and quantitative

capacity of their domestic education systems (Marginson & McBurnie 2003; McBurnie & Xegores 2001). This, as pointed out by Knight (2002), is evident from the full and unconditional commitments in higher education made by Congo, Lesotho, Jamaica and Sierra Leone in the GATS negotiations perhaps with the intent of encouraging foreign providers to help develop their educational systems. In the Indian context, consistent with the neo-liberal reforms in overall national policies, the Government has clearly indicated towards opening the higher education sector for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). As a measure towards autonomously adopted commitments towards liberalization under what may be classified as Mode III of the GATS structure, the Government is chalking out the roadmap for allowing the entry of foreign education providers into the area of higher education through the introduction of the Foreign Education Providers (Regulation of entry and operations) bill in Parliament in 2010. This section attempts to understand the viewpoint of the advocates of FDI in higher education through a detailed discussion of the most common arguments put forth by them. 3.1 The Argument of Expansion Of Institutional Capacity

Marginson and McBurnie (2003) have identified demand for foreign courses by students and their families and public policy towards FDI in higher education as the most important factors driving the internationalization of the sector in developing countries. Highlighting the role of Governments in encouraging transnational education, Mc Burnie & Xegores (2001) have noted, “Governments are often in favour of the establishment of transnational higher education in their countries in order to cater to some of the demand for higher education that is unable to be met by local Universities.” From the


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standpoint of students seeking accommodation in foreign educational institutions, Healy (2008) notes that despite problems associated with securing economic benefits from stringent immigration rules and cultural dislocation, the primary factor driving the high demand for foreign courses is the gap between the domestic demand and supply of educational services. The origin of the rapidly rising demand for international education can be traced in the formulations of basic economic theory. Higher education can be described as a ‘superior’ good whose income elasticity of demand is greater than unity. This implies that the rise in the demand for higher education will be proportionately greater than the corresponding rise in income. In developing countries that are experiencing rapid economic growth, the (income-elastic) demand for higher education typically grows faster than the capacity of the domestic higher education sector (Healy 2008). This may be illustrated by making reference to the admission process for the prestigious management programs at the Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs). The number of applicants for the 2400 positions at the IIMs in 2017-18 was approximately 3 lacs. For students of a high calibre who are unable to break into the tier I management institutes in India, the next best alternative is to study in a foreign University of a high repute for a similar course rather than step down on the ladder of institutional hierarchy within the domestic sector. This is because besides awarding the qualification, the former processes additional attributes like international recognition and ensures greater access to international labour markets as compared to the latter [see McBurnie & Xegores 2001) 3.2 The Competition Argument Another key argument put forth by advocates of internationalization is that that FDI could promote competitiveness in

the education system as a whole. Promoters of free trade in educational services maintain that undue interference with the operation of the market (mechanism such as restrictive or discriminatory legislation) hinders competition and protects less capable providers (Self 2000). In this context Bhushan (2004) notes that Since traditional economic theory emphasizes the positive correlation between competition and efficiency which in turn started becoming a central preoccupation of domestic educational policy in India due to concerns arising out of the disorientation of educational output from industry requirements, internal resource crunch and the inherent inefficiencies arising out of protection extended to the public sector; subjecting higher education to the norms of efficiency through the introduction of an element of competition became imminent. Therefore one of the rationales of Government policy allowing foreign education providers to participate in the provision of educational services in developing countries like India appears to be to upgrade the system of higher education in conformity with international standards to enhance efficiency and further facilitate the penetration of the element of globalization to the sphere of higher education. Implicit in this move is the expectation of a positive spillover effect on the quality and efficiency of service being provided by domestic institutions by introducing competition, making them globally competitive in the first instance and translating into a synergy effect on the overall quality of education in the ultimate analysis. 3.3 The Public Subsidy Argument From the viewpoint of universities seeking to set up offshore campuses, the gradual shift in the nature of education, from being a purely public good to a quasi-public good, is also mention worthy in the present context.


47

Traditionally , higher education has been seen as a 'public good', (see Colodel 2000; UGC 2003, Bhushan 2004; Chattopadhyay 2010) the consumption of which confers significant 'external' or 'spill over benefits' to society as a whole, over and Above the private benefits (higher earning capacity) enjoyed by the graduate.. This is because education entails positive externalities to society as a whole in the form of 'increased tax revenues, greater workplace productivity, increased consumption, increased workforce flexibility, decreased reliance on government financial support and social cohesion (Institute for Higher Education Policy, USA, 1998)., Since students’ decision to pursue education is driven primarily by estimation of private rate of return in consideration of individual costs and benefits, they tend to view it through the framework of the market mechanism causing the private rate of return to diverge from the social rate of return. The inability of the market to consider, estimate and incorporate the social rate of return in its decision function causes output to remain at a socially sub-optimal level. To address this market failure, Governments across the world have historically subsidized education through either direct public provisioning of educational services or by extending grants to private providers.(Healy 2008) The proposition that public provisioning is the most efficient method of expanding educational services is supported by the fact that even the most ardent pronouncers of the efficiency of the market mechanism like Adam Smith have advocated the proactive role of the national Government in the provision of educational services. (Smith 1776) Despite the strong case for public subsidies in higher education, the policy of public provisioning of educational services has been called into question across nations, particularly the advanced education systems, mainly due to the

following factors: - Firstly, the private rate of return on higher educational courses in the form of enhanced employment opportunities, both in terms of diversification and remuneration is quite high so that the demand for these courses is not as dependent on public subsidies as it is generally thought to be[Healy 2008]. Secondly as pointed out by Bloom and Sevilla, the source of demand for higher education courses from the student community is disproportionately drawn from the higher socio-economic groups whose decision to enroll for higher education courses is not dependent on public subsidies. Therefore such an arrangement results in a regressive re-distribution of income. Thirdly, the increasing numbers of students in higher education has put huge strain on government budgets, with the result that, as a matter of necessity, the real value of public subsidies has declined in all the major education systems [Scott & Scott 2005]. The incentive for foreign Universities to take interest in offshore campuses need to be considered on the backdrop of these developments. As Healy (2008) points out, “It was the combination of declining public subsidies for domestic students and the deregulation of tuition fees for foreign students which made foreign students such an attractive market for MESDC universities. to maintain revenues and cross-subsidise both research and domestic students. (also see Scott 1998; Altbach 2004) 3.4 The Employment Argument Another important factor driving the demand for educational courses made available by foreign institutions can be identified as the spill over effect of internationalization of business that has pushed up the demand for professionals having qualifications and skills adapted to their requirements. A survey by The Economist in 2001 concluded that 40% of the global workforce will be knowledge


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workers requiring higher education qualifications by the year 2020. Since higher education, skill-development and employability are closely related, a strong backward linkage has developed between the labour market and the higher education sector. Attributes of higher education qualifications like among others, the area and degree of specialization and performance as measured by scores attained in the evaluation process have an important allocative function in the labourmarket [Stiglitz 1975]. The increasing internationalization of business activity facilitated by the revolution in information and communication technology (ICT) has therefore had major ramifications for basic premises of the labour market like wage structures and work environment with perhaps the greatest consequence being the quasi-integration of labour markets cutting across national boundaries. Bhagwati (2004) points out that advanced countries, given their demographic profiles and supply-side shortages in their labor markets, have a major requirement for skilled professionals. In an era of increasing globalisation, countries are understood to compete for markets by creating and attracting technically skilled talent.

Advocates of FDI in higher education argue that courses offered by foreign providers can be instrumental in realizing the benefits offered by these opportunities in the international labour market. This is because transnational programs, besides awarding the degree, also have the advantage that they are oriented towards global rather than local forms of knowledge and practices which bestows students who receive this education with better cross-cultural skills and enables them to adapt to the work environment in different countries without much difficulty. According to McBurnie & Zinguras (2001), the spill over effects of this synthesis of knowledge systems have

far more significant implications and may extend to engineering a further diversification, modernization and internationalization of the domestic business sector and thereby enhance the pace of globalization.

The above discussion brings out that advocates of FDI in higher education see an opportunity in offshore campuses of foreign universities in terms of expansion of institutional capacity, enhancing the overall quality of the education system, revenue generation to counter shrinking public subsidies and ensuring access to the ever-expanding employment avenues in the international labour markets.

Section 4: Organisational Structures

This section takes stock of the educational infrastructure in India with respect to policy stance, academic environment and supporting facilities available for international students and tries to identify the present challenges and thereby areas of concern . It is important to note here that the section does not go into the merit of the arguments in favour of or against the presence of international students on Indian campuses. It merely highlights the infrastructural deficiencies in promoting inward student mobility into India. Furthermore, it is mention-worthy here that factors such as the size of the education system, presence of good quality institutions in various fields, cultural diversity, low cost of living and conduct of courses in the English medium are likely to propel India’s position as a destination for international students and the realization of these opportunities depends on how efficiently policy-makers and educational institutions are able to address the challenges therein. 4.1 India as a Destination for International Students -The Policy Stance


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At the outset it may be emphasized that India presently lacks an adequate policy framework at a national level to promote and regulate student mobility. Also, though many public and private institutions are engaged in promotional activities to recruit international students, there is a lack of co-ordination between the institutions , the UGC and the Government in this respect which acts as a constraint on the extent to which India can be promoted as a destination for international students. This situation may be attributed to the confusion that continues to prevail among the stakeholders including institutions, the Government and the regulating agencies with regard to the importance of the presence of international students on Indian campuses. While private institutions perceive recruitment of international students as an opportunity to boost revenues and enhance diversity on their campuses, most public Universities are observed to be adopting a more conservative approach in this regard. Similarly, though the Government has taken some noteworthy measures to promote India as a destination through targeted initiatives like the Promotion of Indian Higher Education Abroad (PIHEA), the steps appear to be piecemeal and adhoc and on the whole India seems to lack a definite policy towards international students. Therefore, to begin with India needs to adopt a definite policy for encouraging inward student mobility with clearly defined aims and objectives which may be rigorously pursued through planned strategies and organized efforts. Further, knowledge of how the Indian education system as perceived in target countries is important for positioning and promoting Indian education as a brand. An important challenge in this respect is the identification of target countries and areas of study that may be promoted as also the contextualization of information on the same to adapt programmes according to the requirements of individual

international students as well as their societies and nations. Thereafter organized efforts through education fairs and other promotional campaigns need to be taken to proactively recruit international students. Since the popularity of any country as a destination for international students is linearly related to the quality of its academic and research infrastructure, a crucial challenge in promoting student mobility into India is to develop standard programmes in identified disciplines and maintain their quality through accreditation by relevant authorities at regular intervals. Issues of equivalence, credit recognition and credit transfer are other issues that need to be addressed in this regard. 4.2 Adapting Academic Environment at the Institutional Level An important challenge that needs to be addressed at the level of educational institutions is the provision of student support services since in the increasing global competition for the best students, the quality and attractiveness of an institution does not depend only on its teaching, academic and research standards.; rather facilities and services the institution makes available to its students is gaining importance in the quality assessment and thereby competitiveness of an institution. Identifying the services that need to be made available, developing institutionalized mechanisms to respond to the needs and expectations of international students, extension of scholarships and other concessions to them, and determining responsibility for making these services available are some issues that need to be addressed in this context. Identifying appropriate criteria and formulating models of good practices in this respect is also an important challenge confronting institutions and policy-makers.


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Institutions should also take measures to ensure that international students are given an unbiased platform to voice their opinions, raise their concerns and put an effective grievance redressal mechanism in place. Measures should also be taken to promote their participation in student activities and specific and general measures need to be adopted to facilitate their integration into various aspects of campus life-academic, social and cultural; during their stay. Besides providing academic resources, there is a need to enhance supporting infrastructure like hostels, banking and medical facilities to better accommodate the requirements of international students. Another crucial concern particularly from the viewpoint of international female students is the growing social insecurity due to the rising incidents of crimes against women particularly in well-known Indian cities like Delhi which is otherwise considered to be reputed centre of learning. This can dissuade female students from enrolling in Indian institutions. Therefore, educational institutions in their individual capacity need to take adequate measures to ensure security to their students in general and female students in particular. These measures may include enhancing residential facilities for female students and instituting mechanisms to address issues erupting from these concerns. 4.3 Adaption of Classroom Environment to Suit the Requirements Of International Students An important concern related to making the classroom environment conducive to the presence of international students is that of building capacity of faculties to accommodate their understanding of the world and respond to their specific queries which may be different from what they are used to vis-à-vis their domestic students.

Therefore, while diversifying the classrooms, there is also the need to enhance the capacities of faculty to respond to such an increasing diversity. Support in the areas such as curriculum transaction/pedagogy, medium of classroom instruction and class management is essential to equip faculties in this respect. For instance, while international students enrich classroom discussions with their experiences and knowledge of the socio-economic, cultural and political structures of their home countries, their most common queries are about the applicability of theories they are introduced to in the classrooms to the specific context of their local institutions. The circle of knowledge-sharing can be completed only if the faculties are able to respond to their queries by placing general knowledge in specific national contexts thereby enabling international students develop perspectives in this regard. Therefore, there is a need to conduct special orientation programmes for faculties to familiarize them with the environment of countries from where students are likely to participate in their teaching-learning process. 4.4 Sensitization of Domestic Students Some studies have brought out that international students find it difficult to participate in student activities due to the reluctance of their Indian counterparts to involve them (see Snehi and Wizarat 2011). For instance, a common issue raised by international students is that their Indian classmates often revert to conversation in the regional language when they appear to want to exclude the former from the interaction. Therefore, there is a need to sensitize Indian students to engage into meaningful interactions with their classmates from other countries, particularly since feedback on issues like willingness of local students to accommodate international students is


51

presumably an important factor shaping the decision of future aspirants. The above discussion brings out that while factors such as the size of the education system, presence of good quality institutions in various fields, cultural diversity, low cost of living and conduct of courses in the English medium are factors likely to work to India’s advantage in attracting international students, factors like lack of a definite policy framework, limited intellectual and physical infrastructure and lack of information on quality of academic programmes are likely to undermine India’s position. As Rajkhowa (2014) rightly points out, the Indian academic environment needs to be made more open to international students coming to India on student exchange or study abroad programmes. Section: 5 Conclusions The exponential rise in the number of international students, particularly in the post 1990 period has drawn a lot of attention within the academic and policy circles. An understanding of the factors governing these trends can provide useful insights into determining appropriate policies for regulating inward and outward student mobility in accordance with national objectives and priorities. Current literatures in this respect highlights the role of push and pull factors operating at the international level as also in specific national contexts though experts argue that positive pull factors are observed to be playing a more deterministic role as compared to negative push factors. While international students seek to enhance their personal and professional experience and explore widening horizons through the channel of international education, educational institutions are interested in recruiting international students to generate additional revenue and for enhancing their visibility at the national and international level. The role of

Governments in this regard has undergone a paradigm shift from being passive observers to becoming proactive promoters of inward student mobility for reasons ranging from revenue generation, to further geo-political ends and in case of developed countries, for supplementing their local skilled labor force shortages. Attempts are also being made at the multinational level to foster international student mobility. From this discussion it may be argued that international student mobility has emerged as a far more institutionalized phenomenon in recent times as compared to the previously unstructured trends in the same. As regards internationalization through the route of FDI, it needs to be noted that while universities are interested in setting up offshore campuses to supplement their revenue base in the wake of shrinking public subsidies, particularly in the developed countries, policy-makers in developing countries seem to be optimistic about the proposition that foreign universities can play a significant role in building the qualitative and quantitative capacities of their domestic education sectors. Advocates of FDI in higher education see an opportunity in offshore campuses of foreign universities in terms of expansion of institutional capacity, enhancing the overall quality of the education system, revenue generation to counter shrinking public subsidies and ensuring access to the ever-expanding employment avenues in the international labour markets. However, there is a need to maintain caution in this regard in that indiscriminate exposure to forces of globalization may also be counter-productive. The discussion on promoting India as a destination for international students brings out that while factors such as the size of the education system, presence of good quality institutions in various fields, cultural diversity, low cost of living and


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conduct of courses in the English medium are factors likely to work to India’s advantage in attracting international students, factors like lack of a definite policy framework, limited intellectual and physical infrastructure and lack of information on quality of academic programs are likely to undermine India’s position. Therefore, there is a strong need to put an institutionalized mechanism in place to promote student mobility into India through appropriate changes in policies at the Governmental, regulatory and institutional levels. To sum up, internationalization of education is firstly, a reality of the present scenario and secondly, is irreversible in nature. Therefore, stakeholders like governments, educational institutions, individual students and their families need to exhibit sufficient appreciation for the phenomenon and factor in its possible repercussions in their decision function. Given the sensitive role played by education in realizing national endeavors, the role of policy-makers is crucial in assessing the relative costs and benefits of the process of internationalization for determining the pace at which and the extent to which the education sector can be opened up to global forces so as to serve the nation’s best interests. References:- Altbach, P G, & Engberg, D, (2014): “Global Student Mobility: The Changing Landscape”, International Higher Education, 77, pp 11- 13. Altbach, P.G. (2004): “Higher Education crosses borders”, Change, March-April 2004, Vol.36, No.2, pp.18-24. Altbach, Philip G. (1999): “Survival of the fittest”, Change Mag, 31, No. 3: 47. American Council on Education, (2006): “Students on the Move: The Future of

International Students in the United States”, available at www.acenet.edu Last Accessed on 23rd February 2019. Bhagwati, J. (2004): “In Defense of globalization”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp 208-218. Binsardi, A., & Ekwulugo, F. (2003): “International marketing of British education: research on the student’s perception and the UK market penetration”, Marketing Intelligence & Planning,21(5), pp 318‐327. Boehm, A., Davis, T., Meares, D. and D, Pearce. (2002): “Global student mobility 2025: Forecasts of the global demand for international higher education”, IDP Education, Australia. Bourke, A. (2000): “A model of the determinants of international trade in higher education”, The Service Industries Journal, 20(1), pp 110‐138. Chen, L.H. (2007): “Choosing Canadian graduate schools from afar: East Asian students’ perspectives”, Higher Education, Vol. 54, No. 5, pp. 759-780. Cubillo, Maria, J., Sánchez, J., & Cerviño, J. (2006): “International students' decision-making process”, International Journal of Educational Management,20(2), pp 101-115. Cummings, W. K. (1984): “Going overseas for higher education: The Asian Experience”, ComparativeEducation Review, Vol. 28, No.2, pp. 241-257. Damme, V. (Jun. 2001): Quality Issues in the Internationalisation of Higher Education, Springer, 41(4), pp. 415-441. Available from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3448132 .pp417 [Last Accessed on 08/02/2019] De Grip, A., Fourage, D., & Sauermann, J. (2009): “What Affect International


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Migration of EuropeanScience and Engineering Graduates?”, IZA Discussion Paper, 4268. Grönroos, C. (1978): “A service oriented approach to marketing of services”, European Journal of Marketing, 8. Grönroos, C. (1994): “Quo vadis marketing? Towards a relationship marketing paradigm”, Journal of Marketing, 10, pp 347‐360. Healy (2008): Is Higher Education Really 'Internationalising'? , Springer 55(3), March, pp. 333-355. Available from http://www.jstor.org/stable/29735186 .pp 338 [Last Accessed on 17/02/2019]. Hercog M. & Mindel van de Laar (2013): “What's the best place for me? Location‐choice for S&E students in India”, Unu merit Working Papers Series No 2013-66, available at http://mgsogunu.merit.edu Hooley, G. J., & Lynch, J. E. (1981): “Modelling the student university choice process through the use of conjoint measurement techniques”, European Research, 9(4), pp 158‐170. Institute for International Education (IIE) (2008): “Report on International Educational Exchange”, Open Doors 2008,Sewickley, PA, United States. Institute of International Education (2013),: “Project Atlas: Trends and Global Data”, , IIE Center for Academic Mobility Research, Washington, available at http://www.iie.org/projectatlas King, R., Ruiz‐Gelices, E., & Findlay, A. M. (2004): “International Student Mobility Study: Study 2 ‐Exploring the Diversity of UK International Student Mobility” Brighton: Sussex Centre for Migration Research, University of Sussex, United Kingdom.

Knight J. (2014): “Changing landscape of cross-border higher education”, in Trends in internationalization of higher education in India, Association of Indian Universities (AIU) – Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), 2014 , pp6-14 Lawton, W, Ahmed, M., Angulo, T, Axel-Berg, A Burrows, A & Katsomitos, A, (2013),: “Horizon Scanning: What will Higher Education Look Like in 2020”, OBHE Report, OBHE, London. Levitt, T. (1980): “Marketing success through differentiation of anything”, Harvard Business Review, February, 1980, pp 83‐89. Li, M. and Bray, M. (2007): “Cross-border flows of students for higher education: Push-Pull factors and motivations of mainland Chinese students in Hong Kong and Macau”, Higher Education, Vol. 53, pp. 791-818. Marginson and Mc-Burney (2003): “Cross-border post- secondary education in the Asia- Pacific region” in Internationalisation and Trade in Higher Education Opportunities and Challenges, OECD, Chapter 4. Mazzarol, T. and Soutar, G. (2002): “Push-pull factors influencing International Student Destination Choice”, The International Journal of Educational Management, Vol.16, No.2, pp. 82-90. NAFSA (2006): “Restoring U.S Competitiveness forInternational Students and Scholars”, Association of International Educators June 2006. OECD, (2012): “Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators”, OECD, Paris, available at http://www.oecd-library.org/education/data/education-database/foreign-international-students-enrolled_data-00205-en


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OECD, (2013): “Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators”, OECD, Paris, available at http://www.oecd-library.org/education/data/education-database/foreign-international-students-enrolled_data-00205-en Peng, Z., Lawley, M., & Perry, C. (2000): “Modelling and testing effects of country, corporate and brandimages on consumers’ product evaluation and purchase intention”, Paper presented at the ANZMAC 2000 Visionary Marketing for the 21st Century: Facing the Challenge Conference, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. Powar K. B. (2014): “International student mobility: The global scenario and Indian mobility trends”, in Trends in internationalization of higher education in India, Association of Indian Universities (AIU) – Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), 2014 , pp. 6-14. Powar K.B. & Bhalla V. ( 2014): “International students in Indian Universities: Source countries, gender ratios, levels of education and choice of disciplines”, in Trends in internationalization of higher education in India, Association of Indian Universities (AIU) – Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), 2014 , pp6-14, pp 18-31 Price, I. F., Matzdorf, F., Smith, L., & Agahi, H. (2003): “The impact of facilities on student choice ofUniversity”, Facilities, 21(10),, pp 212‐222. Rajkhowa G. (2014): “Internationalisation and its relevance to Indian higher education, Trends in internationalization of higher education in India”, Association of Indian Universities (AIU) – Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), 2014, pp 6-14, pp 72-79.

Scott, G and Scott, H. (2005): “A longitudinal study of New Zealand University income and student numbers”, New Zealand Journal of Tertiary Education Policy; 1(2), Available at http://www.aus.ac.nz Self, P. (2000): Rolling Back the Market: Economic Dogma and Political Choice, London, Macmillan. Snehi N. (2013): “Student mobility at tertiary level in india: Status, prospects and challenges”, NUEPA Occasional papers, 2013. Soutar, G. N., & Turner, J. P. (2002): “Students' preferences for university: a conjoint analysis”, TheInternational Journal of Educational Management, 16(1), pp 40‐45. Spilimbergo, A. (2006): “Democracy and foreign education”, Centre for Economic Policy and Research (CEPR), Discussion Paper No. 5934. Srikatanyoo, N., & Gnoth, J. (2002): “Country image and international tertiary education”, Journal of Brand Management, 10(2), pp 139‐146. Stiglitz, JE. (1975): “The Theory of “Screening”, Education, and the Distribution of Income”, The American Economic Review, (65)3, pp. 283-300. The Economist (2001): “The next society: A survey of the near future”, Vol. 8246, No.361. Tierney, W, (2012): International Higher Education (62), pp 5-7. Tremblay, K. (2002): “Student Mobility Between and Towards OECD Countries in 2001: A Comparative Analysis”, in OECD (Ed.), International Mobility of the Highly Skilled, pp 39‐67, OECD, Paris.


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UNESCO, (2011): “Unesco Statistics on Education”, Unesco, Paris, Available at http://stats.us.unesco.org/unesco/Reports Folders aspx, [Last Accessed on 26th February 2019.] Varghese, N.V.(2006): “GATS and National regulatory policies in higher education : guidelines for developing countries'”, Paper presented at the International Forum on WTO Entry and Vietnam Higher Education Reform, at the National Convention Centre, Hanoi, 11-12 December 2007. Verbik, L. and Lasanowski, V. (2007): “International Student Mobility: Patterns and Trends”, Observatory on Borderless Higher Education, retrieved from www.obhe.ac.uk

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INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS IN INDIA

Dr. E. Bhaskaran Deputy Director of Industries and Commerce (EDP),

Department of Industries and Commerce, Government of Tamil Nadu, Guindy, Chennai Abstract International Research and Publications in Higher Educational Institutions is need of hour where the faculties and Top Management in HEIs should play a major role in improving the ranking in National and International Level. The objective is to study NIRF ranking in HEIs in India and QS-WUR ranking for HEIs in the World and also to study about Patents and its Commercialization in India. The methodology is collection of data from NIRF and QS-WUR and also from researcher. HEIs should create an ecosystem for improving citations per faculties (CPF) by providing all Infrastructure facilities to faculties like assessing International Research and Publications in Web of Science (WOS) and Scopus Citation Index (SCI). Faculty’s performance may also be increased by getting more patents and commercialization of patents. This will lead to improvement in Entrepreneurship and in turn Economy of India. Key Words: International Research; Publications; India. Introduction: International Research and Publications done by Higher Education Institutions (HEI) in India in the form Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) System and its commercialization are important to develop strong trade and commerce, both at National and International Level and to provide edge in business over competitors. The International Research and Publications exposes the maximum no. of Patents, Design, Trade Mark, Copy Rights,

Geographical Indications filed and its commercialization done by HEI in India. Literature Survey:

The Quacquarelli Symonds (QS), which is popular across the world for hosting the educational events announced the World University Rankings 2019 with methodology based on the six performance indicators, namely Academic Reputation (40%), Employer Reputation (10%), Faculty/Student Ratio (20%), Citations Per Faculty (20%) and International Faculty Ratio & International Student Ratio (10%).[2] Hence for International Research and Publications in India one of the indicators to be followed is Citations Per Faculty (20%). [1]

Ministry of HRD, Government of India come up with National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) which is the methodology of ranking of Academic Institutions in India where Universities or Colleges is ranked based on publications in SCOPUS or Web of Science and No. of Patents filed and it’s Commercialization. [2] Hence there is need for study on the International Research and Publications done by HEIs based on QS and NIRF ranking. Objective The objective is

1. To study on International Research and Publications done by Higher Education Institutions in India.

2. To develop a Model for Faculties and Higher Education Institutions


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in India for International Research and Publications.

3. To develop a Model for Higher Educational Institutions in India to get Indian / International Patents and Commercialization.

Methodology: The methodology adopted is collection of Primary and Secondary data from HEIs in India, Government of India and University websites and analyzing using NIRF and QS-WUR rankings to find performance of HEIs in India.

International Research and Publications in India. The Quacquarelli Symonds (QS) has calculated the university rankings given in figure 1 based on the six indicators, namely Academic Reputation (40%), Employer Reputation (10%), Faculty/ Student Ratio (20%), Citations Per Faculty (20%) and International Faculty Ratio & International Student Ratio (10%).[1]

Figure1: World University Rankings, 2019 The 24 Indian Universities ranking are given in figure 2 where Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay (IITB), Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore and Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi (IITD) are ranked 162, 170 and 172 respectively. [1]

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

Stanford University

Harvard University

California Institute of Technology (Caltech)

University of Oxford

University of Cambridge

ETH Zurich - Swiss Federal Institute of Technology

Imperial College of London

University of Chicago

University College London (UCL)

USA

USA

USA

USA

UK

UK

Switz

erla

ndU

KU

SAU

K

Rank 2019 Rank 2018 Rank 2017


58

Figure 2: World University Rankings for Indian Universities, 2019 NIRF Rankings Model in HEIs The methodology of NIRF Rankings [3] are given below Research and Professional Practice (RP): 100 marks RP= 0.3 PU + 0.4 QP + 0.15 IPR + 0.15 FPPP ……………….. [1] The component metrics explained on following pages. A. Combined Metric for Publications: PU B. Combined Metric for Quality of Publications: QP C. IPR and Patents: Patents Filed, Published, Granted and Licensed: IPR D. Footprint of Projects, Professional Practice and Executive Development Programs: FPPP. The top 5 Indian Institutes with NIRF Rankings are given in figure 3.

050

100150200250300350

Indi

an In

stitu

te o

f Te

chno

logy

, Bom

bay

(IIT

B)

Indi

an In

stitu

te o

f Sc

ienc

e (I

ISc)

, B

anga

lore

Indi

an In

stitu

te o

f Te

chno

logy

, Del

hi

(IIT

D)

Indi

an In

stitu

te o

f Te

chno

logy

, Mad

ras

(IIT

M)

Indi

an In

stitu

te o

f Te

chno

logy

, Kan

pur

(IIT

K)

Rank 2017 Rank 2018 Rank 2019


59

Figure 3: NIRF Ranking 2018 (2014, 2015, 2016) [3]

Table 1 compares the HEIs with their publications and citations with web of science and Scopus. The top 25% highly cited papers are also given in table 1.

Table 1: NIRF Ranking 2018 (2014,2015,2016) [3] Name Score Ran

k Web of Science Scopus

Publications

Citations Top 25 % Highly Cited Papers

Publications Citations Top 25 % Highly Cited Papers

Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru

82.16 1 7237 38203 2584 7734 41945 2233

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

81.39 2 5253 20390 1639 5852 24096 1511

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

79.2 3 5836 27457 1932 6618 31337 1882

Patents and Commercialisation Table 2 gives the details on no. of patents granted, published and earnings by way of commercialisation in HEIs in India.

Table 2: NIRF Ranking 2018 (2014,2015,2016) [3] Name Score Rank No. of

Patents Granted

No. of Patents Published

Earnings from Patents (in Rs.)

Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 82.16 1 92 277 11701309

82.16

81.39

79.2

73.97

71.39

1

2

3

4

5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru



Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur

Rank Score


60


81.39 2 54 395 65531734


79.2 3 86 369 66200000

New Integrated Model for Research and Publications by Faculties in HEIs QS-WUR Model for Faculties in Research and Publication in HEIs QS-WUR = 0.4 AR + 0.1 ER + 0.2 FSR + 0.2 CPF + 0.1 IFR-ISR ……………… [2] Where QS= Quacquarelli Symonds, WUR = World University Ranking, AR = Academic Reputation, ER = Employer Reputation, FSR = Faculty/Student Ratio, CPF = Citations per Faculty and IFR-ISR = International Faculty Ratio & International Student Ratio Case Study of a Researcher From the above analysis it is found CPF is important for Faculty and HEIs. Google Scholar Citations for a Researcher in Chennai Scopus Index (SCI) = 7 Springer Mechanical and Civil Engineering Journals +one Journal of Applied Mechanics and Materials.

Figure 4: Overall Citations


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Figure 5: Citations from 2007 to 2016

Figure 6: Citations from 2017 to 2019 Figure 4, 5 and 6 gives the year wise citations per faculty or research scholar. [4]


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Google Scholar Citations [4]

Table 3: Google Scholar Citations All Since 2014 Citations 100 86 h-index 7 6 i10-index

3 1

For example a researcher has got Google scholar citations as 100, h – index as 7 and i10 index as 3 as shown in table 3. These scores will motivate researcher to publish more papers in SCI or WOS. [4] Research Gate Citations Research Gate is one more website where the citations for Google Scholar or SCI or WOS are increased. Hence the faculty / researcher may enter the details like journals / books published in this website so as to increase the citations.

Figure 7: Research Gate Citations, RG Score = 12.99


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Figure 8: Research Gate Citations = 417

Figure 9: Research Gate Citations, 28760 reads For example the researcher has uploaded all the publications in ISSN Journals / ISBN books in the research gate website. Researcher got the research gate score = 12.99 as per figure 7, no. of citations = 417 as per figure 8 and also the data like Research Interest, Citations, Recommendations, Reads and Full text reads in figure 9. Researcher total reads by other scholars / researchers is around 28760. [5]


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A Faculty / Researcher in HEI have an opportunity to publish papers in Web of Science (WOS) and Scopus Citations (SCI).

Model 1: Citations per Faculty (CPF) CPF = N1 WOS + N2 SCI ………………. [3] Where N1 is no. of citations in WOS=0 and N2 is No. of citations in SCI = 64 For example a researcher has published 8 papers in SCI [7 in springer and 1 in scientific net] and Citations per Faculty (CPF) is CPF = 0 WOS + 64 SCI = 64 Citations. 5.6 Model 2: Citations for HEIs (CFHEI) CFHEI = N CPF ……………………………. [4] Where N is no. of faculties in HEIs Among the other things an HEI should increase the CPF which contributes 20% according to QS-WUR. The equations 1, 2, 3 and 4 will give results about rankings and citations. HEIs should also increase WOS and SCI citations to become top in NIRF Rankings and QS-WUR. Findings, Suggestions, Recommendation and Conclusion For International Research and Publications in Higher Educational Institutions, the faculties and Top Management in HEIs should play a major role in improving the ranking in National (NIRF) and International Level (QS-WUR). NIRF ranks all HEIs in India and QS-WUR ranks all the HEIs in the World. HEIs should create an ecosystem for improving citations per faculties (CPF) by providing all Infrastructure facilities to faculties like assessing International Research and Publications in WOS and SCI. Faculties performance may also be increased by getting more patents and commercialization of patents. This will lead to improvement in Entrepreneurship and in turn Economy of Country. Research and Innovation in Higher Education is need of hour by enhancing research productivity of respective HEIs by orienting faculties and students to participate in competition-based research funding schemes. HEIs should encourage use of digital learning resources among students and faculties and approving SWAYAM courses for credit transfer, and

use the resources like e Shodh Sindhu, National Digital Library and upload degrees on National Academic Depository for better research. HEIs should create awareness about ethics in research and provisions for checking plagiarism and to weed out predatory journals. Entrepreneurial University / Entrepreneurship Development Cell (EDC) should be created by HEIs for an innovation culture and ecosystem, including administrative and financial support, academic freedom and flexibility for promoting innovation and encourage participation in the Smart India Hackathon; facilitate setting up start-ups by students/ alumni. Reference https://www.careerindia.com/study-abroad/qs-world-university-rankings-2019-mit-topped-the-list-022869.html?utm_medium=Desktop&utm_source=CI-EN&utm_campaign=Deep-Links assessed on 10.03.2019. https://www.careerindia.com/features/indian-universities-in-the-qs-world-university-


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rankings-2019-022876.html , assessed on 28.03.2019. https://www.nirfindia.org/2019/Ranking2019.html assessed on 19.03.2019. http://scholar.google.co.in/citations?user=7KS5LMsAAAAJ assessed on 01.02.2019

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dre_Bhaskaran/contributions assessed on 10.02.2019


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HOW DOES INTERNATIONALIZED UNIVERSITY IN INDIA LOOK LIKE?

Nagaraja G Chitradurga

Retd. Head Master, DMS, Regional Institute of Education

Dr. S. Sudha Associate Professor, VELS Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies

Introduction Emerging India is turbulent due to the Changes the political and Economic policies and its implementation. This changed landscape has created crisis in all walks of life. We have problems and issues in economics, politics, religious practices, social life and also in educational practices. Our educational system is under pressure and tensions are there in all sectors (primary, secondary and higher education) of educational policies and practices. India higher education system has been very difficult in the past. Indian has been inheriting its higher education system from the western model and we have extraordinarily rich indigenous intellectual and academic traditions. Factors like traditions have very little role to play today. After Independence India has been experiencing shaped higher education and continues to grow in it. The country has started to follow more systematic approach in the field of higher education. India has been looming large on the international higher education scene and it will become much central in the future. Presence of Indians all over the world is visible and contributing to the growth of our economy. However, our problems are in the field of education- Primary, Secondary, Higher Secondary and more so with Higher Education. Our educational institutions are serving the local population and attractive to the students of other countries. In the past our country has attracted students from all over the world in the field of education, institutions like Nalanda, Takshashila are examples of the

past, which attracted learners from China and other countries. Higher education has grown and encouraging. Higher education is imparted in India at various levels and types of formal education institutions a) universities b) 'deemed to be universities' c) Indian Institutes of Technology, and the All-India Institute of Medical Sciences; d) research institutions; and e) institutions (colleges) for higher education etc. Today Indian Higher Educational Institutes are just serving its own population and offering degrees which are sufficient to clear them for a job. Innovation and research are not the main of our HE. Majority of se expatriates obtained their doctorates abroad, since there is dearth in the area of research. This trend is an impediment to attract students form other countries, in spite of the low cost of HE compared to other countries. On the other hand proper significant investment infrastructure facilities and initiatives need to be taken by Indian higher education institutes (Agarwal 2006)1. As of Feb 2017, there are 819 Universities, 37,204 Colleges and 11,443 stand-alone institutions in India 2. These centres of HE is serving Indian students in the frame work of colonial education system geared towards generating officers and writers, clerks, accounting personnel and computer specialists to work in BPO’s and call centres. Rote learning plagues our system, students at all levels study and engage in coaching centres to crack exams to score marks to get into jobs of higher pay and climb the social ladder. Our students are


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spending theirs parent’s life savings and borrowed money on higher education that too study in other countries. We have a very unrealistic, pointless, mindless rat race for getting into either engineering or medical courses. Our Higher Education system is not towards research, innovation and knew knowledge. Our research centres are producing Ph.D.’s, to take up jobs in teaching institutes or to give ornamentation to their names as Dr. Serving no purpose. In other countries Higher Education is geared to recognize original contributions, creativity, problem solving, valuable original research to solve medical problems and technological innovations to help the humanity at large. This defines the internationalized Higher Education. Various factors do play a vital role when higher education is taken to global level. Among them are cost, Institutional quality, University-academia interaction, internships, projects, placements etc. (Ravindran and Kalpana (2012)3. One of the research survey taken (Butt & ur Rehman 2010)4 conducted on 350 students of government and private universities in Pakistan, about students’ satisfaction taking different set of factors such as courses offered, teachers’ expertise, learning environment, and classroom facilities were studied. Among them teachers’ expertise is defined as the most influential factor. Indian HE sector should reframe their goals and objectives to compete with the Global Institutes offering courses suitable for 21st century market. We have shift from National Perspective to International perspective and give world class infrastructure to the institutes of HE. In other words, we have to internationalize the HE. Basic stability and consistent policy orientations for higher education is the need of the hour. The future of higher education in India is based on the demand from the middle class people who are

expanding and the largest force and do participate in the modern economy. China and India, which together make up one-third of the world’s population and are two of the most rapidly growing economies, are awakening to the significance of higher education for technological development and for the global knowledge economy. Every year India enrols 13 million foreign students for education while China enrols 27 million students. Author had the privilege of visiting UAU (Dubai, 2016), NSU (Singapore,2014, 2015), Kings College and Chelsea College, University of London, (UK,1985) and Rutgers U, NJ, ((USA,1971). What it looks to be in all these places is the student and staff composition, very clearly students from all over the world come to these places for their learning. So any institution to become international first thing is to have students from different parts of the world and then change the curricular transaction to meet the world standards. In these places the goal of the HE is to create entrepreneurs, innovators, artists, scientists, thinkers and writers who can establish foundation of a knowledge-based economy rather than the low-quality service managers. As per the 2018 of the League table of the top 200 University rankings Massachusetts Institute of Technology institution topping the list, Harvard University stands in 3rd position, Oxford University in the 20th position5, and other universities in the world think of producing thinkers and innovators. The above mentioned universities are elite universities and concentrate on the top priorities from the student point of view. For this reason, their education system attracts students from all over the globe and students wait for months to spend heavy fees to get in to the university to


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continue their HE. In India, we have not made efforts to upgrade our curriculum at HE level. We have the age-old syllabus and practices to produce graduates, post-graduate’s and Ph.D.’s to get into some service providing job. Enormous money is spent by many agencies for this rat race. India should concentrate on 3 important components in curriculum. 1. Flexibility 2. Quality and 3. Relevance. In Indian Higher education there is a lack of elite universities and thus results in lack of bright students. Hence India is not able to produce quality oriented students hence as a result Indian industries also lack talented workforce. Hence in order to come out of this drastic situation Indian Universities need to have constant internationalization and benchmarking of their curriculum and faculty should take the role of facilitators instead of deliverers of knowledge.

Indian HE sector should internationalize their courses by offering challenging courses that lead the students for research and innovation. Switching and encouraging learning facilities through web portals and introduce current practices that are prevalent in other Universities of fame. In addition to the above attraction for foreign students and staff i.e. intellectual capital has become inevitable. Providing physical facilities, hygiene facilities, library and computing facilities, good academic ambience with attractive salary package brings foreign students to India.

According to Jane Knight, - Adjunct Professor, Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education in OISE (Ontario Institute for Studies in Education), University of Toronto, “Globalization is a 'process that focuses on the worldwide flow of ideas, resources, people, economy, values, culture, knowledge, goods, services, and technology’, while internationalization of higher education is described as 'the process of integrating an international,

intercultural and global dimension into the goals, teaching/learning, research and service functions of a university or higher education system'. Internationalization emphasizes the relationship between and among nations, people, cultures, institutions, systems while globalization stresses the concept of worldwide flow of economy, ideas, culture, etc. The difference between the concept of 'worldwide flow' and the notion of 'relationship among nations' is both striking and profound. Thus, these two concepts are very much related to each other but at the same time different. Debate continues whether internationalization of higher education is a catalyst, reactor or agent of globalization”.6

The globalization and internationalisation of markets and societal practices has added much pressure on the educational practices. Our earlier thoughts and practices seem to be a mis-fit, to the present day demands of the demands of the market. The demands of the 21st Century are very different from the demands of the previous century. But our practices remail still the same as it was in the last Century. Educational opportunities and traditions that Indian Universities have built up, since Independence have been able to produce graduates, capable only of pursuing limited careers, but, in the new globally competitive environment that is emerging in the country, the Indian student is now required to develop a multifaceted personality to cope up with the rapid changes in the world at large. This calls for the development of body, mind and spirit, through the educational processes in the institutions of higher education.7 The way IHE is defined has been different; but many things seem to be in common. There are 2 important definitions in concern to IHE; IHE is seen in the angle of


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result and action oriented. The so-called IHE should be an progressive, original and energetic system, an perfect university learning model which society expect onward is to keep speed with time. The other one is that it is understood as a inclination or a procedure as for the old-style or closed education system. It emphases on not only the degree of being adopted but also the procedure of its understanding.8

IHE refers to the opening the concept of higher education with proper base which creates and promotes mutual understanding among the international societies, accelerates growth, more contribution to the field of research, more scholarly participation in the international conferences, more student exchange programs. Further education universities participation in the international education affairs which takes respective country universities to global level regarding their existence is vital. The goal of IHE, for the country, is to speed up the learning excellence, go to the global phase and nurture a collection of capacities who are robust in the worldwide idea and, who have the widened dream and are able to adjust to any circumstances with the imaginative emotional state to adjust to the nation’s numerous demands and growth. For the entire sphere its real drive is to recognize the different cultures of various nations and to progress the individual development and advance through the joint engrossing of the forward-looking traditional fruits. 9

The excellence of presence in an global person includes first, the universal approach including about the globe, individual; adjusting to the modifications that leads to building future; reasonable rivalry and approachable support; self-esteem with self-assurance; taking struggles to progress oneself. Second, the worldwide idea together with the wisdom

of global accepting, mutual-existence, the diplomatic growth and the global fairness; third, the competence to global statement comprising the autonomous capability in thought, the capability of partaking, the capability of allocating with the statistics, the aptitude in life long learning, the ability of enduring the frustration and the competence of the international message; fourth, the global facts including learning the global recent matters, the past and tendency of the universe progress, the principle of oriental and Western cultures, the nation’s dominant place and the part in the globe; accepting the task of constructing the homeland and having the realization of helping the entire humans; finally, to advance and develop talents like learning one foreign language.10

Internationalized curriculum In addition to the progress load of the HE, one or more topics of international interests to be added for the course to make it international. In the United States in 1970s, in the program of under graduate education, the new courses on the Western Culture, and subjects like International Relations, The International Economy, The International Trade and the Studies on Third Worlds have to be learnt compulsory by the students.11

The Australian Curriculum Organization in the seventh plenary of the National Conference points out a new program idea a new concept towards the education and course aiming on the globalized awareness in curriculum is a must. Currently another way of internationalized curriculum is brought through foreign alliances too. Indian universities have significant alliances with foreign institutions for delivery of courses, joint research, foreign curriculum, twining programs etc. These plans and measures


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adopted by Indian institutions need to be well strategized.12

In order to adjust to the internationalized higher education in the regular education and the curriculum the universities have to take the reviewed and necessary measures need to be undertaken. The measures are as follow: 1.providing global subjects like The International Politics, The International Economy, The International Trades, The Foreign History, Geography, The Costumes, etc. 2. Subjects on advanced science which would yield results and 3. choose the best forward-looking text books in the globe.13

Challenges and Opportunities Challenges:

Challenges in higher education are no longer only nation centric. They have already attained global dimensions.14

A new challenge before the country at the beginning of the twenty first century is to become a developed society by the year 2020, which requires that not only a vibrant economy driven by knowledge has to be ushered in soon, but also a new society where justice and human values prevail has to be created.15

What kind of skills will students of IHE29II need to acquire before they are graduated, understand the world community, international politics, economics and participate in their job and continue life?

Challenge is quite tricky because no one knows what the demands of the market are by 2030 to fix the curriculum and course load in the IHE29II.

Challenge becomes much more complicated because of Infotech and biotech are growing in a rapid

speed ‘to engineer human bodied, brains and minds, it is uncertain how exactly one can be certain about anything and especially IHE cannot frame and design course of study to meet such demands’.16

Think tanks and Philosophers may not be able to predict how India and the rest of the world will look like in 2030. One cannot design and explain the architecture of Indian IHE of 2030.

Can Indian Universities and Colleges and Professional Institutions shift the paradigm to research, self-study, and blending of learning using different resources.

Can degree certificates shift to skills and abilities to make sense of the real world and appropriate their knowledge to match and fit the changing world of 2030.

Can our HE catches up with the speed of the growth and dissemination of knowledge and reinvent their pedagogy to make their products to reinvent their skills to fit to the demands of the emerging society of knowledge economy.

Challenges are many more and keep growing not to speak about the infrastructure, facilities, human resources and finances, but one cannot keep silent because of the shortages, if any, the challenges need to be embraced and proceed to initiate, IHE29II. Opportunities:

Allows ample chances to restructure the existing good or ‘CPE’s (Colleges with Potential for Potential,296 colleges)’17. Which are spread over different States to attract enrolments from different parts of our country and also from out side the country. What needed is reframing of course that suits the


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trends in the changing Globalised world and shift in the pedagogical methods by offering additional international programs along inter-disciplinary programs. 18

India will be in the forefront of South Asian countries to offer Internationalized HE, thus become the regional leader to attract foreign students much more than the existing number of students studying in professional sector. At present most of the students are from Nepal, Afghanistan, Israel, Bhutan, Nigeria, Sudan, and Tanzania.19 Students from other countries might find entry in to Internationalized HE of 29 Indian Institutes. .

IHE 29 II ,( Internationalized Higher Education 29 Indian Institutes ), will enrich their core curriculum including ‘ the four C’s- Critical thinking, Communication, Collaboration and Creativity’,20, which are most essential skills for the market by 2030.

Many like minded NGO’s, Private, Quasi-Private, Corporate, Industrial establishments, Alumni of many institutes and Government Inactivates might lend financial assistance, knowledge and expertise to identify and set up or adapt the existing UPE’s(Universities with Potential for Excellence) and CPE’s (Colleges with potential Excellence) to establish Internationalized HE 29 Indian Institutes in the 29 States of our country, this is the greatest opportunity when the present Government is venturing many projects pumping crores of investment, like Bullet trains,

Statues, Schemes to the needy and to the HE sector.

Having joint degree courses involving professional courses.

Potential Institutions should look out for international placements.

It is important to practice international curriculum with video tapped classroom practices.

More of vocational training suggested.

More public and private partnership required to strengthen the education sector

A campaign entitled Business Backs Education—launched in partnership with UNESCO and the Global Business Coalition for Education—challenges the private sector to allocate 20 per cent of its philanthropic giving to education initiatives by 2020 with a focus on countries and groups most in need no proper pick up in this scheme.

Capability approach can be explored in India according to the education and availability of human capital for development.

Indicators of an internationalized institution How an Internationalized University might look? An internationalized university would:20

Emphasize that international educa

that extends the existing way of thinking into new situations, but looks at these situations in order to find new ways of thinking about them.

Have a comprehensive policy, mandating that international education be institutionalized so that all unites incorporate international education in their programs. Include in that policy implementing and monitoring


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mechanisms to insure that international dimensions of learning, administration and services are incorporated in all programs, such as annual reports, publications, promotion and tenure, hiring practices, budget allocations

Have an on-going evaluation program based on centrally gathered data regarding the state of internationalization

Develop periodically strategic plans regarding the gradual process of international and phasing in new dimensions

Institutionalize international education in its internal and external governance, including access to decision-making and budget allocation

Initiate faculty development programs in order to insure that its governance structure from faculty senate to curricular committees, to departmental leadership, have sufficient conceptual insight and practical knowledge about international education Strive to insure that the curriculum reflects adequate levels of complexity from introductory to advanced levels and provide students with integrative experiences

Develop a motivational policy for students to attend international courses, study foreign languages, involve themselves in the lives of international students, study abroad and participate in international programs

Feature elements of international education, in line with the motivational policy, in all publications and official pronouncements of institutions’ leaders. Such methods of promoting a higher level of motivation should respond to the need of students to know the

consequences of global ignorance in their future careers

Encourage faculty to develop interdisciplinary, intercultural and multicultural teams that would help conceptualize international education and translate important concepts for application to other disciplines

Encourage all its constituencies to accept their own responsibility to support these international education goals and practices through voluntary services, participation in governance, and provision of leadership

Insure that internationalization remains on the agenda of the institution in a sustained fashion and encourage an ongoing discourse about it

Current Benchmarking of Internationalisation: 21

A number of organisations include internationalisation in their benchmarking of worldwide universities, the most well-known of which are Times Higher Education (THE) rankings, QS World rankings, and U-Multirank.1 The parameters that these organisations use to measure internationalisation are shown in Table 1 and, as can be seen, they are all exclusively structural in nature. They focus on different countable measures, most notably national composition of students Parameters Organisation THE QS, U-Multirank 1.Composition: international students 2. Composition: international staff 3. Composition: international diversity 4. Incoming & outgoing student mobility 5. International student support (religious facilities) 6. International joint publications


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They focus on different countable measures, most notably national composition of students and staff as well as in the numbers engaged in international movement and research. Clearly there are significant differences between the systems in the number, range and precise definitions of the parameters used (e.g. THE uses ratio of international to domestic students, while QS gives full marks if 20% or more of an institution’s students are international), but they are all united in their exclusive use of frequency and/or compositional counts. Also, most of the time, the definition of ‘diversity’ has been reduced to a bi-polar category: proportion of home vs. international students, with the result that degree of ‘diversity’ cannot directly be deduced from these statistics. This, however, can impact substantially on the social reality of students’ study experiences, such as, for example, if there are large dominant national groups of students on campus. The QS benchmark is a notable exception to this. However, it uses an arbitrary cut-off point of 50 different countries. Many universities refer to the benefits of having a diverse composition of students and staff in terms of ‘enrichment’. For example, the University of Bristol identifies the following as two of its prime reasons for pursuing internationalisation:

it means we have a diverse student body from multiple cultures and societies, which enriches our intellectual environment;

it means academic staff come to us from all over the world and their different intellectual approaches, as well as their different cultures, again enrich the University.25

Top 10 skills sought by 12 leading employers collectively representing 3500+ graduate recruits:

1.A ability to work collaboratively with teams of people from a range of backgrounds and countries; 2. Excellent communication skills: both speaking and listening; 3. A high degree of drive and resilience; 4. An ability to embrace multiple perspectives and challenge thinking; 5. A capacity to develop new skills and behaviours according to role requirements; 6. A high degree of self-awareness; 7. An ability to negotiate and influence clients across the globe from different cultures; 8. An ability to form professional, global networks; 9. An openness to and respect for a range of perspectives from around the world; 10. Multicultural learning agility (e.g. ability to learn in any culture or environment

If these skills are integrated in HE we will be one step towards internationalisation of our HE.

QS Graduate Employability Rankings 2018 — Top 10

Institution 1. Stanford University 2. University of California, Los Angeles 3. Harvard University 4. The University of Sydney 5. Massachusetts Institute of Technology 6. University of Cambridge 7. University of Melbourne 8. University of Oxford 9. University of California, Berkeley 10. Tsinghua University The graduates of the top 10 Universities listed above are welcome to the jobs over


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the world, may be due to the quality of education they get. These Universities have internationalized their system. QS University Rankings: Latin America — Top 10

Institution

Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile

Universidade Estadual de Campinas

Universidade de São Paulo Universidad Nacional Autónoma

de México Instituto Tecnologico y de Estudios

Superiores de Monterrey Universidad de Chile Universidade Federal do Rio de

Janeiro Universidad de los Andes Universidad de Buenos Aires Universidade Estadual de São

Paulo QS University Rankings: BRICS — Top 10

Institution 1. Tsinghua University 2. Peking University 3. Fudan University 4. University of Science and

Technology of China 5. Lomonosov Moscow State

University 6. Zhejiang University 7. Shanghai Jiao Tong University 8. Nanjing University 9. Indian Institute of Technology

Bombay 10. Indian Institute of Science

Bangalore

QS Best Student Cities Ranking

In 2012, QS launched the QS Best Student Cities ranking - a table designed to evaluate which cities were most likely to provide students with a high-quality

student experience. Five editions of the ranking have been published thus far, with Paris taking the number-one position in four of them. The 2017 edition was also the first one to see the introduction of student opinion as a contributory indicator. The most recent edition of the ranking was released on May 9, 2018. It saw London take the number-one spot from Montreal.

1. London 2. Tokyo 3. Melbourne 4. Montreal 5. Paris 6. Munich 7. Berlin 8. Zurich 9. Sydney 10. Seoul

Top 20 countries which most international students prefer:

1. US 740482 students

2. UK 427686 students

3. France 271399 students

4. Australia 249588 students

5. Germany 206986 students

6. Russia 173627 students

7. Japan 150617 students

8. Canada 120960 students

9. China 88979 students

10. Italy 77732 students

11. SouthAfrica 70428 students

12. Malaysia 63625 students

13. SouthKorea 59472 students


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14. Austria 58056 students

15. Netherlands 57509 students

16. Spain 55759 students

17. United Arab Emirates 54162 students

18. Singapore 52959 students

19. Egypt 49011 students

20. Saude Arabia 46566 students

Future Ahead for Indian HE: IHE29II-( (Internationalized Higher Education 29 Indian Institutes) (29 represents 29 States of India) Informal Learning Centres and IHE The informal sectors in India, are creating advanced knowledge and disseminating in their personal capacities, education to many foreign students. This tendency can be looked in the lens of IHE, because the gurus are having higher knowledge in their field of special study and are disseminating to foreign students giving them knowledge, training, skills required to meet the market needs and their personal requirements, in a way this is the perfect model of individualized instruction which any IHE can provide. These informal centres are attracting students from all over the countries, they provide residential assistance, education and training, the cost of such education is met personally. No expenditure on the Governments budget, as we find the Universities and colleges. These informal learning centres are located as islands if different parts of India, what I call as a Mosaic of IHE. Attempts are needed to put them all into a league of learning centres and create a structure to initialize an IHE29II, and offer degrees by due process of accreditation of such learning centres. Using this model, IHE29II, STEM studies can be attached to

the renowned personalities to guide and teach the internationalized students especially in IITs or IIMs or IISC which have already established a name in the market. To begin with IHE can be attempted where expenditure on the government budget is Zero. The private sector is already at it, what is required is to give a structure and accredetion to make it IHE. Areas like: Dance, Music, Yoga, Indigenous Medical Practices, Hand-crafts, Sports and Athletics, Cricket Training, Shuttle badminton, Kabaddi, Tennis, Gymnastics, Wrestling. Study of ethnic cultures, traditions, religious practices and rituals of the temples which many foreigners appreciate and eager to study could be centres of study for IHE. We have 29 States and each state can adopt one area and can create 29 IHE’s. rail costs nothing attempts can be made. Conclusion: In all, there are only 46,144 international students (2017-18) in India. Nearly five-times as many Indian students are at US universities alone. Moreover, only 40 foreign nationals teach across the 23 IITs, which less than 1% of all faculty members. While the number of foreign faculty is quite high at some private universities, the total number of foreigners teaching in India is overall very low. And the Government of India wants to change that.

None of India’s universities count among the top 200 in the world. The best ones – the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) and the IITs in Mumbai and Delhi, all of which were selected as Institutions of Eminence by the government – don’t make the cut in world rankings partly because of low levels of internationalisation. Such an


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international outlook is measured by the number of foreign faculty members and students and international research collaborations. It has been arguedthat greater internationalisation at India’s universities will improve their world rankings.

Compared to the enrolment of international students in universities over the globe, Indian Universities tends towards almost zero. This trendneed to be addressed.The data given above indcate that these institutes of HE adapt the curricular transactiona to suit the needs of the global market rather than producing graduates wih a certificate as is done in our country. We, have to change our concept of HE and try to internationalize the content and the artichitecture of the institutions of HE. A good example is in India many private schools are tilting towards IB Certificate for their students. We have to pick up from there and start implimenting curricular transactions as is done in most international institutes of HE. References: 1 Agarwal, P (2006): "Higher Education

Services and Trade Liberalisation" in R Chanda (ed.), Trade in Services and India: Prospects and Strategies (New Delhi: Wiley-India), pp 299-358. - (2008)

2 UGC Website

3 Ravindrana, Sudharani, and Kalpana M., (2012), Students’ Expectation, Perception and Satisfaction towards the Management Educational Institutions, Procedia Economics and Finance, vol. 2, pp. 401 – 410

4 Butt, B. Z., & ur Rehman, K. (2010). A

study examining the students satisfaction in higher education. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 5446-5450.

5 Studies on the Internationalized Higher

Education Li-Juan Ren, www.ccsenet.org/journal.html,Vol1,No.1,Feb 2008- 3 to 9.

6 JaneKnight(Source:http://www.aqu.cat

/elButlleti/butlleti75/articles1_en.html#.W_JQSIVOKM8-2.

7 A.K. Sen Gupta & Vikram Parekh Excellence in Higher Education in India: Way Forward Journal of Emerging Knowledge on Emerging Markets Volume 1 Issue 1 November 2009.

8 A.K. Sen Gupta & Vikram Parekh Excellence in Higher Education in India: Way Forward Journal of Emerging Knowledge on Emerging Markets Volume 1 Issue 1 November 2009.

9 Yuaval Noah Harari (2018), 21 Lessons for the 21 Century, Penguin Random House, UK-Ch.19, Education,p.261-1

10 Education Report 16-17p.149-13

11 Josef Mestenhauser, “In Search of a Comprehensive Approach to International Education: A Systems Perspective” in Rockin’ in Red Square: Critical Approaches to International Education in the Age of Cyberculture edited by W. Grunzweig and N. Rinehart, LIT Verlag, 2002, p. 213-115-15.

12 Global PAD Working papers.

Available at GlobalPay Open House http://www.warwick.ac.uk/globalpadintercultural -16 (http://benchmarking.hesa.ac.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2011/10/HESA_International_Benchmarking_report.pdf).


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13 Yuaval Noah Harari (2018), 21 Lessons for the 21 Century, Penguin Random House, UK-Ch.19, Education,p.261-12.

14 Global PAD Working papers. Available at global PAD Open House-17 (http://www.warwick.ac.uk/globalpadintercultural) Global PAD Working papers. Available at global PAD Open House-17 (http://www.warwick.ac.uk/globalpadintercultural)

15 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QS_World_University_Rankings#Asia-18

16 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QS_World_University_Rankings#Asia-18

17 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QS_World_University_Rankings#Asia- 19

18 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QS_World_University_Rankings#Asia -20

19 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QS_World_University_Rankings#Asia - 20

20 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QS World University Rankings -21

21 Source UNESCO Institute of Stastics 2014.-22


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TEACHING CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN GLOBALISED

EDUCATION

Dr. Padma S Rao Visiting Professor for MBA

Introduction Inexorable technological advancements, unprecedented explosive growth in e-commerce and communication technology have unleashed humungous opportunities for the organisations to conduct business across the globe. Multinational corporations (MNCs) have witnessed remarkable and unbridled growth in the last three decades. The ability to transverse long distances in less time and real time communication have generated great potential for growth and profitability of the organisations. All these changes have an overwhelming impact on the people’s functioning in the organisations. Employees are under prodigious pressure to learn new skills, adjust and adopt themselves to work in different locations across the globe or in international teams. At the same time, organisations are facing multifarious challenges to integrate individuals who come from dissimilar national cultures and to make them work in international teams. Working in a domestic country is easier due to familiar environment, culture and language. On the contrary, assignment in foreign locations poses umpteen challenges in the form of unknown languages, customs, culture, etiquettes, practices and beliefs. Therefore, managers are challenged to train the employees and equip them with diversity skills to work in different locations across the globe. Understanding international culture has become an important aspect of international business. International managers must deal with wide range of gender issues and views, ethnic and religious issues, navigating different legal

systems which in turn have formidable impact on leadership efficacy. Managers must possess skills to navigate, address and manage these differences effectively and successfully. Cross cultural management is a vital issue in international business as the success of MNCs depends upon smooth interaction of employees from diverse cultures and regions. Key to effective cross-cultural communication is knowledge. Culture Culture is a way of thinking, manmade and living whereby individuals exhibit a set of attitudes, values, norms, assumptions and beliefs that are taught and reinforced by other members in the group. Culture is a shared system of written and unwritten principles, beliefs and assumptions Many cultures are enduring, and they have withstood the test of time. Cultures are transmitted from generation to generation to ensure its survival. A culture acts as a guide for individuals to interact with the outside world. Members of a culture exhibit some similarities and may be integrated by religion, language, geography, race or ethnicity. Scope of Culture Cultures like Buddhism, Christianity and Islam are boundless and embrace many people across nations and continents. Some cultures like French culture and Italian culture are smaller and confine to a country. India with 1.3 billion populaces, is epitome of hundreds of distinct cultures. Companies too have their own distinct culture called corporate culture practiced


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by its employees. IBM, HP, Microsoft and Infosys all have their own corporate culture which guide their employee’s behaviour through a set of shared values, principles, norms, beliefs and assumptions. Whenever employees switch over from one company to another company, they may find it difficult to adjust to a new job, new environment because of differences in corporate culture. Cross cultural communication Communication is nothing but transmission of information from one person/ group to another verbally or non-verbally. Culture influences communication, i.e., the words we speak, the gestures, postures and our behaviour. Cross cultural communication refers to the communication between culturally distinct people who differ in age, nationality, ethnicity, race and gender etc. Cross cultural communication can also be defined as the efforts by people belonging to different cultures to exchange information, negotiate the dealings and mediate in case of conflicts by means of verbal and non-verbal communication. Cross-cultural communication involves literacy in subjects like anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and communication. The study of different languages helps to understand similarities and dissimilarities between the cultures and this understanding of different cultures has multitudinous implications on interpersonal and business relationships in the work place. With increasing globalisation and international trade, it is inevitable that different cultures meet, negotiate, communicate, gel and network. Understanding cross-cultural communication is indispensable for any company that has a diverse work force, futuristic plans to become an MNC and to conduct business globally. Cross-cultural

communication in an organization deals with understanding of different business customs, beliefs and communication strategies. Language differences, verbal and nonverbal communication differences, and individual and collectivist preferences are major factors that affect cross-cultural communication. People from different cultures find it difficult to communicate not only due to language differences but also due to cultural styles. Hand movements, gestures and words may convey altogether different meanings in different cultures resulting in miscommunication, misinterpretation and misunderstanding. Over the past several decades, there has been an increased demand for inclusion of 21st century skills like critical thinking, problem solving skills, social skills and cross-cultural communication skills in the formal education and it has been widely acknowledged and appreciated across the globe. Universities are perforce, compelled to, teach, educate, mould and transform the students to function effectively and comfortably in their workplaces characterised by multi-faceted relationships and permeable borders. Time is ripe for the students to learn global skills that helps them to interact and fit in to the multicultural environment. Imparting global competence must start at the university level and faculty members play a key role to transmit cross-cultural knowledge and information to students. Many universities in the developed countries have already made strides in this direction through syllabus change, faculty enrichment and student mobility through abroad exchange programmes for cultural awareness and understanding. Cross cultural communication barriers Communication between individuals belonging to same culture is far easier as


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compared to communication between people of different cultures. In multinational companies due to their global presence, cultural barriers to communication abound. Not only people have to overcome language difficulties, there are multitude of factors that challenge people who constantly strive to do global business successfully through harmonious relationships. Cross culture exchanges are more complex due to language differences, tendency to assume similarities, non-verbal misinterpretation and anxiety resulting in miscommunications. 1. Language hindrances Problems get proliferated when receiver in the communication process is unable to understand the message sent by the sender because of language differences. Ex. A British while negotiating a deal, talking in English to a person in China who does not understand English. Not only that, some words have different meanings in various contexts, countries or cultures leading to discrepancies. Examples 1. Gift- In German, a gift means poison. The same word ‘gift’ means ‘married’ in Swedish. 2. But – But is used as a conjunction in English. In polish, it means shoe. 2. Similarity notions People often expect similar kind of behaviours, acts and gestures from others. When people belonging to other cultures behave and act in different ways, people get annoyed resulting in miscommunication. 3. Misinterpretation of Nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is exchange of information without words. People may communicate nonverbally through any of the following types.

a. Paralanguage refers to using non-lexical components of communication such as volume, intonation, pauses, accent, modulation and fluency. b. Proxemics is the study of personal space people keep while communicating. c. Kinesics is the study of body language, gestures and facial expressions used in communication. Non-verbal communication and body language are an important aspect of communication. However, many of the gestures are interpreted differently across different cultures. These eye movements, gestures mean different in different languages. For example, “Come here” finger gesture is often used in America and the UK to call a person. But in China and Japan this is seen as very offensive and rude. In USA and UK, prolonged eye contact is considered respectful and to seek attention but in Asian countries, it is considered very impolite and indecent especially with women. 4. Apprehension Multicultural people often feel nervous while communicating with each other due to lack of cultural knowledge. For example: A Japanese man and a French having a business meeting might get agitated if both are oblivious of each other’s cultural norms. Understanding Different Cultural Dimensions Knowledge of multicultural aspects and issues is paramount for current generation students to succeed in the corporate. Many researchers have gained insights in to different cultures through detailed vetting process and have developed models, of which Greet Hofstede work and Trompenaars model of national culture


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differences have become astoundingly acceptable to understand cultural differences. They attempted to combine cultural differences across countries and developed frame works for easy understanding of cross cultures. 1. Hofstede cultural dimensions It is framework for cross cultural communication. The model developed by Psychologist Dr Geert Hofstede (developed in late 1970s) delves in to different cultures and describes the effect of society’s culture on the value of its members and in turn the influence of values on behaviour of people. He published his cultural dimensions model at the end of the 1970s, based on a decade of research. It has become an internationally recognised yardstick for understanding cultural differences across the globe. Hofstede conducted research involving employees of IBM in more than 50 countries and glanced at unique aspects of cultures. He identified four dimensions initially. Dr. Michael H Bond and Michael Minkov joined their hands to add the fifth and sixth dimension. 1. Power Distance Index (High Vs low) Inequality exists in every culture. Power distance is the extent of inequality that exists between powerless people and people with powers. High Power distance cultures are characterised by hierarchies in the organisations, gaps in authorities, unequal distribution of power. Managers issue orders and instructions to the subordinates. Managers are often despotic in their approach and maintain distance from subordinates. Low power distance cultures are distinguished by flat organisations with fewer levels, decentralised structures with widely dispersed powers, equality in status and compensations. Managers seek

participation of subordinates in decision making. Managers are less concerned with status and encourage employees to speak out and give their valuable suggestions.

Hofstede Model of Cultural Dimensions Belgium, France, Malaysia, China and Saudi Arabia are the countries with high power distance whereas Netherlands, USA, UK, Finland, Norway and Sweden stand as examples for low power distance cultures. 2. Individualism Vs Collectivism The extent to which people in a country prefer to act as individuals and independent is called Individualism. In individualistic cultures, bonds and affiliation between individuals are loose and members tend to be concerned with personal achievement, growth and progression. Individuals look after themselves and the immediate family members. Individual choices, preferences and decisions are expected and respected. Individuals have greater orientation for out- groups. Collectivism refers to the preference of individuals for interdependence. It emphasises on prioritisation of groups over individual members. In collectivist cultures, in- groups are very harmonious and cohesive. The group consists of


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extended families who always offer unflinching support to other group members. The ties between group members are very strong. People tend to be viewed as members of in-group rather than as self and are more concerned with welfare of the group. US, UK, Germany, France, and Australia all have Individualistic culture. China, Japan, India, Brazil, and Russia are few examples for countries practicing collectivism. 3. Masculinity Vs Femininity Masculinity culture is a preference for achievement, performance, heroism, material success, toughness and assertiveness. On the contrary, quality of life, caring for weak and elders, maintaining warm relationships are all associated with females and these traits dominate in feministic cultures. In masculine cultures, work related values are more inclined towards competition, power seeking and achievement. In feministic cultures, overall welfare predominates over performance. Japan, USA, UK, Nigeria score very high on masculinity whereas Iceland, Thailand, Scandinavian countries, Netherlands stand for Femininity. 4. Uncertainty Avoidance index (High Vs Low) Life is uncertain and what is certainty is uncertainty. Uncertainty is a situation or a state when outcomes are highly unforeseeable, dubious or unpredictable. Uncertainty avoidance delineates the extent to which people abstain from taking risks or handle risky situations. The index developed by Hofstede measures the levels of uncertainty avoidance and ranges from high to low.

Cultures marked by high uncertainty avoidance index are more risk averse and evade trying new ways of doing business, starting new businesses and shifting to new jobs. People prefer stability in jobs, status quo unless the circumstances force them to change. In cultures of low uncertainty avoidance index, people embrace changes quickly, vivacious, prefer ambivalence, open to accept new challenges and more entrepreneurial in approach. Entrepreneurs are always trolling for opportunities. United States, England, India, China, and Singapore are countries with low uncertainty avoidance scores. Countries with high uncertainty avoidance scores include Italy, Korea, Mexico, Belgium, and Russia. 5. Long term Vs Short term Orientation In cultures with long term orientation, people focus on future and are not concerned about immediate results. Approach is more long-term goal oriented to get fruitful results and rewards. These cultures use innovative methods. People emphasise on perseverance, financial prudence, self-reliance and adaptability. People consider status to develop personal relationships. Ex. China, Japan, Thailand, Hongkong, Brazil, Taiwan and India. Cultures with short term orientation focus on traditional methods and are anxious about immediate results. They focus on fostering of virtues relating to past and present like stability, steadiness and resoluteness. Status is not important for developing relationships. People spend time generously for leisure and enjoyment. Ex. Canada, USA, New Zealand, UK, Nigeria, Germany etc.


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6. Indulgence Vs Restraint Indulgence is defined as the extent to which people try to control their desires and impulses. Week control is called Indulgence and strong control is called Restraint. Restraint is a conviction that such impulses need to be curbed and regulated through strict social norms. Cultures with indulgence allow people to enjoy and have fun without placing restrictions. The societies allow people to satisfy their basic and natural desires. People do not get easily motivated by materialistic rewards. Examples for countries which score high on indulgence: Venezuela, Mexico, Puerto Rico, El Salvador, Nigeria, Columbia, Trinidad and Sweden. Countries with restraint culture suppress the gratification of human desires by placing stringent and strict social norms. People in such cultures have less freedom for enjoying life. In such cultures people expect reward for good work and expect fair treatment from employers. Status objects like car, phone, laptops are considered very important. Example: Pakistan, Egypt, Latvia, Ukraine, Albania, Belarus, Estonia and Iraq. 2. Trompenaars Seven Dimensions of culture The framework developed by Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turned can be better understood as a powerful management and communication tool in a pragmatic way. They studied preferences and values of cultures in 40 countries collating information from 46000 managers . A frame work consisting of seven cultural dimensions was developed as a result of a decade research. The model was published in 1997 in their book “Riding the waves of culture”, the

bestselling, most admired and sought-after book in the current millennium.

Trompenaars Model of culture Dimensions 1. Universalism versus Particularism In Universalist culture, rules and laws are strictly enforced. Values, ideas and human rights have ubiquitous application. Rules precede relationships. These cultures have rule-based approach that helps to distinguish between right and wrong. Maintaining standards and values are very important. Deviations form standards and values are allowed only after consultation. Universalist cultures follow equity principle for compensating employees. Universalism pervades across countries like USA, Canada, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, New Zealand and Australia. In a particularistic culture, application of ideas and exercise of rights depend upon the situation and circumstances. Personal relationships and obligations play an important role and they dictate the rules and decision making. Status is important in these cultures and therefore one can observe the nexus between compensation and status.

Trompenaars Seven

Dimentions of Culture

Universalismvs

Paricularism

IndividualismVs

Communitarianism

SpecificVs

Diffuse

NeutralVs

Affective

AchievementVs

Ascription

SequentialVs

Synchronous Time

Internal direction

Vs outer

direction


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Examples: Russia, Latin American countries and China. 2. Individualism versus Communitarianism Individualism sees human beings as individuals. People in such cultures believe in personal freedom and independence. Importance is given for personal achievement and individual decision making. People expect acclaim and reward and they are linked to individual performance. The individualist culture is more pervasive in western world. Individualistic cultures permeate in countries like USA, U.K, New Zealand, Australia and Switzerland. Communitarianism emphasises more on team work and group behaviour. Group dominate over individuals and groups ensure safety to group members. Individuals are not praised publicly, and favouritism is avoided. Members are expected to be loyal to the group. Countries like Africa, China and Japan have communistic culture. Cultures are not static, and they change continuously. According to Fons Trompenaars, Mexico, which was predominantly communitarian earlier, is slowly transforming towards an individualistic culture because of globalisation effect. 3. Specific versus Diffuse Cultures In a specific culture, individuals keep their work life and personal life separate. People are direct and specific to the point. Managers give clear instructions to the subordinates to work. Work objectives and individual objectives supersede personal relationships.

Perfect examples for specific culture include US, UK, Switzerland, Germany and Scandinavian countries. In a diffuse culture the public life and private life are interconnected and linked. Building relationships override business objectives. Companies in such cultures focus on collating umpteen facts and figures about the company organisations and people with whom the business must be done. Often business is discussed in social functions and personal issues in the work place. People stay in office beyond working hours and spend time with colleagues and clients. Argentina, China, India. Russia, Spain are typical examples for diffuse culture. 4. Neutral versus Emotional All individuals experience emotions. Some emotions may be positive like happiness, excitement, joy, amusement. Negative emotions include fear, depression, sadness, sorrow, despair etc. In a neutral culture, individuals are reluctant to exhibit their emotions, tend to control and manage them effectively. People stick to the point in interactions and negotiations Time is valued as money and of great concern. Actions are influenced by reasoning. Emotions are hardly expressed and revealed. In Japan, people are expected not to show their resentment and irritations in public. U.K, Sweden, Netherlands, Finland and Germany are unique examples for neutral culture. In an emotional culture, people express their emotions openly as they feel and do not hide them. People are always open minded and ready to build trust, rapport and relationships. People use positive body language for communication. In emotional cultures like Spain, Mexico laughing loudly in public, displaying anger


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are all common. In order to do business successfully, managers need to understand these cultural differences in order to wriggle out of embarrassing situations. 5. Achievement versus Ascription In achievement-oriented culture, performance, hard work and achievement are more valued and employees are rewarded accordingly. Power, title and position do not matter in these cultures. Achievement oriented cultures are seen in countries like USA, Canada, Scandinavian countries and Australia. In an ascription-oriented culture, power, position and title are of utmost importance. People derive the position based on origin, gender, age or experience. This is very commonly seen in monarchies where traditions, positions, roles are inherited by younger generation. People get respect based on the position they have in the society. Titles must be used while addressing people. For ex. Prefixes such as professor, doctor to be used while talking to such people. Ascription oriented cultures are prevalent in Saudi Arabia, UK, France and Italy. It is very crucial to understand these cultural differences. Reconciliation with the differences helps the business people to get expected, better and fruitful results. When an American wants to do a business with Saudi Arabian, it is more sensible to give the task to older and more experienced people who are familiar with formal customs, manners to negotiate. 6. Sequential versus synchronous time In sequential time cultures, time is valued as money and considered very precious. People do one task at a time and meet the deadlines. People are very punctual and do not

appreciate delays. Plans are executed as per the schedule. Typical sequential time cultures include USA, UK and Germany. In synchronous time culture, people take up many tasks at a time and are more flexible. Plans and commitments are considered flexible. Japan, Argentina and Mexico have Synchronous time cultures. 7. Internal direction versus outer direction or Internal locus of control Versus external locus of control In internal-directed culture, people believe that they have full control over the environment in which they work. They encourage team work and allow people to develop skills to achieve goals. Typical internal direction cultures include Israel, US, Australia and New Zealand. In outer directed culture, people believe that external environment control their actions and therefore they adjust their work and actions to the external environmental factors to achieve their goals. People abdicate responsibility. People working in such cultures must be reassured. To get the work done, managers need to instil confidence in them. China, Russia and Saudi Arabia are examples for Outer directed cultures. 3. Edward T. Hall Model Edward T. Hall studied intercultural communication and introduced the concept of High and Low context cultures for approaching intercultural communication. He was an anthropologist and a researcher in cross culture. In his book “Beyond Culture”, he has written about the way cultures communicate. According to him, intercultural communication is a form of communication that transmits information across different cultures. More precisely, High-context and low-context culture can


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well be understood as indirect and direct communication. 1. Low Context Culture In low context cultures, the message is communicated entirely by the words and therefore needs to be explicit, spelled out clearly and well defined for understanding. In these cultures, people are expressive, and words communicate more than silence and nonverbal forms. Characteristics of Low context Cultures

Priority is not given for personal relationships

One must give space for privacy and people stand apart and not very close to each other

Communication is often viewed as means of exchanging information, opinions and ideas and it is precise, direct and to the point.

Tasks are scheduled and done strictly according to the allotted time.

Individuals are more pragmatic. Low context culture includes countries like Germany, USA ,Australia , Denmark , England ,Canada, Germany, Israel and USA. Cultural context can also shift and evolve. For instance countries like Japan and Finland which were considered as ambivalent are becoming low-context due to globalisation and increased influence of western European and US culture. 2. High Context cultures A high-context culture rests on implicit communication, context and nonverbal cues. In high-context communication, a message can hardly be understood unless receiver has a great deal of background information.

Characteristics of high context cultures

Value relations and trust is pivotal for business dealings.

Like to work in groups/teams. Non-verbal elements form

significant part of communication. People tend to search for meaning hidden in nonverbal clues. Verbal messages are indirect. People are highly sensitive.

Conflicts, confrontations and disagreements are taken personally.

People prefer sitting/ standing close to each other in discussions/negotiations and hence proximity is given more importance.

Relay more on nonverbal communication to transmit information in conversations such as facial expressions, eye movement, and tone of voice.

Team /Group decisions are preferred for solving problems.

Members of the culture emphasise on interpersonal relationships.

Developing mutual trust is the first stage in business and it is viewed very important. Business and transactions start later.

High-context cultures can be seen in Afghanistan, Africa, Gulf countries, Brazil, China, France, Canada, Greece, Hawaii, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Korea, Latin America, Nepal, Pakistan, Persia, Russia, Spain, Thailand, Turkey and Vietnam. U.S. business leaders ignore the importance of harmonious relationships. They are dubbed as bad communicators by leaders of high context cultures. Teaching cross cultural communication The current generation students studying in universities must be enlightened with the multi-cultural knowledge by explaining


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the different frameworks developed by researchers for easy understanding of cross-cultural communication. The areas of enlightenment include the following. 1. Creating awareness about cross cultures This way students develop respect and empathy for other cultures, building trust between cultures, understanding habits, backgrounds, religious practices and rituals of other cultures. Students develop an understanding of how foreigners view and cultures of other countries. It also helps to build rapport with business partners of other countries and do business peacefully and relentlessly. 2. Teaching Non-verbal differences It is very important to understand that people spend more than 75% of their waking hours communicating and more than 75% of the communication happens through non-verbal cues like gestures, postures, facial expressions, eye movements, body language. These non-verbal cues are used differently across cultures. Students in higher education learning must be trained properly to understand the cultural differences and use non-verbal communication forms like welcoming tone, gestures of different cultures. Ex. Americans use finger to point at another person when giving direction which is considered very rude in Japan. Instead, Japanese use open hand with palm upwards towards another person when giving direction. In USA, eye contact is seen as sincerity, open and candidness where as in middle east countries prolonged eye contact is viewed as rude and is not appreciated. One should not look directly into the eyes of

females while communicating since lingering eye contact is considered indecent. 3. Language differences The vexing issue that one will face with cross-cultural communication is the difficulty created by language barriers. Students can be trained through language classes. Important words, phrases, warnings can be taught in some commonly spoken languages like German, French and Japanese etc. Ex: Use of words like “welcome, please, be seated, thank you” in different languages. 4. Listening Active listening helps to overcome barriers to effective communication. It is imperative for students to learn listening skills to ensure that what has been said is accurately heard and understood. The noise is more in cross cultural communication since words are pronounced in different tones in different ways. One must listen for meaning and proper understanding of language. This problem aggravates while communicating in English with Chinese or Japanese. Students should be taught to listen patiently without thinking ahead. 5. Virtual Communication Virtual communication is a tech-abetted communication. Since most of the communication happens virtually in international business, it is very important to learn the technicalities of using virtual communication tools. Students should be taught the intricacies of effective communication using appropriate words in a dialogue and negotiation. Students must be trained to get acquainted with various


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virtual communication tools like Hang outs, EZ talks, meetings, and Skype. Effective Cross-Cultural Communication 1. Maintaining proper etiquette Etiquettes differ across cultures. To communicate effectively one must understand etiquette of target culture and be aware of familiar phrases to start the communication with people of other cultures. 2. Avoid slang language Slang language should be avoided totally to dodge confusion. Use of slang language exasperates people in interaction. 3. Slow pace communication To make communication effective, one must talk steadily, slowly and pronounce words clearly and properly. One’s normal speed while communicating should not be used while communicating with cross cultural people. 4. Simple language. One need not show their magniloquence, articulation and profuse vocabulary while interacting if the other party is finding difficult to understand. Communicating effectively through simple words will help to avoid misunderstanding. 5. Patience Patience pays in the long run. One must be cool and patient in conversation. Due allowance to be given for others to talk and put forth their views. 6. Only Open-ended questions Many cultures hesitate to respond negatively. They cannot say ‘yes’ or ‘no’

directly. It is better to use open ended questions. This skill can be imparted to students by conducting negotiation role plays in classes. Conclusion Managing diversity is a challenge in the work place. One of the greatest challenges of managing diversity in the workplace is to create inclusive environment in the work place so that all employees can give their full potential. Managers have a responsibility to train the employees with necessary cross-cultural communication skills. Cultural barriers, if they exist, should be minimised. A key part of a manager’s role is the need to work with, though, or around these differences to help employees achieve their highest potential. Effective cross-cultural communication is all about being supportive, making other parties in communication comfortable and minimising barriers. To make the students successful in the workplace that is characterised by international teams, multi-cultural, multi-lingual people, the ground work should start at the university level. Throwing light on language, etiquette, customs and culture of prominent cultures 1. USA Majority of the population practice Christianity. English is the primary language used for communication and official purposes. Families are nuclear, typically small and extended family relatives live separately in their homes giving freedom to their children. Individualism is appreciated and people are very proud of their individual accomplishments and achievements. In theory, men and women are considered equal in society.


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Etiquette American greetings are informal and casual. It is becoming common not to shake hands in social situations and simply nod or smile. In formal situations people are addressed by their surnames. In work places, people use professional titles to address a person. For ex. Professor, Dr, etc. Communication style Communication is direct, candid, clear and transparent. This direct communication is often perceived as rude by other cultures. Simple talk is highly valued in American culture and they do not like coded and indirect communication. Personal space Americans avoid close contact with others and even during personal conversation. They like to have personal space of 2-3 feet and do not like personal touch during conversation. Gifts Gifts are usually given for special occasions. Gifts are discouraged in business situations and considered as giving bribes. Dining etiquette Americans socialise and they do business over breakfast, lunch and dinner. Fork is held in the left facing down and knife is held in the right hand and napkins are placed on the lap. One should not rest elbow on the table. Guests should stand till they are invited to the table. Guests should wait till the hostess starts. Business meetings Business meetings start with handshakes and end with handshakes. English is used

in business transactions. Business cards are exchanged for long term associations. Time is very precious for Americans and are very punctual. Executives are very direct, and they do not like silence in conversations. They are very opportunists, risk taking types, futuristic, result oriented and try out all possible options in case of logjams in business negotiations. Business dealings are done at a faster pace and they strictly follow company policies. 2. China Chinese history is 4000 years old and it has collectivist culture. The official language is Chinese but with various other recognised languages. People have a tendency for group affliction. Etiquette Greetings are formal and oldest person is greeted first. Chinese will look towards ground while greeting people. Titles and surnames are used to address a person. Gifts Gifts are given for new year and weddings and are given with 2 hands. 4 is considered as unlucky number and 8 is the luckiest number. Dining Etiquette Hosts must arrive on time and start first after removing the shoes. Hosts generally are expected to take small gifts. Chop sticks are used while eating. Guest of honour or the senior most people should be seated first. Elders should be allowed to eat first. Table manners are almost like the western countries. Relationships and Communication Chinese do not like to do business with unknown people. Intermediaries play a pivotal role in


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Business. They prefer face to face meetings. People often frown at others for disagreement. Titles It is customary to address people with a title followed by their last name. Business meetings, Negotiations and etiquette One needs to be composed while doing business with Chinese. Appointments are necessary for conducting meetings and agenda must be sent before the meeting. Chinese give a lot of importance for punctuality. Interpreter is a must. Written materials in English and Chinese language must be printed and circulated. Seating arrangements are made keeping in mind the ranks and position of the people in meetings. People enter the meeting room in hierarchical order. Presentations need to be made in detail. Senior members should be allowed to speak first in negotiations. Chinese prefer to establish a strong relationship in business dealings. Normally business people must hold meetings several times before the deal clicks. Using couple of words in Chinese will help to grab the deal. In meetings, people should avoid irritations, embarrassments and expected to maintain composure and patience. Chinese take longer time to take decisions and high-pressure tactics do not work. 3. Japan Japan has a fascinating and multi-faceted culture. Typically, Japanese are traditional, and the traditions can be dated back to thousands of years. The rapid changes and developments in the sphere of technology and shifting trends in fashions have changed the ways and lives of Japanese. Japanese is the official language of Japan. Japanese emphasise a lot on orderliness,

cleanliness and punctuality. Manners are very important to Japanese. Greetings, Etiquettes and Customs Japanese bow to greet people and used for thanking people or for apologising. Bowing is a sign of respect. Bows are repeated often. Shoes are removed in Japanese style inns, some restaurants, temples, castles and historic buildings. Gifts Gift giving is a part of Japanese culture and are given on different occasions. Gifts are not given in a set of 4. Business meetings Japanese are formalised when it comes to greeting people and they are very much ritualised. One should have patience to wait till they are introduced in meetings. It is considered impolite to introduce oneself even in large gatherings. Business cards must to be carried in a case since the cards should be in good condition at the time of exchange. Business cards should be printed on both sides to include both English and Japanese. Card must be handed over with Japanese side facing upwards and it is better to hand over the card with both the hands. Attire is totally formal, and people are expected to display conservative demeanour. People are seated according to the status. Highest ranking person will sit at the head of the table with subordinates on both sides in decreasing order of the ranking. Business etiquette Those who are interested to do business with Japanese have to demonstrate a bit of Japanese knowledge and customs in order to impress. One must avoid putting hands in to the pockets. Knowing few simple words in Japanese and their non-verbal modes of expression will help to break the


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ice in the initial stage of business meetings. 4. India Indian culture is amalgamation of several cultures and is diverse and complex. Hindi is the official language and English is the language of international communication. Indians are strongly influenced and guided by their respective religions, customs, practices and principles. Greetings Hierarchical cultures prevail in India and it is very common to greet the senior most first. Greetings are formal with a handshake or folded hands and verbally saying namaste. Formal titles are used while addressing a person. Official languages are English, and Hindi. English is widely used in business, politics and education. Communication Indians also give importance for keeping personal space and 3 feet between people is considered very comfortable for effective conversation. Standing with hand on hips is considered as an aggressive posture. Indians avoid giving negative reply. Indians do not like prolonged eye contact especially with female counterparts. Business culture Meetings should be scheduled well in advance. Business cards are exchanged at the first meeting. Showing one’s feet or shoes towards another in sitting posture, stepping on books or paper are considered as disrespectful and insult. Pointing at others with fingers is also considered disrespectful. Conservative and professional dress code is expected in business meetings. Status is determined by age, educational qualification and

profession. Indians appreciate punctuality. It is quite common to carry bouquet and sweets to the host. Dining Etiquette As per the etiquette, Indians wash their hands before they start eating and the same is repeated after the meals. Indians eat with right hand and same is expected from others in meetings. Buildings and relationships Indians deal favourably with whom they know. They demonstrate strong business acumen and exhibit positive traits of trustworthiness and honour. Meetings & Negotiations Meetings are arranged well in advance. Participants are informed in writing and confirmed over phone. Family responsibilities take precedence over business and therefore last-minute cancellations are possible. Seniors are greeted first. Negotiations are slow and participants spend some time on building rapport to establish trust. Decisions are made at highest level. Indians exercise patience and use intuitions to make decisions. They consider giving negative reply as rude. 5. Middle East Middle east is transforming in to a dynamic and most preferred destination for investment and business activities and opportunities are proliferating. Arabs share a common religion, language and customs. Islam permeates all levels of society and provides guidance, values and rules for personal life, community, relations and ways for doing business. Cultural restrictions on activities and operations differ from country to country. Middle east countries have a different working week and week end in most of the countries falls on Friday and Saturday.


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Greetings People greet their own community people by saying asalamu alakum (peace be with you). If another person is non-Muslim, they do not expect. They give handshakes which last for long time. They are informal with names and address people by first name. Dining Etiquette It is customary to sit on pillows, low table and sometimes in a round table. Elders are served first. Meals are eaten in silence. They use right hand for picking up food and eating. Left hand should not be rested on the table. People use spoons, forks and knives. Business Culture Organisations face minefield of challenges for doing business with Arabs. Respect for titles and seniority is imperative. Business structure is hierarchical. Business is personal and they prioritise personal matters. Business is built on mutual friendship and trust. They do not adhere to rules very strictly. Contracts are viewed as memorandum of understanding rather than binding. Meetings Business cards are exchanged in meetings. Meetings must be scheduled well in advance keeping in mind the pray hours. Initial meetings are all about building relationships. Small initial talk will help in building relationships. Punctuality is not that important even though it is expected. Interruptions are common in meetings and people take phone calls during meetings. Arabs are excellent negotiators but slow decision makers. France

The word ‘culture’ originates from France. French is the official language. In France, people have unique customs to follow. French emphasise on curtesy, politeness, mutual trust and formality. Greeting Formality is highly followed and observed in France. One should always address the superiors using Monsieur or Madame. Introductions should start using fist and last name of a person. French greet others with a hand shake. Same is expected from others but the handshake should be light and brisk. People give lot of importance on attire and dressing up. Dining etiquette The lunch is very formal and long. In French dining, people are supposed keep their hands resting on table and not on laps. Host must initiate first. Business meetings Business cards are exchanged in meetings. One side of business card should be French language. Meetings need to be scheduled 2 weeks in advance and meetings are conducted only to discuss and not to make decisions. Relationships & communication Since they look forward for long term relationships, using key phrases in French language will be an added advantage. They are direct in approach and one might anticipate probing questions. Germany Germans value orderliness, privacy and punctuality. They are well known for prudence, hard work, industrious nature, proactiveness, forward thinking, punctuality and assiduousness. Germans are rarely quixotic and irrational.


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Germans respect perfectionism in all areas of business and private life, and they have professional approach. Therefore, inter-relationships play a secondary role in business dealings. Germans work in a culture regulated by formal rules, regulations and procedures. Germany has individualistic culture and Germans demand respect. They expect highest standards all times and do not tolerate unethical behaviour in business dealings. Gifts Gift giving is very uncommon in Germany. Using Titles In Germany, it is generally customary to mention surname while addressing. Titles are very important to Germans. Care should be taken to address people by their titles and not to use their first names. Business meetings and negotiations Meetings are scheduled well in advance. Meetings are well planned and organised with an agenda. Everybody is given ample time to speak and interruptions are considered as rude. Business negotiations are very formal, and Germans adhere to dress code and they have a very good dress sense and they expect the same form business counterparts. They follow consensual approach and they expect win-win situation in the end. Dining Etiquette Fork should be held in the left hand and the knife in right hand. When finished, place the knife and the fork side by side on your plate pointing to the centre, with the handles in 5 O’clock position.

Communication Communication is very direct. Germans prefer personal space in conversation, but they maintain eye contact. Eye contact is viewed as demonstration of attention and interest in the dialogue. Bibliography Trompenaars, F. & Hampden-Turner, C. (1998). Riding the waves of culture. McGraw-Hill. Van Vliet, V. (2015). Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions. Retrieved (18th Jan 2019) from Tools Hero: https://www.toolshero.com/communication-skills/trompenaars-cultural-dimentions/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstede%27s_cultural_dimensions_theory https://www.communicationtheory.org/cross-cultural-communication/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication https://www.daytranslations.com/blog/2018/03/same-words-different-languages-different-meanings-11021/ https://online.seu.edu/high-and-low-context-cultures/ https://inktank.fi/10-english-words-mean-something-else-languages/ https://southbourneschool.co.uk/blog/body-language-and-what-it-means-in-other-countries/ https://online.pointpark.edu/business/cultural-differences-in-nonverbal-communication/ https://opinionfront.com/individualism-vs-collectivism


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https://redbus2us.com/how-people-greet-in-usa-etiquette-in-us/ https://www.toolshero.com/communication-skills/trompenaars-cultural-dimensions/ https://cw.iabc.com/2017/06/06/5-strategies-for-engaging-in-effective-cross-cultural-interactions/ https://www.chrysos.org.uk/blog/top-ten-tips-for-effective-cross-cultural-communi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesics http://pediaa.com/difference-between-body-language-and-paralanguage/ https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/other/hofstedes-cultural-dimensions-theory/ http://www.binschedler.com/2012/02/indulgence-restraint/ https://businessculture.org/western-europe/business-culture-in-germany/business-etiquette-in-germany/


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FLYING CAMPUS -TRANSNATIONAL TEACHING!

Dr. Shakti Vel Rani Principal,

Vyasa Arts and Science Women’s College, Subramaniapuram Introduction Good organization and effectiveness in the university education system had fashioned an impact in the consolidations in higher education. The factors like socio cultural aspects, organizational structures, demanding curricula, remarkable amenities and student’s expectations had created incredible demands on the education institutions. This had led to the formation of multi campus universities to provide an outstanding learning and research understanding among the assorted student community. The meaning of Multi Campus University indicates having a separate legal status and at least two geographically disjoint campuses (Xie, Zhand, 2009). Multi Campus University to the world is not a new observable fact and originated in 1970’s in United Kingdom. There is a call for for the organizations to explore the requirements of present and prospect in relation to the operating environment. It seeks to resolve the gap between obtainable knowledge, skills and abilities and for the organization needed to utilise its optimum level (Mgijima, 2014). It also eliminates the problems like accommodation of the students, space for work, lecturing and education space, library space, playing grounds and exclusion of the limited amenities. In general multi campus universities are distinct as institutions which are extended with three or more geographically spaced site to accommodate the population of the students. These are classified as single campus university, the university with a main campus and one or more small satellite campuses and the multi campuses university which comprise a number of dispersed campuses and each has a considerable student population. Thus

campuses were set up with explicit requirements but on the whole resources are managed through a centralized organization. The reasons for establishing multi campus program are to use the resources located in different places other than the main campus, likelihood to have inter professional education, improved recruitment and retention of the professionals in their appropriate location and to meet the workforce needs. The location of an institution may be independent from the main campus if the location offers degree or certificate in educational programs and should be permanent in nature. It should have the autonomy in estimating its own budget, hiring authority and its own faculty. Role of Multi Campus Universities Video conferencing is used as a device for multi campus education. This is a supplementary lead where in the faculty will be a professional in this field and thus shrink the travelling costs. This will always shrink remote student’s isolation and eliminate geographical distance to. Exemplary teaching and evaluation will make certain the students to have authentic knowledge across the campuses. The challenges in video conferencing are different time zones, less face to face interaction and learner’s attitude results in difference in the students learning experience (Matthew Ebden, 2010). Multi campus universities should surmount the challenges like intensification the connection between university and society, tackling the inequalities to access to higher education, dipping the gap between administration and academic co ordination, spiral the effectiveness of research and planning actions, building strong


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impersonal relationships between academics and students (Romulo Pinheiro, 2017). The main role of the multi campus universities should allot financial capital to various campuses, define the mission for the whole campus, resolving the conflicts among the campuses, hiring the skilled professionals (senior, central and local level) to run the universities, representing the stakeholders interests, ensuring quality control and management of resources efficiently in education and research activities (Johnstone, 1999). The methods of communication are videoconferencing and webcam, live chat forums, online discussion boards, appointments and exist assembly etc are the most common methods adopted in satellite campuses to connect with other campuses. These methods are adopted to communicate with the faculties and between the students in other campuses.

The formation of multi campus universities should have some constructive reason like to adopt the proposed reformation in education by the stakeholders, merger and collaboration in operating the university (Yaohua Wu & Zhihui Wu, 2013). Universities having more disciplines when operating dissimilar from the center campus including from the managerial institution to the laboratory that is comparatively independent can have decentralized management. In case of centralized management refers to the longitudinal leadership where in it is under the core campus the management is unified and branch university grounds exist as its secondary level. This table shows the few list of branch campus as an example.

Institution Name Host Country Home Country University of Bologna in Buenos Aires Argentina Italy Moscow State University of Service and Tourism in Yerevan Armenia Russia Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics in Yerevan

Armenia Russia

Armenian Institute of Tourism – Branch of Russian International Academy of Tourism

Armenia Russia

St. Petersburg Institute of Foreign Economic Relations, Economics and Law in Yerevan

Armenia Russia

French Fashion University ESMOD Australia France University College London, Australia Australia United Kingdom Carnegie Mellon University Australia Australia United States Webster University Vienna Campus Austria United States Lomonosov Moscow State University Baku Branch Azerbaijan Russia RCSI Bahrain Bahrain Ireland AMA International University-Bahrain (AMAIUB) Bahrain Philippines The British College of Bahrain Bahrain United Kingdom New York Institute of Technology Bahrain United States Grameen Caledonian College of Nursing Bangladesh United Kingdom Moscow State Social University in Minsk Belarus Russia Minsk Branch of Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics

Belarus Russia

University of Kent, Brussels School of International Studies Belgium United Kingdom Limkokwing University of Creative Technology Botswana Botswana Malaysia

SKEMA Brazil Brazil France Manchester Business School, South America Centre Brazil United Kingdom Limkokwing University Phnom Penh Cambodia Malaysia Charles Sturt University-Ontario Canada Australia Islamic Azad University Canada Iran Northeastern University Toronto Canada United States New York Institute of Technology Vancouver Canada United States


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Fairleigh Dickinson University, Vancouver Campus Canada United States City University of Seattle in Canada (Calgary) Canada United States City University of Seattle in Canada (Edmonton) Canada United States City University of Seattle in Canada (Vancouver) Canada United States City University of Seattle in Canada (Victoria) Canada United States Sydney Institute of Language & Commerce China Australia Source: http://cbert.org Why International Branch Campus? In the past decade the number of international branch campuses had increased. The other names are satellite site, foreign campus and overseas campus. US Universities are leading in opening up branch campus in countries like Thailand, Japan, UAE and Spain. Locations are identified where already education hubs are functioning. The driving factors are full control over delivery, seizing the transnational education market, opportunities for external funding and the flexible regulations in host countries. Every campus seeks to be the replica of the home campus to have equivalent educational experiences across the campuses. The benefits are apparently the students can save money; students can stay with their family and friends, filling the local niches and getting world class qualification from a reputed institution in their country is an added advantage for them. On the other side it is the most risky forms of transnational education like the level of investment, lack of university control and the policies of the host country should be explored in advance to sustain in education market. Satellites campuses also serve as an added advantage to the main campuses. Congestion in the main campus will decreased as the students utilize the services offered in the branch campuses. Ease in parking situations, reduce traffic in the campus roadways, costs for faculty, staff and students will get reduced and closer the services to the students are making the universities to increase their revenues. Student’s Preference for the Satellites Campuses

Learning is the entry feature for continued existence and sustainability in this aggressive world in the national and international point for an individual (Gold & Smith, 2003). Statistics show that many of the students prefer to attend a college in their home state, few hours to drive. The reason behind are due to their financial constraints, family responsibilities, characteristics of the individual and choices in their life style. This had led to the much explosive demand for the multi campuses. It’s a golden opportunity for the students who want to study aboard and the country which they are living is still developing its higher education system and is not equal to the world class universities. Due to mushroom of the universities, some of the universities will have partnerships and twinning agreements in awarding the degrees to the students. Due to the growing mushrooms of the multi campuses some of them are having very limited life span and few might be fatal. The reason may be concentrating on the limited academic programmes and not having a better understanding about the advantage of perceived market. Normally branches will offer limited curriculum based on the attractiveness of the enrollments, infrastructure and which are inexpensive to teach. Most popular programs are business management and information technology which needs low setup cost and having significant demand worldwide. 10 Satellite College Campuses with Impressive Reputations According to the survey of Institute of International Education more than 3, 25, 000 are studying in American Universities (www.forbes.com). By gaining the growing importance of international


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Scenario 1 Champion

Scenario 2 Likely case

Governme

Scenario 4 Extreme case -

Scenario 3 Alternate case -

experience and globalization, the U.S universities are opening their branch campuses overseas. The top American overseas branches are NYU Abu Dhabi -- Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, NYU Shanghai -- Shanghai, China, Georgetown University in Qatar -- Ar-Rayyan, Qatar, Northwestern University in Qatar -- Ar-Rayyan, Qatar, American University in Cairo -- Cairo, Egypt, Georgia Tech-Lorraine -- Metz, France, Temple University Japan -- Tokyo, Japan, Franklin University Switzerland – Lugano, Switzerland, Webster Vienna Private University -- Vienna, Austria, Saint Louis University Madrid – Madrid and Spain, Duke Kunshan University -- Kunshan, China. The table below shows the top universities. Rank Name of the University 1 Carnegie Mellon University, Silicon

Valley 2 Penn State Erie, The Behrend College 3 University of Michigan-Flint 4 The University of Texas Medical

School at Houston 5 Texas A&M University at Galveston 6 Tufts European Center 7 Indiana University-Purdue University

Indianapolis 8 University of Pittsburgh at Bradford 9 Idaho State University-Meridian 10 Colorado State University-Global

Campus Source: www.thebestcolleges.org To increase the efficiencies and effectiveness, the universities are concentrating on the issues like the lab facilities provided to the students, curriculum, managing the enrollment of the students, quality assessment, annual evaluation of the faculties, promotions and other budget allocation for the upliftment of the universities. International Branch campuses: New Trends and Directions The future of the educational universities depends on the increase in continuous

learning, changing nature of workforce, blurring industry boundaries, changes in digital behavior and increase in international competition. Industry linkages with the degrees will be a mandatory to ensemble the needs of the industry. Hands on Hands Off Globalization of Education Under the umbrella of globalization several changes in education are taking place to meet the industry needs as well. The national boundaries had its own impact on the globalised higher education. The structural reforms by the government and the various agencies across the nation are acting as the driving force for globalised education. The challenges for globalised education are funding for the students, need to attract the right talent and the international ranking for the institutions. Pressures from the external environment are making the institutions to change their strategies, forcing to ensure efficiency for the survival. Creating a world class education are stressing to have mergers and research intensive oriented institutions. Some institutions are trying to centralize their functions like marketing,


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alumni relations, branding and media relations for creating competitive advantage. Future of Multi Campuses Universities are playing a different role throughout the history of existence. Predicting the future is tough but still then a partial prediction can be made in order to have sustainability. Center for post secondary and economic success had done a study and identified that the student’s enrollment as full time will be having their own limitations and they will be having their family obligations to. Following the same culture as in the main campus is an advent and some of the satellite campus should have more autonomy to reveal the local culture also. Due to the advancement in the technology the remote campus can replicate the home campus but with unique culture. In malice of environmental dissimilarity the transition from the centralization and standardization will enlarge uniformity in policies, procedures across multiple locations. Cost effectiveness can be attained through economies of scale by consolidating the activities of the multi campus. Universities will offer a flexible learning and tailor made to suit the lifestyle of the individual work and other activities. Change is inevitable. To address the changing workforce and the industry expectation, there is need to offered mixed degrees and shorter cycle courses. This change will also enforce the universities to offer degrees with industry partners. Exponential changes in technology are driving the universities to offer new course to cater the industry demands and workforce skills. Medium and large sized campus like to use the cloud management services to reduce the operating cost. To sustain in this competitive world the universities should focus on some of the major issues or problems related with multi campus programmes. It will be added advantage if the universities are able

to solve the problems like implementing effective distance learning technology, having effective communication between the campuses, ability to provide equivalent services to all campuses, having adjustment if the students wish to move from one campus to another, standardizing the operations between the campuses, live meetings with the students and faculties, standardizing the testing and reporting of grades, making ease for the faculties to travel between the campuses, and creating satisfaction with the program by the students. According to BBC news in 2030 the number of 18 year olds will push the demand up to 50, 000 for the higher education. Hence the government and the educational institutions should find to accommodate the students for their career advancement. Inventing some new courses and finding the job prospects will create business opportunity for the existing institutions to attract the 18 year olds. The core competencies of the institutions should depend on the organizational strategy, resource management, communication, collaboration, advocacy and professionalism. Conclusion Multi-campus education in advanced teaching proffer a numeral benefits to educationalist, student and the society supported by these institutions. In order to imagine the joint development, infrastructure sharing, and harmonizing advantages, a lot of universities prefer to amalgamate. Due to forces of globalization, many higher education institutions are facing challenges in attracting the students internationally. The professors teaching from the main campus to the branch campus will the greatest problem of sustainability. By paying additional remuneration and offering other benefits to the professors also will be difficult to lure overseas. Offering education in branch campus by reflecting the main campus is also depends on the


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enrollment of the student’s quality. To provide an equivalent education offered by the home universities, it is based on the student’s selectivity and quality. The success of the universities will be based on the strategies adopted for reaching the new students. Finally the multi campus universities should provide an excellent learning and research opportunity to cater the diverse needs of the students with more digital and innovative pedagogies. The major advantages of having flying campus includes increase in the number of enrollment of the students, facilitate inter professional activities among the students, utilizing the infrastructure facilities in other campuses, students will have choices in choosing the campuses, flexibility in viewing the lectures, opportunity to sue distance education technology, cost efficiencies in sharing the resources between the campuses and more visibility for the university located in different places. References Mgijima, N. (2014). Needs-based professional development of lecturers in the Further Education and Training Colleges: A Strategic imperative, The Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. Vol.5 (2), 359-369. Rómulo Pinheiro & Laila Nordstrand Berg (2017) Categorizing and assessing multi-campus universities in contemporary higher education, Tertiary Education and Management, 23:1, 5-22, DOI: 10.1080/13583883.2016.1205124. Johnstone, D. B. (2012). Higher educational autonomy and the apportionment of authority among state governments, public multi-campus systems, and member colleges and universities. Paper prepared for the SUNY Critical Issues in Higher Education conference, harnessing systems, delivering performance November 8–9, New York.

Johnstone, D. B. (1999). Management and leadership challenges of multi campus systems. In J.Gaither (Ed.), The multi campus system: Perspectives on practice and prospects (pp. 3–20).Sterling, VA: Stylus Press. Yaohua Wu & Zhihui Wu (2013), “Management of Multi-campus Universities in American and its enlightenment on Chinese Multi-campus Universities” International Conference on Education Technology and Management Science (ICETMS 2013), Published by Atlantis Press. Matthew Ebden (2010), “We’re on a steep learning curve: The benefits and challenges of multi-campus university course delivery”, Research and Development in Higher Education Volume 33. www.universitybusiness.com/article/under-radar-branch-campuses-take Nadine Zeeman & Paul Benneworth (2017) Globalization, mergers and ‘inadvertent multi-campus universities’: reflections from Wales, Tertiary Education and Management, 23:1, 41-52, DOI: 10.1080/13583883.2016.1243256 www.forbes.com/sites/quanzhiguo/2018/08/21/top-u-s-colleges-with-branches-overseas. Gold, J. and Smith, V. (2003) Advances towards a learning movement: translations at work, Human Resource Development International, 6(2) 139 - 154. Center for Postsecondary and Economic Success, “Yesterday’s Nontraditional Student is Today’s Traditional Student,” June 29, 2011. Available from http://www.clasp.org /admin/site/ publications /files/Nontraditional-Students-Facts-2011.pdf


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https://www.thebestcolleges.org/10-satellite-campuses-with-impressive-reputations-all-their-own. https://www.bbc.com/news/education-43399089

Rómulo Pinheiro and Laila Nordstrand Berg, “Categorizing and assessing multi-campus universities in contemporary higher education ”


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MENTORING IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Dr. Shakila M.K Director-MBA

Guru Nanak College, Chennai

Introduction Mentoring relationship occurs in all walks of life. Be it in educational institutions or be it at work place. It is a practice that can be of greater help at various stages of professional life. Experience is one of the primary factors that help in mentoring. A person with good amount of experience could invest time on a protégé to develop individual and organizational goals with the protégé. Sometimes the mentor can be from the same organization or from different organization. The comfort and confidence level decides on acceptance of a mentor and protégé than the association with same organization.

Definition of Mentoring

The term, mentoring originated from the Greek mythology, Odyssey by Homer. The Greek Goddess of wisdom, Athena disguises herself as an elderly man called Mentōrin Odysseus’s Kingdom, Ithacaand guides Telemachus, the son of Odysseus on a journey in quest of his father and ultimately for a new and fuller identity of his own in the perilous world(Anderson & Shannon, 1988; Herman & Mandell, 2004). From Greek Mentōr and through French and Latin, the term, mentor came into practice in middle of 18th century. The character of Mentor in Odyssey clues us to make several inferences about the activity which bears his name (Anderson & Shannon, 1988). The first inference is that mentoring is an intentional process. Mentor intentionally carried out his responsibilities for Telemachus. The second inference is that mentoring is a nurturing process. It was Mentor’s responsibilities to bring the full potential

out of Telemachus. This associates with the fact that the growth and development of the protégé is fostered by the mentor. The third inference is that mentoring is an insightful process. Here, the wisdom of the mentor is acquired by the protégé. It was Mentor’s mission to help Telemachus in acquiring wisdom. The fourth inference is that mentoring is a supportive and protective process. The advice of Mentor was considered by Telemachus and Mentor. Mentoring is defined as the objective oriented relationship between a less experienced individual and a more experienced individual. The less experienced individual is called as a protégé or mentee and the more experienced individual is called as a mentor. Mentoring is viewed as an objective oriented long-term relationship between a guiding adult and a beginner which nurtures the professional or academic or personal development of the protégé. Traditionally, mentoring is viewed as a dyadic, face-to-face, long-term relationship between a supervisory adult and a novice student that fosters the mentee’s professional, academic, or personal development(Donaldson, Ensher, & Grant-Vallone, 2000). Mentoring is a nurturing process, in which a more skilled or more experienced person, serving as a role model, teaches, sponsors, encourages, counsels, and befriends a less skilled or less experienced person for the purpose of promoting the latter’s professional and/or personal development. Mentoring functions are carried out within the context of an ongoing, caring relationship between the mentor and protégé (Anderson, 1987).


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The Mentoring roles are attributed to providing their protégés two types of functions such as career functions and psychosocial functions (Noe, 1988). Career functions involve mentor roles that help the protégés learning the task or process and prepare them for hierarchical advancement. These roles include coaching protégés, sponsoring their career advancement, increasing their visibility and offering them protection and challenging assignments. Psychosocial functions include mentoring roles based on trust, intimacy, and interpersonal relationships, and roles that promote the professional and personal growth, identity, self-respect, and self-esteem. This includes advice, friendship and role models.

Outcomes for Protégé

Most of the researches on mentoring have focused on career outcomes for protégés. Such researches have found a positive relationship between the implementation of the mentoring process and career outcomes of the protégés (Noe, Greenberger, & Wang, 2002; Ragins, 1999; Wanberg, Welsh, & Hezlett, 2003). It has been found that people with mentors receive more promotions and earn higher wages than their non-mentors. In addition to these instrumental outcomes, protégés report more career satisfaction, career commitment, and job satisfaction and greater expectations for advancement than those without mentors. It was also found that the mentored individuals get more promotions and earn higher salaries than the non-mentored individuals do. In addition, the protégés were found to possess more career satisfaction, career commitment and job satisfaction than the non-mentored individuals (Allen, Eby, Poteet, Lentz, & Lima, 2004). There are several researches to support the significant relationship between the mentoring relationship and the career advantage for the protégés. However, some researchers with critical view on the

mentoring process state that the relationship between the presence of the mentoring relationship and the career outcomes of the protégés may be a function of the rising-star effect (Ragins, 1999; Ragins & Cotton, 1993; Wanberg et al., 2003). There are possibilities that the employees with high performance are more likely to undergo the mentoring relationship than other employees. In other words, the mentors select the protégés based on their competency and potential (Allen, Poteet, & Burroughs, 1997; Olian, Carroll, & Giannantonio, 1993). While the high performing rising star employees are more likely to get the mentors, they also get high increase in salary, career satisfaction, and advancement expectations. It hints the inference that the significant relationship between the mentoring relationship and the career outcomes of the protégés may be due to the combination of the pre-existing attributes of the protégés and the influences of the mentoring relationships. At the same time, the organisation may also play a significant role in the career outcomes of the protégés. It is also a fact that high performing individuals may seek the organisations which offer the developmental potential and support the career oriented culture.

Outcomes for Mentor

While several researches have explored the relationship between the mentoring and the outcomes for the protégés, little importance has been given to explore the outcomes received by the mentors in the mentoring relationship. Studies by some researchers states that the mentoring relationship offers the mentors with benefits such as improved job performance, career success and revitalization, recognition by others, a loyal base of support from their protégés, and a sense of fulfilment and satisfaction (Allen et al., 2004; Mullen & Noe, 1999;


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Ragins & Scandura, 1997). These benefits are associated with increased organisational commitment and job satisfaction (Eby, Durley, Evans, & Ragins, 2006). As a result of this, mentors attain greater career success and faster promotion than non-mentors (Bozionelos, 2004). Similar to the rising-star effect which was discussed previously, the outcome for the mentors may be a function of pre-existing difference between the individual who choose to be mentors and those who choose not to be mentors. Particularly, individuals who are high-performing and considered established stars which experience career success, positive job attitude and career attitude choose to become mentors. Such characteristics and experiences differentiate the mentors from the individuals who choose not to be mentors. Thus, the significant relationship between the mentoring relationship and the outcomes for mentors reflect the existing difference between the mentors and the non-mentors. Generally, several researches have studied the mentoring relationship as a one-sided process focussing on the outcomes for the protégés alone giving less importance to the outcomes for the mentors. The significance of the relationship between the mentoring and the outcomes for the mentors are yet to be researched in detail considering the pre-existing characteristics of the mentors.

Mentoring Skills

The mentoring process requires certain sets of skills from the mentors as well as the protégés. These skills can be categorised as mentor specific skills and protégé specific skills. There are some skills which need to be possessed by both mentors and protégés. Such skills are termed as core skills or shared skills of the mentoring process (Phillips-Jones, 2003).

Mentoring Skills Model

Core Mentoring Skills

The core mentoring skills are the important and instrumental in the mentoring process which required to be applied by both the mentor and the protégé. The basic core mentoring skill is active listening. The other skills in the mentoring process or relationship build on this active listening skill. If the mentor possesses the active listening skill, he/she demonstrates that the concerns of the protégé are heard and understood. If the protégé possesses this skill, he/she shows that the intentions of the mentor are well understood. These help in building the trust over each other during the mentoring relationship. Building trust is the second most important skill for the mentoring relationship. The more the mentors and the protégés build trust on each other, the more each of them will be committed to the mentoring relationship and focussed on the outcomes of the mentoring. However, the building trust is not an instantaneous process. It develops over time. Building trust involves certain elementary actions such as keeping the confidences, following through on promises, respecting the boundaries of each other, admitting errors and taking responsibility for correcting them, etc. In the case of mentoring with cross-difference between the mentors and


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protégés, trust building is crucial for the success of the mentoring relationship. Encouraging is another most valued core mentoring skill. Successful mentors encourage their protégés. This encouragement in turn increases the confidence of the protégés. At the same time, the encouragement from the protégés helps the positive reinforcement on the mentors, keeping them more focussed and motivated during the mentoring relationship. Such encouragements can be done in ways such as complimenting each other on accomplishments, pointing out the positive traits, expressing thanks and appreciations, making the other feel their significance. Identifying the goals and current reality is another core mentoring skill which includes having personal vision, specific goals and good understanding of the ground reality by both mentors and protégés. The mentors, being clear on these and having discussion with the protégés about their visions, goals and career objectives would help both to travel in the same direction towards the ultimate objective of the mentoring relationship. From protégés’ side while asking for the assistance or advice from the mentors, they should understand their tentative goals, strengths and the type of development required. This would help the mentors to be aware of your requirements and tailor the information shared by the mentors to the protégés.

Mentor Specific Skills

Almost all mentors do some kind of teaching or instructing in certain ways as a part of mentoring. The instructing/developing capabilities are essential in formal mentoring. However, the mentoring process will usually be more informal by conveying ideas and processes to the protégés. These capabilities include

assisting the protégés in finding the resources such as books, websites, people and other sources of information, teaching the protégés new skills, knowledge, and attitudes, helping protégé to gain broader perspective, demonstrating effective behaviours, etc. The ability to inspire the protégés is one of the skills that differentiate the effective mentors from the others. Inspiring skill involves setting themselves as examples by the mentors and helping the protégés experience the other inspirational situations and people can help them get excited and motivated on to the future paths. This include doing inspiring actions to help the protégés to improve, helping the protégés to observe others, arranging inspirational experiences, etc. While giving the positive feedback to the protégés, the willingness and ability to give the corrective feedbacks also makes effective mentors. When the mentors observe the unfavourable performance or mistakes by the protégés, the mentors should let the protégés what the mentor perceives and suggest the better ways to better handle that situation. It would help the protégés understanding their positions and also building trust over the mentors. Before providing the corrective feedback, the mentors should have already discussed with protégés on how they would like to get such feedback. Another peculiar characteristic of successful mentors is their willingness and ability to protect their protégés from disasters. Preventing the protégés from making unnecessary mistakes when they learn to take risks is one of the tasks of the mentors. Managing risk is based closely on the aforementioned core skill of building trust. Managing risk involves helping the protégés recognize their risks involved, making suggestions to avoid risks, etc. Managing risk is considered as the


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extremely important skill in the mentoring relationship. Creating the visibility for the protégés is a general task performed by the mentors. It means opening the right doors for the protégés to meet new people and to demonstrate themselves to the right audience. This include purring the goods words about the protégés to people who could help them, introducing protégés to appropriate contacts, ensuring that protégés’ abilities are noticed by others, etc. The mentors would probably open the doors for the protégés only when they are confident that the protégés are ready to go through.

Protégés Specific Skills

In most of the cases the mentors are selecting the protégés and the mentors and the protégés are fixed by third persons. In some cases, protégés would get the option to select the mentors. In such case, protégés should be very active in negotiating with several mentors and selecting the appropriate ones who can help them succeed. Acquiring the mentors involves the tasks such as identifying the desirable pool of mentors, conveying the specific needs and goals, negotiating the mentoring arrangements and agreeing on goals and expectations, etc. Protégés who learn quickly are preferred and liked by most of the mentors. The mentors want the protégés to learn everything they can as quickly as possible. This includes the tasks such as applying the pre-acquired knowledge and skills in learning, careful observations, indirect learning from the actions of the mentor, etc. During the beginning of the mentoring relationship, the protégés should display strong learning attitude and willingness to consider new ideas.

Showing initiative by the protégés is the new approach in mentoring relationship. Traditionally, some mentors attempt to lead the relationship and expect the protégés to follow them. In latest approach, the mentors expect the protégés to lead the mentoring relationship to drive the mentoring process from the beginning. In either approach, the mentors expect the protégés to take some amount of initiative and observe the thing the protégés do on their own to develop themselves. Showing initiative involves the tasks such as knowing when and when not to show initiative, asking appropriate questions, pursuing the resources, taking informed risks, taking the ideas of the mentors and showing creative ways of using them, etc. However, there are varying amounts of the initiatives that the mentors like their protégés to take. Following through on the tasks assigned by the mentors is an important skill which serves the base of the mentoring relationships. More often, the protégés who are not following through on the tasks are replaced with new protégés who do. The demonstration of this skill involves keeping all agreements made with the mentors, completing the tasks on the agreed time, trying out the suggestions of the mentors and giving the reports, persistence with the difficult tasks, etc. Managing the relationship is the main responsibility of the protégés, even though the mentors take the lead on the mentoring relationship. After all, it the development of the protégé and they should take the responsibility of the process and its outcome. This skill can be well performed with the tasks including staying up to date with the mentors on issues, goals, and satisfaction, analysing the status of the mentoring relationship and making suggestions as required.


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Mentoring Process

The mentoring process can be explained in five phases such as purpose, engagement, planning, emergence and completion (Wheeler & Cooper, 2016). Five Phase - Mentoring Process

Purpose

The Purpose informs all phases of the mentoring relationship and is the touchstone of continuous evaluation. You have a clear intent for a mentoring relationship that fits your vision, goals, and career plan. New challenges or responsibilities or the desire for enrichment can generate interest in mentoring. A protégé can seek experienced mentor for support and encouragement. Personal rapport is a major factor which could bring in cohesiveness between two individuals. What a mentor needs is to developa rapport with the candidate which would help the candidate voluntarily becoming a protégé and to seek for advice.

Engagement

Engagement is the first step in mentoring relationship which focuses on finding the right mentor or being the right mentor. This can be done informally, as an offer or a request on anyone of choice, or formally, through a program with a selected group of candidates to choose from and a systematic way of finding the mentor or protégé.

Regardless of the method used, the mentor and protégé make the final decision about mutual benefits, learning needs and learning styles. Academic performance of the candidates and information from other teachers could definitely assist the decision making on understanding on skill set of the candidates. It can also help the mentor to see and suggest for platforms that could offer opportunities for development to the candidates. Few special cases like candidates with learning disabilities would need extra attention and mentors with high level of patience and empathy. The progress on the candidates’ performance has to be recorded and intimated to the parties concerned. The ability and skill set of the candidates have to be assesses through various models. Observation, interviewing the candidate, conducting psychometric and personality assessment tests can help understand the type of personality of the candidates. These observations would help to identify the needs of the protégés.

Planning

During the planning phase, the mentor and protégé develop an action plan with objectives, milestones, resources, timelines, and an assessment of their specific mentoring relationships. It is also when they discuss the terms of the relationship and what their expectations are. This component is called a "mentor relationship". It's a framework that guides the discussion about how the individuals can be mentors and protégés. If such agreements are defined from the outset, the mentors and protégés often do not have a breakdown. Once the information of the protégés is collected and the needs are identified, the goals of the mentoring process needs to be set up by the protégé and the mentor. This goal setting process also includes, having the discussion on the mentoring agreement to cover the shared roles and specific roles. The outcome of this phase would be the career plan


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designed for the candidates suiting the skill set.

Emergence

During the emergence, the mentoring relationship develops slowly. The objectives are clear, there is a plan and the mentor facilitates the growth and development of support, encouragement and challenge. However in the diagram, the arrow between planning and origination runs in two directions. The mentors and protégés anticipate and then think about opportunities and actions. They evaluate how intellectual property relations are going. A mentor journal accompanies the preparation and evaluation of each session and helps them decide whether they will come back to the action plan, action plan or mentoring agreement. Planned mentoring sessions can be conducted with the set objectives in mind. Step by step development can be monitored. Customized training assignments can be framed and implemented. For example if a candidate wants to take up a HR job, he /she can be provided an opportunity to take up internship in a company for the same. Special operation workouts can be assigned to the candidates like interviewing Entrepreneurs, training School students can be planned to hone the skills of the candidates. During the mentoring sessions, the self-driven development of skills by the protégés, their performance on the tasks, their attitudes and the other factors relating to their set goals are being observed by the mentors.

Completion

The final phase is an opportunity to celebrate your accomplishments, redefine the relationship and reflect on your next steps. But they may decide that the frequency or intensity of mentoring interactions can be reduced, so that their meetings can continue as needed. But they

can decide that both are ready to move forward. Feedback on the progress of the candidate has to be kept posted to the parents and also the candidates for framing further plan of action. With increase in stress level of people it is advisable for every institution to have a counselor for professional intervention.

References

Allen, T. D., Eby, L. T., Poteet, M. L., Lentz, E., & Lima, L. (2004). Career benefits associated with mentoring for protégés: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(1), 127.

Allen, T. D., Poteet, M. L., & Burroughs, S. M. (1997). The mentor’s perspective: A qualitative inquiry and future research agenda. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51(1), 70–89.

Anderson, E. (1987). Definitions of mentoring.Unpublished Manuscript. Anderson, E. M., & Shannon, A. L. (1988).Toward a Conceptualization of Mentoring.Journal of Teacher Education, 39(1), 38–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/002248718803900109

Bozionelos, N. (2004). Mentoring provided: Relation to mentor’s career success, personality, and mentoring received. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 64(1), 24–46.

Donaldson, S. I., Ensher, E. A., & Grant-Vallone, E. J. (2000).Longitudinal examination of mentoring relationships on organizational commitment and citizenship behavior.Journal of Career Development, 26(4), 233–249.

Eby, L. T., Durley, J. R., Evans, S. C., & Ragins, B. R. (2006).The relationship


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between short-term mentoring benefits and long-term mentor outcomes.Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69(3), 424–444.

Herman, L., & Mandell, A. (2004).From Teaching to Mentoring: Principle and Practice, Dialogue and Life in Adult Education. Psychology Press.

Mullen, E. J., & Noe, R. A. (1999). The mentoring information exchange: When do mentors seek information from their protégés? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 233–242.

Noe, R. A. (1988). Women and mentoring: A review and research agenda. Academy of Management Review, 13(1), 65–78.

Noe, R. A., Greenberger, D. B., & Wang, S. (2002). Mentoring: What we know and where we might go.In Research in personnel and human resources management (pp. 129–173). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Olian, J. D., Carroll, S. J., & Giannantonio, C. M. (1993). Mentor reactions to protégés: An experiment with managers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 43(3), 266–278.

Phillips-Jones, L. (2003). Skills for Successful Mentoring: Competencies of Outstanding Mentors and Mentees. CCC/The Mentoring Group.

Ragins, B. R. (1999). Gender and mentoring relationships: A review and research agenda for the next decade.

Ragins, B. R., & Cotton, J. L. (1993).Gender and willingness to mentor in organizations.Journal of Management, 19(1), 97–111.

Ragins, B. R., & Scandura, T. A. (1997). The way we were: Gender and the termination of mentoring relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(6), 945. Wanberg, C. R., Welsh, E. T., & Hezlett, S. A. (2003).Mentoring research: A review and dynamic process model.In Research in personnel and human resources management (pp. 39–124). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Wheeler, M. M., & Cooper, M. (2016).How to build a successful mentoring relationship.


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TRANSFORMATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION FROM ANCIENT PERIOD TO MODERN EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Mahboob Ali

Dhaka School of Economics (Constituent Institution of the University of Dhaka)

“Education is the best friend. An educated person is respected everywhere. Education beats the beauty and the youth”- Kautilya The history of ancient India was started from the vedic civilization which was the history of the northern Indian subcontinent between the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilisation and a second urbanisation commenced in the central Indo-Gangetic Plain c. 600 BCE .The education system of the ancient episode has restricted characteristic and individuality which were not found in any other country in the world during that period .Dilksha Kasyap described that in ancient India, education was perfect and complete because of this sacred personal relation between the teacher and the taught which we are awe-fully lacking in recent times. The prehistoric Indian education system is based on development for life change. Starting from the childhood “Guru” takes the responsibility not only rear up the “Shishya” but also transforming form unskilled to skilled human being. Gurukul

was a kind of school in ancient India, inhabited in scenery, with students living in nearness to the teacher. During ancient time period, India was clearly familiar with the highest objective of life is self-realization and therefore aspire at teaching has always been the accomplishment of such a completeness of being. Objectives of the education were to offer excellent training to young men and women in the concert of their social, economic and religious responsibility. The Vedic system, tutoring of a child originates at the age of five with the ceremony called Vidyarambha. A high standard of learning and culture was reached by Indian women during the Vedic age. Like boys, girls had to undergo the upanayana ceremony.(Sourcehttps://ithihas.wordpress.com/2013/08/28/ancient-indian-education-system-from-the-beginning-to-10th-c-a-d/).


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The eventual objective in ancient education system was in all-purpose expansion of student. The education was alert mostly on the religious aspects. It was paying concentration mainly on the religious duties, warfare, moral, social, psychological and political acquaintance as well as expansion. The history of education began with teaching of traditional elements such as Indian religions, Indian mathematics, Indian logic at early Hindu and Buddhist centres of learning such as ancient Taxila (in modern-day Pakistan) and Nalanda (in India) before the common era. Islamic education became ingrained with the establishment of the Islamic empires in the Indian subcontinent in the Middle Ages (Shrikant Umarye ). ..The teaching-learning system of ancient India was unique in the world .Teachers can be segmented in the following criteria: Acharya;Upadhyaya; Charakas ; Bhikkhus; Sadhus ;Yaujanasatika ;Sikshaka. Indian higher education currently the third largest in the world, is likely to surpass the US in the next five years and China in the next 15 years to be the largest system of higher education in the world. With nearly 145 million people in the college-going age group in India , one in every four graduates in the world will be a product of the Indian education system. The Hindu-Arabic numeral system, a positional numeral system, originated during Gupta rule and was later transmitted to the West through the Arabs. Early Hindu numerals had only nine symbols, until 600 to 800 CE, when a symbol for zero was developed for the numeral system. The peace and prosperity

created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours in the empire. Country-specific parameters relevant to the Indian situation include regional and international diversity, outreach, gender equity and inclusion of disadvantaged sections of society. Participation in the India Rankings 2016 was voluntary. However, the existing scheme of teaching, with its western method and substance. India had a rich tradition of education. But “Bihar has been a major centre of learning and home to the universities of Nalanda (one of the earliest universities of India dating back to the fifth century) and Vikramashila. The tradition of learning, which had its origin from the time of Buddha or perhaps earlier, was lost during the medieval period when it was believed that marauding armies of the invaders destroyed these centres of learning.” (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Bihar). Xuanzang, Hwui-Li argued that all the students of Nalanda studied the Great Vehicle (Mahayana) as well as the works of the eighteen (Hinayana) sects of Buddhism. In addition to these, they studied other subjects such as the Vedas, Hetuvidyā (Logic), Shabdavidya (Grammar and Philology), C hikitsavidya (Medicine), the works on magic (the Atharvaveda), and Samkhya. At that time this Bihar provides lifelong education pattern with humanistic approach. Foreign students also participated in the education system.


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Note: The life of Buddha depicted in a Pala-era scroll in aforesaid figure. The script used in the scroll is an ancestor of the Bengali language. Shivani V. described that three different types of institutions were in vogue which imparted education to the people in Ancient India:

i) popular system under which the teacher, as a settled householder, admitted pupils of a tender age and imparted instructions to them; a) advanced education to the students who were not satisfied with the knowledge acquired as students and were popularly known as academies; b) representative thinkers of the country of various schools were invited to meet and exchange their view for instance Congress of Rishis in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Women are also able to get education in the ancient india such as Gargi , Maitreyi , Maya etc. "Outside the religious framework, kings and princes were educated in the arts and sciences related to government: politics (danda-nıti), economics (vartta), philosophy (anvıksiki), and historical traditions”(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent).

ii) Islamic institution of education in India included traditional Madrassas and Maktabs which taught grammar, philosophy, mathematics, and law influenced by the Greek traditions inherited by Persia and the Middle East before Islam spread from these regions into India . However, during Islamic education terrorist education

was not given and base on the belief that religion is the fundamental basic rights of the human being and each doe never hamper others belief and attitude. “In medieval period the quality of education was quite high which could produce great scholars. The teacher were devoted and committee to their academic and teaching activity which was regarded as sacred and as a mission. Students were similarly highly disciplined, humble and morally accountable for their activities” (Source: Nikita Iyer).

A drive towards Platinum epoch with vision of rainbow power of India organized through stable educational improvement is an excellent opportunity to exchange long cherished Quality Higher education-learning attainable by UGC, India .This is a unique opportunity to share views of academics, industries, entrepreneurs, research scholars, and policymakers, politicians, to exchange their views for better India and to turn India Economy in no.1 within next 20 years. This will also commensurate with sustainable development goal -4.Nowadays definition of the quality higher education and learning has been changed and in the money centric society education leads to employability plus skill. Governance in the educational institute needs to be strengthening though UGC, India is vigilant. The main aspire and function of UGC, India in higher educational institutes is to supply funds to


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universities and coordinate, determine & maintain the ethics in organizations of tertiary level which was established in the year UGC Act 1956. As quality is determined by demand and supply in the market so following points are very important: approaches, ethics, morals, attitude, democracy, internationalization and community involvement. A graduate when enter into the job market or self –employed he/she must have the quality of entrepreneurial skill. Currently govt. of India is trying to replace UGC ,India by Office of the higher education of India. “While UGC has been vested with grant-giving powers, HECI will have no funds to dole out.” The modern scenario has more teachers for whom teaching isn’t vocation but an occupation (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/22304311.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst) India has a long cultural heritage of Higher education. With the advent of time there is lot of changes. Education, being the most fundamental need of any developing country, should be the number one priority for India .However; Indian Govt. as well as private sector both are trying to improve teaching –learning process. Currently Education index (Calculated using Mean Years of Schooling and Expected Years of Schooling) is improving. Government of India has approved the international standard benchmarking of education with an objective to ensuring standards of quality in higher education both at the public and private universities in the country. Along with being an internal assessor, Government will also act as an external assessor to change the structure of University Grant Commission of India. Government of India has the goal and vision to have quality education at higher institutions to enhance quality in teaching, learning and research. The UGC

has viewed to ensuring standards of higher education in public and private sector higher education institutions. For the activities of the higher educational institutions after monitoring and evaluating their activities and performance is being needed. The responsibilities in ensuring quality education, accrediting the higher educational institutions and its curriculum and programs, formation of separate official recognition committee for each discipline, determining the conditions of the endorsement and confidence certificate and cancelling the endorsement and confidence certificate under reasonable ground. The technique and training of learning, particularly as an educational topic or hypothetical thought refers to pedagogy at higher educational institutes, which is going through transformation to object based teaching- learning system.Tertiary education in India, currently, has been facing many deeply rooted and intertwined challenges. These include, inadequate enabling environment for improving the quality of education, teaching and research, weak governance and accountability, poor planning and monitoring capacities, and insufficient funding. All these drawbacks can only be mitigated by developing a quality culture and ensuring good practices in higher education institutions (HEIs) which present govt. is gradually trying to improve. Professional Bodies, International accreditation councils are also working in some higher educational institutes of India. K.S. Reddy and Xie Qingqing Tang commented that overall, world university rankings and research metrics of Indian universities are found to be far behind those of Chinese universities. Learning online is the future; some even argue that computer-assisted learning through technology such as interactive whiteboards , blended learning and access to interactive online content and virtual learning environments will become the norm for the future educational perspective worldwide and India will have


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to play vital role so that it can led in future education process. Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development developed National Institutional Ranking Framework on 29th September, 2015. According to Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2019 top higher educational institutes are: Indian Institute of Science, Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee. Five top Indian Higher educational institutes of India ranked by QS ranking are Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IITB), Indian Institute of Science, Indian Institute of Technology Madras (IITM), Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur (IIT-KGP).Journal listed by UGC, India is an excellent task. Internationalization of the higher education can improve the quality of the education of India. MTC Global, India can take the challenge and find out opportunities to develop a structured framework for improved educational factors. To attain economic strength as no.1 in the world, Indian educational management must be improved. Regional and international

framework should work as a complementary factor. To improve quality education conveniences for the local and international students and faculties, graduate employability at the domestic and international benchmarking with yardstick, social responsibility to optimize social welfare, inclusiveness towards global world with humanistic approach and free from any sort of terrorist actives. Education must be free from terrorist activities. Modern education must be included with Internet facilities so that social awareness and amenities with human relations and use of artificial intelligence and machine learning must be incorporated. For long time I am advocating for BIMSTEC regional university to be set up in Bangladesh–though currently Myanmar is not properly behaving with Bangladesh. However, India should find out root of ancient education system and cultivate its good part in the modern education system through synchronizing for the betterment of the society and self-employed and education must be used for developing proper human guidance as a people of the globe.


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WHY INTERNATIONALISATION OF EDUCATION?

Kalyanlakshmi Chitta Section 1-Introduction The phenomenon of internationalization of higher education has emerged as one of the most consequential and debated developments in the education space, attracting attention across the board-from academicians to policy-makers. Even as evidences of international academic co-operation and collaboration can be traced back to ancient times, the process has assumed significance as an institutionalized phenomenon since the closing decades of the 20th century. The inclusion of education as a tradable service under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has in effect ‘dislodged’ education from its tradition position of being a public good to being re-oriented as a quasi-public good that could be negotiated within the operational framework of a typical market structure. Forces of globalization have had their impact on various premises of the Indian socio-economic and cultural realities and the area of education has also felt the repercussions. This paper analyses the opportunities that the process of internationalization envisages for the Indian higher education sector and attempts to margin out the scope for India to benefit as a service-provider under modes II and III of the GATS structure and also as a recipient under mode III. Specifically, the paper tries to answer the question whether inward student mobility into India should be encouraged and discusses the rationale for the standpoint inferred therein. Further, the paper attempts to understand the relevance of the most common arguments put forth by advocates of FDI in higher education in the Indian context. Finally the paper also explores the possibilities for Indian

educational institutions to set up branch campuses abroad. Current trends pertaining to India’s role as a destination reveal that there has been a steady rise in the number of international students in the post-2000 period, which has propelled India to a noticeable position on the list of popular destinations. However, experts point out that this rise has not been commensurate with either the scale of expansion of the domestic education system or the quantum of increase in the number of international students in general. Initiatives towards promoting India as an educational hub have been contested on grounds of shrinking resources available to the sector and increasing demand for higher education within the country itself. Notwithstanding the contestations, an emerging view is that attracting foreign students to India is a beneficial proposition for reasons like promoting diversity on University campuses and enhancing accountability in service provision as also visibility on the international scene. Therefore, weighing the relative costs and benefits of inward student mobility is central to determining the appropriate approach in this respect on part of stakeholders like policy-makers, host institutions and local student counterparts. Internationalisation by way of foreign universities setting up offshore campuses has emerged as a landmark yet controversial development in the realm of education, particularly from the viewpoint of the host nation. The possibilities encompassed herein as so complex and nearly conflicting in nature that it is difficult to describe them as advantageous or otherwise without a concerted deliberation on all the relevant aspects in this regard.


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The main objective of Government policies towards allowing the entry of foreign education providers appears to be to engineer a systematic upgradation of the domestic education sector in conformity with international standards to enhance efficiency and further facilitate the penetration of the element of globalization to the sphere of higher education. Implicit in this move is the expectation of a positive spill over effect on the quality and efficiency of service being provided by domestic institutions, making them globally competitive in the first instance and translating into a synergy effect on the overall quality of education in the ultimate analysis, besides bridging the gap on the supply-side. Therefore, understanding the role that foreign universities, if allowed to enter the Indian education sector, can play in elevating the qualitative and quantitative progress of the sector would be a significant line of analysis. It would be useful to consider the prospective implications of the presence of foreign universities for critical parameters of Indian education like expansion in institutional capacity, qualitative progress, contribution to employment generation and the competition likely to arise with their entry. Indian institutions are already making their presence felt in the international education space as service-providers through their branch campuses. Factors such as brand name and reputation built up by Indian institutions over the years, particularly in other developing countries and the uniqueness of courses like yoga that they are capable of offering are likely to propel India’s image on the international scene. Though present information in this respect is limited, the opportunities encompassed herein are tremendous. Therefore, understanding the nature and extent to which Indian institutions can benefit from their offshore operations would be rather insightful.

The paper is organized in the following manner. The present section is introductory in nature and sets out the basic areas of inquiry that the paper seeks to analyse. Section 2 tries to understand the present trends in international student mobility into India and the potential benefits encompassed therein. Section 3 analyses the relevance of some of the most common arguments put forth by advocates of FDI in higher education in the Indian context. Section 4 explores the opportunities that the possibility of setting up branch campuses envisages for Indian institutions and the benefits they are likely to witness herein. Section 5 is in the nature of a conclusion. Section 2: Student Mobility Into India- Some Reflections The phenomenon of student mobility and global academic exchange is not a recent one in the Indian context. India is renowned as one of the oldest civilisations in the world and the country’s ancient knowledge system has received attention and recognition at the global stage. Renowned scientist Albert Einstein has referred to the contribution of the Indian traditional knowledge system in the following words, "we owe a lot to the Indians who taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made". Evidence to this is also provided by the fact that as early as in the 7th century B.C., Takshashila (known as Takshila today), one of India’s oldest and most celebrated centres of learning attracted around 10,500 students from across the globe enrolled in over 60 disciplines including logic, law and grammar, philosophy, religion, medicine, literature, drama and arts, astrology, mathematics and sociology (Tilak 2010). Similarly, Nalanda University, whose establishment dates back to the 4th century


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B.C. and which is considered a landmark in the evolution of the global knowledge system, also attracted students and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Indonesia, Tibet, Persia and other parts of the globe. While some of these established centers of learning continued their work during the medieval period, some famous centers of Islamic learning like Delhi, Lahore (now in Pakistan), Rampur, Lucknow, Allahabad, Jaunpur, Ajmer and Bidar also attracted scholars and students from other countries (Snehi 2013). However, the traditional structures of India’s indigenous education system did not last. With the establishment of British political and economic hegemony over India during the 18th century and the subsequent introduction of an education system on Western lines, traditional structures of education suffered a fatal setback (see Doyle undated). This also meant that there was a reversal in India’s role on the international educational scene, from being a provider to being a recipient (Education Commission Report 1949), a trend that has continued into the post-independence period as well. This is evident from the fact that India today ranks second on the list of source countries for international students with an estimated 2 lac students from the country travelling abroad to pursue higher education in 2011(IIE 2013). On the question of India’s role as a provider it may be noted that India does feature in the list of destinations for international students though India’s position in the list is not very impressive. Before turning to a discussion of the trends in student mobility into India, it may be first useful to place the phrase ‘International students’ within a definite conceptual framework.

2.1 ‘International Students’ Defined In the Indian Context Powar & Bhalla (2014) point out that there has been general confusion in India

regarding the number of international students studying in the country with considerable variation in the numbers quoted by different organisations, which may be attributed to the varied interpretations of the term ‘International students’. It may be pertinent to note here that there is no consensus even among international agencies compiling data on student mobility across borders. For instance, the UNESCO Institute of Statistics has defined international students as “those who have crossed a national or territorial border for the purpose of education and are now enrolled outside their country of origin” (UNESCO, 2011). It needs to be noted here that the UNESCO definition includes only those students who are enrolled in courses and programs of more than one year duration. Another important source of information on international student mobility, the Institute of International Education (IIE) does not apply the one year criteria in its data compilation and considers any student studying on a temporary visa that allows academic course work to be undertaken, as an international student. In the Indian context, the Ministry of HRD, Government of India regards every student entering the country on a student visa as an international student irrespective of the program of study or its duration. The Association of Indian Universities (AIU) follows the UNESCO definition while the UGC has adopted the IIE version. Accordingly, the AIU lists only those students enrolled with Indian Universities and colleges for post -higher secondary programs of more than one year duration as international students in its database and leaves out students registered for short duration certificate or diploma programs in subjects like English language or computer training. The AIU also leaves out students entering India under ‘Study India’ programs and also students registered for academic courses offered by Indian open Universities who are residing outside India from its data compilation. In accordance


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with the IIE definition, the UGC includes even those categories of students who are not covered by the AIU in its database. An important issue in this context is brought out by Powar & Bhalla (2014) that information on international student enrolments in India compiled by both the AIU and the UGC suffers from roughly 10-15% under-reporting since a large number of Universities (including the established ones) are found to ignore requests for information on international students enrolled with them. Powar & Bhalla further point out that there are technical issues as well in arriving at the actual figures for international students in India. For instance, most Universities place Tibetan students in the category of international students in their database. Though this practice is conceptually sound since India regards Tibet to be an integral part of the Chinese territory and to that extent these students can be considered as Chinese students, there are other issues that need to be addressed in this context. Most of the Tibetan students enrolled in Indian institutions belong to families that have sought political asylum in India, are treated as ‘political refugees’ and have never visited Tibet. Therefore, it has been argued that these students should be regarded as Indians or at best ‘stateless’. Dilemmas over contentious issues like this also contribute to the confusion over the actual numbers of international students in India. Hence, for an analysis of trends in inward student mobility in India what is important is not the absolute figures but the broad trends indicated by inter-temporal variations in the data compiled by the same institution. 2.2 Trends In International Student

Mobility Into India Databases of the UGC and AIU reveal that the number of international students coming to India registered a steady rise till the mid-1990s to stand at around 13,000

after which it witnessed a sharp decline by almost 50% in 1996-97 and remained stagnant till the end of the decade. The trends witnessed a reversal thereafter, once again rising steadily to 21,206 in 2007-08 and stood at around 45,500 in 2016. However, experts point out that this growth has not been commensurate with either the volume of increase in international students in general or the quantum of expansion of the domestic education sector (Shah et Al 2011; Powar & Bhalla 2012; Lavakare & Powar 2013) India today has the world’s third largest higher education system with more than 800 Universities and 37,000 colleges enrolling 20 million students in 2018. This, considered alongside the information that the number of international students travelling abroad for higher studies stood at 4.3 million in 2011, the presence of international students in India is rather insignificant. On the question of sending countries, it can be observed that there has been a steady rise in the number of countries from which students have travelled to India for higher education from around 90 in 1988-89 to over 165 in 2018. The country profiles include developed countries like the US, Canada, Australia and also European countries which apart from being technologically advanced and economically strong, also have good educational facilities as also from developing countries from Africa, West Asia and South East Asia that have limited educational infrastructure. In this context Powar & Bhalla (2014) point out that information on international student enrolments in India compiled by both the AIU and the UGC suffers from roughly 10-15% under-reporting since a large number of Universities (including the established ones)are found to ignore requests for information on international students enrolled with them (also see Agarwal 2006). This is perhaps indicative


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of the lackadaisical approach of Indian universities, particularly the public universities towards the question of international students as also the general confusion prevailing among policy-makers and institutions about the importance of having them on board. 2.3 Should International Student

Mobility Into India Be Encouraged? Debates over the impact of cross-border education in any form on indigenous knowledge and cultural diversity often provoke strong positions and sentiments. On the positive front it is argued that modern information and communication technologies and the movement of people, ideas, and culture across national boundaries promotes the fusion and hybridization of cultures. Others contend that the same forces are eroding national cultural identities and leading to cultural homogenization, most often in the form of Westernization. And still others speculate that cross-border mobility of students, providers and programs will only increase cultural tensions within host institutions and countries. Therefore, the issue of international student mobility is marked by a great deal of controversy. A crucial question specific to international student mobility in the Indian context is whether its promotion is desirable from the viewpoint of national education policy. This question assumes significance in view of the demand-supply gap in institutional capacity within the domestic education system which poses as a constraint on expansion of educational opportunities for local students. On this background, critics of internationalization of higher education strongly argue that education policy in India should focus on national priorities and have questioned the rationality of determining quotas for international students in premier institutions like the National Institutes of Technology (NITs). Notwithstanding the validity of these

arguments, an emerging view in this respect is that international students make a significant contribution to academic, social and economic premises of a nation and to that extent should be encouraged. Some of the benefits arising from the presence of international students on local campuses may be summarized as follows: 2.3.1 Contribution To Building Cultural And Intellectual Resources Since international students bring in a cross-cultural perspective on issues of common academic concern, they constitute an important resource for host nations. As Altbach (1989) points out, international students are “one of the most important elements of the international knowledge system; they are the carriers of knowledge across borders; they are the embodiment of cosmopolitan cultures and are one of the most visible and important parts of the worldwide exchange of knowledge”. 2.3.2 International Students’ Role In Shaping Perceptions About Host Nations International students serve as effective ambassadors for the host country and play a significant role in shaping perceptions about the host nation’s culture and socio-economic realities in the rest of the world. In the immediate analysis the presence of international students contributes to strengthening academic ties between the sending and receiving nations as their positive feedback on their learning and living experience serves as the most effective endorsement of the host nation’s education system and helps project the nation as a suitable destination for future aspirants. However, it may be useful to note that the spill over effect of these academic interactions may be far more extensive in that it contributes to building the right image of the nation as a whole and fosters appreciation of the nation’s policies and practices in the rest of the


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world. As pointed out by Powar (2014), the good political relations that India shares with African countries may be attributed to a considerable extent to the fact that many influential African leaders were educated in India. The educational support given by India generated enormous goodwill for the country among African leaders. Similarly, the influence India has exerted in Afghanistan in the post-2004 period is in no small measure due to the fact that former President Hamid Karzai was educated in India. (Sharma 2014) Powar further notes that promoting better understanding amongst the SAARC countries is one of the reasons behind the establishment of the South Asian University in New Delhi. In sum, since there is growing recognition that education serves as an effective medium for dissemination of culture and values, international students can potentially spread goodwill for India in their home countries and help in developing an understanding and better appreciation of Indian culture abroad. Indeed as pointed out by Rajkhowa (2014), while the economic contribution of international students to a nation’s economy can be monetized, what is equally, if not more importantly and yet not easily quantifiable is the intangible benefits through soft diplomacy, relationship building, human capital resources, etc. that international students help build between nations (Adams et al 2011). 2.3.3 The Role of International Students in Academic Co-Operation And Collaboration As the influence of the forces of globalisation extend to various sectors of the economy, a nation’s success in the international political economy critically depends on its interaction with the rest of the world at various levels, of which exchange of knowledge and ideas is an important component. The recognition of the importance of this academic co-

operation may be seen as the motivation for Western countries to take measures towards faculty and student exchange as for instance the European Union’s Erasmus Mundus programme. However, in case of low income countries like India where resource constraints do not permit institutionalized measures towards sending local students abroad, attracting international students to its campuses may provide this much-needed international exposure. This is because the presence of a large number of international students on campuses fosters a cosmopolitan environment and helps create greater awareness among local students about global issues. This in turn better prepares them to participate and engage more effectively in an increasingly competitive global economy. This may also enhance the employability of local graduates in the international labour market and thereby enable them to benefit from the ever-expanding operations of multinational corporations. 2.3.4 The Role of International Students In Enhancing Visibility In World Academic Rankings The international dimension of a University has been identified as an important parameter in academic ranking of world Universities. For instance, the Quacquarelli Symonds (QS) World academic Rankings considers international faculty ratio and international student ratio as important constituents of its ranking criteria with a weightage of 5% each. According to Powar (2014), one of the reasons for Indian Universities not featuring in the top 200 Universities in world rankings is their poor record as regards International students and international academic co-operation. Therefore, it has been suggested that opening the education system for global research in collaboration with more international students could lead to greater international recognition, better


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publication records and greater visibility amongst peers who rank the Universities. Therefore, attracting international students to local campuses may provide an opportunity for Universities in India to improve their relative position in academic rankings. In sum, the presence of international students on Indian campuses can effect stimulation of the academic, research and overall environment in the domestic education sector which in turn can propel India’s visibility on the global academic, social, political and cultural scene in the long term. 2.3.5 Contribution of International Students to Revenue Generation International students contribute to revenue-generation in direct and indirect ways. Since host institutions are permitted to charge differential fees from international students (which is typically higher than the fees charged from local students), they are able to generate additional revenue for developmental purposes. This is particularly important for Indian institutions in the wake of shrinking public expenditure on higher education. Besides, international students also contribute by way of purchasing local goods and services during their stay in the country. This possibility has been highlighted by the figures put forth by the US Government that has estimated an annual gain of $24 billion due to international student enrolments. Wit (2010) has highlighted the importance of higher education as a revenue source while succinctly stating: “Cross-border higher education in New Zealand generates more earnings than the export of wine; in Canada more than lumber and coal; and in United States more that automotive and financial services ... For Australia it is the fourth export product after coal, iron and recently gold”. Therefore, India needs to attract international students to its University campuses to give a boost to

local business, besides its academic environment. 2.3.6 Contribution to India’s Emergence in the International Political Economy There is increasing consensus that if India has to emerge as a force-to-reckon-with on the international scene it must acquire pre-eminence in the field of education. India cannot compete with the developed world on the military front and in spite of India’s rapidly expanding economy; India is not an economic power either. Similarly, despite the presence of a sizable educated and skilled middle class all social indicators show that India has a long way to go before she can be ranked among developed countries. India’s rather poor standing on the human development front with an HDI value of 0.586 and a rank of 135 in 2013 reveals that India has not been able to make much noteworthy progress on the human development consideration either. In this scenario, it may be pertinent to note that the field in which India can gain pre-eminence and be seen as a significant global actor is the development of human resource. This is evident from the remarkable strides India has made in the area of space technology where the country is considered to be in the same league as some of the most advanced countries in the world including the US and France . The augmentation of India’s research capabilities require academic collaborations and intellectual and material resources. The entry of international students can help achieve this end through their expertise and intellectual and material contributions. . International students in Indian higher education institutions will enhance the diversity of Indian campuses and over the years international students would help enhance India’s visibility and presence on the world social cultural and education space, notwithstanding the tremendous opportunity for soft diplomacy that goes with overseas students returning home from India.


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The above discussion brings out that though arguments against promoting international student mobility into India on grounds of the gap between demand and supply of institutional capacity for local students are not entirely baseless, the case for promoting it also quite strong which suggests that stakeholders like policy-makers, educational institutions and local students need to re-orient their position vis-à-vis international students so as to reflect a more accommodative approach. Section 3: Foreign Education Providers in India- The Opportunities Encompassed An emerging form of internationalization of higher education that has drawn a lot of attention in recent times is by way of universities setting up offshore campuses outside their country of origin. This route of service provision designated as mode III (commercial presence) under the GATS framework has been recommended for low income and developing countries with limited educational infrastructure by organizations like the World Bank to supplement domestic efforts to improve the basic indicators of education such as Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER), institutional capacity and quality of service provision. The main objective of host governments towards allowing the entry of foreign education providers appears to be to engineer a systematic up gradation of the domestic education sector in conformity with international standards to enhance efficiency and further facilitate the penetration of the element of globalization to the sphere of higher education. Implicit in this move is the expectation of a positive spill over effect on the quality and efficiency of service being provided by domestic institutions, making them globally competitive in the first instance and translating into a synergy effect on the overall quality of education in the ultimate analysis, besides bridging the gap on the supply-side. It may be useful to

consider the opportunities that the prospective entry of foreign universities entails for the Indian higher education sector. 3.1 Government of India’s Policy Outlook for Allowing Branch Campuses of Foreign Universities In the Indian context, consistent with the neo-liberal reforms in overall national policies, the Government has clearly indicated towards opening the higher education sector for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). As a measure towards autonomously adopted commitments towards liberalization under Mode III of the GATS structure, the Government appears to be chalking out the roadmap for allowing the entry of foreign education providers into the area of higher education. The introduction of the Foreign Educational Institutions (Regulation of Entry & Operations) Bill 2010 may be seen as a step in this direction. The legislation lays down (vide sub-section 8 section 4 of the Draft Bill) the detailed procedure for recognition and notification of foreign education providers seeking to set up their campuses in India, subject to scrutiny of such applications made by them by the concerned statutory authority in India. Experts point out that the bill seems to have a two-dimensional agenda-firstly to transform the prevailing unregulated market in higher education to a regulated global market with a view to check unfair practices in the sector and secondly, the entry of foreign institutions is expected to address the issues constraining the growth of the Indian higher education sector like poor quality of service provision and shortages in institutional capacity (Chattopadhyay 2010, Gurukkal 2011). It may be useful to understand the policy outlook for allowing the entry of foreign universities with reference to the most common arguments


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put forth by advocates of FDI in higher education.

3.2 Arguments in Favour Of FDI in Higher Education –The Indian Perspective

Arguments in favour of FDI in higher education are centered around the expectation that branch campuses of foreign universities can contribute significantly to the qualitative and quantitative progress of the higher education sector of the host nation. Following are the most common arguments put forth by advocates of FDI in higher education alongside their relevance in the Indian context.

3.2.1 The Argument of Expansion Of Institutional Capacity

Altbach and Jayaram (2010) have noted that the 15-35 years age bracket in India comprised of a population of 350 million in 2010 and on extrapolation estimated these figures to stand at 485 million by 2030. Sudarshan & Subramanian (2012) note that providing affordable, good quality and globally relevant education to these mounting numbers of aspirants is one of the biggest challenges confronting policy-makers. They further argue that unless a suitable mechanism is put in place in this regard, India would face a ‘tsunami’ of aspirants approaching higher education without the institutional capacity for accommodating them. Such a situation, in the words of Narendra Jadhav, former member of Planning Commission of India, would lead to a ‘demographic disaster, just adding mouths to feed, not hands that can work’. It may be useful to consider the current scenario of institutional capacity and put it in perspective with respect to the associated indicator of GER.

Information on educational infrastructure in India reveals that the the number of

university-level institutions has witnessed a dramatic rise in the post-independence period increasing from 20 in 1950-51 to 864 in 2016-17 (Government of India 2017). During the same period the number of colleges has gone up from 500 to 40026 while the number of students enrolling with post-secondary institutions has risen from 21.4 lacs to approximately 100 lacs. Besides, there were another 11669 standalone institutions also recognized by the concerned statutory authorities in 2016-17. Prima facie, the trends observed in these capacity indicators appear as a significant achievement. However these achievements need to be considered in perspective. Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) which broadly refers to the proportion of population in the relevant age group of 18-23 years enrolled in higher education courses is a more appropriate indicator of the degree of access to higher education for eligible candidates. Therefore, a consideration of GER in higher education may provide more useful insights in this regard. GER in higher education in India has gone up from 0.1 in 1951 to 11 in 2001 and stood at 20 in 2018. Based on a comprehensive study of enrolment rates in higher education across the world alongside the corresponding stage of socio-economic progress of the nation in question, Trow (1973) classified education systems across the world into the categories of elite, mass and universal states. Specifically, Trow suggested that countries with GER less than 15% could be categorized as elite state; countries with GER ranging from 15 to 50% as mass systems and countries with GER greater than 50% as universal systems. Brennan (2004) elaborated further on this classification by summarizing the characteristics of the three systems. Accordingly, elite systems may be generally understood to focus exclusively on shaping the mind and character of the


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ruling class and preparing students for broad elite roles in government and society while mass higher education is understood to undertake transmission of knowledge and prepare students for broad technical and economic roles and universal higher education is concerned with adaptation of the entire population to rapid social and technological changes . According to this classification, higher education in India remained an elitist aspiration till the Eleventh Plan period (2007-12) and has now broken ranks to enter the segment of mass education. Even as these figures are a commendable achievement in them, their implications for national goals would become more conspicuous when considered as a cross-country comparison. The UGC Report 2009 notes that the GER in higher education in developed countries stood at around 54.6% while the corresponding figures for countries in transition was 36.5 % and the world average was 23.2%. Referring to the development experience of developed countries, the UGC Report notes that sustained economic growth requires a minimum of 20-25% enrolment in higher education. In this context Tilak (2012) notes that the critical threshold level for GER in higher education for any country aspiring to become a socially, economically and politically advanced nation is 30 to 40%. This considered along-with the fact that the number of students completing higher secondary education in India in 2018 stood at about 1.2 crores suggests that there is a long way to go before India achieves a satisfactory level of student enrolment in higher education even in quantitative terms. In analyzing the determinants of GER, it may be useful to consider the role of availability of institutional capacity at various stages of education. In this respect experts have expressed the view that other things remaining the same, deficiency in institutional capacity may pose a severe

constraint on effecting increases in student enrolments. For instance, based on a comprehensive study of GER and institutional capacity of districts all over the country in 2007, Sachidanand Sinha has noted that a significant degree of commonality can be observed between the list of districts having GER in higher education below the national average of 12.4, (according to the National Census Survey, of 2001) and those having a low colleges/per lac population index (Sinha 2008). This may be considered indicative of a crude cause-effect relation between relatively less institutional capacity and low GER. Sinha therefore concludes, “While remoteness and social characteristics could be associated with enrolment in higher education in more than one ways, the relation between the two variables may not always yield a linear relationship, yet it would not be incorrect to suggest that, other things remaining the same, availability of educational facilities and infrastructure supports such as hostels, laboratories, libraries, and teachers play an essential role in promoting educational access at all levels “On this background it may be argued that while India’s aspiration to emerge as a force to reckon with in the international political economy depends critically on the extent to which the higher education sector is able to impart usable and useful skills among its recipients, the associated target of achieving higher levels of GER depends on the availability of educational infrastructure at the basic level of analysis. This view is also supported by empirical studies that suggest that the pursuit of higher levels of GER will require a corresponding expansion of institutional capacity. For instance, in order to estimate the tentative number of universities and colleges required to accommodate the target of 5% increase in GER in higher education contemplated by the 11th five-year Plan, Bhushan (2008) employed alternative measures to arrive at the tentative estimate


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that the target rise in GER required a corresponding rise in the number of institutions to the tune of 378 universities and 2602 colleges. It needs to be noted here that despite the expansion of institutional capacity planned in the public sector, given the enormous scale of expansion required to catapult GER to desirable levels, the facilitation of its further expansion will require a supplementary role to be played by the private sector. It therefore follows that an increase in student enrolments in higher education requires a substantial corresponding expansion in institutional capacity of the sector in which the private sector may have a noteworthy role to play. This argument may be extended to suggest that foreign Universities may also contribute to expansion of institutional capacity alongside the domestic private sector. 3.2.2 The Investment Argument The National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 has emphasized the need to allocate around 6% of GDP towards the education sector to facilitate its expansion in line with national objectives. (Kothari Committee Report 1964-66; CABE 2005; National Knowledge Commission 2006). Data shows that Central Plan and budgetary allocation to the education sector in absolute terms has increased over time. However, total allocation as percentage of GDP continues to be way below the desired level of 6% of GDP as envisaged by various policy documents. The Investment Gap In Higher Education In India: Some Estimates Based on the expenditure patterns arrived at by the Moily Committee (2006) and by making simplifying assumptions about growth rates of enrolments, Bhushan (2008) estimated the investment gap

during the 11th five-year Plan to stand at around 47610 crores. The Majumdar Committee (2005) observed that in order to achieve national educational objectives public expenditure on higher education needs to be raised to at least 1.5% of GDP. The report suggested that the total annual budgetary allocation for higher education (including technical education) needs to be raised to Rs.455.52 billion from its then level of Rs 103.83 billion. Thus, the Committee worked out a resource gap of Rs 351.69 billion. Another noteworthy aspect of the allocation to education that needs to be considered here is the intra-sectoral allocation to various segments of the sector. For instance, of the 5450 crs allocated to the sector as a whole in 2001-02, 3609 crs were channelized towards development of the elementary education sector which increased to 3800 crs in 2002-03 out of 5920 crs allocated to the sector. With the passage of the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act 2009, that made Right to Education for children in the age group of 6-14 years a fundamental right and a fundamental duty, the Government expressed its commitment to universalisation of elementary education in terms of access retention and achievement. In pursuit of these objectives the Government launched programs like among others, the Sarvashiksha Abhiyan, the District Primary Education Program (DPEP), and the National Program of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (Mid-day Meals Scheme). A substantial part of the allocation to the education sector is diverted towards these programs. It therefore appears that the focus of education policy is presently on universalisation of enrolment rates and retention in elementary education. In this scenario Governmental allocation of resources to facilitate expansion of the higher education sector appears to be a


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difficult proposition, thereby creating room for private and foreign investment in the sector It has been argued that foreign providers can contribute to the domestic economy in another way-by reducing the outflow of scarce foreign exchange. In this context McBurnie & Xegores (2001) have noted, “Foreign providers build the capacity of the higher education system within the country which can have the effect of reducing the number of students who go abroad to study, thus reducing the net currency outflow.” This is particularly relevant in the Indian context since , as pointed out by Rajkhowa (2014), IIE estimates show that Around 1.95 lac Indian students travelled abroad in 2012 to pursue higher education costing the national exchequer around US$ 4-6 billion in lost revenue. Therefore, there is a need to create quality infrastructure within the country that will help retain the students presently travelling abroad, in which foreign providers can play a noteworthy role. 3.2.3 The Competition Argument Chattopadhyay (2010) notes that the Foreign Educational Institutions Bill 2010 is in tune with an ideology that treats higher education as a private or at least a quasi-public good to be delivered in the market, a paradigm based on a ‘supposed’ emphasis on “efficiency” expected bring about “reform” and an improvement in the poor indicators of higher education. (also see Gurukkal 2011; Tilak 2010)While theoretically the ideal market set up to derive the potential benefits from efficiency is one characterized by perfect competition, what the advocates of marketisation of higher education argue is for framing policy measures so as to simulate a market-like situation in the nature of a ‘quasi-market’ which will ensure freedom of choice to ‘consumers’ that is, students; and also producers that is

private (domestic and foreign) providers. In this context it is argued that the scope of choice extended by such a set-up to students will foster competition and therefore improve quality. Furthermore, the application of corporate managerialism in the governance structure of the government-aided institutions would help achieve efficiency and deliver quality education. In the ultimate analysis resources will be allocated efficiently at the economy as well as at the firm level. In fact advocates of privatization of higher education argue that the realities of “massification” of higher education, decline in public funding, and increased competition for enrolment have created a “quasi-market situation within and between the public and private sectors” (Slaughter & Leslie 1997; Teixeira et al 2004, cited in Altbach & Peterson 2007) Public policy towards education in India in the post-independence period was in conformity with the accepted norm of public provisioning as also consistent with the overall policy of the Government to establish a socialistic pattern of society by bringing practically all areas of the economy into the folds of the public sector. This is evident from the fact that the Government sought to virtually nationalize the then existing private educational institutions which thereafter received public grants. (Noric Report 2006; Kumar 2013). However, over a period of time with an increase in the number of such institutions, fiscal pressures of funding them mounted on state Governments which along with the policy decision to divert resources allocated to the education sector towards achieving universal elementary education became the driving force for allowing private initiatives in the sector in order to facilitate the expansion of institutional capacity in higher education to accommodate increasing numbers of student enrolments. (Noric Report 2006) Also, Since traditional economic theory


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emphasizes the positive correlation between competition and efficiency which in turn started becoming a central preoccupation of domestic educational policy due to concerns arising out of the disorientation of educational output from industry requirements, internal resource crunch and the inherent inefficiencies arising out of protection extended to the public sector; subjecting higher education to the norms of efficiency through the introduction of an element of competition became imminent (Bhushan 2004). Also, a debate over the potential benefits of public subsidization of higher education emerged with experts questioning the rationality of the policy. On this background a policy decision towards the introduction of an element of privatization into the sector was taken. The entry of private providers into the higher education sector appears to have had a mixed impact on the sector. On the one hand it has made a significant contribution to expansion of institutional capacity and enrolment rates. However, the functioning of private providers has at times appeared to have a counter-productive effect on the sector. Experts have argued that there are genuine concerns about many of the private institutions being substandard and exploitative. Also, since private provision of educational services is driven mainly by commercial considerations, (Bhushan 2013; Naik 2013; Tilak 2012; Mahajan 2012; Altbach 2010) a number of distortions have been created. Furthermore, trends indicate that these institutions are skewed towards professional programs like engineering and business management where, after accounting for operating costs, it is possible to earn substantial margins of profit. Besides the problems arising out of the inherent commercial nature of functioning of private institutions, experts have also raised concerns about education policy itself being responsible for part of

the problem. For instance; Agarwal (2006) notes that “Due to the government’s ambivalence on the role of private sector in higher education, the growth has been chaotic and unplanned.” The regulatory system has failed to maintain standards or check exploitation. Instead, it has resulted in erecting formidable entry barriers that generate undesirable rents.” (see Tilak 2012) In spite of such irregularities, the private sector has been found to thrive on firstly, the increasing demand for higher education and secondly, the inability of the public sector to accommodate the growing demand due to its limited capacity (Mahajan 2012). Another perspective in this respect is explored by Altbach (1999) that , private education is flourishing in developing countries like India because it is offering the “products” that students want to “buy” because they earn returns from the market, ensuring a better fit between the economy and education. It may be appropriate to describe this scenario as one which is progressively getting market-driven and the prevalent market imperfections are resulting in inefficiency. Therefore, an effective strategy to correct these inefficiencies is through the introduction of competition. Sabharwal (2014) makes an interesting observation on the impact of competition on the quality of service provision. Referring to the fallout of the mushrooming of private engineering colleges in South India in particular and the impact of competition between them, Sabharwal notes that, “We are already seeing early signs of the benefits of competition and choice in engineering; there are 50 colleges in the South that got less than 10 admissions this year and the coaching mandi business in Kanpur and elsewhere fell by 40 per cent last year because 100,000 engineering seats of Uttar Pradesh Technical University went on stream. It is estimated that 30 per cent of the engineering seats in the country are empty and many poor quality engineering


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colleges are shutting down while the good ones are raising faculty salaries.” This trend suggests that competition is indeed making a mentionworthy contribution to maintenance of quality of service provision, particularly in the private sector. This argument may be carried one step forward to suggest that the strategy of competition would be more effective if it came from a segment of institutions whose functioning is similar to that of private institutions. Since the operations of foreign providers are also driven by commercial interests (Altbach 2002, Scott 1998, Hira 2002), their functioning may be generally understood to be similar to that of private providers. Therefore, advocates of FDI in higher education argue that entry of foreign institutions would drive private providers to take appropriate measures to enhance efficiency to stay in competition, thereby improving the quality of service provision. Therefore, the entry of foreign providers has been advocated on the grounds that they can drive improvement in the quality of service provision. 3.2.4 The Quality Argument As noted by Healy (2008), the concern of policy-makers with respect to the quality of domestic educational services has had a major role to play in formulating policy initiatives towards internationalization. “The small number of well-known examples is, for the most part, the outcome of pro-active policy initiatives by the host governments, seeking to invite in prestigious foreign institutions to accelerate the development of their own domestic higher education sectors”. Kirp (2003) notes that “Prestige is a scarce commodity; the losers far outnumber the winners and winner-take- all which makes branding particularly important in higher education.” Palshikar (2010) points out in this context that striking a reasonable balance between quality and quantity or in other words ensuring quality maintenance in the midst of quantitative

expansion has always been a challenge confronting Indian education policy. It may be useful to begin with a brief discussion of the quality assessment and maintenance mechanism in Indian higher education and status of Indian universities with respect to these parameters. In its Report on the structure and working of the Indian education system, the Noric Study Group has noted that the quality assurance mechanism in India is embodied in legislations aimed at regulating all areas and disciplines of higher education as also professions. The authority to establish Universities is vested in the central and state legislatures wherein Central Universities can be established only by an Act of Parliament while state legislative assemblies are authorized to enact legislations to establish state Universities. Besides, various apex institutions have been entrusted, either by an Act of Parliament or by an Act of Legislative Assembly or by central or state governments, with the responsibility to regulate the standards of education in particular fields. For example, the University Grants Commission (UGC) was established by the UGC Act, 1956, to coordinate and maintain standards of university education. These measures may be considered as the built-in mechanisms for maintaining quality in higher education. However, by the decade of 1980s the view that the built-in mechanism of quality assurance was inadequate to address the quality concerns in Indian higher education became widely prevalent. (see Anthony 2002). On this background the National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 laid emphasis on the recognition and reward of excellence in performance of institutions and checking of sub-standard institutions. Consequently the Program of Action (PoA) 1986 stated, “As a part of its responsibilities for the maintenance and promotion of standards of education, the UGC will to begin with take the initiative


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to establish an accreditation and assessment council as an autonomous body”. After 8 years of continuous deliberations on the issue the UGC established the National Accreditation and Assessment Council (NAAC), in 1994 to assess the standards of quality of higher education institutions in the country. Quality Status Of Indian Universities Based on a comprehensive study of the quality status of Indian Universities, Qamar (2008) has noted that out of the then existing 317 Universities under the UGC purview, only 164 were recognized as eligible to receive development grants from the UGC under Sections 2F and 12B in 2006 while the remaining 153 Universities did not meet the minimum investment in physical facilities and infrastructure criteria laid down by the UGC to receive its assistance. Out of these 164 Universities, only 128 had got themselves accredited by the NAAC by 2006 and only 32% of them could secure A or above level of grating, while another 52% secured B or above Grades and the remaining 16% Universities were categorized in the third group having obtained Grade C or above. The Quality Assurance Mechanism – Some Limitations It may be noted here that the criteria adopted by the quality assurance mechanism in its assessment and accreditation process itself is questionable. This may be illustrated by making reference to some of the policies adopted by the UGC for quality maintenance in teaching and research. The UGC has stipulated the qualification of the national or state-level eligibility test (NET/SET) as the criteria for appointment of college teachers at the undergraduate level. However the UGC regulations 2009 exempt candidates who have been awarded doctoral degrees under relevant clauses of

the regulations from qualification of the NET and SET. Similarly, under the UGC’s new regulations for admission to the Ph.D. program , Universities are required to select candidates on the basis of an entrance examination. However candidates who have qualified the NET or SET are exempted from taking the entrance examination. This amply indicates that the UGC technically treats teaching and research aptitude inter-changeably. This is also clear from the inclusion of research activities and scores attributed to them being an important component in the computation of the Academic Performance Indicators (API) score which is treated as the criteria for measuring performance of college and University teachers. This suggests that the UGC does not differentiate between teaching and research aptitude and performance registered in one area is treated as the criteria for assessment of the other. (Palshikar 2010) Further, it may be argued that even if one considers the criteria to be accurate or at least indicative of quality in the respective areas , the above information clearly shows that the quality status of Indian institutions is rather concerning. Furthermore, experts also observe that the expansion of the higher education sector in India has been quite chaotic and unplanned. For instance, Béteille (2005) observes that “the drive to make higher education socially inclusive has led to a sudden and dramatic increase in numbers of institutions without a proportionate increase in material and intellectual resources. As a result, academic standards have been jeopardised.” Summing up the situation, Kapur and Mehta (2004) argue that the existing laws regulating higher education in India tend to promote adverse selection by in effect deterring genuine investment in education while favouring those who are adept at manipulating the system.


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As mentioned earlier, an important argument put forth by the advocates of FDI in higher education is that the entry of foreign Universities will result in an improvement in the quality of service provision. Given the state of Indian institutions on the quality front it is expected that the entry of foreign Universities will result in an improvement in quality in the overall education system due to factors such as competition and linkages in the system. 3.2.4 The Employment Argument It has also been argued that the entry of foreign providers can contribute to employment generation by way of directly creating opportunities to academic professionals as also by indirectly enhancing access to opportunities in the international market for services. It may be useful to consider these opportunities in perspective. Experts point out that the increasing internationalization of business activity facilitated by the revolution in information and communication technology (ICT) has had major ramifications for basic premises of the labour market like wage structures and work environment with perhaps the greatest consequence being the quasi-integration of labour markets cutting across national boundaries. Bhagwati (2004) points out that advanced countries, given their demographic profiles and supply-side shortages in their labor markets, have a major requirement for skilled professionals. In an era of increasing globalisation, countries are understood to compete for markets by creating and attracting technically skilled talent. Bhagwati adds that for a country like India with a large population and huge capacity to generate skilled professionals at home and by education abroad, out-migration of professionals is an opportunity and not a threat. In the opinion of Freeman (2005), a country like India,

given her demographic dividend and the large number of skilled personnel like scientists and engineers, could effectively challenge “North’s” monopoly in hi-technology sectors by producing innovative products and services.

Skill-development is crucial to India’s aspiration to emerge as a global leader in the services sector and education has a central role to play in this process. Advocates of FDI in higher education argue that courses offered by foreign providers can be instrumental in realizing the benefits offered by these opportunities in the international labour market. This is because transnational programs, besides awarding the degree, also have the advantage that they are oriented towards global rather than local forms of knowledge and practices which bestows students who receive this education with better cross-cultural skills and enables them to adapt to the work environment in different countries without much difficulty. This may also have a juggernaut effect wherein the spill over effects of the synthesis of knowledge systems may extend to engineering a further diversification, modernization and internationalization of the domestic business sector and thereby enhance the pace of globalization which in turn may be expected to create further employment opportunities. (see Mcburnie and Zegores 2001)

Another important concern related to the scenario of employment in the country may be pointed out in this context. The National Association of Software and Services Companies (NASSCOM)–McKinsey Report (2005) found that a mere 25% of technical and 10 per cent of non-technical graduates, passing out of the Indian education system, are actually employable. In this context, Sudarshan & Subramanian (2012) note that the fact that most companies have to spend huge amounts of time and money training fresh


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graduates can be seen as an indicator of the skill-set gap between what industry wants and quality of output emerging from the higher education institutions. Advocates of FDI in higher education argue that foreign institutions with the professional orientation of their academic programs can play a significant role in addressing this concern. It is further argued that FDI can contribute to the creation of employment opportunities in another sense too by offering teaching and research positions to qualified persons. This effect is particularly important for the Indian higher education sector where the restrictions imposed by state Governments on recruitment of faculty have resulted in contraction of employment opportunities for qualified personnel. The above discussion brings out that entry of foreign universities in Indian higher education could potentially make a significant and positive contribution to Indian higher education in terms of indicators like institutional capacity, quality of service provision and employment generation. However, caution also needs to be observed in ensuring that the presence of foreign universities needs to be regulated in a manner compatible with the academic practices and environment prevalent in India in the nation’s best interests. Section 4: Presence Of Indian Institutions Abroad: An Overview Analysis of Indian educational institutions with offshore campuses reveals that India has a noteworthy presence in the area of overseas service provision. In fact as pointed out by Sharma (2012;cited in Tiwari & Yeravdekar 2014), “India leads overseas higher education provision from non-Western countries, with at least 17 campuses abroad, 10 of them in the United Arab Emirates, four in Mauritius and

others in Malaysia, Singapore and countries in the West” Experts observe that the decision of Indian institutions to move their operations abroad may be seen as a result of the interplay of ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors. On the positive front, given the measures taken by host Governments to develop specific locations as educational hubs (as for instance in Dubai and Malaysia), these centres offer encouraging prospects for long-term growth thus makes offshore campuses an attractive proposition. On the other hand, since most Indian institutions with offshore campuses are found to be private ones, stringent operational regulations and the Government’s ambivalence on the role of the private sector in the domestic education system act as factors driving these institutions to take the offshore route. This section seeks to make some preliminary suggestions on what could be the nature of the approach of policy-makers and educational institutions in positioning India as a noticeable player in the international education space as a provider under the mode of commercial presence under the GATS framework. Measures Indian Institutions Could Take To Position Themselves As Providers In The International Education Space As mentioned earlier, Indian institutions have already registered their presence on the international scene in the area of educational service provision. Given the rapidly expanding size of the Indian education system and the attention it has drawn at the international level, India has the potential to emerge as a major player in the field of educational service provision. In order to translate the potential opportunities into achievements, Indian institutions need to take appropriate measures to ensure the courses they offer are relevant in the host nation, should reflect adaptability and dynamism in the courses they offer while remaining


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compatible with the academic environment and practices of the host nations. Some specific measures that may be adopted by Indian institutions in this regard may be summarized as follows: Institutions need to identify countries that have education systems that are structurally similar to the system in India so that the programs offered by them can fit into the structural framework of host nations. Countries in Africa, South Asia and South East Asia that, like India have been under Western imperialism and have therefore inherited education systems introduced by them, may be potential regions Indian institutions may explore There is a need to identify factors that are likely to influence compatibility between the academic environment and practices of Indian institutions and those prevalent in host countries to ensure that the branch campus is not misplaced in the operational framework of the host nation. Factors like medium of instruction, relative level of development, affordability, alignment of interests of branch campuses and that of the national educational policy of host nations, and other socio-economic and cultural factors may be of relevance in this context. For instance, offering programs in disciplines where the host nation lacks in institutional capacity may be of greater relevance. In addition to core academic programs, institutions should also offer preparatory courses to facilitate greater participation in the host nation. For instance, while opening branch campuses in countries where English is not the first language of the masses, institutions should offer short duration programs in spoken and written English to prospective students. Institutions may also explore the possibilities of introducing programs based on Indian traditional knowledge like yoga, ayurveda and Indian classical music and

dance forms. Since many Western countries have shown a keen interest in these subjects, offering programs in them in an institutionalized manner is likely to attract attention even in developed countries. Therefore, a possible arrangement for Indian institutions may be to offer programs in conventional disciplines like engineering, management, sciences and humanities in other developing countries and offer programs based on traditional Indian knowledge in developed countries. Indian Universities that have established a certain reputation in the international market for educational services and are seeking to set up the branch campus building on this reputation need to ensure that they maintain the same quality of service in the course content and delivery mechanism on their branch campus as they do on their Indian campus. The above discussion brings out that the possibilities to play the role of service-provider in the international education space entails tremendous opportunities for Indian educational institutions. While factors like the reputation built up by Indian institutions in areas such as engineering, management studies and medicine are likely to propel India’s ability to translate these opportunities into achievements, it is important that Indian institutions take appropriate measures to live up to the expectations of host nations. Section 5: Conclusion The phenomenon of internationalization of education, particularly higher education has emerged as a development that any nation exposed to forces of globalization can neither ignore nor seek isolation from. It is a part of the reality of present day education that has come with definite and realizable opportunities as also with its share of challenges. Therefore, determining the nature and degree to


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which the education sector can be opened to global forces, the pace at which internationalization could be integrated in order to ensure that the accommodation of foreign providers in the domestic education space is smooth and does not create much disturbance and also the areas, disciplines and locations where they their entry may be permitted are some issues that policy-makers need to address. This paper looked at the possibilities that internationalization encompasses for Indian higher education with specific reference to the channels of inward student mobility, entry of foreign universities and the possibility of Indian institutions setting up offshore campuses. The paper highlights that despite the validity of the arguments against promoting international student mobility into India on grounds of the gap between demand and supply of institutional capacity for local students are not entirely baseless, the case for promoting it also quite strong. Specifically, the contribution that international students make to enhancing diversity on campus and bringing in a global perspective in classroom discussions can have a significant spillover effect on quality of service provision. Furthermore, international students serve as effective ambassadors for the country they study in and facilitate strengthening of socio-cultural and even political ties between their home and host countries. Presence of international students on campus can go a long way in helping their Indian counterparts develop a more profound understanding of issues of common concern and foster better appreciation of globally relevant issues. Besides, the possibility of charging differential fees from international students offers an opportunity for Indian institutions to generate revenue to supplement shrinking public funding. Apart from this direct benefit to the host institution, the presence of international students also contributes to

the economy in general through the living costs they incur during their stay in the country. On this background, it may be argued that the presence of international students in Indian institutions is likely to have an effect that is more positive than negative for the Indian cause. Therefore, there is a strong need to put an institutionalized mechanism in place to promote student mobility into India through appropriate changes in policies at the Governmental, regulatory and institutional levels. On the question of the contribution that offshore campuses of foreign universities in India can make to promote the interests of Indian education, it may be inferred that the various benefits identified by advocates of FDI in higher education prima facie appear valid in the Indian context. Presence of foreign providers is expected to play a supplementary role alongside the domestic public and private sector in the expansion of institutional capacity to facilitate an increase in enrolments in higher education. They are also expected to contribute to enhancing the quality of service provision indirectly through the element of competition their entry into the sector will entail as also directly through the quality of the programs they will offer. Furthermore, foreign providers are also expected to contribute to the expansion of employment opportunities in both direct and indirect ways. Even as these possibilities appear favourable in the Indian context, given the unique complexities associated with the Indian education system, the paper maintains that a careful examination of the relative costs and benefits of the prospective entry of foreign providers needs to be undertaken before any concrete measure towards implementation of any policy that would open Indian education to foreign universities.


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Current trends reveal that India has a noteworthy presence abroad with at least seventeen branch campuses in countries like the UAE, Malaysia and Nepal. Institutions like the Manipal Academy of Global Education (MAGE) and Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS) have set up branch campuses that have been well received by the students and Governments of host nations. Given the increasing recognition that Indian institutions are getting on the international scene, there seems to be a vast potential for them to explore the opportunities of setting up branch campuses. On the basis of a preliminary discussion of the possibilities encompassed herein, an important suggestion for Indian institutions aspiring to establish branch campuses outside India that comes to the forefront is that they need to ensure that their operations are compatible with the academic environment and practices of host nations. References Adams, T, Banks, M. & Olsen, A, (2011): “Benefits of International Education, Enriching Students Enriching Communities”, In Making a Difference: Australian International Education, edited by D. Davis & B. Mackintosh, Sydney, Australia, New South Publishing, 2011, pp. 9–46. Agarwal, Pawan (2006): “Higher Education in India: The Need for Change”, Working Paper No 180 in Working Papers Series of Indian Council for Research in International Economic Relations, June 2006. Altbach, P G, (1989): “The New Internationalism: Foreign Students and Scholars”, Higher Education, 14 (2), pp 125-136.

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A SWOT ANALYSIS ON INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Dr. Saikumari. V

Professor & Head of the Department Department of Management Studies

SRM Easwari Engineering College, Ramapuram, Chennai.

Abstract Internationalization is the most important factor which has emerged as one of the central theme of higher education. In recent years globalization has changed many new challenges to the Indian education system. India has opened its door to the foreign contributors in the fields of education and facing many challenges in globalization. Internationalization has many possibilities to global players in the education sectors. Developing countries like India are developing their higher education system globally. The positive, negative, issues and challenges on internationalization of higher education can be identified by SWOT analysis. The purpose of the study is to analyse the trends on internationalization of higher education and to explore the international education system of India. International education system is most welcomed globally but still it needs to identify basic mechanism and practices by international education system. The aim of the study is to analyse the strengths, weakness, opportunities and thread on internationalization of higher education. Internationalization of higher studies helps students to understand the global polices, strategies and standard which may help them to develop global knowledge. Present education system is focused on academic examination but not on holistic development of the students. Quality of higher education can be developed through internationalized curriculum, recruiting international students/staff and establishing international research collaboration programs for students. This helps to

investigate the SWOT analysis of internationalization which describes the internal and external factors with positive or negative impact of the global higher education system. The study helps to highlights the issues and challenges of global education system and to speed up the internationalization of higher education. The global education system should be up-to-date and technical skill, technology and knowledge towards global education should be developed among students. Keywords: Internationalization, Higher education, Globalization, Education sector, higher studies, Knowledge, Technology, Education system. Introduction Indian education system has sustainable improvement in the higher education system in both quantitative and qualitative .Globalisation is defined as the process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture change to the higher education system. In recent years, internationalisation is one of the most important factors in global higher education system and it influences the education system globally. In the global knowledge race, higher education is one of the way for the impact of globalization. Internationalisation has changed many institution and universities in economic and cultural backgrounds of education sector. Internationalisation is the key task of leadership and management of higher education. Higher education has become more international in the past years and


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many students choosing their higher education to study and to enrol in foreign educational programs and institutions in their home country. Most of the global institution has used internationalisation strategies for improving the education system and to accomplish an international society’s requirements. Higher education in internationalisation helps to solve many global challenges such as raising the number of international students, employing international scholars, improving branch campuses overseas, conferencing and upholding cross campus research cooperation and can reduce national sovereignty, identities, security, stability, peace, culture and ideological impacts. The internationalisation of higher education has several issues such as recruiting international students, joint programs, seeking international accreditation, becoming world-class universities, developing international quality assurance systems and becoming an educational hub. Most of the students are motivated to attract more international institutes to come and study. Nowadays, higher education is expressed as an ‘International service’. Internationalisation of education system helps to bridge gap between the local and international education system together. To enhance the institution’s capabilities we have to improve the quality of research and teaching methodology towards global stand. Significance of Education system helps student mobility to improve and to enhancing mutual understanding between countries. By promoting education system to international level helps to improve skills and knowledge. Global education system helps to route the economic prosperity, reduced income inequalities and social cohesion. India is gradually emerging way for foreign students. The growth in the number of foreign students in India has been impressive.

Globalization has brought in a number of changes in the world today changing in to a global market. The positive contribution of the Globalisation in India in form of the opportunities, the evolution of information technology has enhanced the relationship between economic development and higher education. Highly skilled and educated people became an important pillar in economic growth and became responsible for improvement in higher education. The points to be taken in concern to this development are:

Parity in the Benefits of globalization to the different sections of the society.

Its role in creating greater social equality.

Its role in disturbing the indigenous culture, tradition and values.

The industrial and education sector have a strong relationship among them can be important for the sustainability. In India, quality of higher education was also an important agenda of the government reform. In the recent span, Indian reform policies gave much weight to the quality of higher education. Indian education helps to improve their social and economic life. This technological development encouraged universities to interact effectively with students from different nationalities. Higher education systems around the world, have encouraged the use of technology, enhanced individual’s capabilities, and responded to future demand in order to compete in a global market. The webs of globalization hit Indian Higher Education System formally just after introduction of General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) on and from 1st Jan. 1995 by the World Trade Organization (WTO). Actually, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was replaced by GATS comprising of a


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comprehensive legal framework of rules and disciplines covering 161 service activities across 12 classified sectors. GATT was introduced in 1947 for creating a credible and reliable system of international trade rules; ensuring fair and equitable treatment of all participants and promoting trade and development through progressive liberalization. As on today we have more than 300 universities, institutions of higher learning and deemed universities, out of which 130 deemed to be universities, 13 institutions of national importance, 41 central universities, 274 state universities, 5 institutions established under state legislation act and about 26,885 colleges in India. Education System has increased sixteen-fold in terms of the number of universities and thirty three-fold in terms of the number of colleges, in comparison to the number at the time of Independence. Higher education internationalization has been understood in terms of the interchanging of ideas cultures, knowledge, and values. Internationalization is a significant indicator for quality in higher education which has been attracting the interest of scholars throughout the world. The purpose of this study is to develop a framework of internationalization for the higher education sector. This paper includes a higher education institutions (HEIs) internationalization SWOT analysis for decision making. However, there are some issues and challenges regarding HEIs internationalization context. Education system should seek comprehensive, attractive and supportive student packages to engage a larger number of international students. Developing countries, is striving to take its higher educational system to a higher level of performance. This study is among few attempts is conducting SWOT analysis within HEI in India. Now a day, we have no other alternative which can save Indian higher education

system from the hands of global effects without facing it boldly. In such a burning situation, Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis may act as a guard which can protect Indian higher education from global effects as well as may also help to extend and strengthen the market of Indian higher education in inland and abroad through systematically matching internal strengths and weaknesses of the existing system with external opportunities and threats of GATS. SWOT analysis, being an instrument of strategic management, as how to minimize the weaknesses and threats through capitalizing strengths and opportunities of Indian higher education system in global context is the theme of this article. 1.1. Objective of the research:

To examine the globalization scenario

of education in India. To find challenges for Indian

education system. To generate interest and awareness

among students about their future career.

To analyse the strength, weakness, opportunity, threat on internationalization of higher education.

1.2. Limitation of the research: Time limit. Data variation and availability.

2. Challenges for Globalization of Education in India:

The knowledge and technical skills of this work force have to be regularly updated and they should be up- to- date in their technical know-how. The students coming out of our institution should be capable of meeting the challenges of the modern industry and technologies. They must have skills such as interpersonal skills, team work skills, self-esteem, goal setting skills,


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leadership and creative thinking. Development of these skills is a part of curriculum in many international institution and global standard. Some of the challenges of the globalization are: 2.1. Government plan Government plays a major in education system. Government plans expenditure on different sectors of education with the allocation of 3.5% of the total GNP that there is a decline in allocation towards higher and Indian education. 2.2. Traditional setup It is still our education system dominated by the traditional set up of rules, regulations and statutes within economy and that offer little scope for quick improvement in its present work-system with flexibility. 2.3. Curriculum The curriculum today is out of touch with realities and practical knowledge. Curriculum should be improved to global standard. The curriculum does not provide knowledge that can be utilized to enhance local resources through which employment could be generated in addition to improve the existing conditions. 2.4. Industry The challenges of globalization need to be recognized by both industry and educational institutions without delay. For this both the industry and educational institutions to wheel and work toward the creation of India incorporated with capabilities of operating as a major player in the global. Partnership may be developed in one or more areas like faculty development, faculty exchange, curriculum development, resources support, institution of chairs, institutional evaluation, service to industry, adoption of institution, project assignment, testing and

facilities, production –cum-training centre, seminar and conferences, continuing education, guest lectures, Rand D facilities International collaboration and Difficult to adapt new technology. 2.5. Infrastructure facilities Infrastructure facilities, Restructuring of education system, Positive attitudes towards national integration, Research activities Updating knowledge, Consultancy, More Autonomy, Strengthening of multi institutional integration. The reposition of Indian education in response to global force driving challenge in a knowledge based economy. 2.6. Skilled labour The combination of globalization and technological developments has enabled highly skilled Indian personnel living in developing countries to provide service for industries in developed countries and Globalization affected the world population in different and unequal ways. 2.7. World market Rapid technological change makes skills obsolete very quickly and demands higher levels of initiative and more frequent retraining. 2.8. Restructuring of Indian education The era of rapid scientific and technological advancement that we live in has spawned a communications revolution that is pervading every region of the world and creating a global information society. 2.9. Entrepreneurship training Entrepreneurship training is considered a valuable tool for inspiring motivation, creativity and innovation. In addition,


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entrepreneurial skills are expected to equip Indian Education graduates with the ability to generate employment opportunities through the creation of new businesses. Expectation of further Training of Technical Education graduates at their place of work or at a public or private institution. 2.10. Counselling

Counselling is necessary to understand and appreciate the talents of students and trainees, and to help them explore career alternatives. Guidance and counselling must define career development as a systematic process during which individuals develop their vocational awareness, employability and maturity.

3. SWOT analysis

FIGURE 1: SWOT of Higher education 3.1. Strength Some of the strengths of Indian education system are:

India has got very rich and learned education heritage.

Indian education system moulds the growing minds with huge amount of information and knowledge.

Simply strength means a resource, skill or other advantages relative to competition and the needs of markets a firm serves or anticipates serving.

Indian education system gives the greater exposure to the subject knowledge. Indians are rich in theoretical knowledge. India has more strength of resources and man


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power (NASA, MAC).Cost of education is very low.

Number of higher education institutions in India is more comparing to developed countries.

Indians are interceded in normal education and higher education.

3.2. Weakness The weaknesses of Indian education system are:

Lack of adequate up-gradation of curriculum.

No benchmark and no common course content and no common exam procedure national wide.

Rigidity in curriculum and Lack of multidisciplinary courses.

Lack in accepting immediate changes. Learning is job oriented

Weakness is nothing expects limitation or deficiency in resources, infrastructure, Skills, capabilities and interpersonal relationship that seriously impedes effective performance of an organization.

Insufficiency of resources, lack of skills and capabilities may be recognized as the symptoms of weakness.

Lack of academic industry solidarity has pushed Indian higher education in the dark of depression. Most of the oldest universities in India are still reluctant to the collaboration of academic world and industrial world.

Reservation policies in India in one hand ensure educational opportunities for the disadvantaged and backward groups within Indian society.

3.3. Opportunities India has rich resources of human as well as physical. In India enough number of

higher education institutions. Therefore, we can produce more and highly qualified students. By making more Autonomy Curriculum should be made more realistic, practically biased and job oriented. Students will be regarded more as a customer. To provide highly technically skilled labour to the country

Opportunity is a major favourable situation in the firm’s environment.

Identification of a previously overlooked market segment, changes in competitive or regulatory circumstances, technological changes etc. may be considered as opportunity.

From the perspective of higher education, India is now considered as the second largest country all over the world but only about 6% of it has access to higher education as compared to 88% in Canada 81%in USA, 52% in UK, 19% in Thailand and 11% in Indonesia. So the necessity of higher education in India is beyond the question.

Indian education policy now directs that the institutional activities needed to be oriented to the five core values and theses are contribution to national development, fostering global competencies among students, inculcating a value system among students, promoting the use of research and technology, and quest for excellence.

The concept of promotion of women’s participation in Indian higher education is being considered now seriously by the NNAC also. It is a fact that women constitute around half of the total population of the World and simply they are considered as the better half of the society. So, only the


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active participation of women in academic world can give a complete shape of Indian higher education system.

3.4. Threats

The threats of Indian education system are: Lack of interest and interaction

from the industry in developing and collaborating in the research field.

Threat from within of deteriorating standards of education due to lack of benchmark in terms of quality of institutions.

Loss of quality standards by Indian institutions as more and more students opts for education abroad.

Lack of team work and Attitude of the people who fail to work collectively on a common platform

A Threat is a major unfavourable situation in the firm’s environment. It is the main impediment to the firm’s current or desired position.

The global effects challenge the traditional ideas of the Indian academic institutions as well as to the national and even institutional control of education.

The global effects create a differentiation among the same degrees obtained from foreign universities, from costly private domestic institutions and from govt. funded institutions.

The global effects on many occasions generate a great possibility of cheating of Indian students from the sub-standard courses of abroad.

The global effects raise a possibility of loss of foreign exchange due to increasing interest of parents to get their children admitted to foreign educational

institutions.

The global effects introduce the concept of commodification of education and it changes our culture, ethics of social welfare and even the quality of Indian higher education.

4. Conclusion:

The concept of globalization of higher education induces new challenges and, therefore, a universal skill set is required to overcome these challenges. Higher education in India is in need to find out parameters which would be useful for the smooth drive towards internationalization. India can enhance and improve the quality of higher education by developing internationalized curriculum, recruiting international students and staff, offering global scholarships and funding and establishing international research collaboration programs. The study proposed SWOT analysis for the internationalization of higher education in India which illustrates the internal and external factors which are positively or negatively impacting the higher education system. Moreover, study suggests imperative recommendations and activities helpful to speed up the internationalization process. The study is useful for the higher education institutions to understand the fundamental needs of internationalization as well as it is useful for policy makers in developing long-term strategies. 5. Reference:

Barrie, S.C & Prosser, M. (2017), “Aligning research on student learning with institutional policies and practices on evaluation and quality assurance”, Paper presented at the 11th ISL Conference, Brussels, 4-6 September.


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Adair, J. and Kagitcibasi, C. (1995) National Development of Psychology: Factors Facilitating and Impeding Progress in Developing Countries, Taylor & Francis, Erlbaum. Ardakani, F.B., Yarmohammadian, M.H., Abari, A.A.F. and Fathi, K. (2011) ‘Internationalization of higher education systems’, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 15, pp.1690–1695. Chalmers, D. and O’Brien, M. (2004) Education development units and the enhancement of university teaching, in Education Development and leadership in Higher Education, Kim Fraser (ed), 2004 Cameron, K. & Smart, J. (1998), “Maintaining Effectiveness Amid Downsizing and Decline in Institutions of Higher Education”, Research in Higher Education, Vol.39, No.1, pp. 65-86 Zakaria, M., Janjua, S. Y., &Fida, B. A. (2016). Internationalization of Higher Education: Trends and Policies in Pakistan. Bulletin of Education & Research, 38(1). John Smyth, "Globalization and Higher Education:

What's Happening to Academic Work?" in Ninth World Congress on Comparative Education: Tradition, Modernity, and Post modernity (Sydney) Proceedings, 1996) and John Smyth, ed., Academic Work: The Changing Labour Process in Higher Education (Buckingham: Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press, 1995 Ellet, C. Loup, K. Culross, R., McMullen, J. and Rugutt, J. (1997), “Assessing Enhancement of Learning, Personal learning Environment, and Student Efficacy: Alternatives to Traditional Faculty Evaluation in Higher Education”, Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Educatio n, Vol.11 Hannan, A. & Silver, H. (2000), Innovating in Higher Education : Teaching, learning and Institutional Cultures, Society for Research in Higher Education and Open University Press, Buckingham Chalmers, D. and O’Brien, M. (2004) Education development units and the enhancement of university teaching, in Education Development and leadership in Higher Education, Kim Fraser (ed), 2004


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ETHICAL ISSUES IN INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Dr. Sandeep Poddar Assistant Professor-S.P.D.T. Lions Juhu college of Commerce

Introduction A variety of globalizing influences have drastically changed the environment of various institutions of higher education in the past few years . Increase in the global mobility of students has quite literally brought the world to global campuses. Existence of over 200,000 international students is the only one factor that is contributing to increased cultural diversity on Global campuses. Cultural diversity in large number derives from steady growth in the presence of Indigenous students and new global students . Evaluating by the numbers, it would be revealed that higher education is poised to become a site of intercultural and global exchange. However, number of scholars warn that looking at quantitative factors alone may cover the continuation of potentially hegemonic or assimilative traditions inherent in the academy. As Apple has stated , higher education frequently continues to welcome “an entire set of historical assumptions about ‘tradition,’ about the presence of a social consensus over what should count as legitimate knowledge, and about cultural superiority” .Although many argue that will have impressive effect around internationalization is designed to divert attention from competitive, market motivations, others believe that the internationalization of higher education offers potential opportunities for real changes in terms of curriculum and learning outcomes in the form of global citizenship education .This explores the links between international education and global citizenship education in order to understand the inherent convergences and divergences, and to consider how they can be linked and connected to achieve ethical

approaches in institutional policy and practice, and ultimately in teaching. The common goals in the internationalization and global citizenship education literature will be supervised in order to investigate and find the potential future path and success of this area of scholarship. To Begin with a brief discussion of terms, the ethical dilemmas constitute for higher education in a globalized context where the mobility of educational resources, paradigms and students have become common place strategies for many institutions. It also discuss the challenges of fitting the global citizenship perspectives within internationalization in higher education and suggest future possibilities also it relates ethical challenges in relation to the process of globalization concerning international education and the mobility of international students globally. It lays emphasis on five areas of justice, such as, social and political justice, administrative justice, distributive justice, cultural justice and ecological justice. These areas of justice cannot be segregated from one another, given the interaction among international students from different cultures, which do not all share the same level of cultural, economic and political power and influence internationally. While emphasizing on the importance of all the areas where justice is called for, it is argued that one of the area pertaining to ecological justice enjoys most importance in relation to the others, given the growing indications that all of the world’s inhabitants face an uncertain future on the planet in the face of originating in eco-systemic degradation. If this is not taken care of educationally, all the others would be addressed in vain.


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Current Scenario In the current context of globalization at many levels of human existence, which includes economic, cultural, political, technological and ecological, one cannot afford to ignore the impact of such globalization on education, especially where international exchanges in higher education are concerned. What’s the interests specifically, in this regard, are ethical issues which pertains to the internationalization of education in such as largely globalized world, especially if one is considering that globalization entails the weakening of former barriers among nations in economic, cultural, social and political terms, in this way increasing the reciprocal “flows” among them .This is the case in spite of the fact that, at the level of the political, increased security-awareness post-9/11 which has placed major restrictions on, and obstacles in the way of, travel and immigration among different countries. In brief, its argued that what one might call “higher education ethics” is not merely a subspecies of applied ethics, insofar as ethical considerations concerning internationalization of education cannot omit addressing fundamental philosophical (ethical) questions. To be in position to conceptualize the application of questions (or answers) regarding justice, for instance, to an increasingly international global student collective, entails a rigorous interpretation among all levels of ethical reflection, from the most abstract to the most materially specific, because of the fact that international contact between students and educational agencies (including lecturing staff) unavoidable includes a confrontation among different cultural values. Compared to dominant or political systems within which they may find themselves from time to time. Rather than diminishing the need for ethical intervention, however, this makes such intervention, at a rigorous philosophical level, all the most urgent. Social and

Political Justice in a “Globalized” World When it comes to university education, there are distinguishable (and distinct) social ideals set up in different models of what the university supposedly entails to all rooted, significantly, in distinct cultural in the form of city such as those of Athens, Berlin, New York ,Calcutta and many more . This is interesting valuable, given the graphic manner in which it invites a critique of contemporary ethical consciousness. “Athens”, is of the model of the university, for instance, signifies the universalistic idealistic of rationality as organizing principle of society, regarding both theory and political customs among the ancient Greeks, but what it hides is the fact that the society structured by this conception of reason was one shot through with inequalities to all sorts—Neither women nor slaves could co-determine their own places or potential contributions to society. Nevertheless, as Arendt (1958) has shown, Athens did give us the model i.e. democracy, even if its own version was a limited democracy, and foreigners were mostly regarded as barbarians (barbaroi: those who spoke an incomprehensible, “rebarbative” babble). While the “Berlin” model of the university emphasizes the unchallengeable cultural (literary as well as scientific) role of the institution .One conspicuous in an age of globalization, insofar as universities face the task of having to reflect both the local and the universal in their faculties, the “New York” model represents one side of a more realistic appraisal of the function of universities, that of the role of the market in current knowledge-production in the contemporary era, where as the other side being reflected by the “Calcutta” model which emphasizes the educational requirements of the developing world. The reason is, firstly, that contemporary universities (especially in the Western world) are increasingly market oriented in the sense that knowledge itself, unlike in former eras, is treated as a commodity with the result that there is constant animate


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mutually between the private sector of entrepreneurship and the university as training ground for future entrepreneurs. Needless to mention , this doesn’t totally capture the role of contemporary universities (even or particularly , in global countries itself!), insofar as essential disciplines co-exist with the market-related ones in these institutions—the New School for Social Science and City College, New York, to mention but two of these. At the other end of the scale, the “Calcutta” university-model represents the organic process required for the so-called “Third World”, to which one could add its hopes and fears, given the unequal development witnessed in the latter compared to the “First World”. Against this background, the author would approach the question of social justice in respect to the totally different university-ideals as actualized within the contemporary world in such a way as to do justice to the complexity of cultural variation and the social (including educational) interaction among different cultures. Insofar as particular universities, which are socially very differently situated (compare South Africa and the US, Canada, Japan or Norway, etc.), would emulate totally different models, rather than affirming that each of these models is equally “legitimate” (which can no longer be done in a situation where there is cultural heterogeneity existing side by side with a tendency towards global homogeneity , the author would argue for a consideration and negotiation of their complex intertwinement at the scientific and disciplinary level. In other words, in a world characterized by extreme socio-economic inequalities among nations (and within nations), the legitimacy of each of these models, taken by themselves, should be subjected to radical theoretical-ethical critique, and those aspects of each that can play a meaningful role in the present, postmodern world, should be placed in what Adorno would possibly decision a fecund “constellation”. Such a critique has been in the process of being articulated for

many decades. That this emerging new order is characterized by the dominant order of the so-called capitalist states being constantly challenged by the countervailing power of what Hardt and Negri (2005) called as “multitude” (the vast numbers of people who, despite of their social, cultural and individual differences, share the common of producing modes of resistance against the hegemony of Empire), may not seem to be immediately relevant currently. And yet, one cannot leave this out of any consideration of education in a global context given the fact that education inescapably involves questions of power and dominance and the concomitant implications of less powerful cultures yielding to the pervasive, stronger, power of Empire in cultural (including linguistic), economic and political terms .Therefore, in light of the critique on the part of these thinkers, social justice in an international context will remain a mere mirage unless the “New York” model of the university is somehow brought into rapprochement with the “Calcutta” as well as the “Athens” and “Berlin” models, in this way yielding a truly “postmodern” university where social justice is strived for (however elusive it may be) by reconciling local and global economic, political, social and cultural needs and values in a forum of well mannered international institutional debate and restructuring. What this requires is that the economic weight of market-related, advanced computerized knowledge á la New York’s Wall Street be mediated with the universalistic epistemological demands of the Athens model with the creative cultural and scientific ideals embodied in the Berlin model, as well as the developmental requirements and implications of the so-called Calcutta model. Universities in a postmodern, globalized world cannot avoid representing and negotiating the sometimes conflicting characteristics attached to these four divergent notions of the being of universities. Until this is


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seriously catered, only social injustice will be served as a worldwide at universities with the powerful nations (from which one cannot be separate by the economic power of the multinational corporations) reinforcing their power, even as they expose international students to the wandering and degree of validation demands of the humanities, the natural and social sciences in their theoretically most sophisticated contemporary form. Having imbibed these intoxicating educational sources of information and potential enlightenment, probably as many of these international students opt (if this is possible) to stay in the country where their graduate studies took them, as those who return to their countries of origin with the hope of reaping the benefit of their studies by investing their newly acquired knowledge at home. In the case of the latter, such intentions can only be succeed with great difficulty in uplifting local society, given the cultural and educational differences, at an institutional level, between the home country (the less privileged nations) and the host country, in this way, perpetuating the gap that exists between them Moreover, the “New York” model for universities observes an ethical critique more urgently than any of the others by themselves (although such a critique ultimately has to be inscribed into a more encompassing critical field), given the economic (and therefore, also political) international hegemony of “First World” countries in a globalized and still globalizing world. This is related to distributive justice that is addressed below. Administrative Justice in a Globalized World .Its believed that was right when its indicated that a consideration of the ethical requirements pertaining to what he termed “administrative justice”, which the author would rather think of in terms of the justice pertaining to international movement of students at a tertiary level, is just too many to enumerate and address in detail within limited space. By and large, those considerations will be list reflect

some of the important areas of administrative activity where the needs of international students can and should be met, namely, marketing claims on the part of universities competing in the international arena, entry requirements, programme quality, accreditation agreements and feedback systems. All of these, which are administrative measures aimed at the optimization of success on the part of international students, should be seen in conjunction with the requirements of social justice addressed above. In other words, something like “programme quality” cannot be divorced from the question whether “quality” is solely determined in terms of Western criteria, by which the author does not mean only intellectual criteria on which the leading universities in Western countries can seldom be faulted, but also cultural and economic criteria of inclusion and exclusion. As soon as one admits that inclusiveness should be entrenched as a guiding principle, however, it impacts on intellectual criteria as well not merely in terms of so-called standards (which are often exclusive in terms that go beyond intellectual ability), but also as far as linguistic accessibility and cultural preconceptions are concerned. Too often, administration becomes the self-justifying discourse of bureaucracy, without critical questions being taken seriously regarding the underlying (often unjust) principles in which such administration is grounded, with the result that administrative injustice occurs in the guise of exclusion. The economic disparities between the “First Word” and the “Third World” are such that, even if thousands of international students are annually accommodated at universities in “First World” countries, those who return to their countries of origin do not seriously challenge the economic (political and cultural) hegemony of the “First World”. Moreover, the real or true binternational educational openness or hospitality on the part of countries is usually a double-edged sword:


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On the one hand, it empowers international students regarding their chosen disciplines, while on the other, it serves to export (very easily) the system ideas or discursive constraints implicit in the teaching of many of these disciplines, namely, a fusion of liberal democracy and late capitalism—something that easily serves the purposes of the dominant powers. has taught us, it is power that usually prevails and not critical-ethical reason (as constraint to the technical embodiments of instrumental reason). This is no reason to give up on such critical-ethical reason, though there is a more emergence need for its cultivation among students internationally than ever before. This may seem innocuous or even desirable to some, but some of the world’s leading thinkers, that have warned against a premature triumphalism regarding the global embrace of this union of liberal democracy and advanced market-capitalism, for instance, on the part of Francis Fukuyama. The point is, its warned that one can all too easily confuse the freedom to satisfy one’s material-economic needs with political freedom, blinding oneself to the surreptitious growth of the power of multinational corporations to the point where they hold democratic political leaders and parties in thrall, and insidiously undermine true political freedom; regarding the ownership of media companies by vast conglomerates, an ownership that largely determines what is printed and broadcast in the media). This question has too many sides and ramifications to pursue here; suffice it to say that distributive justice, as an ethical consideration, cannot be divorced from questions of hegemonic power-relations in the world, and fresh perspectives on the center of power, the “New York” model of the university, should be encouraged in an international educational context. Cultural Justice in a “Globalized” World This kind of justice is intimately related to those kinds briefly discussed above. As indicated, it displays at least two faces, namely the countervailing ones of cultural

homogenization and fragmentation. And with linguistic domination comes cultural domination, to which many of the world’s less powerful, sometimes, fragile cultures are simply not resistant. It is true of course that such homogenization offers the advantage of all cultures being able to avail themselves of the knowledge-dissemination that is occurring by means of the largely global accessibility of English as a medium. But the threat posed to linguistic diversity by this phenomenon should not be underestimated, especially when one remembers that every extant language represents a system or repository of indigenous knowledge accumulated over centuries. To lose any of these languages is tantamount to lose cultural and epistemological biodiversity. On the other hand, the typically postmodern fragmentation of culture is accompanied by a salutary recognition of difference and otherness , lacking in modernity where a hierarchical subordination of the cultural (colonized and racial) other was the rule. This should, ethically speaking, be good news for all cultures and both genders, if it was not for the sad fact that new global hierarchies are already in the process of establishing themselves—hierarchies that have consequences for international students as well. By and large, these hierarchies seem to have an economic basis. In his shockingly demystifying book, The Enemy of Nature, Kovel (2007) pointed out, for instance, that poor nations are still (even increasingly) being exploited by rich ones and that whatever the international gains of the women’s movement may have been, today the socio-economic position of women in especially those cultures where the effect of gender-sensitive legislation has not been felt (or where such legislation has not even occurred) is worse than ever. One of the reasons for this is that women in many “Third World” cultures are more subservient workers than men, and therefore, preferred as employees by factory (sweat shop) bosses. The irony is


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that these factories are often set up in these countries by companies based in “First World” countries because of the cultural differences involved, according to which exploitation of workers in these “Third World” countries is easier, and profits higher than in the home countries of such companies. Clearly, then, otherness does not necessarily mean mutual respect; often it means exploitation of the cultural other, today no less than during the heyday of imperialism. In such a situation, it is imperative that international educational authorities constantly test themselves in relation to the question, whether they are providing the educational means for not only the advanced technical training of international students, but also for their critical-intellectual development. Concerns Raised One of the plagues of the present world-order (to borrow a phrase from Derrida (1994) in “Specters of Marx”) is the neglect of critical-intellectual education in favor of mere technical training—What the young American philosopher, Farhang Erfani has aptly, in the course of a lecture in South Africa (in 2005), called the training of mere “labourers” instead of the education of (responsible and informed) “citizens” by universities. Ecological Justice in a “Globalized” World It would be irresponsible on the author’s part not to add another kind of justice under the rubric of ecological justice, although (given its tremendous importance) it really deserves a lengthy discussion of its own. Briefly, this entails ethical considerations regarding the increasingly apparent fact of the destruction of natural ecosystems by human development. In the book by Kovel (2007; Olivier, 2005b, 2009) mentioned earlier (The Enemy of Nature, subtitled The End of Capitalism or The End of the World), a grim picture of the state of nature emerges, with Kovel inexorably listing all the evidence of nature’s devastation at the hands of human beings,

such as the decreasing of the ozone layer, the pollution of the oceans to the point where people cannot swim in their waters in many areas (such as the coast of Florida in the US) without risking contamination by noxious bacteria, the accelerating extinction of animal and plant species the world over because of global warming as well as human destruction of natural habitats and many other such instances (too many to address here). His argument which is carefully and persuasively constructed in the course of the book is that the main culprit regarding the destruction of nature is the economic system known as (neoliberal) capitalism, mainly because of the fact that it rests on the principle of unrestrained growth. In fact, the process known as capital implies such unlimited growth. Although there was a call to limit growth during the 1970s (ironically on the part of the capitalist elites themselves; Kovel (2007) on the report of the “Club of Rome” of 1972) point out nothing has come of this exhortation; on the contrary, growth-figures have multiplied and actual economic growth has accelerated in advanced capitalist economies worldwide, with the result that it has reached the point where no one even talks of limiting it any longer (perhaps because of a feeling of unlimited power, or conversely, a feeling of helplessness in the face of the ostensibly insurmountable ecological and related social problems facing the world today; see Beck’s (1992) illuminating, if disturbing, book, Risk Society, in this regard). The ethical reaction are, or should be, obvious, especially in the context of an international educational context. Perhaps, this is considered as the best place to start addressing these issues, which bear on the future survival and morally justified and continued living of the people of this planet also for the survival of all other living creatures on it. It cannot be emphasized too strongly: unless the leading powers of the world symbolized by the “New York” model of the


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university takes in to consideration the ecological crisis seriously enough to start implementing an alternative to energy-through-oil, for example, and put everything into according to the limit of economic growth in a judicious manner (which does not threaten livelihoods), it is actually a real possibility that humanity will have to take responsibility for the utter devastation of all natural life on this planet, as well as of the human cultures that have developed in dependence on nature. Conclusion It concludes with a call on the educators, especially at tertiary level, of the nations of the world to attend to the urgent need for a radically different approach to education as far as priorities are concerned. This entails the realization that international education at tertiary level (but also lower levels) would be futile if the precondition is not satisfied that human beings be educated with regard to the indispensable requirements on the part of living ecosystems globally, which consists of the maintenance and preservation of intricate interconnections among all living beings and their inorganic environment. Instead of calibrating educational institutions worldwide for the promotion, through the “New York” model type of the university, of optimal economic development through growth, such development should be pursued in such a way that it does not impact so negatively or destructively on ecological conditions as to place the very survival of life on earth in peril. To return to the author’s previous example, if the destruction of rainforests were to continue unabated for economic purposes, the capacity of the planet to maintain a viable biosphere (through carbon-absorption and oxygen-generation) for all living creatures may be impaired irreversibly. To this, it

may be added the depletion of the fish-populations in the oceans through rampant over-fishing which threatens biodiversity, as well as many other critical issues may be added. This is, to the author’s mind, the most urgent educational challenge faced by educators today. Without attending to ecological justice, therefore, promoting the other kinds of justice referred to would be an empty gesture, given the real possibility that the world in which they have to be pursued may not have a future. In a certain sense, in the interest of life itself, it must be given priority over the other ethical considerations at every level of education internationally across the globe. References Arendt, H. (1958). The human condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Beck, U. (1992). Risk society: Towards a new modernity (M. Ritter Trans.). London: Sage publications. Derrida, J. (1994). Specters of Marx: The state of the debt, the work of mourning and the new international (P. Kamuf Trans.). New York: Routledge. Ethical Challenges Regarding Globalization of Higher Education Foucault, M. (1980). Truth and power. In C. Gordon (Ed.), Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings 1972-1977 (pp. 109-133). New York: Pantheon Books. Hardt, M., & Negri, A. (2001). Empire. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard communication and identity. Communicare—Journal for Communication Sciences in South Africa, 26(2), 36-55.


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THE FACULTY AND STUDENT MOBILITY Dr. Natika Poddar

Associate Professor-St. Francis Institute of Management and Research Introduction As per the report of the British Council, economic drivers which are national growth, wealth distribution including household income these are all which have significant influence on student mobility. Because of which many experts and theorists expect to observe a direct correlation between GDP per capita with respect to tertiary enrollments. The strongest annual average growth rates will be seen in Asian economies, especially in countries like China (+6.0%), Vietnam (+5.4%) and India (+5%). This has resulted in an ever-interesting topic of discussion – whether international student mobility will begin to migrate from West to East. West to East In fact, a number of Asian and other countries are now making a tremendous and extra ordinary efforts, initiative to exploit this emerging gap in the market and strengthen their brand as one of the world’s most desirable international student destinations. In support of this idea, the same students who had traditionally left their native country and travelled to Western institutions, are most likely now to stay in the Eastern hemisphere. This is due to Eastern institutions experiencing and seeing a development in their local capacity and greater institutional exposure as a result of international partnerships with other countries in higher education.

Impacts of Political Change

Politics have always been a vital role in international student’s decision-making.

The recent causalities have affected two regions experiencing some of the highest proportion of international student recruitment – the UK and US – due to Brexit and Donald Trump’s election as US president respectively. The former has led most of the students to perceive Britain as ‘unwelcoming’ to many migrating students, particularly in the case of EU nationals. Brexit may enforce new emerging policies in the near future that may make it difficult for international students to study in Britain. It remains to be seen whether Theresa May’s recent detailing of her ‘hostile environment’ immigration policy may have any counteracting effect on Britain’s international student applications. The increasing and growing number of individuals affected by this, who in some of the cases have lived in Britain for decades, may be a deterrent in itself for international students who would themselves wish to avoid the potential turmoil. Similarly, in the US, Trump’s halting of all the refugee admissions and temporary travel ban on seven Muslim-majority countries in 2017, has led to a drop in international student applicants, especially from the Middle East.

Opportunities Available In Less Familiar Study Destinations The political implications and unrest in terms of international student mobility gives opportunities for other western regions especially in Canada and Australian countries to capitalize and take full advantage of their more inclusive immigration policies. If we take into account that there may yet be possibilities of further immigration policies to be implemented, or legalities


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around proposed plans made definitive, in the coming years from the US and UK, other well-established student from different countries could close the gap and emerge as the more popular international student destinations.

Due to the increase in student mobility higher education institutions also the governments should adapt their recruitment strategy in order to attract international students and stay competitive in the market. Recently, the British Council published a trend report, highlighting the changes in higher education. There were some of the striking trends observed that will accompany the higher education industry into the future.

Shifting Demographics in Higher Education The United States, United Kingdom and Australia are the destinations that offer the most English-taught programmes. However, due to the rapid and increasing growth in student mobility, educational institutions around the world try to meet up to compete with these countries. The demand for higher education will increase in Asia especially in , mostly due to the powerful and growing economy of China and India (As per source: Asia Rising report by Study portals). Asia will witness the highest growth of tertiary students in the near futures to come – preparing to shift focus from sending their students to study abroad but also to welcome them on their own campuses. With this huge transformation and change, student recruitment efforts need to be directed towards to prospective students coming from and going to study in Asian countries. While this huge shift is foreseen to happen in the near future, the Asian young population is expected to decrease dramatically over the next decades, implying that the demand for education in these countries will decline. However,

another continent is expected to pioneer the demand for higher education i.e. Africa. With a huge increase and growth in population, Africa ranks fifth out of the top 10 most quickly growing 18 to 22-year-old populations to 2025 (As per source: British Council). These new developments need higher education institutions to start recognizing and evaluating the shift in student mobility and adapting their marketing activities to target and tap African students to study abroad.

National Internationalization Strategy

The growing demand for higher education attracts the attention of governments to implement a national internationalization strategy and makes it possible for international student recruitment a priority on a national level. By implementing and regularizing the policies that help attract a higher number of international students, these strategies would also boost the national economy i.e. new human capital will helps to create expertise and leverage domestic economic growth. These policies are designed in a way to represent the national brand that will attract international students by offering them, for example, financial aid, international student housing, less strict visa-policies or cooperation with companies. Governments has set up international student recruitment targets mainly to stimulate international cooperation and diversity on domestic campuses but also to remain internationally competitive as the number of mobile students tends to increase at a rapid speed.

English as a Medium Of Instruction (EMI)

With the increase in student mobility and the governments’ policies to tap and attract more international students, EMI gains in importance for higher education institutions. Not only is English the second-most prevalent language spoken


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(following Mandarin), it is also the official research language at various universities and institutions worldwide. Thus, it comes as no surprise that programmes with EMI are getting more popular and intensive worldwide. While English-taught programmes are predominantly offered in English-speaking countries, Central and Western Europe, as well as Asia Pacific, they also follow tight on providing their students with English-taught study options and opportunities. This trend is reflected and seen in most of the internationalization companies that seed their interests in a global context. Thus, more and more companies are shifting and changing their working language to English and placing the focus on both international audience i.e employees and clients. So having above average English skills as a university graduate can give students advantages and opportunity in the international job market.

For higher education institutions, the future holds and up rise for changes in trends that are waiting to be mastered. Following up on these trends forces institutions to act accordingly to strengthen and sharpen their position in the increasingly competitive landscape of international student recruitment. It requires essentially taking the shifting trends of international higher education into account, one of these being to reach and meet the target of right future students across borders with the right study programmes.

Suggestions Based On Best Practices There are three types of mobility options for students in higher education is or to be developed and framed:

Degree programmes: The student should be able to complete a full educational programme and gain a diploma or degree.

Exchange programmes: The student typically completes a 4-6 months course or work placements abroad. The course/work placement should be a part of the student’s educational programme. The exchange should be either organized through programmes such as bilateral agreements, etc. or should be organized by the student’s own initiative.

Short-term study programmes and summer schools: The student should be able to complete single courses abroad within his/her field of study and perhaps earn credits to its educational programme. agreements concerning exchange programmes and short-term study programmes should be made between the individual higher education institution and a foreign higher education institution.

Internationalization of Higher Education Challenges faced due to Globalization can be only resolved and faced only by the internationalization of higher education .Its importance is observed in the place where it occupies in the institutions and the national agendas in all over countries world wide. At the first construction of the European Union and the Erasmus has contributed exclusively to the Europeanization of higher education that later became a broader and more inclusive globalization. The internationalization is part of the strategic plans of various universities. It has contributed to this many factors, including the challenge of competing in the global arena. We are now in a globalized world, where through technology and informatics, knowledge has become an important factor of production. We are walking towards the knowledge society, towards a planned society. So we are living in a world that is


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in a constant change, in all the respects, a competitive world where preparation becomes our best tool. There are two terms i.e globalization and internationalization, which is used to describe the trends of global relations intensification of interaction and exchange, global networking in the fields of social communication, and transnational harmonization models and social structures. Both of these terms refer to a social context, which extends to more and more in different parts of the world. The very most first of the terms, globalization is the result of the internationalization of the economy first, which is through the formation of economic blocs and the establishment of new business relationships, with the use of information technologies in specific case such as Internet that allows to buy-sell transactions with countries far away or better yet, with everyone. It is essential to understand that globalization is multidimensional, encompassing economic, political, social, cultural and educational course. The great advances and development in science and technology have led globalization through information flow. Internationalization refers to integration of the international dimension in education, i.e. globalization serves as a catalyst for the internationalization of education. It is thus for this reason that the educational models are increasingly adapting and getting accustomed to the demands brought about by globalization such as trade and economic openness, which makes the educational landscape in a process of permanent change.

What are the Implication of Internationalization of Higher Education

The internationalization of higher education has been a reality since the late twentieth century and has been emphasized, prioritized in this century. In

this context, academics and students are considered as the most visible and important elements of internationalization, becoming the quintessential protagonists of this process, because they not only are recipients of knowledge, but also producers of it forming what are considered as the personification of a global network which has made the internationalization of knowledge and research in an economy but especially in an integrated global society. Mobility has been a phenomenon that has its existence in the very beginning of the first universities. European universities have an international character and Christian, the fore most prestigious teachers attending these centers, and imparted his teachings on topics of interest. They used a common language such as Latin, curriculum and standardized tests systems, which allowed students to begin their studies traveling on a stadium and continue one after another and ensured the recognition of studies in all countries of Christendom. In addition to completion of studies, students returned to their home countries with a large number of new experiences, ideas, opinions and political principles, which came to occupy important positions so that they could apply and disseminate the knowledge acquired .Mobility has evolved and taken new reforms in the world, there is currently a large number of programs such as Erasmus, which promotes mobility in Latin America and specifically in countries such as Mexico that has shown very positive results in the past because mobility academic looked like something designed mostly only to members of certain elites. Nowadays mobility has taken a vital role due to new circumstances and a demand of a globalized world that has become a country strategy for human resources training. It is also a challenge, because it is an activity that has not been recognized as a tool and source to improve higher education but also is a potential, since it allows taking advantage and opportunities to strengthen the higher


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education system and thus have a better place internationally. By that, college students and future professionals can compete in the international market both as trade ideas. Internationalization also refers to the need to increase the level of competitiveness in global trade markets, with the internationalization of human resources to achieve a strategic element. However, it is very rare mention of internationalization as an opportunity to achieve extraordinary financial income through the sale and export of educational services, as is the case with some of the North America, European, Asia and Oceania. This situation is consistent with the fact that the region, in general, is more import than export of educational services. The student with international vision must possess following characteristics

A freehold defining tools of the information society and new updated , advance communication technologies.

Ability to drive in advance those ideas that are introduced on the internet (e.g. contextual advertising and specialized social networks, etc.).

A creative capability, capacity, generating internationally competitive ideas and knowledge to efficiently carry out projects arrangements of ideas and strategies, among others.

A receptive mind and understanding of the values of multiculturalism.

Attitudes to teamwork, negotiation and relevant potential geographic mobility.

Professional Adaptability to learn new skills and knowledge.

Understanding the knowledge society and innovation variants.

Awareness of business ethics and credibility as stronger international values within the

corporate governance efforts of big business.

An open awareness to adapt to strong changes and a very competitive environment where global thinking is an essential requirement.

An awareness and ability to prospective in terms of international economic scenarios and foreknowledge of future waves of technology such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, and others.

Think globally, act locally. Ability to negotiate, establishes

partnerships, share and exploit knowledge.

Conclusions The immediate prospects and future of the internationalization process in International countries depend largely on the progress of development of higher education system itself. While there are positive signs towards an improvement, since markedly increased coverage rates, the level of academic preparation, the number of researchers, the place of evaluation in all levels of education, infrastructure, etc.., The Internationalization countries delay accumulated in the eighties, has not yet been passed to close the gap with developed countries. According to the World Bank for some of the countries are not going to keep pace with developed countries, if not go twice faster to catch up to them. Well, in the knowledge society these differences could worsen. It is therefore crucial that decision maker’s international educational policy, besides trying to overcome delay levels of their education systems, is also aware of the major trends in education in the world. In this regard, it is noteworthy that the international countries and emerging countries from Asia and Oceania have been placed at the center of their


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educational priorities internationalization, new curricula, and new ways of teaching and producing knowledge. Failure to follow these new trends could mean for countries to have an education that is competitive and consistent with the requirements of the 21st Century. This is why the internationalization of higher education rather than being an option is a must for international countries, as it is a key strategy to give graduates the opportunity to compete and succeed in the new global context. In other words, some of the International countries is making a new type of educational backwardness. For it is not enough to achieve a higher quality education, it is imperative that this is in keeping with the big trends of the world and the internationalization of education, mobility and academic exchange are ultimately the most important of these trends.

References http://www.spentamexico.org/v8-n2/A3.8(2)48-63.pdf http://freetrade.tamiu.edu/pdf/conf/18ConfSessions.pdf https://www.slideshare.net/ACBSPAccreditation/dr-jbc-presentation-2015 https://www.qs.com/how-is-international-student-mobility-changing-in-higher-education/ International students and Global mobility in higher education by Bhandari, Rajika, Blumenthal, Peggy


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INTERNATIONAL CURRICULUM

Sneha Ravindra Kanade Assistant Professor, Garden City University, Bangalore

“Education isn't learning of facts, however coaching the mind to assume.” Albert Einstein Learning may be outlined as Associate in Nursing open system facilitating the information transfer across varied levels and strata of society. For over a decade, the internationalization of education has been a first-rate agenda globally for creation of additional opportunities for education and employment. World is shrinking nowadays with international opportunities and thence sacred text sciences have justifiably quoted it as “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” (One World, one family). Internationalization of education is absolute to involve a rigorous employment of assorted disciplines so as to unfold similar quality of education to develop a worldwide manpower. The endeavour has applications and uses across the world with a concept to provide similar and needed ability set. The technological changes also are a serious contributor. As per information provided with by UN agency, there's rise in range of scholars opting to check in abroad locations. {the range the amount the quantity} had doubled from a pair of002 to 2012 particularly the enrollment of internationally mobile students whose number surged from 2 million to four million. The internationally mobile students gift a pair of the worldwide tertiary population. There square measure varied views offered on the internalization of education giving rise to numerous faculties of thoughts. one amongst the college of thoughts says that

internalization of education particularly instruction could be a method of group action a global or intercultural dimension into the teaching, analysis and repair functions of the establishments. Internationalization of education has gained paramount importance within the recent times thanks to enlarged international quality for studies moreover as employment. However, the discussion revolves around completely different teaching designs across the world thanks to create by mental act cultural trends. Research Methodology This analysis is explorative in nature and unfurls varied dimensions of internationalization of upper education. Secondary information from varied sources like Journals, websites, web site documents, analysis journals etc. Objectives 1) To study the internationalization of education across the globe. 2) To suggest the measures for smooth internationalization of education. Results and Discussions Most of the days the characterization of upper education is restricted. but educational quality, multi-cultural academic got wind of, space specific academic inputs. The impact native or national of academic internationalization could also be of less concern in developed nations, but of preponderant importance for developing and underdeveloped nations.


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An international schoolroom promotes cooperative information through multi-ethnic settings. There square measure number of issues that square measure determined like performance of the scholars thriving in ism surroundings. The internationalization of upper education may be helpful in sustaining and growing science and scholarship through dynamic educational exchanges; and building social and economic capability in developing countries. The western universities square measure establishing powerful international networks and associations to mobilize ability and skill in favor of transfer of data, advanced policies and international analysis for enhancing investment and measure impact. Moreover, they're exploitation e-technology and social media as necessary and powerful tools for increasing public access to relevant data for aiding talent enlisting and retention. during this means, access is provided to instruction in countries wherever native establishments cannot meet the strain. The positive aspects of internationalization embrace improved educational quality, internationally directed students and employees, and national and international citizenship for college students and employees from underdeveloped countries. For developed countries, revenue generation and brain gain square measure potential advantages. In each respect as well as quantitative relation of international students, franchiser of educational programs to foreign suppliers or quality guarantors, Western developed countries gain the most money advantages. Other key advantages of internationalization embrace diversifying and enhancing the training surroundings for the good thing about domestic students, the University, and therefore the nation. Further, it's the potential to vary the lives of international students because it helps in manufacturing graduates WHO square

measure internationally knowledgeable and cross culturally sensitive. the scholar quality permits them to transfer to distinct surroundings, wherever they'll perceive the connections between the native surroundings during which they live, and therefore the international surroundings. The internationalization of education additionally facilitates in engendering the “international characteristics” fostered in students that square measure fascinating in a very international economy like international-mindedness and open mindedness, second language ability, flexibility of thinking, tolerance and respect for others. This development additionally develops moral commitment to permit students to look at their implicit and express beliefs and develop a way of responsibility and civic engagement. Other Rational As the nation-state developed and with-it colonial growth, political rationales came to the fore. By replicating European models of upper education within their colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia, the EU nations were trying to find political, cultural, economic, and educational dominance—a dominance that continues to be a problem nowadays. Economic rationales square measure expressed in many ways: a stress on internationalization to satisfy the strain for a contemporary, additional international labor force; joint international R&D comes to be competitive within the new technologies; Associate in Nursing the bigger concentrate on promoting instruction internationally—viewing instruction as an export trade goods. The political and economic rationales that square measure presently pushing instruction establishments to become additional international square measure principally factors external to those establishments. This doesn't mean that universities haven't any internal incentive


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to become additional international. the tutorial surroundings itself has modified radically within the past fifty years. instruction has become additional deregulated, privatized, and market directed, with additional numerous financial gain sources. The entrepreneurial university of nowadays has its own reasons to become additional international yet again. The recent stress on skilled education, on continuous education, and on new areas like environmental studies and data science needs a comparative and international dimension. Demand for this stress comes not solely from outside the establishment however additionally from school and students. Indian Scenario The gift, India is by no means that able to actively participate within the flowering situation of worldwide education. weak by a crisis of its national instruction, the country has not given priority to internationalization. native authorities don't acknowledge the advantages of those processes, and, as a result still have interaction in dialogue concerning international strategy on the policy front. For many years, the country has tried to open its doors to foreign academic suppliers so as to boost national capability. despite the fact that the market looks to be economically enticing, Indian governing bodies systematically fail to agree on regulative problems that may create new initiatives potential. As Associate in Nursing example, the Foreign Education suppliers Bill, 2012 has been blocked on multiple occasions. This regulative framework would enable foreign establishments to work their campuses in India. the most recent initiative could be a set of pointers titled ‘The University Grants Commission Promotion and Maintenance of Standards of educational Collaboration between Indian and Foreign academic establishments laws, 2016’. One may argue, that India mustn't pursue the

event of foreign campuses on its soil, however rather encourage international student quality and educational exchanges. At this juncture, though, India has nevertheless to satisfy the conditions that may facilitate any facet of internationalized instruction. The “Achilles’ heel” of Indian instruction is its poor quality, as well as infrastructure, teaching strategies, faculty, curricula, etc. For these reasons, Indian universities square measure graded low in world university rankings, and, this contributes to the shortage of interest from internationally mobile students. Quality of food, safety, accommodation and security in India also are cause for concern. an additional deterrent is that study visas issued for international students in India don't yield any employment inside the country once educational programs square measure completed. Apart from some universities, like Manipal University and interdependence International University, the bulk of academic establishments in India square measure merely not equipped to host a major range of foreign students. this is often thanks to out-of-date curricula with very little concentrate on international trends, the absence of adequate accommodation for international students, or employees to wear down foreign student affairs, etc. Nonetheless, foreign students do come back to India, principally from South Asia, western Asia and continent. per the Association of Indian Universities (AIU), 30,423 international students were registered in academic programs in India in 2014-15. the foremost common destinations for foreign students in India square measure the state of state, followed by Delhi and geographical region. the subsequent “pull factors” influence the choice to settle on India as a study destination: unique native culture and traditions, cultural and non-secular


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diversity (foreign students with similar identities realize it straightforward to adjust), availability of ICCR scholarships (Indian Council for Cultural Relations), low fees, low living expenses. Interestingly, the survey I recently conducted among foreign students within the state of Kerala, disclosed that that they had chosen India, as a result of there have been restricted opportunities for instruction in their home countries, scholarships were offered, and that they wanted to expertise a distinct culture. India cannot contend with developed countries in attracting foreign students, however it's its own distinctive blessings that manifest themselves on the cultural and political fronts. At present, South Asia is one amongst the additional troubled regions within the world and during this distressing situation, the internationalization of upper education may play a major role through intra-regional student quality wherever India participates as a key actor. The state of Kerala, for instance, presently hosts thirty-five students from Islamic State of Afghanistan (22% of the full range of international students in Kerala). within the same state there also are fifteen students from Asian country, WHO aren't solely registered in degree programs, however additionally receive temporary refuge from the tragic events presently flowering in their home country. Conclusion Secondary effects of Internationalization of Higher education in India square measure accomplished in 2 ways: foreign students from completely different backgrounds act and influence one another within the host country; foreign students and members of the area people have a mutual impact on each other. Perhaps, this is often additional apparent in “North to South” student migration, the total potential of that is nevertheless to be

accomplished. In alternative words, it's one issue to manoeuvre inside one continent or principally same surroundings and another issue altogether to manoeuvre to completely different surroundings and be exposed to unacquainted with traditions and culture. it's very true within the Indian context wherever a global student should regulate him/herself to new realities, overcome challenges, get recent views, and enlarge personal horizons. Cultural exchanges between foreign students, moreover as between the international population and native folks square measure equally necessary. Admittedly, native residents might not invariably be receptive to completely different cultures and reluctant to open themselves to alternative traditions. of these factors combined might ultimately contribute to developing a generation of additional cosmopolitan and broadminded tykes. Overall, there square measure various secondary effects ensuing from the internationalization of upper education— a number of them aren't invariably achieved, others could also be subjective and troublesome to live. it might be helpful to look at effects on the far side the traditional goals and advantages of Internalization of Higher education, to check however broader effects might vary supported specific internationalization ways and geographical location.

References Internationalization of Education in India: Emerging trends and Strategies . (2010). Asian Social Science. Marilia Costa Morosini, M. G. (2017). Internationalization of Higher Education: A Perspective from the Great South. Creative Education.


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Mitra, S. K. (2010). Internationalization of Education in India: Emerging trends and strategies. Asian Social Science. Parikh, D. M. (2016, January 21). Internationalizing higher education in India finding an equitable approach. Retrieved from The association of commonwealth universities.

Theodoridis, D. (2015). nternationalization of higher education – Teaching challenges in an international, multicultural classroom. Pedagogical Essays. Wit, H. d. (n.d.). Changing Rationales for the Internationalization of Higher Education. International Higher education.

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