internationalization & market entry
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The Internationalization Process & Market Entry Strategies
Market Entry Decisions
• Foreign Market Selection
• Timing & Order of Entry
• Market Expansion Strategies
• Mode of Entry Decisions
Foreign Market Selection
Step 1: Preliminary Screening of Foreign Markets
Key Question:
– Which foreign markets warrant further detailed investigation?
Decision Based On:
– Intl. Environmental Variables
Foreign Market Selection
Step 2: Assessment of Industry Market Potential
Key Question:
– What is the aggregate demand in each of the selected markets?
Decision Based On:
– Market Access Data
– Product Potential Information
– Infrastructural Facilities
Foreign Market Selection
Step 3: Company Sales Potential Analysis
Key Question:
– How attractive is the potential demand for my products?
Decision Based On:
– Sales Volume Forecasts
Timing & Order of Entry Decisions
• Sprinkler Approach
-- Entering Multiple Foreign Markets Simultaneously
• Waterfall Approach
-- Initially Entering One or More Lead Markets and Timing Subsequent Entry in a Phased Manner
Segmentation, Targeting & Product Positioning
• Market Segmentation Dividing the market into distinct groups of buyers with
different needs, characteristics and/or behavior
• Market Targeting Evaluating each market segment’s attractiveness and
selecting one or more market segments to enter
• Product Positioning Planning for the product to occupy a clear,
distinctive, and desirable place relative to competing products in the mind of target customers
Consumer Market Segmentation• Geographic
Different geographical regions, cities, countries
• Demographic Age, sex, income, education, occupation, religion, race, nationality
• Psychographic Social class, lifestyles, personalities
• Behavioral Purchase occasion, benefits sought, user status, usage rate, loyalty
International Market Segmentation Approaches
• Develop Cut-Off Criteria
• Shortlist based on Preliminary Screening
• Micro segmentation– Individual Country based– Cross-border segments
Requirements for Effective Segmentation
• Measurable• Sizable• Accessible• Actionable
Target Marketing
• Evaluating Market Segments
– segments size and growth
– segment structural attractiveness (Competitive
Intensity)
– company objectives and resources
• Selecting Market Segments
Global Target Market Strategies
• Universal Segments– “Global Teen Segment”– Standardized Approach– Differentiated Strategies
• Diverse Segments– Same product, different target segments– Canon AE-1 Camera
• Mixed Strategy
A Comparison of U.S. and Mexican Ads for Speed Stick Brand Deodorants
Comparison of Perceptions of U.S. v.s. Mexican Males
IDEAL VECTOR (Mex)
DEGREE
DEGREE
SPEED STICK
BRUTOLD SPICE SURE
GILLETTE
RIGHT GUARD
EFFECTIVENESS
LACK OF RESIDUE
SPEED STICKBRUT
OLD SPICE
SURE
GILLETTERIGHT GUARD
IDEAL VECTOR (U.S.)
- U.S. Consumers - Mexican Consumers
Comparison of Perceptions of U.S. v.s. Mexican Females
LACK OF RESIDUE
EFFECTIVENESS
IDEAL VECTOR (U.S.)
IDEAL VECTOR (Mex)
SECRET
LADY SPEED STICK
SURE
MUM
SECRET
LADY SPEED STICK
MUM
TEEN SPIRIT
TEENSPIRIT
- U.S. Consumers - Mexican Consumers
Market Expansion Strategies
• Concentration vs Diversification
– Countries vs Segments
Conc Div
Conc 1 2
Div 3 4
Market Expansion Strategies
• Strategy 1:– When product appeals to a definite group
of customers across markets and cost of penetration is very high (HDTV)
• Strategy 2:– When product line appeals to different
segments & cost of penetration is relatively high (consumer electronic goods)
Market Expansion Strategies
• Strategy 3:– Defined homogenous
segments across markets (Benz, Jaguar, etc.)
• Strategy 4:– Products with mass appeal with
relatively low cost of penetration (most consumer non-durable goods)
Choice of Entry Modes• Exporting
– Direct vs Indirect
• Contractual Agreements– Licensing, Franchising, etc.
• Equity Based– Joint Ventures– WOS
• Strategic Alliance
Choosing the Mode of Entry
• Decision Criteria for Mode of Entry– Market Size and Growth– Risk– Government Regulations– Competitive Environment– Local Infrastructure
Choosing the Mode of Entry (cont)
• Company Objectives
• Need for Control
• Internal Resources, Assets, and Capabilities
• Flexibility
• Mode of Entry Choice : A Transaction Cost Explanation
Exporting
• Indirect Exporting
• Cooperative Exporting
• Direct Exporting
Stages in the Export Process
• Uninterested
• Partially Interested
• Exploring
• Experimental
• Experienced
Indirect Channels of Exports• Merchants vs Agents• Trading company
– General Trading Companies• Sogo Shosha (C. Itoh; Mitsui, Mitsubishi, etc.)
– Export Trading Companies• Daewoo, Sears World Trade
• Export/Import Broker• Export Management Company
– international sales specialists who function as the export dept. of mfrs.
Cooperative Arrangements
• Piggyback Marketing– GE; Borg-Warner, etc.
• Marketing Cooperative Associations
• Export Cartels– OPEC– DeBeers Central Selling Orgn.– Webb-Pomerene Associations
Direct Channels of Exports
• Export departments
• Export Sales Subsidiary
• Foreign Sales Branch/Subsidiary
• Storage or Warehousing facilities
• Travelling Salesperson
Advantages and Disadvantages of Entry Modes
Entry Mode Advantage Disadvantage
Exporting Ability to realize location andexperience curve economies
High transport costsTrade barriersProblems with local marketing agents
Turnkeycontracts
Ability to earn returns fromprocess technology skills incountries where FDI isrestricted
Creating efficient competitorsLack of long-term market presence
Licensing Low development costs andrisks
Lack of control over technologyInability to realize location and
experience curve economiesInability to engage in global strategic
coordination
Advantages and Disadvantages of Entry Modes
Entry Mode Advantage Disadvantage
Franchising Low development costs andrisks
Lack of control over qualityInability to engage in global strategic
coordination
Jointventures
Access to local partner’sknowledge
Sharing development costs andrisks
Politically acceptable
Lack of control over technologyInability to engage in global strategic
coordinationInability to realize location and
experience economies
Whollyownedsubsidiaries
Protection of technologyAbility to engage in global
strategic coordinationAbility to realize location and
experience economies
High costs and risks
International Strategic Alliances
• Strategic Alliance– refers to any type of cooperative
agreements between two or more firms who are potential or actual competitors.
– Can take multiple forms including: JVs, R&D collaborations, piggy backing, sourcing relationships, etc.
International Strategic Alliances
• In general, any relationship that involves mutual dependence and shared decision making between two or more firms can be characterized as a strategic alliance.
• It differs from traditional JVs in that:– strategic alliances are increasingly between firms in
the industrialized nations– the focus is on creation of new products and
technologies rather than the distribution of existing ones
Why Strategic Alliances?
• Rising R&D Costs• Shortening Product Life Cycles• Growing Barriers to Market Entry• Increasing Need for Global Scale Economies• Expanding Importance of Global Standards• Forms the basis of Building and Sustaining
Competitive Advantage in Industries undergoing major Transitions
Managing International Alliances
• The Logic of Collaboration– Identifying when, where, and why to collaborate– An alliance is usually one of several options for
pursuing a strategic goal; it is never an end in itself
– Strategic Goals: Product Exchange; Corporate Learning & Market Positioning
– Cost-Benefit Tradeoffs– Alternatives to Collaboration: Self-Sufficiency;
Buying the Inputs or Skills; Full Acquisition.
Key Issues in Managing International Alliances
• Selecting Partners– Knowing how to maximize benefits and
minimize risks of partnerships– Complementary needs and assets
• Structuring Alliances– Choosing organizational forms that provide
incentives for success– Contracts vs. Equity Relationships
Key Issues in Managing International Alliances
• Building Alliance Networks– Creating a system of reinforcing alliances, and avoiding
chaos– Network Design: Is the whole greater than the sum of the
parts?
Who controls the network? & Where is competitive advantage created?
• Alliance Dynamics– Managing with an eye to the forces for change in a
relationship
Key Issues in Managing International Alliances
• Limits to Alliances– Recognizing the constraints on collaborative
strategies– Organizational Constraints; Strategic Gridlock;
Dependence
• The Role of Governments– Antitrust laws– Host government intervention
INCOTERMS
• Ex-works (EXW)
• Free Carrier (FCA)– inland vs destination point
• Free Alongside Ship (FAS)– seller responsible for inland transportation.
unloading and wharfage– Loading, ocean transportation and insurance
are buyer’s responsibilities
INCOTERMS
• Free on Board (FOB)
• Cost & Freight (CFR)
• Cost, Insurance & Freight (CIF)– port charges– documentation charges– other charges
• Delivery Duty Paid (DDP)
Terms of Payment
• Consignment• Open Account• Documents against Acceptance (Time
Draft)• Documents against Payment (Sight Draft)• Letter of Credit• Confirmed LC• Cash in Advance
Letter of Credit
A Letter of Credit is an instrument issued by a bank, at the request of a buyer.
The bank promises to pay a specified amount of money on presentation of documents stipulated in the L.C.
Letter of Credit• Irrevocable vs Revocable LC
– An irrevocable L.C. cannot be modified or cancelled without the consent of the exporter
• Confirmed vs Unconfirmed– A confirmed L.C. is one where a domestic bank
certifies the credibility of the issuing bank
• Revolving vs Non-revolving
Bill of Lading
The bill of lading is a document used in ocean transportation that serves 3 distinct functions:
– it is the contract of carriage between the shipper and the transportation company
– it is a receipt of goods– it is evidence of title to the merchandise
Export Pricing Strategies
• Standard Worldwide Pricing
• Rigid Cost-Plus Pricing
• Marginal Cost-Plus Pricing
• Market-Differentiated Pricing
Price Escalation• Export Related Costs
– Cost of adapting products to foreign markets– Operational costs
• personnel• market research• shipping & insurance• communication costs
– Tariffs & Taxes– Costs associated with hedging, factoring/forfaiting
Strategic Options to Deal with Price Escalation
• Reorganizing/shortening the distribution channel
• Product modification (backward innovation)
• Shipping & Assembling components in Free Trade Zones
• Overseas Production or sourcing (duty drawbacks)
Marginal vs Rigid Cost-Plus Pricing
• Firm-specific Factors– Extend of product differentiation– Corporate stance toward exporting– Financial resources to sustain initial losses– Domestic Gross Margins– Need for long term capacity utilization– Economies of scale benefits
Marginal vs Rigid Cost-Plus Pricing
• Export Market Specific Factors– Growth Potential– End-User Price Sensitivity– Competitive Intensity– Terms of Sale & Financing– Exchange rate risk
Export Strategies When Domestic Currency is Weak
• Stress Price Benefits
• Expand Product line and add more costly features
• conduct conventional cash-for-goods sale
• use rigid cost-plus pricing wherever possible
• Bill foreign customers in domestic currency
Export Strategies When Domestic Currency is Weak
• Minimize expenditures in host country currency
• Minimize borrowing in host country
• Buy needed services (advertising, insurance, etc.) in domestic market
International Transfer Pricing
• Transfer pricing is the pricing of sales within members of a corporate family
– HQ to Subsidiaries– Subsidiaries to HQ– Subsidiary to Subsidiary
Why Use Transfer Pricing?
• Reduction of Taxes
• Reduction of Tariffs
• Increase Competitiveness of certain foreign markets
• Minimization of foreign exchange risks
• Minimization of political risks
• Management of cash flows
Types of International Transfer Pricing
• Cost-based– most effective strategy but open to tough laws
• market based (dealer price)
• arm’s-length transaction
Why Use Counter trade?
• Lack of money
• Lack of value of money
• No convertibility of currency
• Offset financial risk
• Other factors that make it more efficient to exchange goods directly than to use money as an intermediary
• As a competitive strategy
• Excellent mechanism to get a foothold into foreign markets
Major Drawbacks
“Instead of there being a double coincidence of wants, there is likely to be a want of coincidence; so that, unless a hungry tailor happens to find an undraped farmer, who has both food and a desire for a pair of pants, neither can make a trade.”
Paul Samuelson
• Transactions purely bilateral in nature and thus are not competitive
• Trade is formulated on the basis of the willingness to countertrade and not on economic considerations
• Creates economic inefficiencies
Types of Countertrade
• Counterpurchase or parallel barter (46%)– Involves both cash & kind transactions– Parallel reciprocity (a special case)
• Buyback (11%)– Technology in return for finished goods– Levi Strauss in Hungary
• Offset (27.5%)– Cost offsets through investments– Can be in multiple forms– Common in high cost deals (defense)
• Swaps (11%)– Debt for debt swaps– Debt for equity swaps– Debt for product swaps– Debt for education swaps
• Clearing Arrangements– Extend over long period– Involve basket of goods– Held as deposits representing purchasing
power (credit - debit account)
• Switch Trading (4.5%)– A type of clearing arrangement where credit
can be sold or transferred to a third party
Information Requirements for Intl. Marketing
• Strategic Decisions– Foreign market selection– Mode of entry decision– Product/Market portfolio strategies– Market expansion strategies
• Tactical Decisions– Marketing mix strategies for individual country
markets
Depends on the type of decision
Measurement
THE INTERNATIONAL MARKETING RESEARCH PROCESS
FIRM OBJECTIVE
INFORMATION REQUIREMENT
PROBLEM DEFINITION
CHOOSE UNIT OF ANALYSIS
EXAMINE DATA AVAILABILTY Can Secondary Data be Used?
ASSESS VALUE OF RESEARCH
RESEARCH DESIGN
DATA ANALYSIS
INTERPRETATION/ PRESENTATION
Firm’s Needs
Market Orientation
Strategic Orientation
Problem Orientation
Self Reference Criterion
Country
Region
Global
Subgroup/Segments Within Countries
Cost/ Benefit Analysis
Causal
Descriptive
Exploratory
Data Preparation
Data Manipulation
T-tests & Cross TAbs
Experimental Design & ANOVA
Multivariate Techniques
Advantages / Disadavantages of Secondary Research
Sources of Secondary Data
Types of Problems That CAn be Solved Using Secondary Data
Frequency & Ease of Use
Issues inPrimary Data Collection
Qualitative Methodsi
Surveys
Instrument Design
Scale Development
Sampling
Types
Sources of Bias
Country/ Regional Specific Bias
Equivalence
Coding
Wording
Format
Construct
Sampling
Analysis
Yes
No
Problem Identification and Definition
• Problem may not always be couched in the same terms in different countries or cultural contexts
Beware of “self-reference criterion”
Eg: “Why doesn’t powder detergent sell in Africa?
Issues in Multi-Country Data Collection
• Availability
• Accuracy
• Comparability (the issue of equivalence)
• Cost
The EMIC - ETIC Dilemma
• EMIC – Each culture is unique– Advocates “culture-specific” approach
• ETIC – Assessing universal attitudes and behavior– Advocates “culture-free” approach
The schools of thought
Major Sources of Secondary Data for IMR
• U.S. government
• Other government embassies
• International organizations
• Directories and newsletters
• Electronic databases
Primary Sources of Data
• Qualitative research methods
• Survey research
• Experimentation
Qualitative Research
• Individual interviews
• Focus groups
• Projective techniques
• Observational methods
• Language
• Unavailability of certain segment of population– Interviewing women in Saudi Arabia
• Interviewer bias
Cultural Influences
• Not all societies encourages frank and open exchanges– High context vs low context cultures
– Status consciousness
– Gender roles
– Role of elders
• Disagreement may be seen as impolite or certain topics may be taboo
• differences in perceptions and attitudes
Survey Research
• Mail Survey– Efficiency of postal system– Absence of street and house numbers
• Eg: In Venezuela houses have names (“Casa Rosa”) not numbers
– Literacy rate– Reluctance to respond in writing particularly
sensitive issues (Eg: ownership of imported cars in Brazil)
• Telephone Survey– Availability of telephones– Efficiency of telephone system
• Eg: “Hung up” - Russian telephone system
• Mall Intercepts– Not common outside U.S
Questionnaire Design
• Format– Structured vs Unstructured– Direct vs Indirect
• Content– Sensitivity of cultures
• Wording– “Translation-Re-translation”
The Issue of “Equivalence”
• Construct Equivalence– Are we studying the same phenomenon in
countries X, Y, and Z?• Eg: Bicycles
- Recreation/exercise in the U.S.- Basic mode of transportation in developing countries
• Measurement Equivalence– Are the phenomenon in countries X, Y, and Z
measured the same way?• Eg: Questionnaire translation and interpretation
issues
• Sampling Equivalence– Are the samples used i countries X, Y, and Z
equivalent?• Eg: Literacy rates
Key Pitfalls in Conducting an International Marketing Research
• Selecting a domestic research company to do your international research
• Rigidly standardizing methodologies across countries• Interviewing in English around the world• Setting inappropriate sampling requirements• Lack of consideration given to language• Lack of systematic intl. communications procedure• Misinterpreting multi-country data across countries• Not understanding cultural differences while
conducting qualitative research