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International Workshop for Management and Trade

of Caiman yacare

3-5 October 2002 Gainesville, Florida, USA

James Perran Ross

2003

International Workshop for Management and Trade

of Caiman yacare

3-5 October 2002 Gainesville, Florida, USA

An International workshop convened by Crocodile Specialist Group with funding support from

US Fish and Wildlife Service Office of International Affairs, CITES Secretariat and Louisiana Fur and Alligator Council

James Perran Ross Executive Officer Crocodile Specialist Group

Florida Museum of Natural History Box 117800, University of Florida

Gainesville, FL 32601 USA Telephone: 352/846-2566 • Fax 352/392-9367

E-mail: [email protected]

Acronyms and abbreviations

CESO/SACO Canadian Executive Service Organization CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

of Wild Fauna and Flora CPIB Indigenous People of Beni (Pueblos Indígenas del Beni) CSG Crocodile Specialist Group DFFS Wildlife Service (Dirección de Flora y Fauna Silvestre) DGB General Directorate of Biodiversity EMBRAPA Brazilian Enterprise for Range and Livestock Research (Empresa Brasileira de

Pesquisa Agropecuária) ENFOPESCOR National Fisheries Support Company and Beni Development Corporation

(Empresa Nacional de Fomento a la Pesca y Corporacion de Desarrollo del Beni) FVSA Argentina Wildlife Foundation (Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina) IBAMA Brazilian Institute of the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources

(Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e Recursos Naturais Renováveis) IUCN World Conservation Union NGO Non Governmental Organization PIAS Integral Program for Sustainable Amazon (Programa Integral Amazonía

Sostenible) PIAS Programa Integral Amazonía Sostenible SEAM Secretariat of the Environment (Paraguay) SSC Species Survival Commission SVL Snout-vent length TCO Community Territories of Origin (Tierras Comunitarias de Origen Indigenous) UICN Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza UICN Unión Mundial para la Naturaleza UNEP United Nations Environmental Program USGS-BRD US Geological Survey – Biological Resources Division WWF World Wildlife Fun

Participants Argentina Laura Barrientos Secretaría de Recursos Naturales San Martín 459 Buenos Aires 1004, Argentina [email protected] Lic. Victoria Lichtschein Secretaría de Recursos Naturales Directora Flora y Fauna San Martín 459 Buenos Aires 1004, Argentina [email protected] Dr. Obdulio Menghi President Fundación Biodiversidad - Argentina Uruguay 1231 - 8A 1016 Buenos Aires, Argentina [email protected] Bolivia Dr. Alex Ferrier Director Departamental de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente Prefectura del Departamento del Beni Trinidad, Bolivia [email protected] Alfonso Llobet Q. Consultant, Dirección General de Biodiversidad Avenida 2. No. 7, Auquisamaña Casilla No. 3-35012 (San Miguel) La Paz, Bolivia [email protected], [email protected] Sebastian Paz Curtiembre Moxos Trinidad, Beni Bolivia [email protected]

Brasil Maria Iolita Bampi Fauna General Coordinator Fauna and Fisheries Directorate IBAMA - Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources Edificio Sede, SAIN Av. L4 Norte Brasilia, DF. Brasil 70800-200 [email protected] Dr. Marcos Coutinho Center for Conservation and Management of Reptiles and Amphibians IBAMA - Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources Av. General Rondon, 1704 Corumbá – MS 79320-000 Brasil [email protected] CITES Malan Lindeque Program Officer - CITES/UNEP CITES Secretariat 15 Rue Chemain des Anemones Geneva CH-1219, Switzerland [email protected] Crocodile Specialist Group Robert Godshalk Workshop Coordinator Florida Museum of Natural History Dickinson Hall, Museum Road Gainesville, FL 32611 USA [email protected] Dr. Alejandro Larriera Regional Vice Chairman Crocodile Specialist Group (CSG/SSC/IUCN) Latin American and the Caribbean Region PJE PVDO 4455 Centeno 950 Santa Fe, Santa Fe 3000 Argentina [email protected]

Dr. James Perran Ross Executive Officer, Crocodile Specialist Group Florida Museum of Natural History Dickinson Hall, Box 117800 University of Florida Gainesville, FL 32611 USA [email protected] Dr. Tomas Waller Director de Conservación Fundación Biodiversidad - Argentina La Pampa 1815 - 5B 1428 Buenos Aires, Argentina [email protected]; [email protected] Dr. Richard Ferguson Regional Vice Chairman CSG Africa Mombasa, Kenya [email protected]

Louisiana Fur and Alligator Advisory Council Don Ashley P.O. Box 13679 Tallahassee, FL 32317 [email protected] Dr. Peter Brazaitis 155 Woodchuck Ln. Harwington, CT 06791 [email protected] Dr. Ruth Elsey 5476 Grand Chenier Hwy. Grand Chenier, LA 70643 [email protected] Paraguay Ignacio Avila Consultant - Secretaría del Ambiente Avenida Madame Lynch N 3500 c/Primer Presidente Asunción, Paraguay Lic. Nora Neris de Colman Dirección de Manejo de Vida Silvestre, Pesca y Acuicultura Secretaría del Ambiente Asunción, Paraguay [email protected]

Lic Martha Motte Departamento de Herpetología Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay – SEAM Ascuncion, Paraguay [email protected] TRAFFIC – South America Bernardo Ortiz IUCN, Oficina Regional - TRAFFIC Suramérica Casilla Correo No. 17-17626 Atahualpa 955 y República, Piso 7 Quito, Ecuador [email protected] United States Dr. Javier Alvarez Chief, Branch of Consultation and Monitoring Division of Scientific Authority U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 750 Arlington, VA 22203 [email protected] Mr. William Knapp M.S. Intern - Division of Scientific Authority US Fish and Wildlife Service 4401 North Fairfax Dr., Rm. 750 Arlington, VA 22203 USGS-Wildlife Cooperative Unit H. Franklin Percival United States Geological Survey Biological Resources Division (USGS-BRD) Cooperative Unit Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Newins Zeigler Hall University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32601 [email protected] Venezuela Alvaro Velasco B. Deputy Vice Chairman Latin American and the Caribbean Region Crocodile Specialist Group-SSC-IUCN [email protected]

Contents Executive summary ----------------------------------------------------------------- i Workshop narrative report ------------------------------------------------------- iii Financial summary ------------------------------------------------------------------ v Acknowledgments ------------------------------------------------------------------ vi Workshop Program ----------------------------------------------------------------- vii Working group summary results ----------------------------------------------- 1

Working Group 1 – Framework for the design of a Management Plan -------- 1 Working Group 2 – Structure -------------------------------------------------------- 3 Plenary decision: Creation of an ad hoc group of the CITES

Administrative/Scientific Authorities from the species------------------------------

5 Submitted Country reports Current situation and perspective on the use and the conservation

of the yacare, Caiman yacare in the Argentine Republic ------------- Tomás Waller

7

Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 7 Present distribution --------------------------------------------------------------------- 7 Investigations of the previous decade ------------------------------------------------ 7 Situation and population trends ------------------------------------------------------- 10 Present legal situation ------------------------------------------------------------------ 10

National scope ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 Provincial scope --------------------------------------------------------------------- 11 International scope ------------------------------------------------------------------ 11

Results of regulation at the national level -------------------------------------------- 11 Argentine exports for period 1992 – 2001 ------------------------------------------- 11 Captive production and ranching ------------------------------------------------------ 12 Evidence of hunting in the wild ------------------------------------------------------- 12

Of skins for commercial purposes ------------------------------------------------- 12 Of meat for nutritional purposes --------------------------------------------------- 12

Perspective of management in the future -------------------------------------------- 13 Captive production for commercial purposes ------------------------------------ 13 Ranching for commercial purposes ----------------------------------------------- 13 Harvest in the wild ------------------------------------------------------------------ 13

Economic impact of a future harvest program -------------------------------------- 14 Potential conflicts in the regional management of the black yacare -------------- 14 People associated with the conservation of crocodilians in Argentina ----------- 15

Cites authority – Argentina --------------------------------------------------------- 15 Local Specialists associated with CSG/IUCN ----------------------------------- 15

Literature cited -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15

International Workshop for Management and Trade of Caiman yacare

Report of the workshop on the evaluation of

the national program of sustainable use of the ‘Lagarto’ (Caiman yacare) in Bolivia -------------------------------

Report: Alejandro Larriera; Contributors: Alvaro Velasco, Tomas Waller, Robert Godshalk, Obdulio Menghi and Bernardo Ortiz. Translation from Spanish: Robert Godshalk

17

Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17 Bases and legal background (Ministry of Sustainable

Development and planning) ----------------------------------------------------------

17 Objectives of the workshop ------------------------------------------------------------- 19

Specific objectives ------------------------------------------------------------------- 19 Conclusions (prefecture of Beni) ------------------------------------------------------ 19

General directives ------------------------------------------------------------------- 19 General conclusions ----------------------------------------------------------------- 20 Specific conclusions ----------------------------------------------------------------- 21

Conservation and protection ----------------------------------------------------- 21 Integral utilization and marketing ----------------------------------------------- 21 Control and regulation ------------------------------------------------------------ 22

Summary of the external observers: (CSG) ------------------------------------------ 22 Technical ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 22 Methodological ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 22 Administrative ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 22

Final considerations (CSG) ------------------------------------------------------------- 22

Program for the conservation and sustainable use of the lagarto (Caiman yacare) in Bolivia* -------------------------------------

Alfonso Llobet Querejazu

25

Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 25 Technical bases for establishing the sustainable use of Caiman yacare --------- 26 Technical and legal background for the program (Ministry of Sustainable

Development and Planning – General Direction of Biodiversity ---------------

27 Workshop for the evaluation of the national program for sustainable

use of lagarto (Caiman yacare) in Bolivia -----------------------------------------

30 Conclusions ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 31 Literature cited -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32 Policy for the conservation and management

of jacare (Caiman yacare)in Brazil ------------------------------------------- M. Coutinho & M. I. Bampi

35

Summary --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35 Development and conservation through the sustainable use of fauna ------------ 35 Evolution of the policies of conservation and management

* Submitted at the meeting.

of the jacaré-do-Pantanal ------------------------------------------------------------- 36 Biological basis of the conservation and management

program for the jacaré of the Pantanal ----------------------------------------------

38 Taxonomic aspects ------------------------------------------------------------------ 39 Area of distribution and environmental characteristics ------------------------- 40 Feeding habits and body condition in the seasonal environment -------------- 41 Reproductive biology of males ---------------------------------------------------- 42 Reproductive biology of females -------------------------------------------------- 42 Rate of population growth ---------------------------------------------------------- 43 Status and tends in population size ------------------------------------------------ 44

Literature cited ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - 45 Evaluation of Caiman management in Paraguay

A. Larriera & J. P. Ross 49

Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 49 Itinerary ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49 Results ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 49

Analysis of technical foundation for management – recent surveys ------------ 50 Analysis of proposed new harvest system ----------------------------------------- 50 Current (2001) program -------------------------------------------------------------- 52

Analysis of weak points ---------------------------------------------------------------- 52 Analysis of technical and implementation capacity ------------------------------- 53 Analysis of Pilcomayo issue --------------------------------------------------------- 53

Recommendations ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 54 Technical – surveys ------------------------------------------------------------------- 54 Technical – Capacity building ------------------------------------------------------- 54 Administrative- Improve harvest control ------------------------------------------- 54 Administrative – Public relations --------------------------------------------------- 54 Administrative – Confiscated material --------------------------------------------- 54

Acknowledgements --------------------------------------------------------------------- 55 Analysis of the use of Jakare Hu (Caiman yacare) in Paraguay* ----

Nora Neris 57

Background ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 57 Systems of permits and control -------------------------------------------------------- 58

The Pilcomayo case -------------------------------------------------------------------- 60 Indigenous program -------------------------------------------------------------------- 61

Conflicts with the government and tanners ------------------------------------------ 61 Exportation and legal problems ------------------------------------------------------- 62 Bolivia and illegal hides ---------------------------------------------------------------- 62 Discussion -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63 Strengths and weaknesses in the system --------------------------------------------- 63

Strengths -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63 Weaknesses ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63

Literature cited -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64 * Submitted at the meeting.


Reclassification of Caiman yacare (extract) ----------------------------------

US Federal Register Vol 65, No 87 May 4, 2000 65

Summary --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65 Effective date ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65 Addresses -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65 Supplementary information ------------------------------------------------------------ 65

Background ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65 Comments Received ------------------------------------------------------------------ 67 Summary of Factors Affecting Caiman yacare ----------------------------------- 71

A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range -----------------------------------------

71

B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or Educational Purposes --------------------------------------------------------

71

C. Disease or Predation ------------------------------------------------------------ 72 D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms ----------------------- 73 E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting

Its Continued Existence -----------------------------------------------------------

74 Summary of Findings ----------------------------------------------------------------- 74 Similarity of Appearance ------------------------------------------------------------- 74 Available Conservation Measures --------------------------------------------------- 75 Effects of This Rule ------------------------------------------------------------------- 76 Description of the Special Rule ------------------------------------------------------ 76 Effects of the Special Rule ----------------------------------------------------------- 77 The Monitoring of Yacare Caiman -------------------------------------------------- 78 Regulatory Planning and Review --------------------------------------------------- 79 Regulatory Flexibility Act ----------------------------------------------------------- 79 Unfunded Mandates Reform Act ---------------------------------------------------- 79 Takings --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 79 Federalism ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 79 Civil Justice Reform ------------------------------------------------------------------ 79 Paperwork Reduction Act ------------------------------------------------------------ 79 National Environmental Policy Act -------------------------------------------------- 79 References Cited ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 79 Authors --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80 List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 ----------------------------------------------------- 80 Regulations Promulgation ------------------------------------------------------------ 80

Part 17 [amended] ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 80 Sec. 17.11 Endangered and threatened wildlife ---------------------------------- 80 Sec. 17.42 Special rules – reptiles -------------------------------------------------- 81

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Executive Summary Keywords: Caiman, international cooperation, national management plans. A workshop was held 3-5 October 2002 in Gainesville, Florida, USA to discuss management, conservation and trade in Caiman yacare. Twenty five official participants represented the four yacare range states (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay), Venezuela, USA, the meeting sponsors (US Fish and Wildlife Service, CITES Secretariat, Louisiana Fur and Alligator Council), TRAFFIC Sur America and Crocodile Specialist Group. A series of country reports detailing yacare management in the four range states were distributed in Spanish and English prior to the meeting and presentations on these and on general principles of crocodilian harvest, conservation and management provided the basis for the discussions. Three working groups considered:

• Requirements and field techniques for field data collection. • Requirements and techniques for regulation of harvest. • Requirements and processes for regulation of trade and export.

Written reports of working groups and a plenary drafting session were finalized during the meeting and distributed, with the country reports, to participants. The workshop drafted a framework for caiman management and regulation that could be used as a template and adapted for use in each range state. The meeting agreed to convene an ad-hoc working group of range state representatives to continue discussions on the harmonization of caiman management into the future. Background

The yacare (Caiman yacare or Caiman crocodilus yacare) is a small crocodilian found in four countries in South America; Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Bolivia. The species is abundant and widely distributed in all kinds of water bodies (lakes, rivers, swamps, wet savanas (Pantanal). The species was exploited heavily for leather during the 1960’s and 1970’s but by 1990 a combination of national legislation and CITES regulations reduced legal trade. The species continues to be exploited for meat for local use and a continuing trade in illegal skins is alleged, but difficult to verify. The yacare is listed on Appendix II of CITES, allowing international trade if range states can verify that harvests are non-detrimental and if they issue export certificates. Currently, of the four range states, Argentina maintains a ban on exports, Brazil allows export of captive bred specimens and Bolivia and Paraguay have set quotas for harvest and export of wild specimens.

The USA listed the yacare as an endangered species on its Endangered Species Act, prohibiting all imports. The service issued new regulations in 2000 listing the species (along with Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and Caiman crocodilus fuscus) as ‘Threatened’ and setting out new regulations allowing the import of yacare to the USA. The background, history, biological basis and detailed review of this process is extensively documented in the US Federal Register Vol. 65 No. 87, 4 May 2000.

In the yacare range states, efforts have been underway for several years to develop the biological information and management and regulatory structure to allow sustainable exploitation and legal export of yacare. Surveys have been conducted in every range state and efforts made to establish structures and protocols to allow CITES management authorities to both control harvest and export and to verify that


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such harvest is non-detrimental. Several difficulties have been identified as these programs have developed.

In the course of dialogue over several years concerning the downlisting of the yacare by the USA, representatives of range states, US commercial alligator interests, the FWS and the Crocodile Specialist Group (CSG) have discussed the great utility of convening an international workshop on yacare. At this workshop current information and activities concerning yacare could be presented and management and regulatory mechanisms coordinated between the range states. This workshop would also assist the FWS fulfill its request to range countries for information as described in the yacare final rule (FR 65, No 87 page 25877- The Monitoring of Yacare caiman.). Objectives

The objective of the workshop was to bring together representatives of official government management agencies and CITES Authorities, with appropriate technical experts from the four yacare range states to discuss the current state and future direction of their management of Caiman yacare. To assist them in this effort, representatives of other countries and organizations with experience and expertise in crocodilian management programs were included.

The immediate goal of the workshop was to share information about existing and potential activities (research, regulation, enforcement, trade control, permit issuance). From this base mutually agreed protocols and procedures will be proposed to ensure that the harvest of yacare in the range states is sustainable and the export of products of this harvest meets CITES standards for control.

Narrative of the Workshop Following confirmation of funds in April 2002, mechanisms were established to disburse funds from FWS through the US Geological Service. Louisiana Funds were provided directly to CSG and funds from the CITES Secretariat were provided directly to TRAFFIC Sur America (Quito, Ecuador) and disbursed from there. Invitations were issued to CITES Management Authorities and relevant interests in the four yacare range states, Colombia, Venezuela, USA and the sponsor institutions. Country reports were solicited and received from each of the range states, translated into English/Spanish as needed and distributed to all participants and sponsors prior to the workshop. Copies of the country background papers are attached as part of this report. The workshop venue, international travel of participants and simultaneous translation for the meeting was arranged. Due to delays in receipt of committed funds, all the workshop expenses were paid by CSG for re-imbursement by the various sponsors.

On 2nd October 2002, 25 participants and observers assembled at the Sheraton Hotel, Gainesville Florida (participants list attached). Several observers from Louisiana were unable to attend due to a hurricane disrupting travel and the delegate from the Colombian CITES Management Authority cancelled at the last minute.

The workshop program October 3-5 is attached. Discussions were held primarily in Spanish but were greatly assisted by simultaneous translation facilities. A running record of deliberations and conclusions was maintained on flip-charts and laptop computers during the sessions. All documents and products of the workshop have been translated and are available in both Spanish and English. Delegates all stayed at the Sheraton and ate catered meals together, enabling extension of discussions outside the scheduled sessions.

On the first day, delegates conducted a detailed program of information exchange and review of current status of research and management of yacare in the range states and general discussions of principles of crocodilian management and harvest. Participants expresses surprise and pleasure at the quantity and quality of information presented.

On the second day, three breakout working groups were directed to address three topics: • Requirements and field techniques for field data collection • Requirements and techniques for regulation of harvest • Requirements and processes for regulation of trade and export

Each group returned progress reports and a written final report to the plenary session (reports attached). Delegates recognized that the special conditions in each range state, including geography, research and management infrastructure and capacity, legal and political system and economy, precluded development of a single guideline for managing yacare. Therefore, a general outline of key factors was prepared that each range state could adapt to their conditions and capacity. While this approach may appear overly general, the participants were unanimous that simple and general guidelines would be more likely to be implemented and each representative of a range state national agency undertook to do so.

On the final day of the meeting delegates struggled with an unresolved technical issue, the determination of appropriate and harmonized size limits for wild caiman harvest. In a revelatory moment for the group, it was recognized that the conflicting proposals for different size limits were all constrained by inadequate information on the size of sexual maturity of female Caiman yacare in the four range states, and that these might well be different. A significant compromise was achieved in agreement on a practical, harmonized and precautionary harvest size limit of 180cm total length that would restrict harvest to mostly adult males. Research to establish the biologically appropriate size limit was identified as an immediate need. This process of conflict resolution by informal discussion between national

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agencies was recognized to be a new and significant breakthrough in the management of crocodilians and might be extended to other shared natural resources.

The culmination of the workshop was therefore a very dynamic drafting session, aided by the computer technology to instantly project and revise the draft document, at which a proposal to develop a forum to continue these discussions was developed.

The outputs of the meeting (presented papers, working group reports and the final plenary manifesto) were finalized and copied to discs and distributed to participants prior to their departure.

This report is also available in English and Spanish and will be assembled and bound for distribution in both languages to participants and sponsors. This report will also be made available for electronic distribution.

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Financial summary

Funding Fish and Wildlife Service, International Affairs 25,000 Louisiana Fur and Alligator Council 12,000 CITES Secretariat 10,000

Total US$47,000

Expenses by CSG Accommodations, meals and facilities 9,487 Airfares participants 6,679 Local travel participants 940 Simultaneous translation 8,280 Printing, copies and supplies 308 Salaries, OPS assistant/translator 5,300 Print and distribute final report 3,500 Management and administration 2,500

Total US$36, 994 Expenses by TRAFFIC Sur America Airtravel (9 particpants) 6,566.18 Lodging 448.48 Communications 528.60 Staff time TRAFFIC-Quito 2,456.00

Total US$9,999.26

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Acknowledgements This workshop was developed from discussions held in Nairobi, Kenya, in 2000 between Yacare range states, Crocodile Specialist Group and representatives of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. The sustained enthusiasm of the range state management authorities, particularly Victoria Lichtschein (Argentina) and Iolita Bampi (Brazil) was fundamental to the workshop’s success. The concept prospered with inputs from Sue Leiberman & Marshal Jones (USFWS), Don McLaughlin (International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies) and Don Ashley (Louisiana Fur and Alligator Council). Funding and conceptual support for the workshop was provided by Kenneth Stansell and Teiko Saito (USFWS), Darrel ‘Fats’ Dupont (LFAC), Greg Lipscombe (Louisiana Dept. Fish and Wildlife) and the Malan Lindeque (CITES Secretariat). Bernardo Ortiz of TRAFFIC Sur America arranged travel disbursements and conceptual guidance. Support of Professor Harry Messel, Chairman, and the Steering Committee of the CSG is gratefully acknowledged. The coordinators a very grateful to H. Franklin Percival (USGS Wildlife Coop Unit- University of Florida) and his staff Debra Hatfield and Barbara Fessler for managing the many complexities of funding. Robert Godshalk handled the bulk of logistic arrangements and provided translations of many papers. Alejandro Larrierra provided firm and empathetic guidance as chair of the meeting. We greatly appreciate the contributions of the all the authors of country reports and the productive discussion from all the participants who are listed separately below. We thank The Language Bank for very competent simultaneous translation during the meeting, Becky at Gator Express for local transport and Greg at Gainesville Sheraton for facilities. This Proceedings was compiled and produced by Florence Sergile. Perran Ross Executive Officer CSG

CROCODILE SPECIALIST GROUP S p e c i e s S u r v i v a l C o m m i s s i o n / T h e W o r l d C o n s e r v a t i o n U n i o n Chairman: Prof. Harry Messel; Deputy Chairmen: Prof. F. Wayne King and Dr. Dietrich Jelden; Executive Officer: Dr. James Perran Ross, Florida Museum of Natural History, Gainesville, FL 32611-7800, U.S.A. Tel: (1) (352) 846 2566 Fax: (1) (352) 392 9367 E-mail: [email protected]

International Workshop on Regulation, Management and Trade of Caiman yacare

3-5 October 2002

Location - Gainesville Sheraton Hotel, SW 13th St Gainesville FL. All participants will stay at the Gainesville Sheraton. Three meals daily will be catered by the hotel for supported participants. Breakfast - buffet 7.00 am- 8.30 am Lunch fixed menu 12.00 – 1.00 pm Dinner Buffet 7.00 pm –

Participants will be responsible for any additional beverage and incidental charges including long distance telephone calls.

Program Thursday, 3 Oct 2002

9.00 am Introduction of participants. Welcome and opening remarks by Perran Ross. Description of workshop structure and operating procedures

9.30 am Concepts and history of conservation and sustainable use of crocodilians by CSG – Alejandro Larriera

10.00 am Historical summary of management and use of yacare until 1990 by P. Ross and CSG members

10.30 Coffee break

11.00 am National Reports – summaries presented by each range state about activities, experiences and results from 1990 – 2002. Reports will include evolution of statutes, results from population surveys, state of captive production, illegal activities and hide confiscations and CITES export data

11.00 am Argentina presentation by Victoria Lichtschein 11.40 am Bolivia presentation by Alfonso Llobet

12.30 am – 2.00 pm Lunch

2.00 pm Brazil presentation by Ms. Iolita Bampi 2.40 pm Paraguay presentation by Lic. Nora Neris

3.40 pm Coffee break

4.00 pm Technical reports - Experiences from successful, long-term programs, including: 4.00 pm Venezuela presentation by Alvaro Velasco 4.40 pm USA - presentation by Javier Alvarez

5.00 pm close

6.00 pm- Welcome Social hosted by CSG

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Friday, 4 Oct. 2002

9.00 am Organization of Working Groups Requirements and field techniques for data collection (surveys, techniques, logistic problems,

reports) Requirements and techniques for regulation (quotas, permits, licenses, calendars, verification) Requirements and processes for export (tags, permits, verification, reports)

9.30 am – 12.00 Working Groups in session

12.00 – 2.00 pm Lunch

2.00 pm Progress report working Groups 10. Minutes each.

2.30 pm Discussion of International coordination (communications, coordination of regulations)

3.30 pm Coffee Break

4.00 pm Working groups prepare reports. Saturday, 5 Oct. 2002

9.00 am Draft Session 1 - Draft model of protocols on management of yacare caiman

10.30 Coffee Break

11.00 Draft Session 2 - Draft model of regulations for management of yacare caiman

12.00 – 2.00 pm Lunch

2.00 pm Presentation of results from the Working groups and Draft Sessions

4.00 pm Final remarks and closure of workshop

Expected Results Improved understanding and cooperation between CITES authorities of the participating states. Better perception of the goals and remaining tasks in the management of yacare caiman. A model of regulations appropriate at the national and regional levels, for consideration, modification

and approval by the range states. A project for action protocols for the participating parties for consideration and future ratification by

each Party.

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Working Group 1

Framework for the design of a Management Plan Coordinator: Alvaro Velasco

Reporter and translator: Bob Godshalk

Participants: Marcos Coutinho (Brazil) Laura Barriento (Argentina) Tomas Waller (Argentina) Ignacio Avila (Paraguay) Luciano Verdade (Brazil) Martha Motte (Paraguay) Alfonso Llobet (Boliva) HABITAT

The characterization, quantification and dynamics of habitat types that can be analyzed by use of Geographic Information System (GIS), recording of climate information: precipitation, air temperature, hydrologic balance or water phenology, or hydrologic dynamics (water cycle), which will result in a definition of ecoregions in biological terms for the species.

Define the scale for the analysis of habitat, definition of the area and management unit. Personnel training for management of GIS.

POPULATION

Abundance and size-classes of the population should be obtained or estimated at two levels: regional and local.

Regional information should be the baseline for the design of the management plan and local information serves to realize the regional information such as population surveys and for making management decisions.

Prior definition of management units which permits local sampling and later extrapolation at a regional level. This allows the verification of the pre-established management units (improvements in relation to the population surveys to better manage the species).

Evaluation of the reproductive potential

Methodology for obtaining population data on size-class and abundance

Abundance: Annual recording of georeferenced abundance data coorelated to the management unit by habitat type, which will serve as a base for determining regional abundance We recommend the following methodologies for determining abundance at a management unit level: • Nocturnal surveys • Aerial surveys • Nest surveys

The methodology for determination of abundance should follow the proven standards for

management and conservation of crocodilians. The area for evaluation should be representative of the different habitat types.


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Size-classes: The classification is based on the following size categories: class I < 50 cm, class

II 50 – 139.9 cm, class III 140 – 179.9 cm, class IV > 180 cm. For determination of the size-classes for the Management Units we recommend the following methodologies:

a. Nocturnal surveys b. Diurnal surveys.

Studies are recommended to determine the biological size-class interval to standardize the categories to

be used.

The methodology should follow the proven standards for management and conservation of crocodilians. The area for evaluation should be representative of the different habitat type.

Harvest – permitted at three population levels:

Nest collection, we propose two systems, the first, based on the reproductive potential of the species with the nest harvest determined using a base proportion of reproductive females in the population, and the second based on the availability of nests in the environment and the harvest of a fraction. This will be determined from technical studies to assure that there is no risk to the reproductive potential of the species.

Collection of juveniles (50 – 139.9 cm) will be based on the availability of individuals in the environment and collection of a fraction. This will be determined from technical studies to assure that there is no risk to the reproductive potential of the species.

Collection of adults will be based on the availability of individuals in the environment and collection of a fraction. This will be determined from technical studies to assure that there is no risk to the reproductive potential of the species.

We propose a standardized research protocol design for the Range States.

Working Group 2

Structure Coordinador: Obdulio Menghi

Reporter: Bernardo Ortiz

Participants: Victoria Lichtschein (Argentina) Alex Ferrier (Bolivia) Iolita Bampi (Brazil) Nora Neris (Paraguay) Javier Alvarez (USA)

Ruth Elsey (CSG USA) Peter Brazaitis (CSG USA) Malan Lindeque (Secretariado CITES) Richard Fergusson (CSG Africa)

NATIONAL LEVEL

1. Definition of a conceptual framework (policy document on management of the species) in

which the management program (MP) objectives are described as such, falling within the national policies on biodiversity and wildlife, and within the legal frame of the country, including socioeconomic aspects.

It describes the mechanisms for deliberation and making decisions between stakeholders in the MP. One of the objectives could be the forming of a management system based on scientific information, sensitive to monitoring (administrative proceedings as well as population levels) and adaptable to market conditions (according to the type of management or legal limitations, e.g. ranching, wild harvest, etc.) 2. Regulatory framework Rules that gives the general application framework for the management plan. It is the legal base of the program.

• How harvest and export quotas are granted. • The system of harvest to be used. • Harvest periods (seasons). • Harvest size class(es). • System of control for animal parts (special skinning instructions) subject to seasonal

change. Involves systems, when appropriate, where the administrator requires it from the authorized hunters.

• Determination of the marking system associated with the control of the program. Management of the marking system at the harvest site (national) through exportation.

• Register of Program Users: requirements for inscription in the Program. • Hunters/re-collectors. • Landowners where the management takes place. • Middlemen • Tanners, exporters

• Licenses, fees and destination of funds collected (taking into account the different alternatives to avoid legal obstacles in which the monies are destined by law to the

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national treasury or general budget of the institution) Monitoring financed by industry/NGOs with external administration is an alternative.

3. Monitoring

i. Bioecological of: • habitat and populations. • the harvest. • the harvest effort/unit (CpUE)

ii. Administrative of: • the administrative processes including monitoring the destination of funds collected

by the fee/taxes. iii. Socioeconomic of

• the socioeconomic impact of the project. 4. Supervision

• Control and verification at every step of the process. • Establishment of sanitary standards and control of the abattoirs and for the sacrifice

itself. • Establishment of standards and control of effluents from abattoirs and tanneries.

Plenary decision: Creation of an ad hoc group of the CITES Administrative/Scientific Authorities from the species

INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL SCOPE

1. Mechanisms for achieving compatibility

• Creation of an ad hoc group of the CITES Administrative/Scientific Authorities from the species: i. Adoption of common standards. ii. Mechanism for resolution of discrepancies. iii. Mechanisms for the verification of the implementation of the agreed management rules. iv. Focal point for the interchange of information with other interested countries, including

business partners and the CITES Secretariat (Animal Committee). v. Share information and take action in relation complaints against illegal hide trafficking, with

the confidentiality as merits each case. vi. The group or each country will make the effort necessary to communicate and diffuse

information about the management programs, the rules, objectives and implications in a manner that: • Avoids that the information arrives in a confusing, inexact or untimely manner to

the stakeholders (hunters, middlemen or exporters). • Adequately informs and creates awareness in the general public about the program

and its benefits.

The creation and operation of the ad hoc Group will take place by the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding between the Crocodile Specialist Group and TRAFFIC, where the responsibilities and objectives mentioned above will be assigned.

• Interchange of information by way of the Internet

2. Aspects related to the economy and the market

The first point, expressed one party, is the importance to develop incentives for the creation of local markets, capable of handling national production as well as exported products. On the other hand, other people related the current difficulties in their countries and the nearly certain impossibility to commercialize locally significant volumes of products from Caiman yacare locally. Lastly, one of the importer countries expressed concern in the sense that the structuring of the management plans based on the production directed solely at the USA and European Union could end in a future failure beginning with any type of restriction in those markets.

There was a marked consensus that even though the majority of the decisions in these matters are out of our influence, a good use of the results of this Workshop, such as the ad hoc commission, and the regional network of specialists, can act as vehicles and contacts with the sectors related to the market that favor the design of joint strategies.

Finally, the point was raised on the possibility for future development of systems for certification of origin or “green production” which will be material for future discussions.

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Current situation and perspective on the use and conservation of

the yacaré (caiman yacare) in the Argentine Republic Tomás Waller

INTRODUCTION

The black yacaré, Caiman yacare, is a species amply represented in the Argentine Republic, which historically contributed in a marginal way to the regional economies by means hunting and commercialization of its hide. Although initially this commerce was not regulated and was legal, beginning in 1960 all the provinces in its distribution prohibited hunting. Despite this, hunting and commerce continued uninterrupted until year 1991, in spite of the restrictive legislation. This took place due to the proliferation of maneuvers of temporary import and re-export of the diverse types of South American caimans of the genus Caiman, which allowed the laundering of native skins. These maneuvers were completely terminated in 1991 when, after denunciations conducted by the CITES Secretariat, TRAFFIC and FVSA, the national government prohibited the import of this species and other similar species (Micucci and Waller 1995). The result of this ruling has been very positive, as it reflected in this report that summarizes the present situation of the species in Argentina, from its effective protection as of 1991 to the present.

For the preparation of this report, the people who currently work in different areas of the conservation of crocodilians of Argentina were consulted, so thanks for the contributions made by: Lichtschein victory (DFFS/Authority Argentina CITES), Obdulio Menghi (Biodiversity Foundation and CSG/UICN), Alejandro Larriera (Proyecto Yacaré – Santa Fe and CSG/UICN), Patricio A. Micucci (F. Biodiversidad and CSG/UICN), and Walter Prado (CSG/UICN). For an historical vision of the distribution, conservation and biology of this species a review of Micucci and Waller (1995) is recommended.

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION

The area of present distribution of the black yacaré, Caiman yacare, in Argentina includes from the border with Paraguay in the north, to approximately 30° South latitude. This species occupies most aquatic environments associated with the basins of the rivers Parana and Paraguay, although as extensively as the other Argentina species, the yacaré overo (C. latirostris). Its distribution occupies a large area, principally of the provinces of Formosa, Chaco and Corrientes, occurring marginally in bordering sectors of Santa Fe and Misiones. Occasionally, the black yacaré has been found in neighborhoods of the cities of Santa Fe and Parana (32° S lat.), although these findings would correspond to passive migration during times of flood (Figure 1) (Micucci and Waller, 1995). INVESTIGATIONS OF THE

PREVIOUS DECADE

Antecedents for the black yacaré over this period are detailed in Micucci and Waller (1995). During the last decade, the following pertinent works stand out in the conservation of this species in Argentina (they appear in chronological order):

Teixido, C. y G. Roteta. 1992. Distribución, hábitat y abundancia de los crocodilios de la provincia del Chaco. Proyecto Yacaré. Fase I. Dirección de Fauna y Flora Silvestres – Secretaría CITES – CICuR – FUCEMA. Informe inédito. Buenos Aires.

Waller, T. y P. A. Micucci. 1992. Relevamiento de la distribución, hábitat y abundancia de los crocodilios de la República Argentina – Fase I (1990/91): Provincia de Corrientes.

Figure 1. Distribution of C. yacare in Argentina (in black). The southern and western limit of distribution of C. latirostris is indicated by the dotted line.

Informe Final. Preparado para la Dirección de Fauna y Flora – Autoridad CITES Argentina. Secretaría CITES, FUCEMA, CICuR.

Waller, T. y P. A. Micucci. 1993. Relevamiento de la distribución, hábitat y abundancia de los crocodilios de la Provincia de Corrientes, Argentina. Pp. 341-385 in Zoocría de los Crocodylia. Memorias de la I Reunión Regional del CSG, Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos de la UICN: I Taller sobre Zoocría de los Crocodylia, Santa Marta, Colombia. Gland.

Waller, T. y P. A. Micucci. 1994. Situación del género Caiman en Argentina. Apuntes sobre su distribución, situación poblacional y comercio histórico. Pp. 40-49 in Memorias del IV Workshop sobre Conservación y Manejo del Yacaré Overo Caiman latirostris. "La Región" – Fundación Banco Bica – Santo Tomé. Santa Fe. Argentina.

Waller, T. and P. A. Micucci. 1995. Los Yacarés en Argentina. Hacia un Aprovechamiento Sustentable. Pp. 81-112 in Larriera, A. and Verdade, L. M. (eds.). La Conservación y el Manejo de Caimanes y Cocodrilos de América Latina. Vol. I. Fundación Banco Bica, Santo Tomé, Santa Fe, Argentina.

Moreno, D and A. Parera. 1997. Evaluación preliminar de la disponibilidad de nidos y estado poblacional de los yacarés (Caiman latirostris y Caiman yacare) en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé y su zona de influencia. Informe inédito. Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina. Buenos Aires.

Moreno, D. and A. Parera. 1998. Disponibilidad de nidos y estado poblacional de yacarés en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé y su zona de influencia, provincia del Chaco. Proyecto de Conservación y Uso Sustentable de Yacarés en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El

T. Waller – The use and conservation of Caiman yacare in Argentina

9

Cachapé. Boletín Técnico No. 39. Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina. Buenos Aires.

Prado, W. S. and D. Moreno. 2000. Population studies on Caiman latirostris and Caiman yacare in Chaco Province, Argentina. Abstract presented in the 15th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group, UICN/SSC. Varadero, Cuba.

Prado, W. S., D. Moreno, A. Parera, G. Stamatti and E. Boló Bolaño. 2000. Primera cosecha de nidos de yacaré overo (Caiman latirostris) y negro (Caiman yacare) en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé, provincia del Chaco. Proyecto Conservación y Uso Sustentable de Yacarés en el R. V. S. El Cachapé. Boletín Técnico No. 53. Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina. Buenos Aires.

Loiselle, S., G. M. Carpaneto, V. Hull, T. Waller y C. Rossi. 2000. Feedback analysis in reserve management: studying local myths using qualitative models. Ecological Modelling, 129:25-37.

Waller, T. 2000. Monitoring temperatures in Caiman yacare nests at Iberá marshes, Corrientes, Argentina. Proyecto INCO/DC – El Uso Sustentable de los Recursos de Humedal en el MERCOSUR – Informe inédito – página web – publicación en preparación.

Waller, T. y P. A. Micucci. 2000 (web version). Monitoring caiman population trends at Iberá marshes, Corrientes, Argentina. Proyecto INCO/DC – El Uso Sustentable de los Recursos de Humedal en el MERCOSUR – Informe inédito – página web – publicaciónen preparación.

Waller, T., P. A. Micucci y E. Richard. 2000. En: Lavilla, E. O., E. Richard and G. J. Scrocchi (eds.). Categorización de los anfibios y reptiles de la República Argentina. Pp. 45-49. Asociación Herpetológica Argentina. Tucumán.

Prado, W. S. y D. Moreno. 2001. Hábitos de nidificación de los yacarés overo (Caiman latirostris) y negro (Caiman yacare) en la

provincia del Chaco. Resúmenes de la I a Reunión Binacional Argentino-Chilena de Ecología. Abril de 2001.

Prado, W. S. y O. Gómez. 2001. Cosecha e Incubación Artificial de Nidos de Caiman latirostris y Caiman yacare en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé (Chaco). Pp. 17-25 in Prado, W. S., E. Boló Bolaño, A. Parera, D. Moreno y A. Carminatti. (Eds.). Manejo de Yacarés Overo (Caiman latirostris) y Negro (Caiman yacare) en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé. Boletín Técnico No. 55. Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina – WWF/ U. K. Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Prado, W. S., O. Gómez, A. Parera y D. Moreno. 2001. Estructura y Dinámica Poblacional de Caiman latirostris y Caiman yacare en la Provincia del Chaco. Pp. 51-63 in Prado, W. S., E. Boló Bolaño, A. Parera, D. Moreno and A. Carminatti. (Eds.). Manejo de Yacarés Overo (Caiman latirostris) y Negro (Caiman yacare) en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé. Boletín Técnico N° 55. Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina – WWF/ U. K. Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Prado, W. En preparación. Estado de conservación y aspectos poblacionales de los yacarés overo Caiman latirostris (Daudin, 1802) y negro Caiman yacare (Daudin, 1802) en relación a su hábitat en el Chaco oriental. Tésis de licenciatura en preparación.

Waller, T. y P. A. Micucci. En preparación. Monitoring caiman population trends at Iberá marshes, Corrientes, Argentina. Versión web año 2000. Publicación en preparación.

SITUATION AND POPULATION TRENDS

The categorization of the state of conservation of the amphibians and reptiles of the Argentine Republic, carried out with the auspices of the Herpetological Association of Argentina, describes the black yacaré as "vulnerable", making the reservation that the species formally combines the requirements for the coincident categories of "Not Threatened"


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and of "Low Risk" of the UICN, and that the resulting category ("Vulnerable") responds as a measurement of precaution with "... the necessity to register plans of suitable management or control in Argentina..." (Waller et al. 2000).

The personal experiences of crocodilian specialists and the existing surveys confirm that the black yacaré is a common and frequent species in all areas of its distribution in Argentina. It is possible to observe examples of all sizes, and nest building events, including even in the vicinities of the larger urban centers, at the sides of highways and roads, borrow pits and other artificial environments (Prado in lit. 18 Aug. 02; Micucci in lit. 18 Aug. 02; Waller pers. obs.). The information available at provincial level is summarized as follows:

Formosa: old nor recent population studies for this species in the province of Formosa do not exist. Nevertheless, in opinion of Micucci (In lit., 18 Aug. 02) it is a common species in appropriate environments in the entire province, with secure populations that currently face no conservation problems.

Chaco: censuses were conducted in 1991 (Teixido and Roteta, 1992) and also carried out by Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina (Argentina Wildlife Foundation – FVSA) (Moreno and Parera 1997, 1998; Prado and Moreno 2000; Prado ET al., 2001; Prado, in prep.). According to Prado (In lit., 18 Aug. 02), the population is recovering from hunting that took place in the past, as seen by the aerial censuses of nests and the monitoring of the area. In practically all environments suitable for nest building, nests have been encountered in the satellite images. On the other hand, the fact that the animals are also nesting in marginal environments, very exposed to anthropogenic disturbances confirms this situation (Prado, in lit., 18 Aug. 02). According to the censuses made in the study area, the general relative density observed for the black yacaré in creeks and lagoons was 2.8 yac./km (see more detailed information on censuses in Prado in prep.). Ten years ago, in 1991, Teixido and Roteta (1992) detected a density of 2.5 yac./km, although it should be emphasized that this density was

based mainly on censuses made in another type of habitat (floodplain of the Parana River) which at the moment prevents reliable comparisons.

Corrientes: censuses exist from the periods 1991-1992 (Waller and Micucci 1992, 1993) and 1999-2000 (Waller and Micucci in prep). The species is common in all its area of distribution. Most of the bodies of water are suitable for the species, lagoons, temporary ponds, swamps, matting, rivers, creeks, cattle tanks, borrow pits and artificial canals of rice fields contain individuals or populations of this species. The abundance of this species in many private ranches has become an important attraction for the ecotourism that has increased annually in the province. In the censuses of 1999-2000 a remarkable increase has been verified in the magnitude of 2.5 times compared to the censuses of 1991 and 1992, in habitats affected historically by commercial hunting in the Iberá Swamp. In effect, in surveying 90.7 km of lake edge, the density was increased from 6.4 yac./km in 1991/1992 to 14.8 yac./km in 1999/2000, whereas in 10.6 km of streams the density increased from 17.7 yac./km in 1991/1992 up to 46.2 yac./km in 1999/2000 (Waller and Micucci in prep.). For more detailed information on censuses see Waller, T. and P. A. Micucci. 2000.

No survey information exists for Santa Fe nor for Misiones. PRESENT LEGAL SITUATION

National scope

The conservation and utilization of fauna at a national level are governed by the National Law of Hunting and Conservation of Fauna 22.421, 666/97 National Decree SRNyDS, regulated by the same, and several accessory rules stem from these. Among them, the Resolution 793/87 SAGyP specifically prohibits the interprovincial transit, the commerce in federal jurisdiction and the export of skins of black yacaré, Caiman yacare. On the other hand, the Resolution SAGyP 53/91, ruling in the same area, prohibits the import of black yacaré hides and all the subspecies of C. crocodilus, with the purpose of avoiding illegal maneuvers that make use of the


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problems in identification. In addition, other complementary rules exist that regulate the circus exhibitions and displays of wild fauna, the export of scientific specimens, the export pets and the captive rearing of young for commercial aims (Lichtschein in lit., 15 Aug 02).

Provincial scope

The hunting and commerce of the black yacaré are prohibited by all the provincial legislations in its area of distribution. The province of Chaco authorizes only the harvesting of eggs destined for the experimental Program of raising young in farms in the Private Wildlife Refuge – El Cachapé, which is administered by the FVSA in the zone.

International scope

The National Law 22.344 ratifying the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and National Decree 522/97 SRNyDS regulating the same, granting complete authorization of this treaty for the country. RESULTS OF REGULATION AT THE

NATIONAL LEVEL

According to the registries of the Directorate of National Fauna and Wild Flora (CITES Authority Argentina; V. Lichtschein, 15 Aug. 02), a total of 1.571 inspections were carried out in federal jurisdiction, in the period between years 1991 and 1999, 1.194 skins of caiman were seized (the species were not determined in the records) (Table 1), which is equivalent to an average of 133 skins per year. Part of these skins was probably not even Argentine species or specimens. ARGENTINE EXPORTS FOR

PERIOD 1992 – 2001

The legislation in the provinces where black yacaré are distributed prohibited hunting from the decade of the 60s, the reason that Argentina has not been a commercial exporter of declared origin for hides of black yacaré. However, Argentina has been one of the most important re-exporters of C. yacare hides, mainly of Paraguayan origin.

All the exports carried out by Argentina between 1960 and 1991 corresponded to re-exports. These operations reached their height at the end of the decade of the 80s, and were opportunely denounced by the CITES Secretariat and TRAFFIC South America, as forceful evidence existed about the maneuvers of laundering native hides (Menghi, com.pers.). As of 1991, by means of the Resolution 53/91 SAGyP, the national authorities prohibited the import of hides of this species and other similar species, ending these operations in an effective way.

The only export made by Argentina with skins of native origin of black yacaré from 1990 to the present was in 1995, of 1 hide destined to Italy with scientific purposes (CITES#17961; CITES Annual Report, CITES Authority – Argentina).

In year 1990, the export of two articles manufactured with skins of Paraguayan origin was recorded, re-exported by Argentina to the United States, and in 1991 Japan declared the import of 3.893 kg of skins of Paraguayan origin that apparently were re-exported by Argentina, although this is not constant with the Argentine annual report (WTMU CITES Database). This shipment was the last significant operation C. yacare in which Argentina participated.

Table 1. Details on caiman skin seized in Argentina

Year No. Skins 1991 0 1992 197 1993 115 1994 135 1995 17 1996 730 1997 0 1998 0 1999 0


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CAPTIVE PRODUCTION AND RANCHING

During the decade of the 90s several projects were begun that tried the commercial production of black yacaré in the form of closed captive production (farming.) and captive rearing (ranching.), mainly in the provinces of Corrientes and Formosa, however, these did not prosper. In general, the projects were speculative in nature that took advantage of governmental development policies or subsidies for nontraditional production activities.

With respect to ranching, the Argentine Wildlife Foundation and the Private Wildlife Refuge – El Cachapé, located in the province of Chaco, carry out a program of captive ranching with C. latirostris that also includes experiments with C. yacare. The ranch currently has an experimental production of black yacaré hides in small quantities. This latter species currently represents 30% of all the nests wild harvested in the field studies of the program in the Chaco Province. This proportion could vary as new areas with favorable habitat for either species are incorporated. On the other hand, in a case where the successful profits of a large scale commercial program for this species is assured (in particular, taking into account the advantage of the exchange rates that Argentina currently offers), the ranching efforts could be increased for this species. EVIDENCE OF HUNTING IN THE WILD

Of skins for commercial purposes

In consultations with the different crocodilian specialists who are conducting field studies (A. Larriera, W. Prado, P. To Micucci), a total agreement exists in that the black yacaré has not been persecuted commercially for approximately 10 years within the Argentine Republic. Information at provincial level indicates:

Corrientes: hunting of black yacaré stopped at the beginning of 1990 (Waller and Micucci, 1993) and the species has not caused commercial interest up to the present time. The commonly used hunt camp sites do not show any evidences of activity and a loss of the hunting tradition has taken place, causing even

the abandonment of hunt camp sites on the part of the old hunters (Waller, obs. pers.).

Chaco: the hide of this species lost its value approximately 10 years ago, and at the present time, there is no evidence of systematic commercial hunting. This fact is also corroborated by the experience of the provincial wildlife inspectors who have not recorded this type of activity for several years, and by the common presence of medium and large caiman along roads and in the vicinities of human settlements (Prado, in lit., 18 Aug. 02).

Formosa: systematic commercial hunting was stopped at the beginning of the decade of 90s and it continues to have no commercial value. Medium and large caiman are seen easily, even along the sides of the roads (Micucci, in lit., 18 Aug. 02).

Santa Fe: large scale hunting of this species stopped during beginning of the 90s. In 1995, the provincial authorities seized 18 large skins of C. yacare of uncertain origin. This is the only seizure registered in the province in the last decade (Larriera, pers. com.).

Information for Misiones is not known, but since the presence of this species in this province is marginal, limited to the valley of the Parana River, Missions was not important as a source of skins.

Of meat for nutritional purposes

The black yacaré is consumed in the provinces in the area of its distribution for nutritional purposes. Although this is not used on a large scale nor is it allowed legally, it is consumed by custom of the inhabitants of the area. Occasionally, some restaurants along the roads of the Argentine north offer caiman meat as a peculiarity. Nevertheless, it can not be regarded on a commercial level as the current legal restrictions prevent the industrialization of this illegal activity. The information available at provincial level indicates: Chaco: subsistence hunting of yacarés exists although generally the hunters prefer other species (Hydrochaeris, Mazama, Dasypus, Tayassus, etc). Figures are not known but Prado


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(In lit., 18 Aug. 02) considers that the quantities must be minimum since it is common to see yacarés or size classes III and IV very commonly and nesting near borrow pits and dams next to towns and roads (Prado in lit., 18 Aug. 02). Corrientes: dead yacarés are commonly observed along roads (DOR) during the spring and the autumn which often have the tail removed. The black yacaré also is hunted specifically for consumption its meat by settlers associated to water bodies, but should not be viewed on a massive scale but as artisan activity that mainly affects size classes III and IV (Waller pers. obs.). Formosa: hunters and fishermen hunt the black yacaré commonly as an easy source of meat. Although it is difficult to quantify, Micucci (In lit, 18 Aug. 02) states that this activity could signify the annual hunting of at least 1000 specimens of various sizes. Hunting by wealthy hunters also exists who pursue it as a pastime and consume the tail. This activity could involve hundreds of animals annually. Information for Santa Fe nor Misiones is not known, but given the cultural homogeneity with the neighboring provinces, it is probable that the meat of this species is also occasionally consumed. PERSPECTIVE OF MANAGEMENT IN THE FUTURE Captive production for commercial purposes There are no known plans of enterprises for captive commercial production of black yacaré, nor is it predicted for development of this type, mainly due to the small profit that this alternative would have when producing ”non-classic” skins.

Ranching for commercial purposes

The only enterprise that currently functions experimentally in the production ranched skins is that carried out by the FVSA in the Wildlife Refuge – El Cachapé in the Chaco Province. Although this program primarily focuses on the production of skins of Caiman latirostris (which

has greater value in the international market), it also produces skins of black yacaré on smaller scale. In this sense, an increase in the production for this species could be expected, once the profit or economic sustainability of a large scale project for this species is evaluated or confirmed, considering the exchange rates currently found in Argentina. Harvest in the wild During 2001 national authorities promoted a letter of intent for the sustainable use of the black yacaré in Argentina, prepared by the Dr Alejandro Larriera in consultation with other local specialists, which received the support of the provincial states which have this resource. As a continuation of this process, the Biodiversity Foundation – Argentina (FB) currently works together with the National Government in the preparation of Program for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Black Yacaré in Argentina which will be integrated and supervised by members of the CSG in Argentina. The national authorities and the FB have an agreement framework of cooperation for this type of Program. This will be financed by the private sector under the legal mechanism in the Resolution SDSyPA 58/2002 that regulates the contribution of private parties to investigation projects for species of commercial interest. The Biodiversity Foundation is developing, along with the national authorities, a similar program for the conservation and the sustainable use of the yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus) under the same framework. The objective of the Program of Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Black Yacaré in Argentina is to promote the conservation of the species and its habitat through the economic value of the resource to the human communities that share the area of distribution. For this program, an experimental pilot phase (EEP) with a duration of three years is contemplated during which rapid evaluations will be carried out to detect potential sites of harvest and surveys, and the guidelines of utilization will be put under a scheme of adaptive management. The Program will begin


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its first year (2002/2003) in the Province of Formosa and it will possibly be extended to two other provinces (Chaco and Corrientes) in successive years. The definitive management guidelines will follow in principle the minimum criteria of the management plans for South American caiman: quota, minimum size, season, and secure tagging of hides. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF A FUTURE

HARVEST PROGRAM

Judging by the existing information, the black yacaré could be used for commercial purposes in at least three the provinces in its area of distribution: Formosa, Corrientes and Chaco. A program of management based on harvest for this species could have an important impact in the economies associated with these provinces. The current exchange rate converts this resource, generating export goods (hides and meat) with an attractive alternative with a very high potential for production of genuine resources in the indigenous and Creole communities of the Argentine north. It is difficult to quantify the economic benefit of a future management plan without an idea of potential quotas. Nevertheless, a conservative estimate for harvest of 10.000 skins for the entire country could generate approximately a gross income of US$ 400,000 by the exports of hides and a similar amount by the export of meat. From this income, approximately $150,000 could reach the local communities.

Certain doubts have been expressed in respect to the effects that a scheme based on harvest of wild skins of black yacaré might have on the profitability of a program of captive farming, however, these doubts have little foundation since the markets for both products (large skins versus small skins) are completely different (S. Trachter, com. pers.); on the other hand, and with the appropriate accounting, both systems could coexist as occurs with Alligator mississippiensis in the United States.

POTENTIAL CONFLICTS IN THE REGIONAL MANAGEMENT OF THE BLACK YACARE

The greatest threat facing a future program of management for this species in Argentina is the difference between the policies of use of wildlife resources between Argentina and Paraguay. Unfortunately, the random policies of the Government of Paraguay over the shared wildlife resources (C. yacare, Eunectes notaeus), deteriorating in recent years, has promoted maneuvers of speculative character on the part of illegal middlemen and traders who would store hides and wait for the possible authorization of quotas by Paraguay without having the appropriate studies or management plans.

In a specific case for this report, one should remember the problem last year last provoked by the drying of shallow pools in the old course of the Pilcomayo River that crosses the south of Paraguay, and where the Government of that country granted special licenses for hunting 2,500 specimens of C. yacare. These actions took place outside the context of the management program for the species. This situation motivated negative reaction in both countries, and in the international arena as well with the necessity that the Crocodile Specialists (CSG/UICN) sent a fact finding mission to analyze the problem.

This year Argentina has initiated an experimental program of utilization of yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus) in the province of Formosa, with an investment during three years of US$ 115,000 for investigation, and the establishment of guidelines of conservation for the species (minimum size, monitoring of harvest at the local level, tagging at the site of origin, among others). Beyond the ups and downs of all pilot plans, one of the greatest identified problems has been the detection of a certain degree of illegal hunting of animals of a smaller size than stipulated, which the Argentine program prohibits, which are destined to satisfy a speculative demand of skins on the part of Paraguayan companies. This happens since that country has allowed, in recent years, two exports of large and small skins of yellow anaconda


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under the individual auspices of ”management plans” that in practice, would lack the minimum biological and control guidelines which the utilization of a species of this type requires.

The Program that Argentina wishes to develop next with the black yacaré requires first the resolution of this conflict. For this, it will be necessary for the establishment of similar management guidelines between both countries for these shared resources, as long as there are necessary guarantees for the compliance of these same guidelines. For that, Argentina, for a future management program for the species will require, among other stricter measures, the aid of the import countries (EU, Japan, the U.S.A., etc.) for the control of importation of all of their shipments, as well as those that may come from Paraguay, for the purpose of guaranteeing the proper management and conservation in the region PEOPLE ASSOCIATED WITH THE

CONSERVATION OF CROCODILIANS IN ARGENTINA

CITES Authority – Argentina

Lichtschein, Victoria. Director of Wild Flora and Fauna: [email protected]

Local Specialists associated with CSG/IUCN

Imhof, Alba. Project Yacaré (Santa Fe) – CSG/UICN: [email protected]

Larriera, Alejandro. Project Yacaré (Santa Fe) – Regional Vice–Chairman CSG/UICN: [email protected]

Menghi, Obdulio. Biodiversidad Foundation – CSG/UICN: [email protected]

Micucci, Patricio Alejandro. Fundación Biodiversidad – CSG/UICN: [email protected]

Piña, Carlos. Proyecto Yacaré (Santa Fe) – CSG/UICN: [email protected]

Prado, Walter. CSG/UICN [email protected]

Siroski, Pablo. Proyecto Yacaré (Santa Fe) – CSG/UICN: [email protected]

Waller, Tomás. Fundación Biodiversidad – CSG/IUCN: [email protected]

LITERATURE CITED

See section. Antecedents to Investigation during the last decade.

Report of the workshop on the evaluation of the national program of sustainable use of the

‘Lagarto’ (Caiman yacare) in Bolivia Report: Alejandro Larriera

Contributors: Alvaro Velasco, Tomás Waller, Robert Godshalk, Obdulio Menghi and Bernardo Ortiz.

Translation from Spanish: Robert Godshalk

INTRODUCTION

The "Workshop on the Evaluation of the National Program of Sustainable Use of the ‘Lagarto’ (Caiman yacare)" was held in the city of Trinidad, capital of the Beni Department, Bolivia on the days 2-4 April 2002. The program has proceeded by means of harvest quotas for the species in the Departments of Beni, Pando, and Santa Cruz. The meeting was organized jointly by the Office of Natural Resources and the Environment of the Prefecture and Command of Beni and by the Ministry of Sustainable Development and Planning at the national level.

The meeting consisted of numerous, participative and heterogeneous memberships, which at times reached 70 people. The Vice-Minister of the Environment, Natural Resources and Forest Development of Bolivia, Lic. Hernán Cabrera, Prefect and General Comandante of the Beni Department, Arq. Víctor Hugo Rivera, Executive Director for TRAFFIC for the Caribbean, Central and South America, Lic. Bernardo Ortiz, and the regional Vice-Chairman Dr. Alejandro Larriera all spoke at the opening ceremony. There was participation from the technical administration of Bolivia represented by Dr. Mario Baudoin, Lic. Martha Bernabet, Lic. James Aparicio, Lic. Oscar Rendon and many other specialists at the national level. Civil servants at the Prefecture level participated from the Departments of Santa Cruz (Angel Sandoval and Germán Busch) and the Beni (Lic. Oscar Saavedra, author of the original evaluations in the Department). Mr. René Ibañez, MS, the current consultant of the Lagarto Program for the Beni Prefecture acted as the workshop moderator. Members of the different Indigenous communities (TCOs)

benefiting by the program, representatives of the Departmental cattlemen’s associations, national and international NGOs and Crocodile Specialist Group members Alvaro Velasco, Robert Godshalk and Tomás Waller were also present.

BASES AND LEGAL BACKGROUND

(Ministry of Sustainable Development and Planning)

1. Supreme Decree 24772 was enacted on July 31, 1997, which put into effect the Regulation for the Conservation and Use of Lagarto in the Departments of Beni and Santa Cruz with the following bases:

• It exist sufficient studies that determine the potential for establishing a Harvest Plan for lagarto in the Departments of Beni and Santa Cruz.

• The harvest of lagarto is authorized under the requisites and conditions of the Regulation.

• An experimental harvest plan is established for lagarto in selected areas for a 2 year period.

• The incineration of confiscated products is established.

2. With the results of the Management Plan as a basis, a lagarto harvest was initiated in November of 1997, with reduced harvest quotas and harvest technique permitted only with harpoon.

3. The same year, as a result of confiscations effected by the Prefect of the Beni, there were disagreement and confrontations with the order for incineration of 17,609 lagarto hides. This order, based on the


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S.D. 24774, resulted in protest from various regional Beni institutions and caused the formation of a Revision Commission for the cited Supreme Decree, directed by the Presidency of the Republic by mandates of Supreme Decree, to give a solution to the problems generated by S.D. 24774. Authorization was given for the commercial use of the 17,609 hides under the responsibility of the Prefecture of the Beni Department which complied with the requisites for export required by CITES.

4. Supreme Decree 25458 was effected on July 21, 1999 which gave a new legal framework for the management of wildlife, permitting the lifting a ban for species responsive sustainable use expressed through Ministerial Resolution.

5. Supreme Decree 25555 was effected on October 22, 1999 which authorized the Ministry of Sustainable Development and Planning to emit a Ministerial Resolution approving the Provisional Regulation as an exception which permits the harvest of lagarto during 1999.

6. On November 30, 1999 Ministerial Resolution N°307/99 was effected which approved the exception regulation for the conservation and utilization of lagarto and rules the transition from the harvest during the months October to December and the new process to be initiated in the year 2000.

7. Ministerial Resolution N° 330/99 was effect on December 17, 1999, which authorized the harvest and storage of lagarto hides and establishes a quota equivalent to 60.8% of the recommendation by the group of IUCN expert of Bolivia. The 36,500 hide quota was distributed with 30,000 hides to the Beni Department, 3,500 to the Department of Santa Cruz and 3,000 to La Paz Department.

Authorization was effected with a base of the following parameters:

• Increase of the population of Caiman yacare after the emission of Supreme Decree No. 22641 in 1990 which declared a General and Indefinite Ban.

• Studies undertaken by Bolivian experts from the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), who recommend a maximum harvest of 60,000 lagartos for 1999 without affecting the population dynamics of the species or exposing the population to an alarming reduction at a national scale.

8. Under this context, the harvest of lagarto was initiated in the Beni Department, benefiting the Indigenous Communities of Beni (CPIB) who utilized a quota of 30,000 hides in that year. At the same time through Ministerial Resolution N° 330, even though quotas of 3,500 for Santa Cruz and 3,000 for La Paz were given, these Departments did not make use of them.

9. In 2000, the General Direction of Biodiversity, with the help of CESO/SACO – Canada (Canadian Executive Service Organization) and the consultant Dr. Douglas Ravenstein, designed the Ecoregionalization which was elaborated with a geographic information system (GIS) using georeferenced data from the General Directorate of Sustainable Forest Development of the Vice Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources and Forest Development, the Ministry of Sustainable Development and Planning, as a proposal to be adjusted as a function of new information. During the same year, no authorizations for lagarto hide extractions were given due to the lack of necessary technical information. On the other hand, surveys and lagarto population estimations were done permitting the drafting of the document “Analysis and Evaluation of the State of Conservation of the Population of Caiman yacare in Beni; use and conservation”. As a result of this, a quota of 40,000 skins for Beni was authorized, 5,000 for Santa Cruz and 1,500 for Pando. The National quota totaled 46,500 hide of lagarto for the year 2001, which would be subject to evaluation before determining the new legal framework, complementary studies and the new quotas for year 2002. It is important to clarify that Bolivia maintains

Larriera et al. – Evaluation of the program on sustainable use of C. yacare in Bolivia

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before the CITES community a commitment from 1987 to limit the exports 50,000 hides annually from 1987.

10. To date, information on C. yacare is used from survey data from professionals of the Integral Program for a Sustainable Amazon (Programa Integral Amazonía Sostenible – PIAS) and of the Bolivian Collection of Fauna, in ecoregions of the Departments of Beni, Santa Cruz and Pando.

11. As far as the distribution of benefits, referring to examples of private property or Indigenous Community Territories of Origin (TCOs), article 49 of the Regulation for the Harvest and Sustainable Use of the Caiman yacare, authorizes the proprietors to sell hides deposited in the central warehouses.

12. Although, the utilization of the lagarto seems to be taking good progress within the conservation and the sustainable use of this wild species, it is evident that it is necessary to evaluate the development of the process and operation of the program of utilization of the lagarto at National level. Because of this, a workshop was organized, in which the sectors and institutions involved as well as specialists; in this workshop subjects of interest related to the impacts the previous harvests, deficiencies and advantages of the administration, control and regulation; which will allow reaching a consensus and solutions that permit a sustainable utilization that generates benefits to the involved sectors and stipulates an equitable distribution of the benefits.

OBJECTIVES OF THE WORKSHOP

To evaluate the program of “Sustainable utilization of the lagarto Caiman yacare in Bolivia” with the purpose of defining measures to fortify it in the local, national and regional scope, facilitating the sustainable use under the restructure of a National Program of sustainable use of lagarto.

Specific Objectives

• To fortify and adjust the National Program for sustainable use of lagarto in Bolivia.

• To evaluate the utilization of lagarto in the Departments of Beni, Santa Cruz y Pando in the periods 1997-2001.

• To analyze the deficiencies and advantages of ecoregionalization, methods of evaluation of lagarto populations and interpretation of data used to date.

• To redefine or adjust the ecoregionalization, methods of population evaluation and data interpretation under participative consensus.

• To evaluate the administration and control model from the Ministry of Sustainable Development and Planning (General Directorate for Biodiversity) and the processes of administration, control and regulation in the Departments of Beni, Santa Cruz y Pando.

• To define the guidelines of action for the adjustment of mechanisms and procedures of administration, control and regulation.

• To define the requirements necessary to establish the sustainability of the Program and to assure the equitable distribution the benefits.

• To propose modifications to the Regulation of conservation and utilization of the Caiman yacare.

• To define the mechanisms to strengthen the capacities for management of the conservation of the species and its sustainable use at national, departmental and local level.

CONCLUSIONS (Prefecture of Beni)

General Directives

Vision – Bolivia manages Caiman yacare and the natural ecosystems of its range in a sustainable way, generating socioeconomic benefits that improve the quality of life of the communities and society involved with the species.

Mission – The Bolivian State, Government (National and Departmental) and civil society articulate efforts, develop


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alliances and apply normative criteria and Sustainability oriented to the conservation and sustainable use of the Caiman yacare, all cooperating toward sustainable development.

Objective – To the year 2007, to assure the conservation and the integral and sustainable utilization of Caiman yacare, through the development of a National Program of Management of the Lagarto that helps the social and economic development of the inhabitants within the area of influence of the species.

General Conclusions

• The process of utilization of the lagarto is in a stage of transition from an old illegal activity to a management program that seeks sustainability, which generates problems in the administration and control.

• Institutional weakness of the state to administer the program exists at three levels, national, departmental and local, especially in the aspects of control and regulation, for which the institutional roles need to be defined accurately and to reinforce the technical details .

• The problems and experiences explained by the prefectures demonstrate that differences of criteria exist in the administrative, operative and technical aspects.

• A necessity exists to define precisely the institutional roles and functions, especially in the normative and regulatory aspects, and fundamentally in the subject of control and regulation.

• It is recognized that the existence of illicit activity has diminished substantially. This is based on information from the international market and the diminution of the price of illegal hides and the elevation of the price of legal hides.

• Satisfaction and conformity exist with the sectors and beneficiaries of the process, because in spite of the problems identified it has generated sources of work, movement of capital

and generation of economic activity in remote places of difficult access and an equitable participation in the benefits.

• The sustainable utilization of the lagarto and other species of wild fauna appear as a mechanism of consolidation of the property rights and can broaden the criteria of the socioeconomic function of the land.

• Legality was returned to the owners of rights as campesinos, Indigenous people and cattlemen in the receiving the legal hide tags, and a conservation process was generated in the areas with private and communal landowners by considering the lagarto as a commercial good.

• An incoherence between the actual distribution of quotas and that coming from the technical study due to faults and the lack of consistency of the base technical study, which is the first lesson on what must be corrected as a base to the conclusions of the workshop.

• A lack of integration exists between the technical base and the administrative and control aspects.

• In spite of being pilot program, important advances in the legal aspects and social participation were achieved, but there is a need for improvement of the technical aspects, of control and regulation and for training and diffusion of information as a basis of an integral program.

• With base of criteria from national and international specialists, the program presents important advances and it must be redirected taking into account the experiences and lessons learned.

• The regulation of utilization of the lagarto suffers from imprecision and contradictions that make the efficient administration of the resource difficult, thus with a base of recommendations from the workshop, a new proposal should be drafted and discussed with the appropriate parties.


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• A review of assessment and regulation at level of the prefectures should be undertaken, with the participation of Indigenous people, cattlemen, campesinos, businessmen, academic and investigative Institutions and the prefectures, with the purpose of informing, arranging and regulating the administrative and technical details of the program.

• There should be a permanent program of publication, education and of conscience to protect wildlife (lagarto, etc) in order to utilize these resources in sustainable form.

• A new participative methodology of surveys and determination of individual quotas should be constructed as the insufficiency of methodology used has been shown.

• A process of training and promotion of the hide sales should be generated by specialized technical services at local and national level.

Specific Conclusions

Conservation and protection

• The ecoregions are an instrument to facilitate the surveys and the administration of the program.

• Survey those areas that have asked for harvest of the resource, such as the TCOs, cattle ranches and campesino communities.

• Conduct surveys in production areas, visiting all the water bodies in each selected ranch or TCO, characterizing them in by ecological or landscape factors, counting the lagartos and classifying them in size categories.

• The results of the censuses will be presented with the followings: Abundance: total number of lagartos/ha of land and not by ha/water as it is done in the present time. Size classes: Use of the following size classification:

Size Classes: % of class II % of class III % of class IV

Harvest by ecological region is recommended.

• Identify and manage nesting areas, protection of nest and young.

• Enforce control measures.

• For the allocation of the harvest quotas to the applicants, the Prefecture will contract, by means of national public bidding, an independent organization according to the Terms of Reference guaranteed by the National organization. Integral utilization and marketing

• Adjustment of the calendar to the reality of the area and the environmental and biological characteristics of the species.

• To define and respect the technical and legal requirements being demanded for the applicants of licenses.

• To broadcast, at both national and local levels, the calls for licenses as well as for the qualifications of tanneries fulfilling the terms established by law.

• The harvest licenses ought to be for periods between 3 and 5 years, with quotas defined annually, using the results of the annual surveys as a basis.

• The licenses of commercialization and industrialization must all be for the whole period of duration of the program, having passed environmental, technical and legal inspections for an annual certification on the part of the state.

• Improved technical elements related to the harvest of skins, and quality and management of tags must be defined accurately, with the purpose of guaranteeing a product of good quality and the conservation of the species.

• The integral utilization of meat and bones should be promoted by passing regulations for this aim. The Prefecture of the Beni ought to facilitate the infrastructure of ENFOPESCOR for the export of lagarto meat by a private party.


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• The processes of adjudications and authorizations at national level must be streamlined.

• The state must define mechanisms to regulate the supply and demand of lagarto products.

• Separate centers of control and centers of commercialization should be established which need to be adequate for the institutional capacities, available human and economic resources and the environmental conditions of the areas.

Control and regulation

• The processes must be made for information and diffusion of all aspects related to the program in the different media and directed to the different stakeholders.

• It is essential to establish an integral plan of training at all levels of the activity.

• The control and regulation mechanisms of the state must be reinforced, as faults with the responsible people has been charged.

• The process of control and regulation should be decentralized and the municipalities involved.

• A departmental commission of lagarto should be created with participation of the beneficiaries.

• The instruments used in the control and regulation should be improved, such as the centers and means of information, formats and types printed forms, tagging, location of the control centers, etc.

• As a complementary form of control, the measurement of hide size in the tanneries should be institutionalized.

SUMMARY OF THE EXTERNAL

OBSERVERS (CSG)

During the discussions and interchanges produced at the time of each exposition, and in the development of the interactive work of the

workshop itself, arose different inquiries that could be divided in:

Technical

• Population evaluations for determination of quotas of harvest by ecoregion were developed on a minimal fraction of the study area.

• At the departmental level, available human resources with technical experience were not utilized in the survey work of the lagarto populations.

• The proposed ecoregionalization extrapolates information of very small areas to enormous surfaces.

• The interpretation of the distribution of quotas of harvests by ecoregions, as it is raised, has a high level of subjectivity.

Methodological

• The implementation of the Warehouse Centers for Regulation, far from being effective, implied a serious problem for the operation of the program.

• The definitive timing of the harvest period, was coherent neither with the biology of the animals, nor with the practical aspects of the harvesting and transport.

Administrative

• Repeated inconveniences took place, by lack of or deficits in communication, as much from the prefectures towards the users (TCOs, cattlemen and exporters), as between Prefectures and the central government.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS (CSG)

The three days of intense development of activities of the Workshop in the city of Trinidad, allowed us to make contact with the different sectors involved such as in the technical, administrative and economic management of the populations of the lagarto (Caiman yacare), in Bolivia, as well as those worried solely about their conservation. In all the cases it is possible to say that there is


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coincidence on the fact that the wild populations are in good state in most of their area of distribution, and that on the other hand the low level of human intervention to date, guarantees an abundant availability of habitat, that in principle there seems no risks in the short and medium term. The conclusions that precede these final considerations were prepared by the organizers of the meeting, and in fact, they reflect the course of discussions in detail, with some subtle corrections of form in this report, carried out by us. It exists nevertheless, a couple of questions that we would like to present.

A highly worrisome aspect is that all the hides of legal size are not tagged at the site of origin, allowing the buyers to select those of greater size (still within the legal measurement), and tagging only these, which causes an unnecessary over-hunting of animals to takes place. Although in the future could diminish by the natural laws of supply and demand, it would be preferable and simple to avoid today, assuring the commercialization of all the skins of legal size (within the quota). This could be obtained simply, by tagging all hides at the sites of origin, previous to their sale.

Although the lack of communication between the different sectors involved, and the disinformation of the users not only in respect to spirit, but also to the changing practical aspects of the program, has been recognized as a serious problem during the meeting, it does not appear in light of the conclusions, a path tending to resolve these problems.

It should be clarified on the other hand, that supposed “quota of 50,000 annual skins decided with CITES in 1987” was a simple informal commitment of Bolivia, that is not endorsed by any Resolution nor Recommendation of the Parties.

Most of the inconveniences detected in the course of the program, refers to the methodology of the surveys of the natural populations to determine the national, departmental and production unit harvests (TCOs, ranches and campesino communities), the internal distribution of the quotas of harvest and to practical aspects of the control and regulation. The solution of these problems will produce, on one hand, an equitable

distribution of the benefits between the users, and the other, it will clearly improve the standards of the harvest, avoiding over-hunting and transports of skins from one region to another, which still takes place today. The incorporation of hide measurement in tanneries to the program will allow the establishment of monitoring on the sustainability of the program. Finally, the establishment of a periodic communication channel with the CSG, will facilitate the agile correction of the problems that could arise in the future.

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Program for the conservation and sustainable use of the lagarto (Caiman yacare) in Bolivia


INTRODUCTION

Latin America has the highest richness of crocodilian species of any comparable area of the world; 12 taxa (including subspecies) are distributed from Mexico to Argentina. On the other hand, the vast area of wetlands and immense river systems of this portion of the continent provide extensive habitat for caimans and crocodiles, a reason why the number of animals is probably the highest in the world, even though the actual densities remain unknown (Messel et al. 1995). This situation signifies that the crocodilians represent a resource of considerable ecological value with great economic potential (Pacheco 1996).

Latin America has supported the largest crocodilian exploitation in the world. Historically, over exploitation for the international trade in skins has caused a serious decline and local extinctions in certain species, however, ironically, even in the 90s the region provided more than half the crocodilian skins in world trade (Messel et al. 1995). Despite that loss of habitat, and over-exploitation continues to be a risk factor for the survival of various species (Ross 1995), currently a basic change in the tendency for crocodilian conservation can be seen worldwide, including Latin America: a new conservation consciousness, international control in traffic of wildlife and improved programs of management and conservation, which generate optimism with the respect to caimans and crocodiles. The adoption of crocodilian has provided new incentives for the conservation of these species and their habitats (Messel et al. 1995).

In Bolivia, the development of a pilot program for the sustainable use of Caiman yacare began in 1995 with the project “A Program for the Sustainable Utilization and Management of Caiman in Bolivia” (King

1995), which was the basis for issuing the Regulations for the Conservation and Management of Lagarto (C. yacare) for the Departments of Santa Cruz and Beni (D. S. 24774 of 31 July 1997). At the same time, the DNCB (now Dirección General de Biodiversidad – DGB, General Directorate of Biodiversity), elaborated the National Program for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Caiman of Bolivia, which requires prior evaluation and monitoring of populations of lagarto and other species of crocodilians (Llobet and Aparicio 1999).

At that moment, due to the lack of consensus between the different parties, a series of unfortunate events occurred that prevented the development of the program until 1999, in which a new legal framework for the management of wildlife was issued, allowing the lifting of the commercial prohibition for species appropriate for sustainable use (D. S. 25458). The same year a Provisional Regulation was approved as an exception which permitted use of lagarto during 1999 with a harvest quota of 36,500 hides (D. S. 25555, Ministerial Resolution No 307/99, Ministerial Resolution No 330/99). During 2000, the DGB with the help of CESO/SACO (Canadian Executive Service Organization) initiated the process of ecoregionalization of the program using geographic information systems (GIS), as a proposal to be adjusted with new information from the field, at the same time new surveys were conducted in the Departments of Beni, Santa Cruz y Pando (MDSP 2002, PIAS 2001). For the purpose of evaluating the development of the process and functioning of the lagarto use program, a Workshop for the Evaluation of the National Sustainable Use Program for Lagarto (Caiman yacare) was held in Trinidad (Beni) 2-4 April 2002 with the participation of local stakeholders as well as national and international specialists.


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TECHNICAL BASES FOR ESTABLISHING THE SUSTAINABLE USE OF CAIMAN YACARE

Even though information exists on caimans in Bolivia beginning in the 70s (Donoso-Barros 1974, Lovisek 1977 and 1980), research done during this period was casual and of little use for the conservation of caimans in the country (Pacheco 1996). During the same decade Medem undertook the first large scale inventory, the results being published 10 years later (Medem 1983), where, for the first time, information on the natural history of caimans in Bolivia was presented. The second great effort compiling information on caiman populations on a large scale was done in 1986, where after 6 months of work information comparable to that collected by Medem on distribution of species and the state of some populations (King and Videz-Roca 1989). After that time, numerous studies have supplied information on the state of populations of Caiman yacare in diverse parts of the country such as the Beni, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba (Ruiz 1988, Videz-Roca 1987 and 1989, Ergueta and Pacheco 1990, Vaca 1992, Pacheco 1993, Rebolledo-Garin and Tapia-Arauz 1994, Llobet 1996, Llobet and Goitia 1997, King and Godshalk 1997).

Studies done in 1986 demonstrated that the species was practically exterminated in some areas of the Beni, and in other particularly abundant with densities up to 70 ind/Km of shore (King and Videz-Roca 1989). The same situation was seen in Santa Cruz, where in some areas very low densities were reported (King and Videz-Roca 1989, Ergueta and Pacheco 1990, Rebolledo-Garin and Tapia-Arauz 1994), while in others, like the area of San Matías, the observed aggregations (especially during the dry season) produced high densities similar to those reported from the Venezuelan Llanos (Pacheco and King 1995). Today the species is not considered endangered (Pacheco and Aparicio 1996), but it must be remembered that in the past the populations suffered a strong hunting pressure which reduced populations over the major part of its distribution (Pacheco 1996). Because of the recovery that lagarto populations have undergone in recent years, a program for

sustainable use of the species can be realized only when the conditions and harvest quotas established in the current laws are respected (Llobet and Aparicio 1999).

Utilization of crocodilians occurs in different manners: harvest of wild animals, ranching (harvest of eggs and/or hatchlings for captives rearing) and complete captive propagation (farming) maintaining reproductive adults in captivity. Each system has advantages and disadvantages in terms of conservation value, ease of regulation, costs and economic return (David 1994), for which the application of each one ( or various) of these methods must be preceded by current analyses not only of the biology of the species but also the socioeconomics of the intended area.

In accordance with the Bolivian situation, harvest of wild animals was selected as the model for development of a sustainable use of C. yacare, based on the success demonstrated by the Venezuelan experience with C. crocodilus (Thorbjarnarson and Velasco 1998). This system has low economic investment and the greatest benefactors are the landowners (Velasco et al. 1995). Harvest is based on sexual dimorphism exhibited by this species to establish minimum size limits for animals to be harvested, focusing the harvest the harvest on animals greater than 180 cm in length which are generally males and, in this manner, protecting the females. It must be kept in mind that a wild harvest is difficult to regulate and had a high risk of not being sustainable; crocodilian populations can easily be diminished by the removal of reproductive adults. It must be added that the great over-exploitation of crocodilian populations which brought many species to critical levels, from the point of view of their conservation, was due in great part to direct hunting (King 1989), it is easy to understand that different systems of control are needed to adjust and correct problems in the program in a manner that can assure compliance the principal objective to achieve effective conservation of Caiman yacare in Bolivia.

It has been shown that sustainable use can generate more interest in the conservation of the species (Thorbjarnarson 1992, Jenkins 1993,

A. Llobet Q. – Program for the conservation and sustainable use of C. yacare in Bolivia

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Ross 1995), however in Latin America the benefits from use generally are not reinvested in conservation programs for the same species (Hines and Abercrombie 1987, Magnusson 1995). The idea use can benefit the conservation processes is interesting and comes from base of research of many years that demonstrated the success of sustainable use of crocodilians in many countries such as New Guinea, Venezuela, Zimbabwe, United States and Australia (Hutton and Child 1989, Joanen et al. 1990, Genolagani and Wilmot 1990, Webb et al. 1992, Velasco and De Sola 1997); nevertheless the use programs can be affected or debilitated when no benefits are destined toward conservation by lack of an integrated plan.

It is necessary to consider the fact that commercial use of crocodilians is subject to fluctuation of the market where many times the involved parties concentrate their efforts on economic aspects causing neglect of the sustainability of the resource (Magnusson 1995). Great fluctuations in the market of crocodilian products suggest that no conservation plan ought to be base exclusively on the success of economic exploitation. As with any other international trade, crocodilian products are subject to market forces and price changes out of control of the producers (Woodward et al. 1994); these economic fluctuations represent a great danger to sustainable use programs and move the economic balance toward lower costs of production and increasing the temptation to return to an unsustainable over-exploitation of wild skins (Ross 1995).

One of the problems with economic use projects is that they are seen as results and not as a source of generating information, This is to say, if we consider that the knowledge of population dynamics of the crocodilian populations is still limited, it should be assumed that this type of information also has limited utility in management plan development. If we assume that the work of researchers and administrators of resources responsible for crocodilian management is to establish programs with a high probability that the use of the resource is sustainable (Ross 1995), then the management plans, being a source of data on

population dynamics, should have a feedback system to be able to correct errors and assure compliance with established objectives. For this reason, each management plan should be closely allied to a program of monitoring (McNab 1983 and Walters and Holling 1990 in: Magnusson 1995).

Finally, the capacity to enforce the regulations is a particularly complex problem in Latin American countries, and is often related to the political will for developing the processes. Generally, the lack of institutions in the government agencies is a common factor that negatively affects any type of conservation effort. One way of attacking the problem is by supporting different international agreements (like CITES) to which Bolivia is a signatory.

TECHNICAL AND LEGAL

BACKGROUND FOR THE PROGRAM (Ministry of Sustainable Development and Planning – General Direction of Biodiversity)

On 31 July 1997, D. S. 24774 was issued, putting into law the Regulation for the Conservation and Use of the Lagarto (Caiman yacare) in the Departments of Beni and Santa Cruz, based on the existence of sufficient studies to determine the feasibility of establishing a Utilization Plan for lagarto in the mentioned Departments. Lagarto utilization was authorized under requirements and conditions of the Regulations and it established an Experimental Use Plan in selected areas for a period of 2 years. At the same time, it established, as a mechanism to deter illegal hunting, the burning of confiscated products.

In November 1997, with this legal foundation and financing from the Netherlands embassy, a Management Plan was elaborated (Aparicio 1997) and the harvest of caiman was begun with reduced quotas and using harpoon as the only allowable harvest method. The experimental harvest results showed that hunting with harpoon in Bolivia was very difficult to perform, basically through lack of experience of the local people in its use. On the other hand, the harvest quota assigned to the different ranches was


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insufficient to cover the costs of transport and personnel needed to perform the activities.

The same year, disagreements and confrontations originated as a result of confiscations in the Beni Prefect with the order to burn 17,609 lagarto hides. This order, based on D. S. 24774, resulted in a series of protests performed by various regional institutions in the Department, headed by the Civic Committee of the Beni, leading to the formation in 1998 of a Revision Committee of the cited Supreme Decree (DS) directed by the President of the Republic with the objective to give a solution to the problems created by D. S. 24774. From the agreement of the Commission, Resolution No 01/98 was issued which authorized the Beni Prefect, in coordination with the Civic Committee and the Technical University of the Beni, the auction and sale of the 17,609 hides, as well as the issue of corresponding CITES certificates for export.

On 21 July 1999, D. S. 25458 was decreed which authorized a new legal framework for the management of wildlife, permitting the lifting of the hunting ban for species appropriate for sustainable use expressed through a Ministerial Resolution. Also, on 22 October 1999, D. S. 25555 was decreed which authorized the MDSP, to issue a Ministerial Resolution as an exception, approving the Provisional Regulations for the lagarto harvest during 1999.

On 30 November 1999, the exceptional Ministerial Resolution No 307/99 was issued, which approved the Regulations for the conservation and use of lagarto and rules on the transition between the harvest performed in the months of October to December 1999, and the new process to be initiated in 2000. Ministerial Resolution No 330/99 was decreed on 17 December the same year which authorized the harvest and recollection of lagarto hides and established a quota equivalent to 60.8 % of the recommendation by the expert group of the IUCN of Bolivia (Aparicio et al. 1999), distributing the quota of 36,500 hides in 30,000 hides to the Beni Department, 3,500 to the Santa Cruz Department and 3,000 to the La Paz Department. In the elaboration of this document, the IUCN specialists assumed that the

populations of yacare had increased since the issuing of D. S. 22641, which declared a General and Indefinite Hunting Ban, by establishing a series of conditions to assure that the populations of Caiman yacare would not be subject to excessive harvesting:

• No harvesting in forested areas.

• As homogeneous, a distribution of the harvest as possible in the region (zones of savanna).

• Seek a mechanism to completely deny legalization hides over the legal limit.

• If no assurance can be made that no auctions will take place which legalize illegal hides over the established quota, a quota should be granted equal to or less than half that proposed in that document.

• Harvest quotas for 2000 should not be assigned for any reason without previously undertaking population evaluations of C. yacare in Bolivia during the dry season of 1999. Financing of these studies can be assured by using resources obtained from the experimental harvest of 1999.

In this context, the harvest of lagarto was initiated in the Beni, benefiting Indigenous communities who made use of a 30,000 hide quota that year. Paralleling this, by Ministerial Resolution No 330, quotas of 3,500 hides for Santa Cruz and 3000 for La Paz were issued but were not filled.

In 2000 the Dirección General de Biodiversidad, with the help of CESO/SACO (Canadian Executive Service Organization) and consultant Dr. Douglas Ravenstein, designed an Ecoregionalization of the Utilization Program for lagarto, which was elaborated using an information base analyzed by a Geographic Information System (GIS) of the General Direction of Sustainable Forestry Development of the Vice-Ministry of the Environment, Natural Resources and Forestry Development, of the Ministry of Sustainable Development and Planning, as a proposal to be adjusted as a function of new information.


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During that year, no authorizations for lagarto hide extractions were granted due to the absence of necessary technical information, on the other hand; surveys or population estimates were performed allowing the elaboration of the document “Analysis and Evaluation of the State of Conservation of the Population of Caiman yacare in the Beni; use and conservation” (PIAS 2001a). Four ecoregions were evaluated (3, 5, 9 and 10) of the 11 designated of lagarto harvest, recommending a harvest of 43,683 for the entire Beni Department. The study was approved by the Consulting Council on Wildlife, authorizing a harvest quota for 40,000 hides in the Beni, 5,000 for Santa Cruz and 1,500 for Pando Department, a total quota of 46,500 lagartos for the year 2001.

From the perspective of sustainability, in the study undertaken in the Beni without doubt performed with great effort to evaluate the 4 regions, to extrapolate the obtained results to all of the Beni Department, renders the ecoregion definitions useless from the point of view of minimizing that can be produced when estimating population size and structure. In the study undertaken in Santa Cruz (PIAS 2001b), The population structure was reported for C yacare, independently of the survey method used, with a proportion of Group IV individuals (greater than 180 cm in length) at 1.72% of the total population (not counting Group I individuals or less than 50 cm total length). The authorizing of the harvest of individuals from a population with this characteristic violates Art. 18 of the Regulation for the Conservation and Use of (Caiman yacare), which indicates that the harvest will be authorized for lagartos up to 25% of the corresponding Group IV of populations in a good state of conservation, understanding that a “good state of conservation” of the populations is where individuals greater than 180 cm total length (Group IV) are above 15% of the total formed by Groups II, III and IV (that is to say the total population without considering neonates or less than 50 cm. With respect to assigning quotas for the Pando Department, there is no documentation to endorse that assignment.

It should be noted that none of the evaluations or surveys undertaken comply with Art. 6 of the above mentioned regulation, in which it is established at least 10% of the extent of each identified ecological region.

In 2002 it was deemed necessary to evaluate the process and functioning of the utilization program for lagarto on a national level. A workshop was organized for this in the city of Trinidad on 2-4 April of this year in which participated many specialists from involved sectors and institution. In this workshop they covered points of interest related to impacts of previous harvests, deficiencies and advantages of the administration; control and prosecution (see details below).

Ministerial Resolution No 155 was issued on 1 August 2002, based on the study presented to the Beni Prefecture and with the endorsement of the Advisory Council for Wildlife, which authorized the harvest of 39,132 lagartos in the Department. It must be noted that this study (undertaken in 8 ecoregions) did not report a single neonate or individual less than 50 cm total length (Group I). Also, only 0.49% of the total territory of the evaluated ecoregions was surveyed, which does not comply with that established in the Regulation for Harvest and Sustainable Use of Caiman yacare. On the other hand, Ministerial Resolution No 156 from the same date, grants a harvest quota 0f 5000 individuals to Santa Cruz Department for this year without having any surveys in that Department.

It is important to note that in the distribution of benefits, the Regulation for Harvest and Sustainable Use of Caiman yacare, it authorizes owners of skins from private property or Communal Lands of Origin (TCOs) to sell hides stored in the official warehouses directly. In this sense, with the foundation of the contracts for utilization agreed to by the Departmental Prefectures in Beni, Santa Cruz and Pando, there is evidence that the program has generated economic benefits to different Indigenous villages, campesino communities and ranchers.


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WORKSHOP FOR THE EVALUATION OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR SUSTAINABLE USE OF LAGARTO (CAIMAN YACARE) IN BOLIVIA

A Workshop was held in the city of Trinidad, capital of the Beni Department, Bolivia on the days 2-4 April 2002 with the principal objective of evaluation of the “Program of Sustainable Use of the Lagarto Caiman yacare in Bolivia to define the methods to strengthen in on local, national and regional levels facilitating sustainable use under the restructuring of a National Program of sustainable use of lagarto (MDSP 2002).

General conclusions from the workshop (transcribed) were:

• The process of utilization of the lagarto is in a stage of transition from an old illegal activity to a management program that seeks sustainability, which generates problems in the administration and control.

• Institutional weakness of the state to administer the program exists at three levels, National, departmental and local, especially in the aspects of control and regulation, for which the institutional roles need to be defined accurately and to reinforce the technical details.

• The problems and experiences explained by the prefectures demonstrate that differences of criteria exist in the administrative, operative and technical aspects.

• A necessity exists to define precisely the institutional roles and functions, especially in the normative and regulatory aspects, and fundamentally in the subject of control and regulation.

• It is recognized that the existence of illicit activity has diminished substantially; this is based on information from the international market and the diminution of the price of illegal hides and the elevation of the price of legal hides.

• Satisfaction and conformity exists with the sectors and beneficiaries of the process,

because in spite of the problems identified it has generated sources of work, movement of capital and generation of economic activity in remote places of difficult access and an equitable participation in the benefits.

• The sustainable utilization of the lagarto and other species of wild fauna appear as a mechanism of consolidation of the property rights and can broaden the criteria of the socioeconomic function of the land.

• Legality was returned to the owners of rights as campesinos, Indigenous people and cattlemen in the receiving the legal hide tags, and a conservation process was generated in the areas with private and communal landowners by considering the lagarto as a commercial good.

• An incoherence between the actual distribution of quotas and that coming from the technical study due to faults and the lack of consistency of the base technical study, which is the first lesson on what must be corrected as a base to the conclusions of the workshop.

• A lack of integration exists between the technical base and the administrative and control aspects.

• In spite of being pilot program, important advances in the legal aspects and social participation were achieved, but there is a need for improvement of the technical aspects, of control and regulation and for training and diffusion of information as a basis of an integral program.

• With base of criteria from national and international specialists, the program presents important advances and it must be redirected taking into account the experiences and lessons learned.

• The regulation of utilization of the lagarto suffers from imprecision and contradictions that make the efficient administration of the resource difficult, thus with a base of recommendations from the workshop, a new proposal should be


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drafted and discussed with the appropriate parties.

• A review of assessment and regulation at level of the prefectures should be undertaken, with the participation of Indigenous people, cattlemen, campesinos, businessmen, academic and investigative Institutions and the prefectures, with the purpose of informing, arranging and regulating the administrative and technical details of the program.

• There should be a permanent program of publication, education and of conscience to protect wildlife (lagarto, etc) in order to utilize these resources in sustainable form.

• A new participative methodology of surveys and determination of individual quotas should be constructed as the insufficiency of methodology used has been shown.

• A process of training and promotion of the hide sales should be generated by specialized technical services at local and national level.

However, it is important to note that according to the report written by Larriera (2002), member of the CSG (IUCN), there is a very worrisome aspect in which all the hides of legal size are not tagged at their site of origin, permitting the buyers to select largest size (among the legal size) and tag only those, which produces an unnecessary overhunting of animals. If in the future this can be diminished by the natural laws of supply and demand, it would be preferable and simple to avoid today, assuring sale of all the hide of legal size (within the quota).

The same author maintains the lack of communication between the different sectors involved and the disinformation of the users, not only in spirit, but also in the changing practical aspects of the program, was recognized as a serious problem during the meeting, did not appear in light of the conclusions, a path tending to resolve these problems.

Finally, the greatest problems noted in the process of the program refer to the methodology of monitoring the natural populations to determine harvests – national, departmental and for production units (TCOs, ranches, and campesino communities), the internal distribution of harvest quotas and practical aspects of control and enforcement. The solution to these problems will be produced, on one hand, by a more equitable distribution of benefits to the users, and by clearly improving the standards for harvest, avoiding over-harvest and transport of hides from one region to another as seen today

The incorporation of hide measuring in the tanneries would establish a monitoring of the sustainability of the program. Finally, establishment of a regular channel of communication with the CSG would facilitate rapid correction to problems that can arise (Larriera 2002). CONCLUSIONS

The difficulty represented by the fact that extractive use of fauna comply with requirements of sustainability should not be overlooked. Progress on this point depends largely on the political will and the experimental pilot projects of utilization which are the basis for execution of large scale projects. In this manner, sustainable use can be the correct path, even though long and difficult in developing countries (Ojasti 2000). One of the challenges existing in Bolivia is the making the transition from a long tradition of illegal wildlife use to a management regulated with an aim to assure the biological sustainability of the programs.

The sustainable use of crocodilians has proved in many situations to be a successful activity from the point of view of conservation of certain species and their habitats. According to the situation of Caiman yacare populations in Bolivia, a utilization program for the species can be realized in a sustainable manner only if it is developed within the framework of established guidelines, without forgetting the principal objective that has to be oriented to the effective conservation of the species


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The development of a system monitoring population tendencies allied to the utilization program is crucial for adjusting the program deviations and errors and for generating reliable information for assigning harvest quotas or making decisions on the course of action. The information obtained from monitoring will serve follow variations and tendencies in space and time of lagarto population dynamics, procuring valuable data on the natural history of the species

The economic value given to the lagarto within the use program and the incentives and benefits generated at a local level, can change the pattern of illegal hunting to a harvest system, which being regulated and controlled, can maintain levels of sustainability. The development and strengthening of local capacity ought to be a fundamental component during the application of the utilization program; the assistance that can be offered by the Dirección General de Biodiversidad for training and improvement of organizational structures of stakeholders can contribute that actions are maintained within the established rules

Fluctuations in the international market undoubtedly have a significant impact on programs of commercial utilization of wildlife. Owing to the uncertainty of this aspect, it is necessary to maintain the economic self-sustainability if the use program, particularly the administration, control and population monitoring. If this is achieved, the continuity of the process can be guaranteed independently of the hide prices in the international market.

Finally, the economic incentives to the lagarto utilization program stakeholders, particularly landowners, can be reflected not only in the conservation of the species but also the habitats they occupy. From the moment an economic value is given to a species, the landowners are not only going to protect the resource from which they are receiving a benefit (in this case lagarto), but also develop actions to control poaching, and at the same time it will have an effect on the protection of lagarto habitat which in turn results in the conservation of large areas of wetlands.

LITERATURE CITED

Aparicio, J. 1997. Plan de Manejo para el Programa Piloto “Aprovechamiento del Caiman yacare en el Departamento del Beni”. La Paz, Bolivia.

Aparicio, J., Llobet, A. and L. Pacheco. 1999. Criterios utilizados para recomendar una cuota de cosecha de Caiman yacare en Bolivia para 1999. Documento de la DGB. No publicado.

David, D. 1994. Harvesting wild crocodilians: Guidelines for developing a sustainable use system. Pp. 274-309 in Proceedings of the 12th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Donoso-Barros, R. 1974. Contribución al conocimiento de los Cocodrilos de Bolivia: Caiman yacare medemi. Boletín Sociedad Biológica de Concepción. 47:131-143.

Ergueta, P. and L. F. Pacheco. 1990. Los Crocodilos de Bolivia. Ecología en Bolivia. 15:69-81.

Genolagani, J. G. and J. M. Wilmot. 1990. Status of crocodile populations in Papua New Guinea: 1981-1988. Pp. 122-160 in Proceedings of the 10th Work Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Hines J. C. and C. L. Abercrombie. 1987. The management of alligators in Florida, USA. Pp. 43-47 in G. J. W. Webb, S. Manolis and P. J. Whitehead (Eds.). Wildlife Management: Crocodiles and Alligators. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.

Hutton, J. M. and G. F. T. Child. 1989. Crocodile Management in Zimbabwe. Pp. 62-79 in Crocodiles, their ecology, management and conservation. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Jenkins, R. W. G. 1993. Sustainable Use of Crocodilians – Conservation benefits. En: Proceedings of the 2nd Regional Meeting of the CSG, Darwin, Australia. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.


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Joanen, T., McNease, L. and D. Ashley. 1990. Production, volume and trends in the USA. Pp. 276-285 in Proceedings of the 10th Work Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

King, F. W. 1989. Conservation and Management. Pp. 216-229 in C. A Ross (Ed.). Crocodiles and Alligators. Golden Press Pty. Ltd. Australia.

King, F. W. 1995. A Program for the Sustainable Utilization and Management of Caiman in Bolivia. CITES Project Proposal. Doc. SC.35.11. Annex 8. Project S-089.

King, F. W. and D. H. Videz-Roca. 1989. The caimans of Bolivia: a preliminary report on a CITES and Centro de Desarrollo Forestal sponsored survey of species distribution and status. Pp. 128-155 in Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 8th Working Meeting of the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN - The World Conservation Union. Gland, Switzerland.

King, F. W. and R. Godshalk. 1997. A Program for the Sustainable Utilization and Management of caimans: A Report to the Government of Bolivia on the final results of the 1995 and 1996 field seasons. CITES Secretariat, Switzerland. 96 p.

Larriera, A. 2002. Informe sobre: “Taller de evaluación del programa nacional de aprovechamiento sostenible del lagarto (Caiman yacare), en Bolivia”. Unpublished.

Llobet, A. 1996. Distribución y abundancia de Caiman yacare en la cuenca del río Ichilo. UMSS. Cochabamba, Bolivia.

Llobet, A. and E. Goitia. 1997. Abundancia y estructura poblacional de Caiman yacare en lagunas de la llanura inundable de los ríos Ichilo y Chapare (Bolivia). Revista Boliviana de Ecología y Conservación Ambiental. 2:39-47.

Llobet, A. and J. Aparicio. 1999. Abundancia, estructura poblacional y perspectivas de aprovechamiento de Caiman yacare en cinco estancias del Departamento del Beni. Pp. 285-293 in T. G. Fang, O. L. Montenegro y R. E. Bodmer (Eds.). Manejo y conservación de

fauna silvestre en América Latina. Instituto de Ecología. La Paz, Bolivia.

Lovisek, J. 1977. To catch a caiman. Rotunda. 10(3):20-25.

Lovisek, J. 1980. The reproduction of Caiman crocodilus yacare in Central Bolivia. P. 30 in Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles – Herpetologist League Meetings, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Magnusson, W. E. 1995. A Conservação de Crocodilianos na América Latina. Pp. 5-17 in A. Larriera and L. M. Verdade (Eds.). La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y cocodrilos de América Latina. Vol. 1. Fundación Banco Bica. Santo Tomé, Santa Fé, Argentina.

MDSP. 2002. Memoria del Taller de Evaluación del Programa de Nacional de Aprovechamiento Sostenible del Lagarto (Caiman yacare). Trinidad, 2 al 4 de abril de 2002.

Medem, F. 1983. Los Crocodylia de Sur América. Vol. 2. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Bogotá, Colombia.

Messel, H., King, F. W., and P. Ross. 1995. Introducción: La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y cocodrilos. Pp. 1-3 in A. Larriera and L. M. Verdade (Eds.). La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y cocodrilos de América Latina. Vol. 1. Fundación Banco Bica. Santo Tomé, Santa Fé, Argentina.

Ojasti, J. 2000. Manejo de Fauna Silvestre Neotropical. F. Dallmeier (Ed.). SIMAB Series No. 5. Smithsonian Institution/MAB Program. Washington D. C.

Pacheco, L. F. 1993. Abundance, distribution and habitat use of caimans in Beni, Bolivia. M. S. Thesis. University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.

Pacheco, L. F. and F. W. King. 1995. Perspectivas de la conservación de caimanes de Bolivia. Pp. 123-134 in A. Larriera and L. M. Verdade (Eds.). La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y cocodrilos de América Latina. Vol. 1. Fundación Banco Bica. Santo Tomé, Santa Fé, Argentina.


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Pacheco, L. F. 1996. Plan de Acción para los Caimanes de Bolivia. Ecología en Bolivia. 27:43-53.

Pacheco, L. F. and J. Aparicio. 1996. Reptiles. Pp. 73-93 in P. Ergueta and C. B. De Morales (Eds.). Libro Rojo de los Vertebrados de Bolivia. CDC, Bolivia.

PIAS. 2001a. Análisis y Evaluación del Estado de Conservación de la Población del Caiman yacare en el Beni; uso y conservación. No publicado. Programa Integral Amazonía Sostenible.

PIAS. 2001b. Evaluación del estado de conservación de poblaciones de Caiman yacare en el Departamento de Santa Cruz (Provincias Ángel Sandoval y Cnl. Germán Busch). Programa Integral Amazonía Sostenible.

Rebolledo-Garin, P. P. and M. C. Tapia-Arauz. 1994. La herpetofauna de la Reserva de Vida Silvestre de los Ríos Blanco y Negro: Diversidad, distribución, pautas para su conservación y uso sostenible. Informe preliminar. Fundación Amigos de la Naturaleza (FAN).

Ross, P. 1995. La importancia del uso sostenible para la conservación de los cocodrilianos. Pp. 19-32 in Larriera and L. M. Verdade (Eds.). La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y cocodrilos de América Latina. Vol. 1. Fundación Banco Bica. Santo Tomé, Santa Fé, Argentina.

Ruiz, E. 1988. Ecología del lagarto (Caiman crocodilus yacare) en la Estación Biológica del Beni (Bolivia). Informe preliminar. La Paz, Bolivia.

Thorbjarnarson, J. 1992. Crocodiles. An Action Plan for their Conservation. UICN. Gland, Switzerland.

Thorbjarnarson, J. and A. Velasco. 1998. Economic incentives for management of Venezuelan Caiman. Conservation Biology. 13(2):397-406.

Vaca, N. 1992. Ecología y distribución de los crocodílidos en la Estación Biológica Beni. Tesis de Licenciatura. Universidad Autónoma Gabriel René Moreno. Santa Cruz, Bolivia.

Velasco, A., De Sola, R. and M. Quero. 1995. Programa de manejo de la baba (Caiman crocodilus) de Venezuela. Pp. 213-220 in A. Larriera and L. M. Verdade (Eds.). La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y cocodrilos de América Latina. Vol. 1. Fundación Banco Bica. Santo Tomé, Santa Fé, Argentina.

Velasco, A. and R. De Sola. 1997. Programa de manejo de la baba (Caiman crocodilus) de Venezuela. Pp. 235-246 in Memorias 4ª Reunión Regional del Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos de América Latina y el Caribe. Villahermosa, México.

Videz-Roca, D. H. 1987. Levantamiento poblacional del lagarto en la Estancia San Luis (Caiman crocodilus yacare). Informe a Estancia San Luis. No publicado. Santa Cruz, Bolivia.

Videz-Roca, D. H. 1989. Proyecto de creación del Refugio de Vida Silvestre “Lago Taborga”. Informe a CDF. No publicado. Santa Cruz, Bolivia.

Webb, G., Manolis, C., Otley, B. and A. Heyward. 1992. Crocodile Management and Research in the Northern Territory: 1990-1992. En: Proceedings of the 11th Work Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Woodward, A. R., Dennis, D. and R. Degner. 1994. The rise and fall off classic crocodilian prices: where do we go from here?. En: Proceedings of the 2nd Regional Meeting of the CSG, Darwin, Australia. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Policy for the Conservation and management of jacaré (Caiman yacare) in Brazil

Maria Iolita Bampi and Marcos Coutinho

SUMMARY

The report is introduced with a description of the importance of the sustainable use of the genetic stocks of the fauna as conservation mechanism. The characterization of the evolution of the program of conservation of Caiman yacare in Brazil describes the forms of management already in use, the trajectory of the production in last the 12 years and its relations with the alterations in the normative systems occurring in Brazil and the exterior. After that, some of the main information presented that comes subsidizing the definition of the conservation policies and management of jacaré in the Pantanal. Amongst them, they are shown in the area of distribution of the species and environmental characteristics, alimentary habits and the body condition, reproductive biology, rate of population growth and the current status and the trends in the population size. This time, marked by the beginning of products of Caiman yacare with the United States, it is opportune for adoption of measures of organization in the management programs that, in turn, must be on a basis defined by the dialogue between countries. It is hoped that the “International Workshop on Regulation, Management y Trade of Caiman yacare" characterizes the beginning of this dialogue and the recommendations of the meeting can guide strategies of joint action, aiming to guarantee the viability of the conservation programs and management of Caiman yacare in all the area of distribution of the species.

DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION

THROUGH THE SUSTAINABLE USE OF FAUNA

According to international conservation entities (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1980, IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991), the sustainable use of wildlife represents a strategy important to promote compatible socioeconomic development with conservation of the natural environment and the preservation of biodiversity. Such strategy has been especially directed to tropical countries, where natural ecosystems still has not been completely destroyed or modified. Brazil is in a privileged position to promote the use of the wildlife as a mechanism of conservation and sustainable development. The great extensions of tropical humid areas, the vigor of the populations of species recognized for economic value and the socioeconomic scenario favoring products that are environmentally intelligent are some of the main factors contributing so that the country assumes a position of prominence in the world-wide production fauna products.

The plain of the Pantanal, with an extension of 140,000 km2, is one of the largest wetland areas on the planet. Situated in the center of the American South Continent, the region is of special biogeographic importance for bordering other great ecosystems of the continent, such as the Amazonian Forest to the north, the Cerrado drylands to the east, Atlantic Southern Forest to the Southeast and the Paraguayan Chaco to the south. In the Constitution of Brazil, the region is considered a National Heritage and, recently, was recognized for UNESCO as Heritage of Humanity, deserving high priority of conservation. The Pantanal, notable for the wealth and abundance of the wildlife, is a widely distributed mosaic of flooded areas, including temporary rivers, lagoons of fresh and brackish water, heaths and perennially or seasonally flooded fields. Many species of the native fauna present perspectives for sustainable use. Amongst them, the jacaré-do-Pantanal is distinguished (Caiman yacare), and is widely distributed throughout all the plain (Mourão et al. 2000), reaching the greatest densities

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reported for any species of crocodilian on the planet (150 individuals/km2, Coutinho and Fields 1996). The sustainable use of these natural resources must function as an incentive for conservation and represents a chance to open new businesses and agricultural markets, new alternatives for employment that guarantee the settling of people in agricultural areas and the redirection of the use of lands considered inappropriate for traditional agricultural systems.

EVOLUTION OF THE POLICIES OF

CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE JACARÉ-DO-PANTANAL

Previous to the year of 1967, there were practically no restrictions to the use of the fauna in Brazil. The use of the jacaré in the Pantanal was being done on an industrial scale, with the annual production reaching the order of millions of skins. Although without defined organization, the system was composed of a relatively large number of hunters, who supplied the skins at some receiving centers, located in the main cities of the Pantanal. Later, the salted skins were exported, mainly benefiting European tanneries. The land proprietors were relatively little involved with the activity and the management was conducted independently of the borders of the ranches. The jacaré, an example of other species of the fauna, was considered a product of lesser importance, representing a complementary income to the cattle production. The socioeconomic information on this period is scarce, but it is known that the commercial use of fauna was especially important for region, as source of income for the people in low density areas.

With the promulgation of the Law of Protection for fauna (Law 5.197 of 1967), the professional hunting and the commerce of products taken from wild animals had been forbidden. Fauna became property of the State and its use was to be only from animals managed in duly registered captive farms. Most of the people involved with the extensive system of production of jacaré in the Pantanal depended on it for sustenance and, in many cases, as only source of income. The high demand of skins of caimans in the international market and allied

with a lack of alternatives in the job market of the region, determined an emergency of illegal commerce. The period including the decade of 70s to the middles of the 80s was characterized by police repression of jacaré hunting in the Pantanal. In this period, a true civil war occurred in the Pantanal between police officers determined to fulfill the new law and the hunters, majority of them rural agricultural workers in the Pantanal, resistant to the prohibition. The control hunting by means of police repression was supported mostly of the resident population in the great urban centers in Brazil and in the exterior, where the ecological movement was emergent and hunting was seen as one of the main causes of extinction of species.

The installation of captive propagation of the “Farming” type (where all cycles of life of a species occurs in captivity), was regulated by Decree (Portaria) No. 130-P of 6 April 1978, published for the Brazilian Institute of Forest Development (IBDF). This model of captive production received considerable media coverage and the number of registered farms grew substantially during decade of the 80s, including the installation of farms for C. yacare in some regions of the country, using males and females removed mainly from the Pantanal. The propagation of farms for C. yacare in the area of natural range of the species was one of the main incentives that the IBDF published Decree No. 324-P on 22 July 1987, defining that C. yacare could be raised or managed only within its respective hydrographic basin or areas of natural distribution. The great majority of the “farming” type enterprises are within Paraguay River Basin did not present economic viability as a result of various factors, amongst which it must be pointed out, the lack of knowledge on the species and techniques of management in captivity. Additionally, the contribution of this model as a mechanism of conservation of the respective species and its habitats was recognized as very limited.

Parallel to the evolution of management in Brazil, the experiences of other countries such as the United States, Australia and countries of the African continent, stimulated with the support of

M. I. Bampi and M. Coutinho – Conservation and management of Caiman yacare in Brazil

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CITES (International Convention on the Trade of Species of Fauna and Wild Flora in Danger of Extinction) the implantation of a system of management characterized by egg extraction from natural populations, in substitution to the extraction of the adult individuals, and the raising of young in captivity for commercial ends. This model of management called “Ranching”, was readily adopted by the Pantanal captive operations, with the technical support from the studies undertaken by landowners, together with technicians from governmental institutions for research (e.g. Marques and Monteiro 1997). The legal support for implantation of captive Ranching. was established with the promulgation of the Decree from IBAMA No. 126, on 13 February 1990, that regulated the registry of commercial ranches of C. yacare in the Paraguay River Basin and for Decree No. 119-N, of 17 November 1992, that regulated the commercialization of skins of C. crocodilus and C. yacare.

The media was stimulated once again and with the expectation of high profitability, some producers had registered to begin commercial ranches in the Pantanal. In the state of Mato Grosso, the rural producers had organized themselves in cooperatives, formed by up to 30 farms, that together supplied eggs for a single incubator and grow-out installation. In South Mato Grosso such trend was not seen, with the prevalence of independent ranches. Up to 1995, the ranchers of Mato Grosso had been responsible for most of the production of jacaré in the Pantanal. In only three years of activity, the cooperatives located in the cities of Cáceres (Coocrijapan) and Várzea Grande (TecnoCaiman) had reached a production of about 80.000 and 123.500 jacarés, respectively. After 1996, there was a sharp drop in the production that practically characterized bankruptcy of the system of production of the jacaré in the Pantanal. The Várzea Grande cooperative closed its activities, the cooperative of Cáceres was divided and the production decreased substantially. According to story of the producers, the main factors that had made the activity impractical had been the high costs of production and processing of the products, as well as the problems of commercialization,

especially the trade barriers imposed by the United States government to the products of C. yacare.

Even though C. yacare was not included in Appendix I of CITES, the trade barrier imposed by the United States exerted great negative impact on the program of management of the jacaré in the Pantanal. Besides disabling the trade with one of the main consumer centers of wildlife products, the position of the United States exerted negative influence on other consumer centers, making it even more difficult to open new markets. After intense negotiation led by the General Coordination of the Fauna of IBAMA and substantiated by the results of research by Brazilian and foreign researchers, including members of the Crocodile Specialists Group of the IUCN, the position of the United States government was finally reviewed in July of 2000. As of that date, C yacare was excluded from the US list of species threatened with extinction, which has allowed renewed commercial relations with that country. This occurs for Brazil and the other South American countries where the species is distributed naturally. However, the United States government has established some requirements that must be fulfilled to assure the opening of trade with the producing countries. Amongst them, that the producing countries must present reports every two years, giving information on the area of distribution and status of populations, the research projects in development, especially on the species’ reproductive biology, description of the laws, mechanisms of regulation and description of the effective rates of extraction and official data of exportation. The first Brazilian report called “National Policies for the Conservation and Management of Caiman yacare in Brazil: species status and monitoring, research and current regulations” was sent to the Fish and Wildlife Service, of the Department of the Interior of the United States, in April of 2002.

The evolution of the trajectory of production of the Coocrijapan Cooperative of Cáceres-MT is a good example to illustrate the dynamics of the productive sector of the jacaré in the Pantanal in last the 12 years (Figure 1). From


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1990, with the advent of the regulation of the Ranching management model, the work of egg collection and rearing of the young had been initiated. The annual production grew gradually until reaching the peak of about 20,000 jacarés in 1993. In 1993 and 1994, there was a strong decline in the production and the period from

1996 to 2000 was marked by a complete deactivation of the cooperative. From 2001, production was again observed, a fact that coincides with alterations in the United States legislation and with the possibility of opening of new consumer markets.

Figure 1. Evolution of the trajectory of production of Caiman yacare in the Pantanal, with regulation of the Ranching management model, from 1990, shown as the data of production of the Coocrijapan Cooperative, located in the city of Cáceres, MT, Brazil.

The data of exported skins with CITES

licenses show similar pattern to one observed in the production sector. The last the five years had been characterized by strong contraction of industry. From 1993 the 1997, 51,000 skins were exported, while from 1998 to 1999 the number was inferior of one thousand skins. From 2000, a new phase of growth was observed and the industry is gaining force. From 2000 until May of 2002, more than 5,000 skins had reached the international market (Table 1).

Despite the increase observed recently in the production in light of the new possibilities for commercialization, technical visits to the farms and rearing units prove that it is possible to promote advances in the production sector and a better articulation between the components of the productive chain. In this sense, the Brazilian Government, through IBAMA and in partnership with organizations of the public and private sectors, is implementing a set of actions articulated for developing and revitalizing the production system, aiming to guarantee that the conservation intent of the management program is achieved.

Table 1. Data of Brazilian exportation of skins of Caiman yacare, since 1993

Year Hides Exported 1993 - 1997 57,656 1998 - 1999 911 2000 - 2002 5,167

Total 58,567

BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF THE

CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT PROGRAM FOR THE JACARÉ OF THE PANTANAL

Studies conducted since the beginning of the decade of the 80s have generated information on different aspects of the biology and population ecology of the jacaré. For example, refer to the studies on the abundance, size structure and

Currently 27 ranchers with active registry in the IBAMA and six rearing units with commercial purpose exist, with an installed capacity of over 200,000 jacarés.


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sexual ratio of the population (Fields et al.1994; Mourão et al.1994; Coutinho and Fields 1996; Mourão et al. 2000), production of nests and reproductive behavior (Crawshaw and Shaller 1980; Cintra 1988; Fields and Magnusson 1995; Pine et al. 1997; Aleixo and Maciel 1998, Coutinho et al. 2001), diet and feeding behavior (Shaller and Crawshaw 1982; Saints et al. 1996). The potential for use in service of conservation also has been considered (Coutinho et al. 1994; Mourão et al. 1996), as well as the possible impacts and risks of over-hunting (Crawshaw 1991; Brazaitis et al. 1998) and the perfecting of current policies of management (Coutinho et al. 1998). More recently, it has been used to approach the analysis of systems for developing a conceptual structure where the quantitative data can be summarized, similar to evaluating the behavior of the population in function of changes in environmental conditions and under different strategies of management (Coutinho 2000). Additionally, techniques had been developed for slaughter and meat processing, which could be used as model in other regions of Brazil. To make possible the integral exploitation of the hides, tanning techniques had been perfected to assure products of high quality to be used in the confection of different products, looking toward different markets. In all the stages of the program, there has been a fundamental involvement of the local population. In this aspect, it created chance to learn, observe and register a wealth of regional culture as well as biological knowledge and to the practical utilization of fauna native to the Pantanal. All

this information constitutes a body of valuable knowledge that has been used for various reasons, principally in the definition of the policies of conservation and management. In items below some of the main information will be summarized, especially those biological in nature that support Brazilian policy decisions.

Taxonomic aspects A great part of the taxonomic uncertainties

between crocodilian species reside in so-called “Caiman Complex” (Groombridge 1987). This is illustrated well by the controversies involving the jacaré. This species was initially described for Daudin in 1802, who called it Crocodilus yacare. Later, the taxon suffered successive revisions and was renamed various times, alternating as a subspecies of Caiman crocodilus (Jacaretinga crocodilus yacare or Caiman crocodilus yacare), or receiving status as a species, Caiman yacare (Carvalho 1951). In accordance with Groombridge (1987), two new subspecies, Caiman crocodilus paraguayensis and Caiman crocodilus mattogrossiensis, had been registered with distribution in the area of the Pantanal and, based on little scientific evidences, both had been incorporated official manuals of identification of CITES. Although there still exists taxonomic controversies (e.g. Monteiro et al. 1997; Brochu 1999), the majority of the researchers agree to the full species Caiman yacare, this being the convention adopted currently by the Brazilian Environmental Authority (MMA/IBAMA). In figure 2 an adult Caiman yacare from the Pantanal is shown.

Figure 2. Adult individual of Caiman yacare in the Pantanal, Brazil.


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Area of distribution and environmental characteristics

The Pantanal is the main area of distribution of Caiman yacare in Brazil. The region is one of the biggest wetland areas of the planet and consists of 140,000 km2 of lowlands, surrounded by 356,000 km2 of uplands. Together lowlands and uplands form the Upper Paraguay River Basin that is considered one of the most important hydrographic basins of the South America (Figure 3). The area is located in the center of the South American continent, with most of it in Brazilian territory (393,600 km2) and the remaining west part within Bolivian and Paraguayan territories. The Pantanal is drained

by the Paraguay River, which flows in a North to South direction, runs along the west part of the basin and its tributaries that drain the region, in an east to west direction. As a function of relief and with little slope, flooding is the principal abiotic factor that affects the geo-ecological processes in the plain. The pulses of flooding and drought determine the productivity and exert the fundamental role in the dynamics of the ecosystem. The best descriptions given on the dynamics of flooding in the Pantanal are the daily measures of water levels of the Paraguay River, since the beginning of the century from the Brazilian Navy in the city of Ladário, South Pantanal.

Figure 3. Map of the Upper Paraguay Basin showing the limits of uplands and the lowlands (shaded area), for the main rivers that drain the Pantanal.

The water level varies substantially within one year and between years, making it possible to recognize multi-year patterns that indicate the occurrence of dry or humid years (below and above average, respectively, Figure 4).

Hamilton et al. (1996), using techniques of remote sensing, had related the water level of the Paraguay River with the extent of the flooded area. During the studied period (1979-87), it was observed that the flooded area varied from


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11,000 km2 in the dry months, to as much as 131,000 km2 in the peak of the flooded period. It was demonstrated that the water level of the Paraguay River, measured in Ladário, reflects an accurate measure of the area flooded in the Pantanal,, and therefore, is an efficient tool to predict the intensity of flooding in the entire

Pantaneira floodplain. Such information is especially important for defining management strategies, since water availability exerts a determining effect in the dynamics of the jacaré, and can be used to guide decisions at local and regional scales.

Figure 4. Annual variation of the maximum level of the Paraguay River observed in the region of Ladário, South Pantanal, from January, 1900 to December, 1997. Note the period of 25 consecutive years of high levels of flooding since 1974, which exerts a positive impact on the population growth of jacaré.

Feeding habits and body condition in the seasonal environment

The jacarés use a wide diversity of food items, including some orders of invertebrates and four orders of vertebrates. Among the invertebrates, insects (mainly Odonata, Hemiptera and Coleoptera), Mollusca (mainly Pomacea and Bivalvia) and Crustacea (mainly crabs) are taken preferentially. Between the vertebrates, fish is the most consumed item. Fragments of frogs, birds, mammals and some cases of cannibalism can also be found, but in relatively low frequencies (< 5%).

A major part of the variation in the feeding success, of the composition of the diet and of the body condition, is related to the seasonal changes in temperature and water level. In the Pantanal, as a result of the interaction of these two variables, the jacarés experience four distinct periods of habitat conditions. High water level and hot temperatures (Jan-Mar) are related with greater feeding success and the

majority of individuals take vertebrates, that in turn, has a positive effect has on the lipid reserves and body condition. When the temperatures diminish and water level remains high (April-June), the majority of the individuals take invertebrates and the feeding success continues high. Given that the nutritional value of the invertebrates is lower, but as the feeding success continues high, the body condition reflects the balance of the effects of these two factors. Low temperature and water level (Jul-Set) is a critical combination for the jacarés. The low temperatures determine a diet mainly composed of invertebrates that, together with the low feeding success owing to the low water level, there is a strong negative impact in individual body condition. When the temperature increases but the water level remains low (October-December), the body condition can improve in response to the prevalence of vertebrates in the diet, but this effect is counterbalanced by the low feeding success. This pattern is generally consistent


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throughout the years, however, there exists a marked variation in the environmental conditions between years, particularly in water availability in time of drought (see Figure 4). Considering that crocodilians depend on the water to keep body temperature different from that of air during the cold periods and at night and, that the alimentary success and the digestive processes are strongly influenced by the body temperature (Diefenbach 1975a,b; Coulson and Hernandez 1983), it was predicted that there is high temporal variability in the individual body condition. This in turn, has marked impact in reproduction and the life history jacaré, whose effects have been considered in the management decisions.

Reproductive biology of males

The rate of sperm production is the most important component of the fertility, with direct implications in the population growth. Independent of the effect of duration of the seminiferous epithelium cycle, the testicular mass is strongly correlated to the rate of sperm production (Amann, 1970). Thus, intraspecific differences in fertility can evaluated on the basis of the values of the gonadosomatic index (IG) and in the histological characteristics of the testicles. Males greater than 90 cm SVL present an IG six times greater than smaller individuals and they only attain the maximum stage of development defined by histological examination of the gonads. This demonstrates that the reproductive value of individuals greater than 90 cm SVL is superior to that of smaller individuals. Based in capture-recapture studies, as well as in recaptures of individuals of known age, 90 cm SVL is achieved at about nine years of age, thus defining the age of sexual maturity of males.

It is fundamental that the intraspecific differences in fertility are considered in the definition of criteria of use sustainable of the natural populations. The data indicate that the hunting pressure on adult individuals, even in low intensities, can cause serious impacts in the reproductive potential of the population. In fact, the simulation model of population dynamics indicates that high risk of local extinction exists

if the population is submitted to the selective hunting of adult individuals (Coutinho, 2000). In Brazil, by force of federal legislation, the hunting of wildlife for commercial ends is not allowed.

Reproductive biology of females

The females initiate the vitellogenesis at about 55 cm SVL. Based on the size-age relation, this size is reached at about 5 years of age. Mature ovaries with follicles in advanced vitellogenesis are only observed in females greater than 70 cm SVL, whose age is estimated at about 7 years. However, nest building occurs at least one more year later, as has been shown for the size of the small reproductive female found next to a nest (74 cm SVL). The majority of the females begin the reproductive life at 80 cm SVL, being about 10 years of age. These data show that the age of sexual maturity should not be based on the smallest size of reproductive females, since they are the exception and represent small portion of the female population of high demographic value which actually contribute to the population growth. Therefore, the age of sexual maturity of females is around the 10 years. As already mentioned, strategies of management directed to selective hunting of large individuals can affect this segment of the population, which in turn, determines a decline in the reproductive potential of the population.

The proportion of reproductive females can be calculated based in the water level of the Paraguay River. As shown previously, the water level measured in the region of Ladário can be used to foresee the intensity of flooding for the whole Pantaneira plain. This relation has some important implications for conservation and management of the Pantanal. Perhaps the first implication and one of the most important, is that any anthropogenic disturbance in the dynamics of natural flooding of the Paraguay River can not only cause strong impacts in the natural populations of jacarés, but also in various species of wildlife in the whole wetland. In relation to the management of the jacaré, based on the environmental conditions, it is possible to foresee the ratio of reproductive females about six months ahead. And still, on


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the basis of the female body condition, it is possible to determine the probability of a given female to reproduce, about 2-3 months ahead. Therefore, the water level of the Paraguay River is the best indicator (easier and less onerous) to foresee the long-term trends of the jacarés population size and to assist in the calculations of the quotas for extraction, whether they are of eggs, or sub-adults, and/or adult individuals.

Rate of population growth

During the years from 1962 to 1973, the Pantanal underwent a period of 12 consecutive years severe drought (see Fig.4), which, together with the effects of commercial hunting, exerted a great impact on the population of jacarés. Although formal records do not exist on the population size in this period, it is known that in the beginning years the 70s densities were very low. As told by the local inhabitants, great numbers of jacarés were seen dead or dying in the dry fields for lack of food. Since 1974, the water level of the Paraguay River has fluctuated within relatively high stages and the number of jacarés continues to increase. During the decade of the 80s, despite the police pressure, the species was hunted extensively and was recognized as one of the most exploited crocodilian populations (Brazaitis et al. 1998). Since the beginning of the 90s, commercial hunting has not occurred and recent surveys show very vigorous populations, distributed throughout Pantaneira plain (see Status and trends in the population size below). Based in this information, it is possible to calculate an approximate estimate of the rate of population growth of the jacaré. The current density, which probably reflects the carrying capacity of the environment, was found to be 150 ind./km2. The initial simulated densities after the dry period were 5, 10, 20, 30 and 40 ind/km2, which represented 3%, 7%, 13%, 20% and 27% of the current population size. The growth rates then were estimated by evaluating the slope of the regression curves. The annual average rate of population growth varied from 13.7% to 5.5%, where the population had diminished by 3% and 27%, respectively, of the current value after the 12 years of drought (Table 2).

Except the case of high estimated values where the population had been reduced to 3% and 5% of the current densities (13.7 and 11.1%, respectively), the growth rates varying between 5.5% and 8.4% are similar to the estimates described for several other species of crocodilians. This includes Caiman crocodilus in Venezuela (7%, Thorbjarnarson 1991), the alligator (7-8%, Hines and Abercrombie 1987) and the Australian crocodiles (5-7% for C. porosus, Bayliss 1987; Webb and Manolis 1993, 1.5-4% for C. johnsoni, Smith and Webb 1985; Tucker 1997). It is interesting to note that caiman are frequently recognized for possessing distinct life history and demographic parameters from other crocodilians (e.g. Tucker 1997). However, the rates of growth, that express the combination between mortality and age-specific reproduction, are similar to those observed for other species. Therefore, assuming growth rates equivalent to caiman of Venezuela and the North American alligator, it is valid to assume annual average growth rates of between 5% and 7% for the jacaré in the Pantanal. Table 2. Simulation of the rate of annual average growth of the population of Caiman yacare in the Pantanal. The carrying capacity was determined at 150 ind./km2 based on recent surveys and the initial values express the possible densities after the period of 12 consecutive years of drought Initial Density

(ind./km2) Slope of line

(β ) Growth Rate

(1-e-β) 5 0.147 0.137

10 0.118 0.111 20 0.087 0.083 30 0.070 0.067 40 0.057 0.055

Such information is especially important for two other reasons. First, they show the capacity for recovery of the population strong disturbances such as the excessive hunting or long periods of drought. Second, the data are important to define the amplitude of variation of the values for population growth, which in turn, are essential to guide management strategies.


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Status and trends in population size In fact, recent research confirms that in the Brazilian Pantanal, the Caiman yacare displays one of the most vigorous natural populations of crocodilians in the world. Results of aerial surveys show high densities of jacarés (>100 ind./km2), distributed throughout the whole Pantaneira plain (Figure 5). The population size is in the order of millions, probably reaching the order of 30 million individuals for the entire plain, emphasizing that the species is not threatened or at risk of extinction.

As mentioned previously, last the 25 years have been characterized by high levels of flooding in the Pantanal (see Figure4). High water level is related with high reproductive potential, higher growth rates and survival of the individuals and low mortality (Coutinho 2000). Such relations indicate that the population of Caiman yacare is growing or maintaining at steady levels, but definitively not diminishing.

Figure 5. Distribution and abundance of Caiman yacare in the Brazilian Pantanal defined by aerial surveys in September 1991 (according to Mourão et al. 2000).

In Figure 6, data are given for population densities obtained during a five year period (1993 to 1997) of systematic research using ultralight airplanes as the survey platform. It was observed that the population kept steady, with no trend for increase or decline, during the period of study. In the same way, estimates of abundance obtained by investigators from EMBRAPA (www.cpap.embrapa.br/peld) for the whole Pantaneira plain using Cessna airplanes show that, except for the high value observed in 1993, they had not seen significant changes during period of 1991 to 2000 (F1,3 = 0,24, p=0.66, Figure 6).

Figure 6. Estimates of density of Caiman yacare obtained by aerial counts using an ultralight from 1993 to 1997, in the South Pantanal, Brazil


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Figure 7. Estimates of abundance of Caiman yacare for the entire Pantaneira Plain from 1991 to 2000, using Cessna airplanes as the survey platform. Correction factors were not used (data from www.cpap.embrapa.br/peld). In synthesis, the information presented in this report supply the biological basis on which the program of conservation and management of jacaré in the Brazilian Pantanal has been structured. The data form strong evidence that Caiman yacare can be used as a renewable natural resources in a sustainable manner. Under the present hydrological regimen, characterized by a long period of high water level (the highest levels in the century were registered in 1988 and 1995), the management policies must be directed to incorporate caimans as an alternative product of the Pantaneira plain. The advantages of implementation of these policies are significant considering the effect on the regional social development and the conservation of biodiversity. However, in order that the policies of sustainable use function in the service of conservation, it is necessary to assure equitable commercial relations between countries. We hope that the “International Workshop on Regulation, Management and Trade of Caiman yacare” represents the beginning of a dialogue between countries and that the recommendations from the meeting can

guide strategies of joint action, to guarantee the success and viability of the conservation programs and management of Caiman yacare throughout the area of distribution of the species.

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Schaller, G. and P. Crawshaw. 1982. Fishing behaviour of Paraguayan caiman (Caiman crocodilus). Copeia, 1:66-72.

Smith, A. and G. Webb. 1985. Crocodilus johnstoni in the McKinlay River area, N. T.VII. A population simulation model. Australian Wildlife Research, 12:541-554.

Thorbjarnarson, J. 1991. An analysis of the spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) harvest program in Venezuela. Pp. 217-235 in J. G. Robinson and K. H. Redford (Eds.). Neotropical Wildlife Use and Conservation. Chicago University Press, Chicago.

Thorbjarnarson, J. 1994. Reproductive ecology of the spectacle caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in the Venezuelan Llanos. Copeia, 4:907-919.

Tucker, A. 1997. Ecology and demography of freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus johnstoni) in the Lynd River of north Queensland. PhD Thesis, Dept. Zoology. The UQ/Au, p.230.

Webb, G., H. Messel, J. Crawford and M. J. Yerbury. 1978. Growth rates of Crocodylus porosus (Reptilia: Crocodilia) from Arnhem Land, Northern Australia. Australia Wildlife Research, 5:385-399.

Webb, G. and S. Manolis. 1993. Conserving Australian's crocodiles through commercial incentives. Pp. 250-256 in D. Lunney and D. Ayers (Eds.). Herpetology in Australia. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, NSW, Au.


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Woodward, A., D. David and R. Degner. 1993. The rise and fall of classic crocodilian skin prices: where do we go from here? Second Regional Conference of the Crocodile Specialist Group, pp. 302-305. IUCN/CSG, Gland, Switzerland, Darwin, NT, Au.

Maria Iolita Bampi is the General Coordinator of Fauna, Directory of Fauna and Fishery Resources of the Brazilian Institute of the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources – IBAMA

Marcos Coutinho – Researcher III for the Brazilian Enterprise for Range and Livestock Research – EMBRAPA, located currently at the General Coordination of Fauna in the Center of Conservation and Management of Reptiles and Anfibians of IBAMA Addresses for correspondence: Maria Iolita Bampi and/or Marcos Coutinho Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e Recursos Naturais Renováveis - IBAMA Diretoria de Fauna e Recursos Pesqueiros Coordenação Geral da Fauna SAIN - L4 Norte Edifício Sede do IBAMA 70.800-200 BRASÏLIA - BRASIL Tel: ++55 61 225 81 50 email: [email protected]

Evaluation of Caiman Management in Paraguay Alejandro Larriera and James Perran Ross

INTRODUCTION

The study of caimans in Paraguay has a long and fruitful history that is reflected in a number of older publications summarized in Medem (1983). The studies of Aquino (1988) and Scott et al. (1990) are the basis for mid term monitoring program of Caiman yacare. In 1992, Messel and King summarized an evaluation of populations by nocturnal spotlight survey and day time observations. Finally King et al. in 1994 published the definitive report on the current situation in which they gave recommendations outlining the main aspects of a monitoring program and harvest quotas that has been partially implemented in recent years.

There have been several inconsistencies in the application of the proposed program. On one occasion, they were due to exceeding the established quota due to misunderstanding in the quota distribution among commercial companies and most recently in 2000, to difficulties in collecting the established skin quota from some Departments (=States). Recent political and administrative changes in Paraguay, including the creation of a new Ministry of Environment and changes in the personnel of CITES Management Authority have contributed to a certain level of misinformation by the new authorities and personnel, which have also caused communication difficulties to CSG.

The establishment of a revised caiman harvest program is believed to be complicated by the negative effect of Press reports about environmental problems and drought in river Pilcomayo that have generated considerable confusion at all levels, both national and international.

Reports were received by the regional Vice Chair and the CSG Executive office expressing concern and calling for action, based upon a widespread press report dissemination repeating the same sparse information. This has motivated

current contact between CSG and the new administration in which their concerns about the situation were expressed. These communications resulted in an invitation from the Minister of the Environment for CSG representatives to visit Paraguay. This invitation was discussed at the CSG Steering Committee meeting in China and the authors were designated as CSG representatives. After coordinating with the Ministry of Environment, we were able to visit Paraguay between 26 and 29 September 2001 and present the following report. ITINERARY

Due to limited time, we gave priority to meetings and discussions widest range of interested people rather than conducting field work.

Wednesday 26 September 2001 JPR – discussions with SEAM: Minister, Elias, Neris.

Thursday 27th JPR and AL – meeting with Chamber of Deputies: President and a group of Deputies. Meeting with technical staff (Table 1) Meeting with tannery and ranch groups

(Table 1)

Friday 28th Working session with SEAM staff Field trip- Laguna Ypoa Evening social tannery group

Saturday 29th JPR – meeting with CSG member Lucy Aquino Return home. RESULTS

Analysis of technical foundation for management – recent surveys

We received detailed information from the technical personnel and biologists involved in

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the current caiman management program. We were advised of recent field surveys of caiman that represent the first new data on population status in selected locations since 1993.

We evaluated the raw data and survey reports and concluded that this was an excellent start. The available data were an adequate foundation to establish the harvest quotas of 10% of counted caimans at each location (Table 2). The

general concept of assigning quotas on the basis of counts at each location and based upon current surveys was deemed a cautious and appropriate way to manage the harvest. However, there remained some technical limitations to the work conducted that could be easily corrected for the future. (See recommendations below).

Table 1. List of people visited and interviewed

Personnel of Secretariat de Ambiente contacted Edmundo Rolon Osnaghi- Minister Manuel Elias- advisor to the Minister Nora Nerris Coleman- Dept wildlife Technical personnel meeting Thursday 27th Martha Motte, Museo Nacional de Historia de PY Isabel Cammarra de Fox- Museo Nacional de Historia de PY Laura Villalba, Technica de la Gobernacion Alto Paraguay Francisco Brusquetti Technica de la Gobernacion Alto Paraguay Julian Ortiz Laria, Zoologico Iteipu Binacional Cristina Morales, Direcion de Areas Protegidas SEAM Ignacio Avila, Biologo controlado proyecto privada de criadero de yacare Wilfredo Sosa, Dir. General de Biodiversidad SEAM Felicita Areco, Directora de Gestion Ambiental SEAM Nora Nerris, Dept Wildlife

Commercial meeting Thursday 27th Jean Ramon Rios, Est. San Jorge(?) General Diaz-Pilcamayo Hetty Abadie, Estancia Genl, Diaz, Alto PY Angel Romero Estancia Kyranty Alto PY (y curtiembre?) Cosme Lacour, Leather Paraguay SRL Atilio Fernandez Quantum S.R.L. Helena C. Acereolo, Quattra “A” SRL Mabel de Hernandez, Reptiles BelGel SRL Beconi Vicencio, Delbeco Trading Co. Juan B. Beloto, Cueros del Norte SRL Jose R. Belotto, Curtiembre JB Ovidio Rodriguez, O. R. Export Import Joshua Rodgers, Exportacion de animales sylvestres Walter Gomez, Exportacion de Animales Vivos Bryce Owen, Exportacion de Animales Vivos

We considered that the skill level and number of current technical personnel was adequate for the small scale of the current program covering just 18 private ranches, but that as the program expands to a national coverage, expansion of technical capacity and personnel will be needed.

Analysis of proposed new harvest system

Clearly, the current harvest program is quite closely modeled on the very successful program of wild caiman harvest in

Venezuela. Above all, the proposed system places the responsibility on and primary economic benefits of wild harvest to the landowners where caiman occur, rather than with traders or tanners. This structure greatly reduces conflicts between commercial interests that led in the past to excessive harvest and should reduce conflicts between caiman hunters and land owners that have been a problem in the past.

The process is briefly described as follows (see Figure 1.):

A. Larriera and J. P. Ross – Evaluation of Caiman Management in Paraguay

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Figure 1. Diagram of Caiman harvest system, Paraguay 2001

• Individual ranch owners (Estancias) apply to the Ministry for a harvest quota.

• Each application is reviewed to verify ownership and that current taxes are paid.

• A field survey of each Estancia is conducted by ministry staff.

• A harvest quota issued to Estancia based on a proportion of the caimans counted.

• Harvest can then proceed under the following regulations (Resolution #059 27 August 2001). • A limited open season of 30 days. • A minimum size limit of 90 cm SV.

• A special skinning instruction only announced at the beginning of the

season (e.g. leave left rear foot attached).

• Possession and movement of fresh untagged skins is restricted to estancia owners and employees up to the number of their assigned quota.

• Skins are taken to a Central Warehouse (acopio) for validation against quota and application of a domestic tag.

• Skins may then be sold and moved to a tannery.

• Tanneries are registered • Tanneries may remove the domestic

tag for tanning. • Processed parts (flanks, tails etc.)

inspected and CITES tagged at the tannery.


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• Possession movement etc. of untagged skins by persons not in possession of estancia permit prohibited.

• Movement to point of export (airport) supervised by Ministry personnel.

• CITES permit with tag no issued at airport and skins immediately exported.

Current (2001) program

This year 18 estancias applied for harvest quotas and were assigned quotas from 100- 2,800 depending on the survey results for each Estancia. The sum of harvest approved was 10,146 and with shortfalls, losses and other adjustments an intended total harvest of 10,000 was announced by the Ministry to CITES. At the time of our visits, the surveys were complete and quotas established and harvest underway until Oct 6th. Tags for both domestic and CITES export use were purchased and available- in use. Overall, our evaluation is that this is an adequate

process but the key will be effectiveness of implementation. ANALYSIS OF WEAK POINTS In conjunction with Ministry personnel, we aggressively critiqued the program and identified the following points for further attention. There are several potential channels for the movement of illegal skins. These were identified and evaluated as followed: • Movement of illegal skins onto

estancias from other estancias, protected areas or other countries. (This will be automatically limited to the estancia quota, after which the validation process will control.)

• Movement of illegal untagged skins overseas – cross border to neighbors or export to consumers (should be revealed by missing/improper tags and permits and limited by CITES controls by the receiving party).

Table 2. Harvest quotas and population estimates, Paraguay 2001

Estancia Harvest quota 2001 Survey count1 Estimated population Uruguayana 100 130 KueKue 160 1,607 Loma Hovy 165 1,653 Manuela 670 6,700 Aguada 182 1,824 Barrero 200 2,059 San Juan 100 896 San Antonio 584 5,844 Loma Verde 654 6,546 Inglesa 100 416 General Diaz 2,800 2,876 30,000+ Aguada Ita 1,815 751 18,151 Luna 100 880 Lobo Perten 100 175 Bernal Kue — 3 8,856 Riacho Miranda — 3 8,302 San Jorge (Pilcomayo) 2,426 10,000 TOTAL 10,156

Notes 1 Data from reports to SEAM. Surveys conducted July – September 2001 by SEAM personnel or Department biologists. Raw data sheets provided. Generally, night spotlight complete counts of visible animals (eyes) in well defined lagoons. Includes size distributions. 2 Some larger and dense populations are surveyed by transect or quadrate (40 ha area) and total number is extrapolated. 3 At the time of our visit, these two estancias were not assigned quotas because their surveys were delayed, this was under appeal.


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• Movement of untagged illegal skins direct to tannery (same sources). (Control is CITES tagging plus inventory control and inspection but this remains the most vulnerable point and requires most vigilant control).

Analysis of technical and implementation capacity

In conjunction with Ministry personnel and information from our other contacts, we identified the following issues that should be addressed in future years as the program proceeds. • Capacity for surveys – needs expansion

see capacity building recommendations below.

• Role of universities – needs discussion • Capacity for regulation – appears

seriously inadequate. It does not seem to be personnel to inspect, control, tag, etc. The national environmental police are reportedly ineffective. A key must be integration with Departmental and Military authorities who have the capacity to enforce regulations.

Analysis of Pilcomayo issue

The large scale distribution of environmental problems in the region, together with the ambiguity of the information generated by the press has confused issues relating to the caiman harvest program with a broader problem of wildlife mortality due to drought in the region. This has led to widespread misunderstanding by the general public and international observers and by some national NGO’s in particular.

The Pilcomayo river, lying along the border between Paraguay and Argentina, has been subject to progressive water diversion for agriculture in both countries since the early 1930’s. The complex political relationship between these two countries and institutional problems within both has resulted in poor coordination of water management policy. As a result, an

increasing length of the river (currently in excess of 300 km) no longer flows. In times of low rainfall, and annually during the dry season for the last several decades, the intermittent water bodies and wetlands along the river basin dry up and widespread wildlife and livestock mortality results, including for many years, caimans. This is a persistent, long term and complex environmental problem that is unrelated to the issue of caiman harvest and far beyond our limited resources to address or resolve

The environmental and population effects on yacare caiman appear to be seriously misunderstood by the public and press. Caiman routinely concentrate into remaining water bodies (similar to the well known situation on the Venezuelan llanos). Concerns about caimans starving to death in this situation are misconceived and efforts to provide food in the form of dead cows and harvested caiman carcasses are probably futile and unnecessary. Similarly, proposals to move caiman to other locations are unlikely to be effective. During the annual drought, caiman concentrate and a proportion naturally die. Caiman are naturally able to survive such natural events and recover rapidly. The persistence of dense caiman populations throughout the Pilcomayo region despite the long standing nature of the exacerbated drought is testimony to this.

The real nature of the current problem appears to be some questionable judgments regarding harvest of caimans in this situation and a complete failure to manage the public relations and media aspects. Following a standard application and survey as described above, a harvest quota was approved and implemented on one Estancia in the Pilcomayo region. Unfortunate press coverage, including photographs of caiman being killed, led to the international uproar that precipitated the current concern. The imposition of additional pressure of a harvest on a population already stressed by drought is questionable management practice in our view. But equally, if the


54

conditions and requirements for a legal harvest quota were met, then the concentration or subsequent natural mortality are not very relevant. We found a proposed justification of this harvest to ‘relieve crowding’ to be unconvincing. However, in the large scheme if things, the harvest accomplished will have a trivial effect on the regional caiman population and has unfortunately diverted attention away from the serious environmental issue of binational watershed management that does require attention. Media access without adequate briefing and information obviously caused the current confusion and a lesson for the future can be learned from this. RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the information we received and analyze and discussion with our informants we propose the following recommendations:

Technical – surveys Surveys should be improved by the following; • Improve location precision with GPS. • Add air and water temperature to

routine data • Standardize spotlight type and size • Calibrate size classes (I, II, II, IV)

using data from harvested carcasses. • Accumulate survey data in data base of

resource distribution and density. • Submit current and future survey

results to CSG for publication in Newsletter.

Technical – Capacity building There is a clear need for capacity building. • Engage a consultant to evaluate current

program and provide training to staff. • (Recommendation -A. Velasco) • Develop training workshop in

conjunction with regional CSG members.

• Evaluate adequacy of current staff for survey, inspection and enforcement

requirements and increase staff as needed.

• Establish regulatory cooperation with police, military, protected areas and Environmental police.

Administrative – Improve harvest

control • Use CITES type tags for domestic

tagging to prevent tag duplication and fraud.

• Tighten control of untagged skins in tanneries

• Encourage retention of domestic tags through tanning.

Incentive – reduce tagging fees? Establish inventory control and inspection system to maintain 1:1 ratio of domestic tags and skins + CITES tags in tanneries and export shipments.

• Operate the 2001 program as designed without deviation.

• In March 2002 prepare analysis report on harvest (numbers, successes, difficulties) and submit to CITES secretariat and CSG.

Administrative – Public relations • Develop outreach in conjunction with

environmental education section of Ministry.

Prepare pamphlets, posters, TV spots, radio spots. Objective – publicize structure of harvest program including regulations.

Administrative – Confiscated material

We inspected a stock of confiscated material (Crusted caiman flanks) seized from illegal sources by previous administrations and currently stored securely by the Ministry.

• Priority – maintain security and careful inventory records of these skins.

• Consult CITES secretariat for appropriate disposition.


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• Evaluate real value. This stock put for tender several times but no buyers were forthcoming, however, situation may be different now yacare is legal in the USA.

• Evaluate direct sale overseas rather than through local interests.

• Consider option of destruction for Public relations benefit.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Secretary of the Ministry of Environment Edmundo Rolon Osnaghi, Ministerial Advisor Miguel Elias and Biol. Nora Neris Coleman for the invitation,

hospitality and very open and frank discussions. We thank the many technical personnel of the Ministry who took the time to talk to us. We are grateful for the information and hospitality of the members of the Association for Skin Export, Commercial operators and Estancia proprietors (individuals and companies are listed on the attached appendices). We particularly thank CSG members Lucy Aquino, Obdulio Menghi and Tomás Waller for their many insightful regional contributions on this issue.

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Analysis of the use of jakare ju (Caiman yacare) in Paraguay

Nora Neris

BACKGROUND

In 1975, the Decree by the Executive Power No. 18.796, stated that "the protection of the State over all wildlife animal species which temporarily or permanently inhabit the territory of the Republic, conservation measures are declared and hunting, commercialization and exportation of the same are prohibited". In spite of the 1975 decree, a Decree of Executive Power No. 13.806 in 1986 stated that “The application of Decree No. 18.796 is temporarily suspended to permit the limited hunt for snake and use of their skins for shoe production exclusively for export.” Paraguay has been part of the Convention CITES by Law 583 since 1976. In 1991, by means of the Presidential Decree No. 10.655 the office of the Scientific Authority of CITES was created. It dictates conservation measures, regulate hunting or harvesting, export, import and re-export of the species included in CITES Appendices.

The following year, Wildlife Law No. 96/92 establishes in its Article No. 39 that sustainable use of the wild species could take place as long as existing technical field studies demonstrate that it will not be detrimental for wild populations. Article 41 of Wildlife Law guarantees sustainable use of the wild species by indigenous communities. In 1992, the Convention on Biodiversity was ratified by the Law No. 253 in which guidelines addresses sustainable use of wildlife and guarantees of this use by part of the local populations.

The first censuses and studies on the biology of jakare in Paraguay began in 1986 resulting in numerous scientific publications. Aquino (1988) studied feeding and its relationship with morphologic changes in Caiman yacare. Aquino and Duszynski (1989) found two new

species of parasites of Caiman yacare (jakare hu) and Caiman latirostris (jakare mariposa). Scott et al. (1991) studied the distribution, habitat and conservation of the caimans in Paraguay. The office of the Scientific Authority of CITES, established by Presidential Decree, was assigned its own budget leading population studies of CITES species, among which figured an annual census of jakare hu throughout the country and studies by external consultants (Messel and King 1992; King et al., 1994).

Before repeated suggestions by the Scientific Authority of CITES-Py, the Administrative Authority at that time and to the authorities of the government related that the collection of specimens of jakare hu would not endangered wild populations. Thus, finally, in 1997 an experimental quota of 5,000 jakare hu specimens was issued. Due to problems among exporters, the quota was finally elevated to 6,000 individuals. In 2000, the quota was opened again this time for 10,000 individuals of jakare hu in the region of Alto Paraguay and the Ñeembucu Department (Figure 1) to the country's quota. The latter Department, was opposed to the development of the sustainable use program of jakare hu and capybara (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris), through its Authorities, being strongly influenced by non-governmental preservationist organizations. In Alto Paraguay Department, the program of use of the species jakare hu and capybara was realized through a cooperative of indigenous communities. There were complaints from private proprietors who argued that the program was unconstitutional because it favored a part of the population. On the other hand, there were complaints from the Brazilian side, arguing that indigenous hunters traveled to Brazil to obtain specimens.


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Figure 1. Maps showing the Alto Paraguay (left) and Ñeembucu Department (right).

In early October 2000, the Secretariat of the Environment was created by the Law 1561. In 2001, the Directorate of Wildlife Management was created which is the Scientific Authority of CITES and the Executive Secretary of the Environment is the Administrative Authority of the mentioned Convention. The law creating the Secretariat of the Environment establishes that this Secretariat will be the authority for the Application of the CITES Convention and will be a seat for both Authorities. At the request of the proprietors, natives, tanners and retailers on reopening of the sustainable use program for jakare hu, harvest began in 2001 in Alto Paraguay and on one ranch in the President Hayes Department for special reasons. SYSTEMS OF PERMITS AND

INSPECTION

The Program was put into use on large ranches where exporters had made contact with

owners interested in jakare use and financed the surveys undertaken by independent biologists.

Documents proving land ownership were presented to the Directorate of Wildlife Management and recorded in the National Wildlife Registry. Independent biologists were also registered. An association of exporters which financed the studies was formed in 2001. Each member was also inscribed in the National Registry of Wildlife. All ranches were located by GPS, and the corresponding location for each ranch can be found on the map. Once the surveys had been established on all the ranches, a quota for 10% of the total estimated population was issued. A total quota of 13,736 specimens were granted for 18 ranches (Table 1). The total exported at this time is 3,888, counting the CITES permits that accompanied the exported merchandise (In Figure 2 see the exports for each company). In 2002 the harvest was opened in Alto Paraguay from June until the September where this year the number of interested landowners increased to a total or 24 ranches

N. Neris – Analysis of the use of jakare ju (Caiman yacare) in Paraguay

59

where surveys were undertaken, the quota granted was 16,899 (Table 2). Table 2 also

shows the ranches where quotas were granted, with their respective coordinates.

Table 1. Granted quota by ranch in 2001

Resol. No. Owner Ranch Quantity

151/01 Lider González San Jorge 2,426 223/01 Bartolome Nuñez Uruguaya 100 224/01 Modesto Bogado Kure kue 160 225/01 Raul Rivarola Loma hovy 165 226/01 Mariana Gonzàlez Manuela 670 227/01 Ramon Soilán Aguada 15 182 228/01 Diógenes Gallagher Bernal kue 885 229/01 Victor González Barrero 200 230/01 Miguel Cuellar San Juan 100 231/01 Mirto Feltes San Antonio 584 233/01 Bernardino Suarez Loma verde 654 234/01 Benigno Santos Inglesa 100 235/01 Hetty Abadia Laguana Gral. Diaz 2,800 236/01 Ramon Medina Aguada Ita 1,815 237/01 Benjamin Gallagher Luna 100 238/01 Emilio Fiori Lobo 100 372/01 Angel Romero Riacho Miranda 830 373/01 Jose Beconi Laguna León 1,945; (1,865 collected)

Total 18 Estancias 13,736

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Yaka

re e

xpor

ted

T&B LAM FRN HDA QASRL

Company

FlanksTails

Figure 2. Number of flanks and tails exported from the 2001–2002 harvest. Legend: T&B = T&B Curtiembre; LAM = Luis A. Morales; FRN = Frionorte; HDA = Hetty de Abadie; QASRL = QUATRO A S.R.L


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Table 2. Granted quotas for 2002 with ranches coordinates

Resol. No. Owner Ranch Latitude Longitude Number

83/02 Luis Ortíz San Francisco 21º 59`34.6¨ S 58º 11´ 16.8Ö 110 84/02 Mirto Feltes San Antonio 21º 09` 00¨ S 57º 56´ 52Ö 506 85/02 Bernardino Suarez Loma Verde 21º 09` 40¨ S 57º 56´ 06Ö 630 86/02 Fidel Castillo Cerrito 21º 21` 30¨ S 58º 10´ 35Ö 1,100 87/02 Gustavo González Estancia 23 21º 15` 18.9¨ S 58º 09´ 12.6Ö 750 88/02 Edison Gallagher Luna 21º 05` 28¨ S 58º 25´ 37Ö 100 89/02 Daniel A. Maidana Mbocayai 21º 17` 59¨ S 57º 55´ 01.8Ö 100 90/02 Emilio Fiori Fiori 21º 01` 03.7¨ S 57º 56´ 57.8Ö 160 91/02 Mariana González Manuela 21º 13` 00¨ S 57º 54´ 23.6Ö 650 92/02 Wilfrido Benitez Esperanza 20º 46` 50¨ S 57º 58´ 09.7Ö 1,100 93/02 Adolfo Benítez 4 de Julio 19º 52` 35¨ S 58º 12´ 17.6Ö 420 94/02 Diogenes y Darcio G. Bernal kue 21º 07` 53.3¨ S 57º 51´ 51.5Ö 600 95/02 Modesto Bogado Kure kue 21º 09` 31¨ S 57º 51´ 51.5Ö 150 96/02 Miguel Cuellar San Juan 21º 03` 43¨ S 58º 06´ 26Ö 110 97/02 Benigno Santos Inglesa 21º 04` 14.4¨ S 57º 59´ 50.6Ö 350 98/02 Bartolome Nuñez Uruguaya 21º 01` 20.0¨ S 57º 59´ 58.7Ö 147 99/02 Rafael Segovia Mbocaya 21º 09` 20.0¨ S 58º 56´ 58.7Ö 850 100/02 Ramon Garcete Corochire 21º 59` 10.9¨ S 58º 76´ 52.9Ö 1,100 115/02 Hetty Abadie Laguna Gral. Díaz – – 4,000 116/02 Luis F. Beconi Laguna Leon 21º 25` 44¨ S 58º 42´ 31Ö 2,500 152/02 Indíg. Chamacoco Maria Elena – – 320 153/02 Indíg. Chamacoco Puerto Esperanza – – 119 154/02 Indíg. Chamacoco Santa Teresita – – 437 235/02 C. Hernandez – – 590

Total 24* 16,899

* 20 ranches, 3 Indigenous communities and 1 Casa Hernandez

Landowners purchase national tags, SEAM gives the corresponding numbering to each one and finally they are registered in the Office of Wildlife management. Later, once the hides are collected in the registered warehouse sites, the officials of the Secretariat of the Environment do the tagging, assuring the Articles corresponding to the Resolutions expedited by SEAM are followed. In cases where hides do not fulfill the current regulations, they are seized within the act and destroyed in situ.

Hides are transferred to tanneries in Asunción with transport permits previously applied for and granted by the Secretariat of the Environment. The transport permits specify the name of the exporter, number in the Registry, site of origin and destination address. They are generally transported by boat on the Paraguay River or by trucks. In Asunción, tanning and tagging proceed at the request of the exporter

according to the order of the foreign buyer. The tags are manufactured in Venezuela at the request of the Secretariat of the Environment with certain characteristics and are paid for by the exporters who deposit money in a corresponding account and finally, when they arrive in Paraguay they are stored and administered by the Directorate of Wildlife Management which send personnel for the tagging following the request for CITES. Finally, tagged shipments are accompanied by personnel of the Secretariat to the airport until the moment they are boarded.

The Pilcomayo Case

In August 2001, during the periodic droughts which affect the Pilcomayo River, a die-off of animals began due to the scarcity of water which affected the entire trophic chain. The jakare, despite being a conspicuous species, was the


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motive for which the public opinion complained of the insensitivity toward environmental problems by the Secretariat of the Environment. As understood, a strong drought, if it is repeated periodically and responds to changes in the river course will result in an irreversible change of the ecosystem with the consequent change of the characteristic biodiversity. Nevertheless the press and public opinion became more agitated about this situation without understanding the ecological reasons, only appealing to the emotional disputes. For this, SEAM undertook a survey at the most affected ranch, arranging a harvest of 25% of the estimated total population, in order to alleviate the densities in the water bodies, giving greater possibilities for continuity of the population facing food shortage and investing money obtained from the harvest in improvements for the affected zone.

The ranch owner permitted open access to the press and anyone curious. As a result, the written and visual materials obtained circulated around the world in a totally distorted manner with the consequent protest from national and international preservationist organizations. This was the reason for protests, complaints and speculations about SEAM for about one month. To put a definitive end to the problem and, knowing that it wasn't a conservation measure, the Secretariat of the Environment arranged the symbolic transfer of jakares to the zoos of the Hydroelectric Companies of Itaipu and Yacyreta, in this manner 12 and 20 specimens respectively were transferred to each site.

It was clear for the technicians and authorities of SEAM that this would not solve the ecological problem but would silence the complaints of the society and effectively, once the transfers were made, the Asunción citizens especially forgot the drought of the River Pilcomayo, the problems which it brought for changes in the biodiversity as well as local community. Unfortunately, the jakare mariposa (broadsnouted caiman - Caiman latirostris) could not be captured and transported to the mentioned captive rearing centers. That would have really been beneficial to the species and for specialist technicians.

Program with the Indigenous people

It should be emphasized that in Paraguay there exists an indigenous population of 30,000 people that is subject to transculturalization, with the consequent loss of identity, lack of alternatives for work and alarming poverty in some ethnic groups. The Cahamacoco Indigenous populations in the region of Alto Paraguay Department requested from the Secretariat of the Environment the collection of skins from jakare hu, capybara and anaconda (Eunectes notaues), as products from meat consumption by their immediate families.

For this reason, each group was provided with a form where the species, date and name of the hunter is recorded, in addition to biological data like sex, state of sexual maturity and reproductive state. This was done with members of 3 populations. Unfortunately, despite making proposals and presenting them to diverse donor organizations, funds could not be obtained for control of the program and to establish an annual quota for sustainable use for each community. They remain unprotected from some unscrupulous businessmen. The Secretariat of the Environment, through Resolution, granted quotas of 320 jakare hu specimens to the Chamacoco Indigenous community of María Elena, 119 to Puerto Esperanzo and 437 to Santa Teresita. CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE

GOVERNMENT AND TANNERS

In general, there are no major conflicts between the government and the tanners. Paraguay currently is going through a great economic, political and social crisis. Any point is used, including environmental, to promote or win some personal gain.

On the other hand, in many cases the Press publishes sensationalist aspects of different subjects in an irresponsible manner without making responsible and objective investigations. It is to the detriment of socioeconomic development and implementation of international concepts on the sustainable use of natural resources. This damages the efforts for the implementation of programs that date from several years resulting in the loss of support of


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the national institutions, and a resulting bad image of the country in the exterior.

The system of utilization of jakare hu, far from being in a totally perfected state, is fairly close to the ideal, owing that it has been possible to observe the disappearance of many shell (ghost) companies. This was caused by the fact that the harvest took place in an area without specifying sites and quotas were granted to exporters. Today, quotas are given to landowners, only those sites where studies have been undertaken will they receive a quota proportional to the jakare hu populations found there. As a result of the reduction of the state, there is a decrease of personnel and economic resources for control of the harvest of the species. The lack of resources is substituted by the interest for control presented by landowners and exporters who don't hesitate to denounce irregularities which work to the detriment of their economic interests

In addition, we work together with other State entities such as Environmental Control, the military and police. Recently, an agreement was signed between The Secretariat of the Environment and the Armed Forces, on September 17, with the purpose of more efficient control of internal traffic of wildlife. On the other hand, the Wildlife Police conducts control on the internal traffic of wildlife, on cattle rustling in distinct points in the country and control on the principal routes together with the highway police.

Recently, on the 21 and 22 of this month, the Environmental Control conducted a surprise procedure at the warehouses of Fuerte Olimpo, in the Departamento Alto Paraguay. In the seized warehouses was one which had a quantity of skins superior to that granted by the Resolution. As a result of this operation, the responsible party was detained and will be subject to a judicial process. This constitutes a fortunate case which is the first case that justice takes a role in illegal commerce of jakare hu, eliminating the chance for a possible illicit commerce in the species as in the past. Although the institutions want to get revenue from these events, the important thing is that these procedures, beyond those who do them,

benefit the country by eliminating the illegal activities and the businessmen who act without clear rules. In this manner, great economic loss can be inflicted on them, which demonstrates that it is most profitable to work in a coordinated manner and under the legal Resolutions established by the Secretariat of the Environment.

EXPORTATION AND LEGAL PROBLEMS

The new system as well as conducting population surveys was implemented in 2001 and during this year. We are initiating a monitoring of exports, market demands and local costs and benefits. These are indispensable elements to incorporate in an analysis to establish a management plan to be incorporated in Legislation. What can be observed to this point is that there is no monopoly in commerce of the species by some exporters. BOLIVIA AND ILLEGAL SKINS

In 2000, a shipment of 4,096 crocodilian skins from Bolivia was seized by the prosecutor from the Environment on the Transchaco highway near Filadelphia. Judgment was carried out by the Prosecutor of the Environment and the judicial process has come to an end. The shipment was brought by 3 people of Bolivian nationality and was deposited at the property of Mayo Murray. The specimens were different species of caimans and capybaras some with distribution in Bolivia.

Two Paraguayan nationals were implicated in the process, both were prohibited from leaving the country, in addition, justice established that the military subject would give classes on the environment and ecology in high schools and to soldiers of the other military detachments in the area. The other person (a baker) must provide bread products periodically to indigenous communities in the area. The seized skins are salted and are in warehouses of the Prosecutor of the Environment, which jointly with SEAM soon will determine which species the skins correspond to, and later they will determine the final destination of the skins. DISCUSSION


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Even though the jakare hu use program in Alto Paraguay started last year, it has produced results for analysis. In one or two years, there will be elements for its evaluation. Although the program tries to capitalize on other countries experiences which move toward use of wild species, it is our interest to adapt them to the needs of the country and its typical economic and socio-cultural situation and idiosyncrasy. It is evident that the opening of the sustainable use program of jakare hu awakened an increasing interest of the proprietors, which demonstrates that they are seeing that added value exists for the properties represented by the natural resources. So as not to create false expectations, it is essential to create other alternatives for sustainable use of other species in a manner that resources are use for the greater part of the year.

As can be seen in Table 3 and Figure 2, the quota granted was greater than the quantity exported up to the present which signifies that the expectations of the exporters were greater than their capacity for sales, if in the course of 2002-2003 no quantities exported are greater than the present, then the quota should be adjusted to the export capacity of the tanners. Table 4 shows the export quotas for live animals. Table 3. Number of flanks and tails exported

from 2001/2002 harvest

Compagny Flanks Tails T&B Curtiembre 1,038 Luis A. Morales 3,816 737 Frionorte 1,584 Hetty de Abadie 300 Quatro A S.R.L 1,038 519 Total 7,776 1,256

Table 4. Live caimans exported from 2001-2002 harvest

Owner Live caimans

Myriam Fernandez 100 Roberto Serrati 100 Total 200

It should be emphasized that this new mentality that is being generated in the area is

important because it opposes the interests for expansion of the agricultural-ranching frontier by the Mennonite communities. It should be emphasized that up to 1995, the area of the central Chaco dedicated to traditional agriculture and ranching was 1 million hectares. The only way to restrain the destruction of habitats and desertification of soils is by offering new alternatives of use of the natural resources. On the other hand up to the present one of the few alternatives to stop the destruction of habitat is the sustainable use of wild species in situ.

A chain of commercialization has been established through this program which runs from the hunter who is paid about $5 to $6 per animal, earning for the proprietor of the ranch, biologists who undertake the field studies, the tannery employees and finally the exporters who sell the hid for about $50. STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF

THE SYSTEM

Strengths • The passage of hunter to Brazil can be

controlled. • Cattle rustling on ranches has diminished

according to local people. • The quantity of exporting companies has

diminished which implies diminishing quota speculators.

• A chain of commerce has been generated beginning with local hunters, ranchers and tanners.

• Illegal trade from other countries, Brasil and Bolivia, was restrained.

• Biologists, who had worked in other areas, had incentive for studies in field ecology.

• Illegal traffic of skins was halted owing, in particular, to the ranch owners and hide exporters who denounced illegal activities.

• A greater amount of biologists are interested in the study of the species.

Weaknesses • This year the number of ranches surveyed

was increased apparently without responding to the demands of the international market.


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• Because it is a related activity, the ecologist organizations use it for their own promotion.

• During election periods the harvest of jakare is used for political purposes for personal or party benefits without being recognized being an area based on biological, social, and cultural elements with economic benefits for the country.

• There still lacks development of techniques for tanning hides to satisfy the demands of the market.

• Lack of control system development in the Departments.

• Establishment of the Use Program by legislation.

• Establishment of the Program Procedures Manual by legislation.

• Train biologists who conduct the surveys in census techniques.

• Advanced training courses for interested biologists

• Establish a system of taxes and create a Wildlife fund to reinvest in the Program.

LITERATURE CITED

Aquino, A. L. 1988. Ontogenetic food shifts and the relation to morphological changes in the crocodilian Caiman yacare. M. S. Thesis. University of New Mexico. Albuquerque. 79 pp.

Aquino, A. L. y Duszynaski, D. W. 1989. Coccidian Parasites (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) from two species of caiman, Caiman yacare Daudin and Caiman latirrostris . (Alligatoridae), from Paraguay, J. Parasitol., 75(3): 348.352.

King, F. W., Aquino, A. L., Scott, N. J. Jr and R. Palacios. 1994. Status of the Crocodilians of Paraguay: Results of the 1993 monitoring surveys. A report to the Government of Paraguay. 198 pp.

Messel, H y F. W. King. 1992. Conservation and Sustainable use of Caiman yacare in Paraguay. A report to the Government of Paraguay. 19 pp.

Scott, N. J. Jr. , Aquino A. L. y Fitzgerald, L. A. 1991. Distribution, Habitats and Conservation

of the Caimans (Alligatoridae) of Paraguay. Vida Silvestre Neotropical 2(2): 43-52.

Nora Neris is at the Directorate of Management of Wildlife, Fish and Agriculture – Secretariat of the Environment (SEAM), Paraguay

Federal Register: May 4, 2000 (Volume 65, Number 87)/Rules and Regulations/Page 25867-25881

Reclassification of Yacare Caiman in South America From the Federal Register Online via GPO Access wais.access.gpo.gov

[DOCID:fr04my00-10] http://www.access.gpo.gov/su_docs/aces/aces140.html

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Fish and Wildlife Service 50 CFR Part 17 RIN 1018-AD67 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Reclassification of Yacare Caiman in South America From Endangered to Threatened, and the Listing of Two Other Caiman Species as Threatened by Reason of Similarity of Appearance AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior. ACTION: Final rule. SUMMARY The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) is reclassifying the yacare caiman (Caiman yacare; also known as Caiman crocodilus yacare) from its present endangered status to threatened status under the Endangered Species Act because the current endangered listing does not correctly reflect the present status of this species. The Service also is listing the common caiman (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus) and the brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus fuscus) as threatened by reason of similarity of appearance. Caiman yacare is native to Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Bolivia. Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and C. c. fuscus occur in Mexico and Central and South America. All three taxa are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which allows for international commercial trade in these species. Listing the two taxa as threatened by reason of similarity of appearance will assist in protecting the yacare caiman by facilitating wildlife inspections of shipments at the ports of entry and detection of illegal shipments.

A special rule for these three caiman populations allows U.S. commerce in their skins, other parts, and products from individual countries of origin and countries of re-export if certain conditions are satisfied by those countries prior to exportation to the United States. These conditions largely pertain to the implementation of a CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution for crocodilian skins (adopted at the ninth meeting of the Conference of the Parties) as well as provisions intended to support sustainable management of wild populations of the above three caiman species/subspecies. In the case where tagged caiman skins and other parts are exported to another country, usually for tanning and manufacturing purposes, and the processed skins and finished products are exported to the United States, the rule prohibits importation or re-exportation of such skins, parts, and products if we determine that either the country of origin or re-export is engaging in practices that are detrimental to the conservation of caiman populations. The purpose of this rule is threefold. First, the rule accurately reflects the conservation status of the yacare caiman. Second, we wish to promote the conservation of the yacare caiman by ensuring proper management of the commercially harvested caiman species in the range countries and, through implementation of trade controls (as described in the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution), to reduce commingling of caiman specimens. Third, downlisting of C. yacare to threatened reconciles listings of the species in the Act and CITES. EFFECTIVE DATE: This final rule is effective on June 5, 2000. ADDRESSES: The complete file for this rule is available for public inspection by appointment, from

8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., Monday through Friday, at the Office of Scientific Authority, 4401 N. Fairfax Dr., Room 750, Arlington, Virginia. FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Dr. Javier Alvarez, Office of Scientific Authority, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Mail Stop ARLSQ-750, Washington, DC 20240 (phone: 703-358-1708; fax: 703-358-2276; e-mail: [email protected]). SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION Note: Portions of the original proposed rule were re-written to conform to the new Federal policy on the use of "plain English'' in Federal documents. However, the original intent of the text remains the same. Text in the proposed rule has also been amended in this final rule in response to comments submitted by the public (see "Comments Received" below) and to coincide with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution. Background The yacare caiman was listed as endangered throughout its entire range under the predecessor of the Endangered Species Act (Act) of 1973 on June 2, 1970 (35 FR 8495). (At the time of the original listing, Peru was incorrectly listed as one of the range countries, whereas Paraguay was excluded. In this final rule, we correct that situation.) On July 1, 1975, it was also placed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora--CITES (42 FR 10465). (The species has never been listed in CITES Appendix I, which prohibits international trade in the species if such activity is conducted for primarily commercial purposes and/or determined to be detrimental to the

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survival of the species.) The endangered listing under the Act prohibited imports and re-exports of the species into/from the United States. However, the Appendix II listing allows for regulated commercial trade elsewhere in the world, based on certain findings. As a result, a substantial U.S. law enforcement problem has occurred because of the different listing status under the Act and under CITES. Imports and re-exports of yacare caiman into/from the United States without an ESA permit are prohibited under the Act, including shipments originating from countries of origin with valid CITES export documents. However, imports and re-exports of products from the common and brown caimans are legal, when accompanied by appropriate CITES documents. Since products manufactured from the yacare caiman, common caiman, and the brown caiman are often indistinguishable as to species from which they are made, products from the prohibited yacare caiman are often commingled with products from non-prohibited taxa among commercial shipments into the United States. The unauthorized entry of prohibited yacare caiman products constitutes a violation of the Act, and if the yacare is legally protected in individual range countries, then Lacey Act violations may also have occurred. Until relatively recently, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay prohibited the export of caiman products (Brazaitis in comments on the October 29, 1990, Federal Register notice [55 FR 43389]). However, CITES Notification to the Parties No. 781, issued on March 10, 1994, indicated that Brazil's CITES Management Authority had registered 75 ranching operations for producing skins of C. c. crocodilus and C. yacare. These ranching operations were established under provisions of Article 6 B of Brazilian Wildlife Law No. 5.197, of November 3, 1967. Caiman yacare from these Brazilian ranches were being legally traded in the international marketplace, except into the United

States. Paraguay and Bolivia have also expressed an interest in the legal international marketing of C. yacare skins, and restricted legal hunts are currently allowed (see below). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) recognizes that substantial populations of crocodilians that are managed as a sustainable resource can be utilized for commercial purposes while not adversely affecting the survival of individual populations of the species, when scientifically based management plans are implemented. When certain positive conservation conditions have been met, the Service has acted to allow utilization and trade from managed populations of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), the importation of commercial shipments of Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) from several southern and eastern African countries, and similar shipments of saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) specimens from Australia (61 FR 32356; June 24, 1996). The CITES Parties reviewed management activities prior to transferring certain populations from CITES Appendix I to Appendix II (thereby allowing commercial trade) and included assessments of population status, determination of sustainable harvest quotas (or approval of ranching programs), and the control of the illegal harvest. Management regulations imposed after harvest included the tagging of skins and issuance of permits to satisfy the requirements for CITES Appendix II species. This final rule and its accompanying special rule allow U.S. commerce in skins, other parts, and products from Caiman yacare, Caiman crocodilus crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus into the United States. These three Caiman populations are widespread in Mexico and Central and South America, and have high reproductive potential (Thorbjarnarson 1992, Thorbjarnarson 1994). In fact, they have survived in spite of substantial legal and illegal harvests in the past (Mourao et al. 1996, Da Silveria and Thorbjarnarson 1999). As in

the case of the final rules involving Alligator mississippiensis, Crocodylus niloticus, and Crocodylus porosus (50 CFR part 17), this final rule will allow commerce in Caiman yacare, Caiman c. crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus into the United States only from range countries that regulate the legal harvest and control illegal trade of these three populations, so as to ensure that they are being sustained at biologically sound levels. Furthermore, the Service does not intend to allow importation or re-exportation of Caiman yacare, C. crocodilus crocodilus, or C. c. fuscus specimens from intermediary countries that do not properly control trade in crocodilian skins, other parts, and products. This rule reclassifies the yacare caiman (Caiman yacare = C. crocodilus yacare) from endangered to threatened status under the Act and lists two additional taxa, the common caiman (C. c. crocodilus) and the brown caiman (C. c. fuscus including C. crocodilus chiapasius), as threatened by reason of similarity of appearance. When traded as skin pieces and products, the yacare caiman is similar in appearance to the common caiman and the brown caiman, which are listed as CITES Appendix II species but are not listed in the Act. Other caiman species will be retained as endangered under the Act, including the black caiman (Melanosuchus niger) and the broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris). This rule does not affect the endangered or threatened status, under the Act, of any other crocodilian species in the Western Hemisphere. The original listing for the yacare caiman (under the provisions of the Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1969) was C. yacare, which is the presently accepted taxonomic name for the species (King and Burke 1989) and the name used throughout this rule. Some authors treat the taxon as a subspecies, C. c. yacare, and this is the taxonomic name presently included in the List of Endangered and Threatened


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Wildlife (50 CFR part 17.11). King believes (in litt.) that C. yacare should be considered biologically as a subspecies or at the end of a morphological cline, but indicates that, nomenclaturally, it is recognized as a full species. A recent study, including an analysis of mitochondrial DNA variation, indicates that the C. yacare of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay comprise a single taxonomic unit with substantial genetic, morphological, and zoogeographical similarities (Brazaitis et al. 1993). Those authors indicate that C. yacare populations are effectively separated from C. c. crocodilus populations by mountains and highlands that limit nesting habitat and the migration of individual animals between southern and northern river systems. Caiman yacare, C. c. crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus are considered, on the basis of their DNA sequences, to be distinct populations of a widespread and related taxon (Amato 1992) with C. yacare apparently having greater genetic differences from C. c. crocodilus than C. c. crocodilus has in relationship to C. c. fuscus (Brazaitis et al. 1993). Additional DNA analyses by Brazaitis and others support the interpretation that "Caiman yacare, C. c. crocodilus, and C. c. chiapasius (probably C. c. fuscus) are each phylogenetic species, as per the criteria of Davis and Nixon (1992)'' (Brazaitis et al. 1997a, Brazaitis et al. 1997b). However, recent work by Busack and Pandya (1996) suggests that C. c. crocodilus and C. c. fuscus comprise a single genetic population at the subspecies level, while confirming that the yacare caiman is a distinct subspecies, C. c. yacare. Currently, no biochemical evidence indicates that recognizable subgroups of C. yacare occur within its distributional limits in the river systems of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, or Paraguay (Brazaitis et al. 1993), and, therefore, no such subgroups are recognized in this rule. Comments Received On March 15, 1988, the Service received a petition from Mr.

Armand S. Bennett, President of Columbia Impex Corporation, requesting the reclassification of the yacare caiman from endangered to threatened status. The Service reviewed the petition and concluded that it did not present sufficient scientific or commercial information to indicate that a reclassification was warranted (55 FR 43387, published October 29, 1990). However, the Service, in the October 29, 1990, Federal Register notice, also solicited relevant data, comments, and publications dealing with the current status and distribution, biological information, and conservation measures pertaining to the yacare caiman. The Service also requested comments about the advisability and necessity of treating the subspecies C. c. crocodilus and C. c. fuscus as endangered or threatened due to similarity of appearance to the listed C. yacare. Based on the information received in response to the Federal Register notice and other available information, the Service published on September 23, 1998, a proposed rule for the reclassification of the yacare caiman from endangered to threatened, with a special rule allowing U.S. commerce in skins, other parts, and products of this species. The Service also proposed listing the common caiman (C. c. crocodilus) and the brown caiman (C. c. fuscus) as threatened by reason of similarity of appearance. We received a total of 26 comments in response to the September 23, 1998, proposed rule: 6 were from crocodilian experts, 11 from foreign governments and institutions (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Paraguay, and Singapore), 1 from a State government (Louisiana), 6 from the crocodile trade industry (2 based in the United States and 4 foreign), and 2 from non-governmental organizations (World Wildlife Fund and The Humane Society of the United States). In summary, the majority of foreign government correspondents (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia) and World Wildlife Fund supported the downlisting of yacare caiman. Likewise, five of

the six correspondents from the crocodile trade industry in the United States (Columbia Impex Corporation, Florida) and overseas (Tecno--Caiman Ltd., Argentina; Cooperative of Caiman Breeders from the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, Brazil; Colombian Association of Animal Ranchers; and Singapore Reptile Skin Trade Association) supported the proposed downlisting. However, the Humane Society of the United States opposed it. The Government of Paraguay considered that the original listing of yacare caiman as endangered was unwarranted, and, therefore, commented that the species should be removed form the Act. Comments from various crocodilian experts, including five members of The World Conservation Union/Species Survival Commission (IUCN/SSC) Crocodile Specialist Group (CSG), were mixed. Dr. James Perran Ross (CSG Executive Officer), Mr. Alejandro Larriera (CSG Regional Vice Chairman for Latin America and Caribbean), and Mr. Tomas Waller (CSG member from Argentina), supported the proposed downlisting of yacare caiman to threatened. Mr. Ted Joanen (CSG Vice Chairman for North America) and Mr. Peter Brazaitis (Forensic Specialist in Herpetology) opposed the proposed downlisting, whereas Prof. F. Wayne King (CSG Deputy Chairman) considered that the original listing of yacare caiman as endangered was unwarranted. The Department of Wildlife and Fisheries of Louisiana partially supported the proposed downlisting. Comments: The Governments of Argentina (Secretaria de Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Sustentable--Secretary of Natural Resources and Sustainable Development), Bolivia (Vice-Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Forestal, Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible y Planificacion--Vice-Ministry of the Environment, Natural Resources and Forestry Development, Ministry of Sustainable Development and Planning; Unidad de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente,


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Prefectura y Comandancia General del Beni--Natural Resources and Environment Unit, Government of the Department of Beni; Museo Nacional de Historia Nacional--National Museum of Natural History; Museo de Historia Natural, Universidad Autonoma Gabriel Rene Moreno--Museum of Natural History, Gabriel Rene Moreno Autonomous University), Brazil (Instituto Brasileiro de Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis--Institute of the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources; and Brazilian Embassy in Washington, DC), and Colombia (Ministerio del Medio Ambiente--Ministry of the Environment) commented that yacare caiman is abundant or has recovered in their respective countries, and, therefore, supported the proposed downlisting of yacare caiman. Argentina supports downlisting of C. yacare, even though it bans export of the species. All four countries (three of which are yacare caiman range countries) believe that the opening of commerce in C. yacare products, through a special rule allowing commercial importation and re-exportation of yacare caiman specimens into/from the United States, will provide an economic incentive for the protection of the species throughout its range. Prof. F. Wayne King, Dr. James Perran Ross, and Mr. Tomas Waller (all members of CSG) also considered the yacare caiman to be abundant throughout most of its range. Furthermore, they argued that enough national and international regulatory and management mechanisms (such as CITES) are in place in the range countries, so that illegal harvest no longer constitutes a major threat to the species. Finally, based on recent field surveys, World Wildlife Fund also did not consider C. yacare to be threatened. Furthermore, they recognized that the proposed downlisting and special rule will help reconcile listings of yacare caiman in the Act and CITES. Response: We continue to believe that the downlisting of yacare caiman from endangered to threatened, with a special rule

allowing U.S. commerce in caiman skins, other parts, and products, is warranted (See "Summary of Factors Affecting Caiman yacare'' below). Comment: Prof. F. Wayne King, Dr. John Perran Ross, and the Government of Paraguay (Ministry of Agriculture and Cattle Ranching) considered C. yacare to be abundant enough in the wild to prompt its complete removal from the Act. Response: Although wild populations of yacare caiman have recovered in portions of the species' range, we note that some populations have not fully recovered, and, therefore, we continue to believe the threatened classification is appropriate (See "Summary of Factors Affecting Caiman yacare'' below). Comments: Mr. Ted Joanen, Mr. Peter Brazaitis, the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries of Louisiana, and The Humane Society of the United States opposed the proposed special rule allowing U.S. commerce in skins, parts, and products of yacare caiman because of concerns about current management of the species in some range countries. They argued that some range countries lack protected habitats, long-term monitoring programs, effective national legislation, or effective national law enforcement to prevent uncontrolled harvest of the species. To address those concerns, Mr. Joanen and Dr. John Perran Ross suggested that importation of C. yacare specimens from individual range countries not be allowed until these countries provide the Service with detailed written descriptions of their respective management plans, regulations, and ongoing studies for the species, as was requested in previous rules involving Australian saltwater crocodile, American alligator, and Nile crocodile. Likewise, the National Museum of Natural History of Bolivia recommended amending the special rule, so as to require that all skins allowed for import into the United States originate from populations under a sustainable use management plan,

such as the one developed in Bolivia. Bolivia believes that this requirement will prevent the sale of illegally hunted crocodilian skins that are seized by government agencies, but legalized through government-sponsored auctions. Response: We note that enforcement of domestic regulations pertaining to harvest of wild yacare caimans is a domestic issue. No government or agency provides perfect management, but many governments and agencies provide sufficient management to permit sustainable use of certain individual species. A reasonable standard for the Service to use to determine sufficiency of a wildlife management program in any country is to compare management of a foreign species with management in the United States. In the United States, poaching of white-tailed deer still occurs, despite strict State laws regulating hunting of the species. However, State enforcement of deer hunting laws is sufficient to continue allowing sustainable harvest of the species. Similarly, although all range countries of yacare caiman regulate the harvest of the species, they are not always capable of enforcing such regulations, particularly in isolated areas. Although we acknowledge that illegal hunting of yacare caiman for local trade still occurs in many of the species' range countries, international illegal trade in crocodilian skins has been reduced significantly since the adoption by CITES Parties of Resolution Conf. 9.22 on the Universal Tagging System Resolution for crocodilians in November 1994 (see "Inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms'' below). Given that all four range countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay) are CITES Parties, we believe that international trade in yacare caiman is adequately regulated to allow commercial importation and re-exportation of yacare caiman into/from the United States. Furthermore, C. yacare and other species of caiman appear to be resilient to hunting. In Brazil, the impact of hunting on caiman populations is reduced by strong


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bias for males among hunted animals (Mourao et al. 1996, Da Silveria and Thorbjarnarson 1999). In C. yacare and C. crocodilus, this bias is largely due to the fact that hunters target mostly the largest animals, which are almost exclusively males. In the case of black caiman (Melanosuchus niger; a species listed as endangered in the Act), male-biased sex ratios among harvested animals appear to be caused by preference of adult females for more protected and difficult to reach areas. Since a single male can fertilize several females, this male-biased harvest is less likely to have a negative impact on the reproductive potential of caiman populations. Impact of hunting on caiman is also reduced by propensity of hunters to concentrate their harvest in areas easily accessible (Mourao et al. 1996). In anticipation to a possible increase in illegal harvest of yacare caiman, this rule contains language prohibiting importation or re-exportation of yacare caiman skins, other parts, or products, if we obtain reliable information indicating that the countries of origin or re-export are engaging in practices that are detrimental to the conservation of yacare caiman populations in the wild. Nevertheless, we agree with the suggestion made by several correspondents of requesting updated information from the yacare caiman range countries regarding their respective management plans, regulations, and ongoing studies for the species. Maintenance of such information in our files would permit us and other interested parties to better understand the measures being taken by range countries to ensure that harvest of yacare caiman is done in a sustainable manner. Furthermore, submission of such information by range countries on a regular basis would allow us to monitor the status of yacare caiman in the wild, as required under the Act. Therefore, we have added language in this final rule requesting that the range countries of C. yacare (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay) provide to the Service every 2 years current

information on the status of these taxa in their countries (see "The Monitoring of Yacare Caiman'' below). We will also monitor trade in the species by requesting import and export data on C. yacare from the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), a repository of the annual CITES reports prepared and submitted to the Secretariat by CITES Parties. Comments: Mr. Alejandro Larriera and the Colombian Association of Animal Ranchers (AZOOCOL) supported the right of the United States to prohibit imports from countries not in compliance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution or engaging in practices detrimental to the survival of the species. However, the Singapore Reptile Skin Trade Association expressed concerns about unilateral U.S. prohibition of crocodilian imports from countries not in compliance with CITES requirements. Columbia Impex Corporation also commented that the United States should never have regulations different than those set by other countries. Response: We note that Article XV of CITES allows CITES Parties to "adopt stricter domestic measures'' regulating trade, taking, possession, or transport of specimens of any species, regardless of whether the species is listed in the CITES Appendices or not. For example, some CITES Parties currently prohibit the export of all their native species (Australia) or require permits for the export of any of their native wildlife (Mexico and Brazil), even though many of the species are not listed in the CITES Appendices. In the United States, Congress has enacted several laws for the protection of native and foreign wildlife (including the African Elephant Conservation Act, Eagle Protection Act, Marine Mammal Protection Act, Migratory Bird Treat Act, Wild Bird Conservation Act, Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation Act, and the Endangered Species Act), many of which impose stricter restrictions on trade of certain species compared to CITES. Thus,

adoption of this rule is in no way contrary to the CITES treaty. Comment: Prof. King and Dr. Ross expressed concern about unilateral prohibition of yacare caiman imports from countries not in compliance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution based on "information from * * * other reliable resources". Response: We agree that any decision regarding possible U.S. unilateral prohibition of yacare caiman imports or re-exports from countries not in compliance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution should be based on the best available information. As recommended by Dr. Ross, we intend to consult with experts within and outside our agency (such as the Service's National Fish and Wildlife Forensics Laboratory, university and natural history museum researchers, and IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group), the Management and Scientific Authorities of other countries, and any other qualified persons prior to making a final determination related to the possible prohibition of yacare caiman imports from any country. Comments: Mr. Ted Joanen and Mr. Peter Brazaitis expressed concern about implementation of the proposed rule by the Service, particularly since most caiman skins imported into the United States arrive in the form of manufactured products, which are not marked, and, therefore, difficult to identify. Mr. Brazaitis also commented that Federal regulations do not require tamper-proof identification tags on crocodile skins for importation. Response: We consider that international illegal trade in crocodilian skins has been reduced significantly since the adoption of Resolution Conf. 9.22 (Universal Tagging System Resolution) by CITES Parties. Therefore, requiring that yacare caiman shipments imported into the United States be accompanied by proper CITES documentation, as described in this rule, diminishes the likelihood of importing yacare caiman specimens obtained in a


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manner detrimental to the species. Furthermore, by allowing U.S. commerce in yacare caiman, we eliminate the incentive to intentionally misidentify yacare caiman specimens for importation into the United States. Consequently, we will be able to gather more accurate trade data on the species. At this time, the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution is codified in the Federal regulations just for Alligator mississippiensis, Crocodylus niloticus, and Crocodylus porosus. However, we are currently in the process of updating the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations to include language codifying the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution for all crocodilians (see Federal Register notice 62 FR 42093, published on August 5, 1997). In the meantime, the language contained in this rule implements the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution for shipments involving C. yacare, C. crocodilus fuscus, and C. c. crocodilus. Comment: The Humane Society of the United States supported the listing of C. crocodilus fuscus and C. c. crocodilus as threatened because of similarity of appearance, as well as the conditions in the special rule. However, Strictly Reptiles, Inc., opposed listing of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus because of similarity of appearance, since it believes that C. yacare, C. c. fuscus, and C. c. crocodilus are easily distinguishable. Columbia Impex Corporation also commented that C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus are easily distinguishable once skins are tanned, whereas the Government of Paraguay commented that as long as skins are properly tagged and accompanied by CITES permits, there is no chance for misidentification of shipments involving C. yacare, C. c. fuscus, and C. c. crocodilus. Response: Controversy still exists as to whether C. yacare, C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus can be distinguished using morphological characters. Listing of C. c. fuscus, and C. c. crocodilus because of similarity of appearance will bring

C. yacare and all known subspecies of C. crocodilus under the Act (C. c. apaporiensis is already listed as endangered) and, therefore, will facilitate and expedite inspection of C. crocodilus and C. yacare shipments into the United States. Wildlife inspectors at the ports will no longer face the time-consuming and difficult task of examining individual C. crocodilus and C. yacare shipments to determine whether or not they involve protected species and/or subspecies, as all shipments involving these two taxa will be treated equally. Comment: The Government of Colombia and the Singapore Reptile Skin Trade Association commented that listing of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus will make trade in these two subspecies more difficult because of the need for permits and inspections. Likewise, the Colombian Association of Animal Ranchers (AZOOCOL) opposed listing of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus because of similarity of appearance because they believe that such listing will punish sustainable use of C. crocodilus in Colombia. Response: As noted by the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group in their October 1998--December 1998 newsletter (Volume 17, Number 4, pages 15-18), the listing of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus as threatened by similarity of appearance does not add any new requirements to those already in place for the importation and re-exportation of skins, other parts, and products of these two subspecies into/from the United States. Since C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus are currently listed in Appendix II of CITES, a CITES permit issued by the exporting country is already required for importation of skins, parts, and products of these two subspecies into another country. This rule only requires that shipments involving skins and other parts of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus be tagged in accordance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution and accompanied by valid CITES documents, as is currently required. Furthermore, inclusion of these two subspecies

just codifies in the U.S. Federal regulations an existing international requirement. However, this special rule does not cover the importation of viable caiman eggs or live caimans into the United States. In addition to a valid CITES export permit (already required), importation of these two types of specimens of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus will require an Endangered Species Act import permit. This requirement will allow scrutiny of individual applications for importation of live caimans or eggs so as to prevent accidental introduction of these exotic species into the United States (in accordance with Executive Order 13112 on Invasive Species issued by President Bill Clinton on February 3, 1999), an event that may have negative economic and ecological impacts on humans, native wildlife, and ecosystems in the United States. Comments: Dr. John Perran Ross, the Singapore Reptile Skin Trade Association, and the Governments of Colombia and Singapore commented on the 25 percent restriction on replacement tags and opposed the measure. Dr. Ross and the Singapore Reptile Skin Trade Association noted that the special rule goes beyond CITES restrictions on replacement tags (Resolution Conf. 9.22), which the United States helped draft. The Government of Colombia considered this restriction an indication of mistrust of range and re-exporting countries. The Government of Singapore and the Singapore Reptile Skin Trade Association commented that, since tanneries regularly removed tags from raw skins before processing them, the 25 percent restriction will create problems for skin traders in their country. Singapore made two suggestions to resolve this issue: (1) shipments involving re-tagged skins must include all tags from the country of origin, and (2) re-exporting countries should fax copies of their re-export CITES permits as well as the CITES permits from the country of origin. Response: As noted above, Article XV of CITES allows for CITES Parties to adopt stricter domestic regulations for the


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protection of wildlife, whether the species is listed in the CITES Appendices or not. Therefore, adoption of this rule is not contrary to CITES. Moreover, this 25 percent restriction on replacement tags is consistent with the requirements for importation of saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) published in the Federal Register on June 24, 1996 (61 FR 32356—"Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Reclassification of Saltwater Crocodile Population in Australia From Endangered to Threatened With Special Rule for the Saltwater and Nile Crocodiles''). Summary of Factors Affecting Caiman yacare Section 4(a)(1) of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.) and regulations promulgated to implement the listing provisions of the Act (50 CFR part 424) set forth five criteria to be used in determining whether to add, reclassify, or remove a species from the list of endangered and threatened species. These factors and their applicability to populations of the yacare caiman in South America are as follows: A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range Since the initial listing of the yacare caiman, controversy has been associated with defining the ranges of caiman species, especially that of C. yacare in southern South America. To assist in the clarification of the distribution and status of C. yacare, the CITES Secretariat, in conjunction with the World Conservation Union/Species Survival Commission (IUCN/SSC) Crocodile Specialist Group (CSG), undertook a survey (starting in late 1986 and early 1987) to develop a conservation program for crocodilians of the genus Caiman. These surveys were conducted under the auspices of CITES and were carried out by the CSG and the Governments of Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay. We review the available data from these studies

(Brazaitis 1989a; Brazaitis et al. 1990; King and Videz Roca 1989; and Scott et al. 1988 and 1990) on the distribution, ecology, and status of C. yacare in this and following sections assessing factors affecting the species. Caiman yacare is widely distributed throughout the lowland areas and river systems of northeastern Argentina, southeastern and northern Bolivia, Paraguay, and the western regions of theBrazilian States of Rondonia, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul (Thorbjarnarson, J. B. 1992). The range includes the entire Guapore River (= Itenes River) drainage, including its headwaters in the Brazilian State of Mato Grosso and its tributaries in northeastern Bolivia; eastern Bolivia and western Brazil throughout the drainage of the Paraguay River and the Pantanal of Brazil; Paraguay River and southern Pilcomayo River in Paraguay; and the lower Salado River, the Parana River east to the Uruguay River, and south to the mouth of the Parana River in Argentina (Brazaitis et al. 1993). The yacare caiman is found in a wide variety of habitats, including those that are altered by humans. The species occurs in vegetated and non-vegetated large open rivers, secondary rivers and streams, flooded lowlands and forests, roadside ditches and canals, oxbows, large and small lakes and ponds, cattle ponds, and streams (Brazaitis et al. 1988). The common caiman, Caiman crocodilus crocodilus, occurs in the drainage basins of the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers in French Guiana, Surinam, Guyana, Venezuela, eastern Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, and Brazil (Thorbjarnarson 1992). A narrow zone of intergradation exists between C. yacare and C. c. crocodilus along the northern border of Bolivia and Brazil in the State of Acre in the Acre River and Abuna drainages, northward to approximately Humaita on the Madeira River in the Brazilian State of Amazonas (Brazaitis et al. 1990). The brown caiman, Caiman crocodilus fuscus (including C. c. chiapasius), occurs from Mexico

through Central America to Colombia (west of the Andes), along the coastal and western regions of Venezuela, and south through Ecuador to the northwestern border of Peru. The CITES Secretariat and several authors consider C. c. chiapasius a synonym of C. c. fuscus, and we consider it so for the purposes of this rule. The expansion of cattle grazing and the concurrent construction of permanent water sources for cattle has increased the dry season freshwater habitats available to yacare caiman in some areas. However, cattle grazing has also diminished habitat in other areas by increasing the salinity of waterways (King et al. 1994). Habitat destruction and deterioration has taken place and continues to occur in parts of the species' range. Deforestation for road construction and mining not only destroys habitat, but also increases access of poachers to some yacare habitats (Brazaitis et al. 1996). Increasing human populations, development of hydroelectric projects, draining of wetlands, and deteriorating water quality due to siltation or the extensive dumping of pollutants (particularly as a result of mining and industry) also have caused habitat degradation. However, yacare caiman habitat is very extensive and the species is so widespread that it is very unlikely that the species is presently endangered or threatened because of the destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range. B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or Educational Purposes In the past, large numbers of C. yacare were taken from South America, particularly from Brazil, in violation of domestic laws protecting the species (Brazaitis et al. 1988, Brazaitis et al. 1996). Although yacare caiman populations declined in many areas, the species still could be found in varying population densities in most areas where suitable habitat remained (Brazaitis et al. 1988). Yacare caiman found in some surveys almost a decade ago also were small, extremely wary, and


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exhibited a high male-biased sex ratio. One hypothesis suggested that females might be more heavily harvested at a time when they might be very vulnerable while protecting their nests (Brazaitis 1989a). In spite of substantial legal and illegal harvests in the past, many caiman populations have been able to survive and recover after being protected or properly managed (Mourao et al. 1996, Da Silveria and Thorbjarnarson 1999). Recent research also suggests that C. yacare and other species of caiman in Brazil, and most likely other parts of the species' range, are resilient to hunting. Recent estimates of C. yacare in the Brazilian Pantanal show densities as high as 147 individuals/square kilometer, far larger than those reported for other crocodilians (Coutinho and Campos 1996). In Brazil, the impact of hunting on caiman populations is reduced by strong bias for males among hunted animals (Mourao et al. 1996, Da Silveria and Thorbjarnarson 1999). In C. yacare and C. crocodilus, this bias appears to be largely due to the fact that hunters target mostly the largest animals, which are almost exclusively males. In the case of black caiman (Melanosuchus niger; a species listed as endangered under the Act), male-biased sex ratios among harvested animals appear to be caused by preference of adult females for more protected and difficult to reach areas. Since a single male can fertilize several females, this male-biased harvest is less likely to have a negative impact on the reproductive potential of caiman populations. Impact of hunting is also reduced by propensity of hunters to concentrate their harvest on areas that are easily accessible (Mourao et al. 1996). To ensure sustainable management of C. yacare in Brazil, the Instituto Brasileiro de Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis (IBAMA--Brazilian Institute for Environment and Renewable Natural Resources) regulates commerce of C. yacare. To date, IBAMA has approved and registered 65 yacare breeding facilities, with a production of over

80,000 skins (communication from the Embassy of Brazil, Washington, DC). In recent months, IBAMA has also teamed up with other Brazilian Federal and State government agencies to help enforce Brazilian laws for the protection of wildlife, thus reducing illegal trade of all native wildlife in Brazil. The yacare caiman remains widely distributed in Bolivia (communications from Unidad de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente, Prefectura y Comandancia General del Beni, Bolivia--Natural Resources and Environment Unit of the Department of Beni; Museo Nacional de Historia Nacional, La Paz, Bolivia--National Museum of Natural History; Museo de Historia Natural, Universidad Autonoma Gabriel Rene Moreno, Santa Cruz, Bolivia--Natural History Museum, Gabriel Rene Moreno Autonomous University; and Viceministro de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Forestal, Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible y Planificacion, La Paz, Bolivia--Vice-Minister of the Environment, Natural Resources and Forestry Development, Ministry of Sustainable Development and Planning). Although caiman populations in some rivers were extirpated, caimans still survive in Bolivia due to abundant habitat and their rapid growth to sexual maturity. Where protected, populations have recovered, including those in the extensive wetlands of "El Pantanal''. In fact, the Bolivian Red Book lists C. yacare as a low-risk species (communication with Dr. Mario Suarez, Director of the Museo de Historia Natural, Universidad Autonoma Gabriel Rene Moreno, Santa Cruz, Bolivia--Natural History Museum, Gabriel Rene Moreno Autonomous University). Consequently, Bolivia has recently approved conservation and sustainable use plans for C. yacare in the Departments of Beni and Santa Cruz. Although a decade ago it was reported that the long-term continuation of the status quo could lead to the endangerment of the species in Bolivia (King and Videz Roca 1989), we believe that

situation has improved considerably, with effective management of the species by Bolivian authorities. In Paraguay, King et al. (1994) reported that large populations of yacare could still be found in suitable habitats. Caiman yacare populations in Paraguay are currently being monitored annually (communications with Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia--Ministry of Agriculture and Cattle Ranching, Paraguay's CITES Authority). Recent surveys show that populations are either stable or increasing. Based on survey data, hunting quotas are established accordingly. The CSG did not conduct a survey and status assessment in Argentina. However, Argentina currently bans export of the species (communication with Secretaria de Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Sustentable--Ministry of Natural Resources and Sustainable Development). In summary, hunting for hides, both legal and illegal, has in the past been the major threat to the survival of populations of yacare caiman. However, the species has recovered in many parts of its range, and the four range countries either provide protection to the species by domestic legislation and/or regulate harvest by established hunting seasons and limits on the size of animals that can be legally killed for commercial trade. In spite of these actions, we believe sufficient cause exists to find, at this time, that some populations of the yacare caiman still may be threatened by illegal hunting for domestic trade in portions of its extensive range (see "Inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms'' below). C. Disease or Predation The eggs of C. yacare are eaten by a variety of predators, which in some localities include humans, and hatchlings are consumed by a variety of predators including other crocodilians. However, we have no evidence, at this time, that disease or predation are significant factors affecting C. yacare populations.


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D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms The yacare caiman is protected in Argentina by a total ban on commercial hunting and on the export of raw and tanned hides and other products. Brazil bans the export of wildlife and wildlife products from native species (Article 6 B of Brazilian Wildlife Law No. 5.197, of November 3, 1967), except from approved ranching programs. In Paraguay, the yacare caiman was nominally protected by a 1961 Presidential decree that prohibits hunting, commerce, and import and export of all native wildlife, their parts, and products. However, a limited harvest of yacare caiman is currently allowed, with quotas being determined based on annual surveys of the species. Bolivia permits the hunting of yacare from January 1 to June 30, and imposes a 1.5 m size limit on all harvested caiman. The yacare was additionally listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1969 and was added to Appendix II of CITES in 1975. In the past, existing legislation and decrees protecting the yacare caiman or regulating its harvest have been inadequately or unevenly enforced. Many yacare caiman were apparently illegally killed in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay, and their skins were illegally exported with real or forged CITES export permits from some South American countries. The CITES Secretariat, in conjunction with the CSG, and with the permission and cooperation of the range countries, conducted a series of surveys of the status of the yacare caiman during the 1980s and found major inadequacies associated with the existing regulatory mechanisms. For example, Bolivia did not effectively enforce either the hunting season restriction or the minimum size limit restrictions on harvested animals. In the mid-1980s, large numbers of poached yacare caiman skins were illegally exported to Paraguay, encouraging the transnational movement of illegal wildlife products through that country in violation of CITES.

As a result, in June 1986 and to November 1987, the Bolivian Government imposed a ban on the export of wildlife specimens (Decreto Supremo 21312 and Decreto Supremo 21774, respectively) and, through the CITES Secretariat, asked that the Parties to the Convention no longer accept certain CITES export permits issued illegally by the former Bolivian Government (Notice of Information No. 3-50 FR 34016; Notice of Information No. 4-50 FR 34016; Notice of Information No. 8-50 FR 50965; Notice of Information No. 11-51 FR 43978). Some countries of manufacture, knowingly or unknowingly, have also apparently accepted illegally killed and illegally exported yacare caiman, used these materials in the production of leather goods, and shipped the resulting finished products to the United States. Although a live or whole yacare caiman can be distinguished from other caiman species, the products from tanned or processed skins are often very difficult to distinguish from other caiman species. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Wildlife Inspectors, by clearing crocodilian products from these leather good manufacturing countries, could have inadvertently allowed the import of parts and products from illegally harvested yacare caiman. Such imports would constitute violations of the U.S. Lacey Act and the Endangered Species Act, and would be detrimental to the conservation of the yacare caiman by not effectively promoting the sustainable management of the species. However, currently available information indicates that many of the irregularities have been corrected since the CITES survey in the 1980s. A combination of increased awareness of conservation needs, reduced crocodilian hide prices, increased action by government and international agencies, and increased difficulty in marketing illegally harvested crocodilian skins have relieved some of the hunting pressure on wild caiman populations (Scott et al. 1990, King et al. 1994).

International illegal trade in crocodilian skins has been reduced significantly since the adoption by the CITES Parties of Resolution Conf. 9.22 (Universal Tagging System Resolution for the Identification of Crocodilian Skins) in November 1994. This resolution establishes an universal tagging system for the tracking of international trade in crocodilian skins, other parts, and products, which includes: (1) Universal tagging of raw and processed crocodilian skins with non-reusable tags for all crocodilian skins entering international trade, unless they have been further processed and cut into smaller pieces; (2) tagging of transparent containers for crocodilian parts; (3) use of non-reusable tags that include as a minimum the International Organization for Standardization two-letter code for the country of origin, a unique serial identification number, a standard species code, and the year of production or harvest; (4) registration of such non-reusable tags with the CITES Secretariat; (5) recording of the same information that appears on the tags on the export permit, re-export certificate, or other Convention document; and (6) implementation by the re-exporting countries of an administrative system that allows for effective matching of imports and re-exports, and ensures that the original tags are intact upon re-export, and, if tags are broken, the re-tagging of skins is performed as described in CITES Resolution Conf. 9.22. Given that all four range countries are Parties to CITES (Argentina accededon April 8, 1981; Bolivia on October 4, 1979; Brazil on November 14, 1975; Paraguay on February 13, 1977), we believe that international trade in yacare caiman is adequately regulated. To improve implementation of CITES, at the invitation of the Bolivian Government and with the financial support of the U.S. Agency for International Development's Partnership for Biodiversity, the Service's Office of Scientific Authority and Division of Law Enforcement visited Bolivia in the summer of 1998 to conduct CITES training. The participants


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included not only staff from the Bolivian CITES Management and Scientific Authorities, but also representatives from other Bolivian governmental agencies involved in the implementation of CITES, including the Bolivian National Police and Defense Ministry. During the one-week training, the Service also discussed with the participants how to improve collaboration between the United States and Bolivia in the protection and conservation of wildlife. The training participants also took this unique opportunity to develop a plan to implement and coordinate CITES as well as other fish and wildlife enforcement activities in Bolivia. Although all four range countries have taken steps to curtail illegal international trade in yacare caiman and other crocodilians, enforcement of already existing laws regulating domestic trade in crocodilians may still be insufficient in some areas (Brazaitis et al. 1996, Mourao et al. 1996), due mostly to the limited resources available to local enforcement agencies as well as the remoteness and inaccessibility of many of the areas. Therefore, we believe that sufficient cause exists to find that the yacare caiman is presently threatened, but no longer endangered, in some parts of its range by the inadequacy of the existing regulatory mechanisms. E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Its Continued Existence A recent new possible threat to yacare caimans and their habitats is chemical pollution, primarily from mineral mining and industry (Brazaitis et al. 1996). However, short-and long-term effects of chemical contamination on yacare caiman populations are unknown. Summary of Findings Wildlife, such as the yacare caiman, can be advantageously utilized in commerce if management is sufficient to maintain satisfactory habitats and harvest is at levels that allow maintenance of healthy and sustainable populations. The yacare, under such conditions, can

provide revenue to pay for its own management. In developing this rule, we have carefully assessed the best available biological and conservation status information regarding the past, present, and future threats faced by the yacare caiman. The available data from these studies on the distribution, ecology, and status of C. yacare indicate that this species is not endangered or in danger of extinction in any significant portion of its range. The Service has concluded that an extensive population of yacare caiman still exists over large and seasonally inaccessible areas within the four South American range countries. The Service recognizes that yacare caimans near human populations may be illegally taken. However, the best available information indicates that this and many other species of crocodilians are capable of surviving despite unregulated harvests and that new international requirements are being implemented to curtail international trade in illegally harvested crocodile skins. Criteria for reclassification of a threatened or endangered species, found in 50 CFR part 424.11(d), include extinction, recovery of the species, or error in the original data for classification. The original listing did not encompass the survey information, such as Medem's 1973 work, which documented an extensive range for this species. Given the reproductive capabilities and current status of the yacare caiman, this species is more properly considered not as in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its vast range, but as threatened due to inadequately regulated domestic commercialization in some portions of its range. Therefore, if range countries continue to successfully implement measures to regulate its harvest and domestic commercialization, the yacare caiman should be able to maintain stable and sustainable population levels. Similarity of Appearance In determining whether to treat a species as endangered or

threatened due to similarity of appearance, the Director shall consider the criteria in section 4(e) of the Endangered Species Act. Section 4(e) of the Act and criteria of 50 CFR 17.50 set forth three criteria in determining whether to list a species for reasons of similarity of appearance. These criteria apply to populations of common caiman (C. c. crocodilus) in South America and the brown caiman (C. c. fuscus) in Mexico and Central and South America. The Service has intercepted numerous shipments of manufactured items with documents identifying them as a lawfully tradeable Appendix II species (most often C. c. crocodilus and C. c. fuscus) and have determined that they are, in fact, made from yacare caiman. In other instances, products from other endangered species, such as Melanosuchus niger, have been declared as C. c. fuscus. One reason for this situation is that many vendors, buyers, and traders in South and Central America have deliberately misidentified yacare caiman by obtaining documents purporting to permit export of other Appendix II species. In addition, representatives of the manufacturing industry and others have indicated that a common practice in the trade is to commingle skins at the tanning, cutting, and assembly stages of the manufacturing process so that inadvertent commingling frequently occurs. While some affirmative yacare caiman identifications can be made in manufactured products, in numerous instances, proper identifications are not made and significant quantities of yacare caiman are probably being imported unlawfully. This situation occurs because a positive identification of yacare caiman depends upon whether certain indicator patterns are present on a piece of skin. However, a large proportion of commercially useful pieces of skins do not bear these identification patterns. In his comments submitted in response to the October 29, 1990, Federal Register notice, Mr. Peter Brazaitis provided extensive


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information on the similarity of appearance among six caiman and crocodilian species or subspecies as they occur in manufactured products and some hides. He discussed in detail the indicator characteristics for C. yacare, C. c. crocodilus, C. c. fuscus, C. c. apaporiensis, C. latirostris, and M. niger for live animals, whole skins, and untanned skins that remain after tanning and cutting, and how frequently similar characteristics found on pieces of skin prevent positive identification. The three criteria for listing of other caiman by similarity of appearance are discussed below: (1) The degree of difficulty enforcement personnel would have in distinguishing the species, at the point in question, from an endangered or threatened species (including those cases where the criteria for recognition of a species are based on geographical boundaries). Caiman yacare, C. c. crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus are distinguishable as live animals because of different markings and coloration in the head region. However, manufactured products (shoes, purses, belts, or watchbands, etc.) are extremely difficult even for an expert to identify as to the species of origin (Brazaitis 1989b). Products from the three crocodilians often cannot readily be distinguished by law enforcement personnel, which means that under present conditions mixed products from U.S. listed and unlisted species may occur in U.S. commerce. (2) The additional threat posed to the endangered or threatened species by loss of control occasioned because of the similarity of appearance. The inability to adequately control commerce in caiman products has likely allowed losses to occur to other endangered species such as C. latirostris and M. niger. For example, the Service has records of leather goods manufactured from M. niger being included in product shipments declared as C. c. fuscus. Another problem occurs when unlawfully harvested yacare

caiman skins enter commerce in non-range South American countries and then are re-exported with documents describing the export as native caiman. The Service has intercepted a number of shipments of yacare caiman from Colombia despite domestic laws that permit only the export of caimans from captive breeding programs, and despite the fact that the yacare caiman does not occur naturally in Colombia. This rule allows for cessation of commercial trade to the United States if CITES bans are imposed for failure to implement appropriate trade control measures, including the use of non-reusable tags for species identification. A secondary effect of this rule may be to enhance the management of C. yacare, C. c. crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus to facilitate commerce in products of caiman species that can tolerate a managed commercial harvest, and to more effectively protect the endangered species of caiman or of other taxa that cannot sustain a managed commercial harvest. (3) The probability that so designating a similar species will substantially facilitate enforcement and further the purposes and policy of the Act. The Division of Law Enforcement presently inspects caiman shipments to determine the validity of the proffered Appendix II CITES documents and consults herpetologists to evaluate specimens when warranted. Due to the problems of commingling and identification, a substantial number of seizures, forfeitures, and penalty assessments have been contested. Judicial decisions have affirmed the validity of the Service's identifications, but the expenditure of funds and resources is disproportionate to that devoted to other species. An earlier judicial forfeiture action was concluded after 6 years, a full trial, and the employment, by both parties, of several expert witnesses. One of the purposes of this similarity-or-appearance listing is to shift the inquiry from one of evaluating a particular shipment to one of supporting the effectiveness of the CITES crocodilian skin control

system as well as the effectiveness of yacare caiman management programs in countries of origin and re-export, thereby enhancing the management of the species while permitting other allocations of enforcement resources. The improved management of trade should enhance the conservation status of each species, and this listing action and special rule should assist CITES Parties to control the illegal trade in caiman skins, products, and parts. Available Conservation Measures Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or threatened under the Act include recognition of conservation status, requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions against certain practices. Recognition through listing encourages and results in conservation actions by Federal, State, and private agencies and groups, and individuals. Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, and as implemented by regulations at 50 CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies to evaluate their actions that are to be conducted within the United States or on the high seas, with respect to any species that is proposed to be listed or is listed as endangered or threatened and with respect to its proposed or designated critical habitat, if any is being designated. However, given that C. yacare is not native to the United States, no critical habitat is being proposed for designation with this rule. Currently, with respect to C. yacare, no Federal activities, other than the issuance of CITES export permits, are known that would require conferral or consultation. According to the CITES treaty, Appendix-II species need only a CITES export permit issued by the exporting country for their importation into another country. However, because of its listing as endangered under the Act, the importation and exportation of specimens from C. yacare presently require an Endangered Species Act permit issued by the Office of Management Authority. Consequently, a consultation with


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our Office of Scientific Authority is currently required before our Office of Management Authority can issue any import or export permit for C. yacare. The listing of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus as threatened by similarity of appearance does not add any new requirements to those already in place for the importation or re-exportation of skins, other parts, and products of these two subspecies into/from the United States. This rule just requires that shipments involving skins and other parts of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus be tagged in accordance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution and accompanied by valid CITES export documents, as is currently required. No U.S. import permits will be required for these specimens. However, this special rule does not cover the importation of viable caiman eggs or live caimans into the United States. In addition to a valid CITES export permit (already required), importation of viable eggs or live specimens of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus will require an Endangered Species Act import permit. Section 8(a) of the Act authorizes the provision of limited financial assistance for the development and management of programs that the Secretary of the Interior determines to be necessary or useful for the conservation of endangered species in foreign countries. Sections 8(b) and 8(c) of the Act authorize the Secretary to encourage conservation programs for foreign endangered species, and to provide assistance for such programs, in the form of personnel and the training of personnel. Sections 4(d) and 9 of the Act, and implementing regulations found at 50 CFR part 17.31, (which incorporate certain provisions of 50 CFR part 17.21), set forth a series of prohibitions and exceptions that generally apply to all threatened wildlife. These prohibitions, in part, make it illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to take (within U.S. territory or on the high seas), import or export, ship in interstate commerce in the course of a

commercial activity, or sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce any listed species. It also is illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship any such wildlife that has been taken illegally. Certain exceptions apply to employees or agents of the Service, other Federal land management agencies, the National Marine Fisheries Service, and State conservation agencies (50 CFR part 17.21(c)(3) and part 17.31(b)). Permits may be issued to carry out otherwise prohibited activities involving threatened wildlife species under certain circumstances. Regulations governing permits are codified at 50 CFR part 17.32. With regard to threatened wildlife, a permit may be issued for the following purposes: Scientific research, enhancement of propagation or survival, zoological exhibition or education, incidental taking, or special purposes consistent with the Act. All such permits must also be consistent with the purposes and policy of the Act as required by section 10(d). Such a permit will be governed by the provisions of Sec. 17.32 unless a special rule applicable to the wildlife (appearing in Sec. 17.40 to Sec. 17.48) provides otherwise. Threatened species are generally covered by all prohibitions applicable to endangered species, under section 4(d) of the Act. The Secretary, however, may propose special rules if deemed necessary and advisable to provide for the conservation of the species. The special rule described here for Sec. 17.42 allows commercial importation and re-exportation into/from the United States of certain farm-reared, ranch-reared, and wild-collected specimens of threatened caiman species, which are listed in CITES Appendix II. Importation could be restricted from a particular country of origin or re-export if that country is not complying with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, or if that country has been identified as a subject to a recommended suspension of trade by the CITES Standing Committee or at a CITES Conference of the Parties. Interstate commerce within

the United States and re-export of C. yacare, C. c. crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus parts will not require additional U.S. threatened species permits. Effects of This Rule This rule revises Sec. 17.11(h) to reclassify the C. yacare from endangered to threatened to reflect more accurately the present status of this species. The Apaporis River caiman (C. c. apaporiensis), the black caiman (M. niger), and the broad-snouted caiman (C. latirostris) retain their endangered status under the Act. Crocodylus crocodylus crocodilus and C. c. fuscus (including C. c. chiapasius) are listed as threatened by reason of similarity in appearance. /- Description of the Special Rule Currently, listing of C. yacare in Appendix II of CITES allows commercial trade in the species. This special rule allows commercial importation and re-exportation into/from the United States of C. yacare skins, other parts, and products originating from countries effectively implementing the crocodilian CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, and only from countries that have not been identified by the CITES Parties for inadequate implementation of CITES. The intent of this special rule is to enhance the conservation of the yacare caiman and the other endangered and threatened caiman populations by supporting those countries properly managing their caiman populations through the opening of commercial markets in the United States. The degree of endangerment of crocodilian species varies by species and specific populations. Some caiman species are listed on Appendix I of CITES. Such listing prohibits international trade in the species if such activity is conducted for primarily commercial purposes and/or determined to be detrimental to the survival of the species. The remaining species and populations of caiman are included in Appendix II, thereby allowing commercial trade if certain scientific and management findings are made. Some caiman species are also listed


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as endangered in the U.S. List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, while other species are not included. In addition to the United States, several countries have taken domestic actions to protect wild caiman populations, but allow trade in specimens bred or raised in captivity under appropriate management programs. We agree that yacare caiman populations in some range countries are being sufficiently managed through ranching or captive breeding programs to support controlled commercial use. However, the Service is concerned about: (1) The illegal harvest and inadequate trade controls for caiman species in Appendix II of CITES; (2) the commingling and misidentification of legal and illegal skins in intermediary trading, processing, and manufacturing countries; and (3) the sustainable management of the yacare caiman in those countries allowing a legal harvest of wild specimens. The CITES Parties adopted at the 1994 Fort Lauderdale meeting (COP9) and are currently implementing provisions of the Universal Tagging System Resolution for crocodilian skins (Resolution Conf. 9.22). The Service supports these efforts, including the most recent clarifications of the resolution resulting from the Animals Committee meeting held in September 1996. At the CITES meeting of the Conference of the Parties in Zimbabwe in 1997, the CITES Secretariat reported that, to its knowledge, all range countries were effectively implementing the Universal Tagging System Resolution. Adherence to the CITES tagging requirements has reduced the potential for substitution of illegal skins and reduced the trade control problems with the similarity of appearance of skins and products among different species of crocodilians. In addition to the measures established by CITES in the Universal Tagging System Resolution, this special rule contains other steps designed to restrict or prohibit trade from countries that are not effectively

implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution and, thus, to ensure that the United States does not become a market for illegal trade in crocodilian species and to encourage other nations to control illegal trade. Effects of the Special Rule Consistent with the requirements of sections 3(3) and 4(d) of the Act, this rule also contains a special rule that amends 50 CFR 17.42 to allow commercial importation and re-exportation, under certain conditions, of whole and partial skins, other parts, and finished products from yacare caiman without a threatened species import permit otherwise required by 50 CFR part 17, if all requirements of the special rule and 50 CFR parts 13 (General Permits Procedures), 14 (Importation, Exportation, and Transportation of Wildlife), and 23 (Endangered Species Convention--CITES) are met. The reclassification of C. yacare to "threatened'' and the accompanying special rule allowing commercial trade into the United States without endangered species import permits does not end protection for this species, which remains on Appendix II of CITES. To the contrary, the special rule complements the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution for crocodilian skins by allowing imports and re-exports only from those range countries properly managing this species and controlling exports, and only from those intermediary countries properly implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution. Thus, this special rule simply reconciles ESA requirements for the importation and exportation of C. yacare shipments into and from the United States with CITES ones. The listing of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus as threatened by similarity of appearance, and the accompanying special rule allowing commercial trade into the United States, also will have no effect on the issuance of permits for the commercial importation and exportation of skins, other parts, and products of these two caiman

subspecies into and from the United States. Since C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus are currently listed in Appendix II of CITES, a CITES permit issued by the exporting or re-exporting country is already required for importation of shipments of these two subspecies into another country. This rule requires only that shipments involving skins and other parts of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus be tagged in accordance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution and accompanied by valid CITES export documents, as is currently done. No U.S. import permits are required for these specimens. However, in the case of viable eggs or live specimens of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus into the United States, an Endangered Species Act import permit will be required in addition to the already required CITES export permit. In summary, this special rule prohibits the importation and re-exportation of specimens (skins, other parts, or products) of C. caiman, C. c. crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus originating from any country (range country or a country of manufacture or re-export) that: (1) Is not effectively implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution including (but not limited to) the use of properly marked tamper-proof tags on all skins, the package of other crocodile parts in transparent sealed containers clearly marked with parts tags, the recording of the same information on the tags on the CITES documents, and maintenance of records accounting for transactions of skins, parts, and products; or (2) has failed to designate a Management Authority or Scientific Authority; or (3) have been identified by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention, the Convention's Standing Committee, or in a Notification from the Secretariat as a country from which Parties should not accept permits. In a limited number of situations where the original tags from the country of export have been lost in processing the skins, we will allow whole skins, flanks, and chalecos into the United States if CITES-approved re-export tags


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have been attached in the same manner as the original tags and proper re-export certificates accompany the shipment. If a shipment contains more than 25 percent replacement tags, the re-exporting country must consult with the U.S. Office of Management Authority prior to clearance of the shipment, and such shipments may be seized, if the Service cannot determine that the requirements of the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution have been observed. In the case where tagged caiman skins are exported to another country for manufacturing purposes, and the finished products are re-exported to the United States, then neither the country of origin nor the country of re-export can be subject to a Notice of Information based on the criteria described in the special rule if imports are to be allowed. The Service will initially presume that intermediary countries are effectively implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, but the special rule has provisions to impose bans if persuasive evidence to the contrary is presented. Our Office of Management Authority will provide on request the list of those countries subject to a Schedule III Notice of Information to manufacturers in the country of re-export and to importers so that they may be advised of restrictions on caiman skins, products, and parts that can be utilized in products intended for U.S. commerce. The Management Authority of the country of manufacture should ensure that re-export certificates provided for manufactured goods intended for the United States are not for products and re-exports derived from countries subject to a Schedule III Notice of Information. In compliance with these rules, commerce in finished products from a re-export country would be allowed only with the required CITES documentation and without an endangered or threatened species permit for individual shipments otherwise required under 50 CFR part 17.

Finally, this special rule does not cover the importation of viable caiman eggs or live caimans into the United States. Importation of these two types of specimens will require an Endangered Species Act import permit and the appropriate CITES permit. This requirement will allow scrutiny of individual applications for importation of live caimans or eggs so as to prevent accidental introduction of these exotic species into the United States, which may have detrimental effects on U.S. native wildlife or ecosystems. Re-exportation from the United States of caiman skins, other parts, and products will continue to require CITES documents. Interstate commerce within the United States in legally imported caiman skins, other parts, and products will not require U.S. threatened species permits. This special rule allows trade through intermediary countries. Countries are not considered as intermediary countries or countries of re-export if the specimens remain in Customs control while transiting or being transshipped through the country and provided those specimens have not entered into the commerce of that country. However, the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution presupposes that countries of re-export have implemented a system for monitoring skins. We wrote this special rule to allow the Service to respond quickly to changing situations that may result in lessened protection to crocodilians. The criteria described in the special rule establish specific, non-discretionary bases for determining whether CITES provisions are being effectively implemented. Therefore, by the publication of such notice in the Federal Register, we can deny approval of permits, and imports into the United States can be prohibited from any country that fails to comply with the requirements of the special rule. In a separate rule-making proposal, amending 50 CFR part 23, the Service will propose implementation of the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution for all crocodilians. That rulemaking will adopt CITES

tags as the required tag for all crocodilian skins, including caiman chalecos and flanks, being imported into or exported from any country if the skin is eventually imported into the United States. For the reasons noted above, the Service finds that the special rule for caiman species, including the yacare caiman, includes all of the protection that is necessary and advisable to provide for the conservation of such species. The Monitoring of Yacare Caiman Requirements of the Act for the monitoring of species also apply to foreign species (see final rule "Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Removal of Three Kangaroos From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife'' published in the Federal Register on March 9, 1995; 60 FR 12887). Monitoring programs are conducted to ensure that species continue to fare well after delisting or downlisting occurs. These monitoring programs frequently include population and species distribution surveys, assessment of the condition of important habitats for the species, and assessment of threats identified as relevant to the species. The Service depends primarily on range countries to monitor C. yacare. To monitor the status of C. yacare, we will request the governments of the range countries (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Bolivia) wishing to export specimens of C. yacare to the United States for commercial purposes to provide us every two years, for the following 10 years, with the most recent information available on the status of the species, gathered by the respective range countries to fulfill their CITES scientific and management requirements. The first submission of status information is due on December 31, 2001. All information provided by the range countries will be available for public review. For each country, the following information should be provided on the status of C. yacare: (1) Recent distribution and population data, and a description


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of the methodology used to obtain such estimates; (2) Description of research projects currently being conducted related to the biology of the above species in the wild, particularly their reproductive biology (for example, age or size when animals become sexually mature, number of clutches per season, number of eggs per clutch, survival of eggs, survival of hatchlings); (3) Description of laws and programs regulating harvest of the above species, including approximate acreage of land set aside as natural reserves or national parks that provide protected habitat for the above species; (4) Description of current sustainable harvest programs for the above species, including ranching (i.e., captive-rearing of crocodiles collected from the wild as eggs or juveniles) and farming (captive-breeding of animals) programs; (5) Current harvest quotas for wild populations; and (6) Export data for the last 10 years (preferably organized according to origin of animals: wild-caught, captive-reared, and captive-bred). Regulatory Planning and Review This rule is not subject to review by the Office of Management and Budget under Executive Order 12866. Regulatory Flexibility Act The Department of the Interior certifies that the special rule in Sec. 17.42(g) will not have a significant economic effect on a substantial number of small entities, as defined under the Regulatory Flexibility Act (5 U.S.C. 601 et seq.) Most or all of the potential applicants who might take advantage of the procedures implemented through this special rule are individuals or small entities. Unfunded Mandates Reform Act The special rule in Sec. 17.42(g) does not impose an unfunded mandate on State, local, or tribal governments or the private sector of more than $100 million a year.

Takings In accordance with Executive Order 12630, the special rule in Sec. 17.42(g) does not have significant takings implications. Federalism In accordance with Executive Order 13132, the special rule in Sec. 17.42(g) does not have significant Federalism effects to warrant the preparation of a Federalism assessment. Civil Justice Reform In accordance with Executive Order 12988, the Office of the Solicitor has determined that this special rule in Sec. 17.42(g) does not unduly burden the judicial system and meets the requirements of sections 3(a) and 3(b)(2) of the Order. Paperwork Reduction Act The special rule in Sec. 17.42(g) does require an information collection from 10 or more parties and, therefore, a submission under the Paperwork Reduction Act is required. The Office of Management and Budget approved the information collection requirements contained in this special rule under the Paperwork Reduction Act and assigned clearance number 1018-0093 as part of the permit requirements contained in Part 23 of Title 50. National Environmental Policy Act The Service has determined that Environmental Assessments and Environmental Impact Statements, as defined under the authority of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, need not be prepared in connection with regulations adopted pursuant to section 4(a) of the Act of 1973, as amended. A notice outlining the Service's reasons for this determination was published in the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). References Cited Amato, G. D. 1992. Expert Report.

Yale University, New Haven, CT. 6 pp. Unpublished report.

Brazaitis, P. 1989a. The caiman of the Pantanal: Past, present, and future, pp. 119-124, in Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 8th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 204 pp.

Brazaitis, P. 1989b. The forensic identification of crocodilian hides and products, pp. 17-43, in Crocodiles: Their ecology, management and conservation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Brazaitis, P., C. Yamashita, and G. Rebelo. 1988. CITES central South American caiman study: Phase I-central and southern Brazil. 62 pp.

Brazaitis, P., C. Yamashita, and G. Rebelo. 1990. A summary report of the CITES central South American caiman study: Phase I: Brazil, pp. 100-115, in Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 9th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group. Vol. I. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 300 pp.

Brazaitis, P., G. Amato, G. Rebelo, C. Yamashita, and J. Gatesy. 1993. Report to CITES on the biochemical systematics study of Yacare caiman, Caiman yacare, of central South America. Unpublished report. 43 pp.

Brazaitis, P., R. Madden, G. Amato, and M. Watanabe. 1997a. The South American and Central American caiman (Caiman) complex. Systematics of the Caiman: Results of morphological, statistical, molecular genetics, and species discrimination studies. Special report to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 62 pp. Unpublished.

Brazaitis, P., R. Madden, G. Amato, and M. Watanabe. 1997b. Morphological characteristics, statistics, and DNA evidence used to identify closely related crocodilian species for wildlife law enforcement. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic

Sciences. Annual Meeting, New York City, February 17-22, 1997. D28: 92-93. Published abstract.

Brazaitis, P., G. H. Rebelo, C. Yamashita, E. A. Odierna, and M. E. Watanabe. 1996. Threats to Brazilian crocodilian populations. Oryx, 30:275-284.

Busack, S. D., and S. S. Pandya. 1996. Presented at 76th annual meeting of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. New Orleans, LA. Abstract.


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King, F. W., A. L. Aquino, N. J. Scott, Jr., and R. Palacios. 1994. Status of the crocodiles of Paraguay: Results of the 1993 monitoring surveys. Report from Biodiversity Services, Inc., to Paraguay's Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia and the Secretariat of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). 39 pp.

Coutinho, M., and Z. Campos. 1996. Effect of habitat and seasonality on the densities of caiman in southern Pantanal, Brazil. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 12:741-747.

Da Silveria, R., and J. B. Thorbjarnarson. 1999. Conservation implications of commercial hunting of black and spectacled caiman in the Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve, Brazil.

Fitch, H., and M. Nadeau. 1979. An assessment of Caiman latirostris and Caiman crocodilus yacare in northern Argentina. Unpublished progress report to World Wildlife Fund--U.S., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and New York Zoological Society. 7 pp.

Groombridge, B. 1982. The IUCN Amphibia-Reptilia red data book. Part I: Testudines, Crocodylia, Rhynchocephalia. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 426 pp.

King, F. W., and Burke, R. L. 1989. Crocodilian, tuatara, and turtle species of the world: A taxonomic and geographic reference. Association of Systematic Collections, Washington, D.C.

King, F. W., and D. H. Videz-Roca. 1989. The caimans of Bolivia: A preliminary report on a CITES and Centro Desarrollo Forestal sponsored survey of species distribution and status, pp. 128-155, in Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 8th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 204 pp.

Mourao, G., Z. Campos, and M. Coutinho. 1996. Size structure of illegally harvested and surviving caiman Caiman crocodilus yacare in Pantanal, Brazil. Biological Conservation, 75:261-265.

Scott, N. J., A. L. Aquino, and L. A. Fitzgerald. 1988. Distribution, habitats, and conservation of the caiman (Alligatoridae) of Paraguay. Unpublished report to the CITES Secretariat, Lausanne, Switzerland. 30 pp.

Scott, N. J., A. L. Aquino, and L. A. Fitzgerald. 1990. Distribution, habitats and conservation of the caimans (Alligatoridae) of Paraguay. Vida Silvestre Neotropical, 43-51.

Thorbjarnarson, J. B. 1992. Crocodiles: An action plan for their conservation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 136 pp.

Thorbjarnarson, J. B. 1994. Reproductive ecology of the spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in the Venezuelan Llanos. Copeia, 1994:907-919.

Authors The primary author of this rule is Dr. Javier Alvarez, Office of

Scientific Authority, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC 20240 (703-358-1708 or FTS 921-1708). List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and recordkeeping requirements, Transportation. Regulations Promulgation Accordingly, the Service hereby amends part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth below: PART 17-- [AMENDED] 1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows: Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C. 4201-4245; Pub. L. 99-625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted. 2. Amend Sec. 17.11(h) by revising the current entry for the yacare caiman and by adding entries for the brown and the common caimans in alphabetic order under "Reptiles'' on the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife to read as follows: Sec. 17.11 Endangered and threatened wildlife. * * * * * (h) * * *


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3. Section 17.42 is amended by adding a new paragraph (g) as follows: Sec. 17.42 Special rules--reptiles. * * * * * (g) Threatened caiman. This paragraph applies to the following species: Yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), the common caiman (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus), and the brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus fuscus including Caiman crocodilus chiapasius). These taxa will be collectively referred to as "caiman.'' (1) What are the definitions of terms used in this paragraph (g)? (i) Caiman skins means whole or partial skins, flanks, chalecos, and bellies (whether these are salted, crusted, tanned, partially tanned, or otherwise processed). (ii) Caiman parts means body parts with or without skin attached (including tails, throats, feet, and other parts, but excluding meat and skulls) and small cut skins pieces. (iii) Caiman product means any processed or manufactured product items (including curios and souvenirs) that are ready for retail sale, and composed, totally or in part, of yacare caiman, brown caiman, or common caiman. (iv) Country of re-export means those intermediary countries that import and re-export caiman skins, parts, and/or products. However, we will not consider intermediary countries those through which caiman skins, parts, and/or products are shipped while remaining under Customs control. (v) Universal Tagging System Resolution means the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) resolution entitled "Universal Tagging System for the Identification of Crocodilian Skins'' and numbered Conf. 9.22, and any subsequent revisions. (2) What activities involving yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), the common caiman (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus), and the

brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus fuscus) are prohibited by this rule? (i) Import, export, and re-export. Except for the activities described in paragraph (g)(3) of this section, it is unlawful to import, export, re-export, or present for export or re-export without valid permits (as required under 50 CFR parts 17 and 23) any caiman or their skins, other parts or products. (ii) Commercial activity. Except as described in paragraph (g)(3) of this section, it is unlawful to sell or offer for sale, deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign commerce any caiman or their skins, other parts, or products. (iii) It is unlawful for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to commit, attempt to commit, solicit to commit, or cause to be committed any acts described in paragraphs (g)(2) (i) and (ii) of this section. (3) What activities involving yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), the common caiman (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus), and the brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus fuscus) are allowed by this rule? The import/export/re-export of, or the interstate/foreign commerce in caiman skins, other parts, or products may be allowed without a threatened species permit (issued according to 50 CFR 17.32) only when the provisions in 50 CFR parts 13, 14, and 23, and the requirements of the applicable paragraphs below have been met. (i) Import, export, or re-export. The import, export, or re-export into/from the United States of caiman skins, parts, or products may be allowed provided the following conditions are met: (A) Each caiman skin imported into or exported or re-exported from the United States after the effective date of the final rule must bear either: (1) An intact, uncut tag from the country of origin meeting all the requirements of the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, or (2) An intact, uncut replacement tag from the country

of re-export where the original tags were lost or removed from raw, tanned, and/or processed skins. These replacement tags must meet all the requirements of the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, except showing the country of re-export instead of the country of origin, provided those re-exporting countries have implemented an administrative system for the effective matching of imports and re-exports consistent with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution. If a shipment contains more than 25 percent replacement tags, the Management Authority of the re-exporting country must consult with the U.S. Office of Management Authority before clearance of the shipment. Such shipments may be seized if we determine that the requirements of the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution have not been met. (B) In accordance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, all caiman parts must be placed in a transparent, sealed container. Each container imported, exported, or re-exported into/from the United States after the effective date of the rule: (1) Must have a parts tag attached in such a way that opening of the container will prevent later reuse of such tag; and (2) The parts tag must contain a description of the contents plus total weight of the container and its contents. (C) The information on the export permit or re-export certificate must be the same as that on the skin and part tags, carry the same permit or certificate number, and be validated by the government authority designated as the CITES document-issuing authority. (D) The CITES permit or certificate accompanying shipments of caiman skins, parts, or products must contain the following information: (1) The country of origin, its export permit number, and date of issuance;


82

(2) If re-export, the country of re-export, its certificate number, and date of issuance; and (3) If applicable, the country of previous re-export, its certificate number, and date of issuance. (E) The country of origin and any intermediary country(s) must be effectively implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution. If we receive persuasive information from the CITES Secretariat or other reliable sources that a specific country is not effectively implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, we will prohibit or restrict imports from such country(s) as appropriate for the conservation of the species. (F) At the time of import, for each shipment covered by this exception, the country of origin and each country of re-export involved in the trade of a particular shipment must not be subject to a Schedule III Notice of Information (see paragraph (g)(4) of this section) prohibiting or restricting imports of all wildlife or any members of the Order Crocodylia. A listing of all countries subject to such a Schedule III Notice of Information is available by writing to: Office of Management Authority, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Mail Stop ARLSQ-700, Washington, DC 20240, or via e-mail at [email protected]. (ii) Shipment of skulls, processed meat, and scientific specimens. The import, export, and re-export into/from the United States of skulls, processed meat, and scientific specimens of caiman is allowed without permits otherwise required by 50 CFR part 17, provided the requirements of part 23 are met. (iii) Noncommercial accompanying baggage. The conditions described in paragraphs

(g)(3)(i) and (ii) for skins, skulls, meat, other parts, and products made of specimens of caiman do not apply to non-commercial personal effects in accompanying baggage or household effects. (iv) Eggs and live specimens. This special rule does not apply to live specimens or eggs of caiman. Import of such specimens requires an import permit as described in 50 CFR 17.32. (4) When and how will we inform you of additional restrictions in trade of yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), the common caiman (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus), and the brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus fuscus)? Except in rare cases involving extenuating circumstances that do not adversely affect the conservation of the species, the Service will issue a Notice of Information announcing additional CITES restrictions in trade in specimens of caiman dealt with in this paragraph (g) if any of the following criteria are met: (i) The country is listed in a Notification to the Parties by the CITES Secretariat as not having designated Management and Scientific Authorities that issue CITES documents or their equivalent. (ii) The country is identified in any action adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention, the Convention's Standing Committee, or in a Notification issued by the CITES Secretariat, whereby Parties are asked not to accept shipments of specimens of any CITES-listed species from the country in question or of any crocodilian species listed in the CITES appendices. (iii) We determine, based on information from the CITES

Secretariat or other reliable sources, that the country is not effectively implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution. (5) What are the approved information collection requirements in this rule? The Office of Management and Budget approved the information collection requirements contained in this special rule under the Paperwork Reduction Act and assigned clearance number 1018-0093 as part of the permit requirements contained in Part 23 of Title 50. We may not conduct or sponsor, and you are not required to respond to, a collection of information unless it displays a currently valid OMB control number. The collection of information under this rule is done to provide information necessary to evaluate permit applications. We will use this information to review permit applications and make decisions, according to criteria established in various Federal wildlife conservation statutes and regulations, on the issuance, suspension, revocation, or denial of permits. You must respond to obtain or retain a permit. We estimate the public reporting burden for these reporting requirements to vary from 20 minutes to 2 hours per response, with an average of 1 hour per response, including time for reviewing instructions, gathering and maintaining data, and completing and reviewing the forms. Dated: April 7, 2000. Stephen C. Saunders, Acting Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks. [FR Doc. 00-11055 Filed 5-3-00; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4310-55-P ––––––––––––––

Taller Internacional para el Manejo y Comercio

de Caiman yacare

3 al 5 de octubre de 2002 Gainesville, Florida, USA

James Perran Ross

2003

Taller Internacional para el Manejo y Comercio de

Caiman Yacare

3 al 5 de Octubre de 2002 Gainesville, FL, USA

Taller Internacional organizado por el Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos, con el apoyo del

Fish and Wildlife Service Office of International Affairs, CITES Secretariat and Louisiana Fur and Alligator Council

James Perran Ross Executive Officer Crocodile Specialist Group

Florida Museum of Natural History Box 117800, University of Florida

Gainesville, FL 32601 USA Telephone: 352/846-2566 • Fax 352/392-9367

E-mail: [email protected]

Acronyms

CESO/SACO Canadian Executive Service Organization CITES Convención sobre el Comercio Internacional de Especies Amenazadas de Fauna y

Flora Silvestres; Convenção Internacional sobre o Comércio das Espécies da Fauna e Flora Selvagem em Perigo de Extinção (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)

CPIB Pueblos Indígenas del Beni CSG Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos (Crocodile Specialist Group) D.S. Decreto Supremo DFFS Dirección de Fauna y Flora Silvestres DGB Dirección General de Biodiversidad EMBRAPA Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária ENFOPESCOR Empresa Nacional de Fomento a la Pesca y Corporacion de Desarrollo del Beni FB Fundación Biodiversidad – Argentina FVSA Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina GPS Sistema de Posicionamiento Global (Global Positioning System) IBAMA Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis IBDF Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal IG Índice gonadosomático (Gonadsomatic index) IUCN World Conservation Union MDSP Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible y Planificación MMA Ministério do Meio Ambiente NGO Non Governmental Organization PIAS Programa Integral Amazonía Sostenible RAN Centro de Conservação e Manejo de Répteis e Anfíbios SEAM Secretario del Ambiente (Paraguay) SSC Species Survival Commission SVL Comprimento rostro-anal (Snout-vent length) TCO Tierras Comunitarias de Origen Indigenous UICN Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza UICN Unión Mundial para la Naturaleza UNEP United Nations Environmental Program UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization USGS-BRD US Geological Survey – Biological Resources Division WTMU Servicio de Vigilancia Continua del Comercio de Fauna y Flora Silvestres

(Wildlife Trade Monitoring Unit) WWF World Wildlife Fun

Participantes Argentina Laura Barrientos Secretaría de Recursos Naturales San Martín 459 Buenos Aires 1004, Argentina [email protected] Lic. Victoria Lichtschein Secretaría de Recursos Naturales Directora Flora y Fauna San Martín 459 Buenos Aires 1004, Argentina [email protected] Dr. Obdulio Menghi Presidente Fundación Biodiversidad - Argentina Uruguay 1231 - 8A 1016 Buenos Aires, Argentina [email protected] Bolivia Dr. Alex Ferrier Director Departamental de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente Prefectura del Departamento del Beni Trinidad, Bolivia [email protected] Alfonso Llobet Q. Consultante, Dirección General de Biodiversidad Avenida 2. No. 7, Auquisamaña Casilla No. 3-35012 (San Miguel) La Paz, Bolivia [email protected], [email protected] Sebastian Paz Curtiembre Moxos Trinidad, Beni Bolivia [email protected]

Brasil Maria Iolita Bampi Coordenadora Geral da Fauna Diretoria de Fauna e Recursos Pesqueiros Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e Recursos Naturais Renováveis – IBAMA Edificio Sede, SAIN Av. L4 Norte Brasilia, DF. Brasil 70800-200 [email protected] Dr. Marcos Coutinho Centro de Conservação e Manejo de Répteis e Anfíbios Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e Recursos Naturais Renováveis – IBAMA Av. General Rondon, 1704 Corumbá – MS 79320-000 Brasil [email protected] CITES Malan Lindeque Program Officer - CITES/UNEP CITES Secretariat 15 Rue Chemin des Anémones Geneva CH-1219, Switzerland [email protected]

Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos Robert Godshalk Coordinador del Taller Florida Museum of Natural History Dickinson Hall, Museum Road Gainesville, FL 32611 USA [email protected] Dr. Alejandro Larriera Vice Presidente Regional Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos (CSG/SSC/IUCN) América latina y el Caribe PJE PVDO 4455 Centeno 950 Santa Fe, Santa Fe 3000 Argentina [email protected]

4

Dr. James Perran Ross Oficial Ejecutivo Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos Florida Museum of Natural History Dickinson Hall, Box 117800 University of Florida Gainesville, FL 32611 USA [email protected] Dr. Tomas Waller Director de Conservación Fundación Biodiversidad – Argentina La Pampa 1815 – 5B 1428 Buenos Aires, Argentina [email protected]; [email protected] Dr. Richard Ferguson Regional Vice Chairman CSG Africa Mombasa, Kenya [email protected]

Louisiana Fur & Alligator Advisory Council Don Ashley P.O. Box 13679 Tallahassee, FL 32317 [email protected] Dr. Peter Brazaitis 155 Woodchuck Ln. Harwington, CT 06791 [email protected] Dr. Ruth Elsey 5476 Grand Chenier Hwy. Grand Chenier, LA 70643 [email protected] Paraguay Ignacio Avila Consultante – Secretaría del Ambiente Avenida Madame Lynch N 3500 c/Primer Presidente Asunción, Paraguay Lic. Nora Neris de Colman Dirección de Manejo de Vida Silvestre, Pesca y Acuicultura Secretaría del Ambiente Asunción, Paraguay [email protected]

Lic Martha Motte Departamento de Herpetología Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay – SEAM Ascuncion, Paraguay [email protected] TRAFFIC – South America Bernardo Ortiz IUCN, Oficina Regional - TRAFFIC Suramérica Casilla Correo No. 17-17626 Atahualpa 955 y República, Piso 7 Quito, Ecuador [email protected] United States Dr. Javier Alvarez Chief, Branch of Consultation and Monitoring Division of Scientific Authority U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 750 Arlington, VA 22203 [email protected] Mr. William Knapp M.S. Intern – Division of Scientific Authority US Fish and Wildlife Service 4401 North Fairfax Dr., Rm. 750 Arlington, VA 22203 USGS-Wildlife Cooperative Unit H. Franklin Percival United States Geological Survey Biological Resources Division (USGS-BRD) Cooperative Unit Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Newins Zeigler Hall University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32601 [email protected] Venezuela Alvaro Velasco B. Deputy Vice Chairman Latin American and the Caribbean Region Crocodile Specialist Group-SSC-IUCN [email protected]

Indice de Contenidos Resumen ejecutivo ------------------------------------------------------------------ i Relatorio del Origen y desarrollo del Taller --------------------------------- iii Resumen financiero ---------------------------------------------------------------- v Acknowledgments ------------------------------------------------------------------ v Programa del taller ------------------------------------------------------------------ vii Resumen de los resultados de los grupos de trabajo ------------------ 1

Grupo de trabajo 1 –Directrices para el diseño de un plan de manejo ---------- 1 Grupo de trabajo 2 – Estructura ----------------------------------------------------- 3 Reunión plenaria: Conformación de una comisión multinacional ad hoc ----- 5

Reportes de los países rango Situación actual y perspectivas en torno al uso

y conservación del yacaré negro (Caiman yacare) en la República Argentina ------------------------------------------------------ Tomás Waller

7

Introducción ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 7 Distribución actual ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 7 Antecedentes de investigación durante la última década -------------------------- 7 Situación y tendencia poblacional ---------------------------------------------------- 9 Situación legal actual ------------------------------------------------------------------- 10

Ámbito nacional --------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 Ámbito provincial ------------------------------------------------------------------- 11 Ámbito internacional ---------------------------------------------------------------- 11

Resultados de la fiscalización a nivel nacional -------------------------------------- 11 Exportaciones argentinas para el período 1992 – 2001 ---------------------------- 11 Producción en cautiverio y cría en granjas ------------------------------------------- 12 Evidencias de caza en el medio silvestre --------------------------------------------- 12

Por el cuero con fines comerciales ------------------------------------------------ 12 Por la carne con fines alimenticios ------------------------------------------------ 12

Perspectivas de manejo en el futuro -------------------------------------------------- 13 Cría en cautiverio con fines comerciales ----------------------------------------- 13 Cría en granjas con fines comerciales --------------------------------------------- 13 Cosecha en el medio silvestre ------------------------------------------------------ 13

Impacto económico de un eventual programa de cosecha ------------------------- 14

Potenciales conflictos en el manejo regional del yacare negro 14 Listado de personas vinculadas a la conservación de

cocodrílidos en Argentina 15

Autoridad CITES Argentina 15 Especialistas locales vinculados al CSG/UICN 15

Referencias 15 Informe sobre: “Taller de evaluación del

programa nacional de aprovechamiento sostenible del lagarto (Caiman yacare) en Bolivia” Informe: Alejandro Larriera; Aportes: Alvaro Velasco, Tomás Waller,

Robert Godshalk, Obdulio Menghi, Bernardo Ortiz

17

Introducción 17 Antecedentes legales y fundamentación (Ministerio de

Desarollo Sostenible y Planificación)

17 Objetivos del taller 19

Objetivos Específicos 19 Conclusiones (Prefectura del Beni) 20

Directrices generales 20 Conclusiones Generales 20 Conclusiones Específicas 21

Conservación y protección 21 Aprovechamiento integral y comercialización 22 Control y fiscalización 22

Sumario de los observadores externos (CSG) 22 Técnicos 23 Metodológicos 23 Administrativos 23

Consideraciones finales (CSG) 23 Programa de conservación y aprovechamiento sostenible del lagarto (Caiman yacare) en Bolivia


25

Introducción 25 Bases técnicas para plantear el aprovechamiento

sostenible del Caiman yacare

26 Antecedentes técnicos y legales del Programa (Ministerio de Desarrollo

Sostenible y Planificación – Dirección General de Biodiversidad)

28 Taller de evaluación del programa nacional de aprovechamiento

sostenible del lagarto (Caiman yacare) en Bolivia 31

Conclusiones 33 Bibliografía 34

6

T. Waller – Uso y conservación del Caiman yacare en Argentina

7

Políticas de conservação e manejo de

jacaré (Caiman yacare) no Brasil --------------------------------------------- Maria Iolita Bampi and Marcos Coutinho

39

Sumário ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39 Desenvolvimento e conservação através do uso sustentado da fauna ------------ 39 Evolução das políticas de conservação e manejo do jacaré-do-Pantanal -------- 40 Bases biológicas do programa de conservação e

manejo do jacaré no Pantanal --------------------------------------------------------

43 Aspectos taxonômicos -------------------------------------------------------------- 43 Área de distribuição e caracteríticas ambientais --------------------------------- 43 Hábitos alimentares e condição corporal no ambiente sazonal ---------------- 45 Biologia reprodutiva dos machos 46 Biologia reprodutiva das fêmeas -------------------------------------------------- 46 Taxa de crescimento populacional ------------------------------------------------ 47 Status e tendências no tamanho populacional ------------------------------------ 48

Bibliografia ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 49 Evaluación del Programa de Manejo de

Caimanes en Paraguay ---------------------------------------------------------- Alejandro Larriera & James Perran Ross

53

Introducción ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 53 Cronograma de Actividades ----------------------------------------------------------- 53 Resultados -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 54

Evaluación de los fundamentos técnicos del manejo – Estudios recientes --- 54 Evaluación del nuevo sistema de cosechas propuesto -------------------------- 55 Programa actual (2001) ------------------------------------------------------------- 56 Situación actual ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 56 Evaluación general ------------------------------------------------------------------ 56

Análisis de los puntos débiles --------------------------------------------------------- 56 Evaluación de los aspectos técnicos y la capacidad de implementación ----- 56 Evaluación del problema en la Región del río Pilcomayo ---------------------- 56

Recomendaciones ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 57 Técnicas: Estudios de Campo ------------------------------------------------------ 57 Técnicas – Formación de recursos humanos ------------------------------------- 58 Administrativas – Control de Cosecha -------------------------------------------- 58 Administrativas – Relaciones Públicas ------------------------------------------- 58 Administrativas – Material Confiscado Disponible en la Secretaría ---------- 58

Agradecimientos ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 58

Análisis de la Utilización del

Jakare Hu (Caiman yacare) en Paraguay* -------------------------------------- Nora Neris

59

Antecedentes ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59 Sistemas de permisos e inspección --------------------------------------------------- 60

Caso Pilcomayo ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 63 Programa con los Indígenas -------------------------------------------------------- 63

Conflictos con el gobierno y curtidores ---------------------------------------------- 64 Exportación y problemas legales ------------------------------------------------------ 64 Pieles furtivas con Bolivia ------------------------------------------------------------- 65 Discusión --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65 Fortalezas y debilidades del sistema -------------------------------------------------- 66

Fortalezas ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 66 Debilidades --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 66

Bibliografía ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 66 Reclasificación de Caiman yacare (extracto) ------------------------------

US Federal Register Vol 65, No 87 May 4, 2000 67

Summary --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67 Effective date ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67 Addresses -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67 Supplementary information ------------------------------------------------------------ 67

Background --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68 Comments Received ---------------------------------------------------------------- 69 Summary of Factors Affecting Caiman yacare ---------------------------------- 73 A. The Present or Threatened Destruction

Modification, or Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range ---------------------- 73

B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or Educational Purposes -----------------------------------------

74

C. Disease or Predation ------------------------------------------------------------ 75 D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms ----------------------- 75 E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors

Affecting Its Continued Existence --------------------------------------------- 76

Summary of Findings --------------------------------------------------------------- 76 Similarity of Appearance ----------------------------------------------------------- 76 Available Conservation Measures ------------------------------------------------- 78 Effects of This Rule ----------------------------------------------------------------- 79 Description of the Special Rule ---------------------------------------------------- 79 Effects of the Special Rule --------------------------------------------------------- 79 The Monitoring of Yacare Caiman ------------------------------------------------ 81 Regulatory Planning and Review -------------------------------------------------- 81 Regulatory Flexibility Act ---------------------------------------------------------- 81 Unfunded Mandates Reform Act -------------------------------------------------- 81 Takings -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 81

* Presentado en el taller

8


9

Federalism ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 81 Civil Justice Reform ------------------------------------------------------------------ 81 Paperwork Reduction Act ------------------------------------------------------------ 81 National Environmental Policy Act -------------------------------------------------- 81 References Cited ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 82 Authors --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 82 List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 ----------------------------------------------------- 82 Regulations Promulgation ------------------------------------------------------------ 82

PART 17 [AMENDED] ---------------------------------------------------------------- 83 Sec. 17.11 Endangered and threatened wildlife ---------------------------------- 83 Sec. 17.42 Special rules—reptiles -------------------------------------------------- 83


i

Resúmen ejecutivo Palabras clave: Caiman, cooperación internacional, planes nacionales de manejo. El taller se desarrolló entre el 3 y el 5 de Octubre de 2002 en Gainesville, Florida, USA para discutir los programas de manejo, conservación y comercio de Caiman yacare. Participaron oficialmente veinticinco representantes de los cuatro países del área de distribución de la especie (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay), Venezuela, USA, los auspiciantes de la reunión (US Fish and Wildlife Service, CITES Secretariat, Louisiana Fur and Alligator Council) TRAFFIC Sud America y el Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos.

Previo al desarrollo de la reunión, se distribuyó entre los participantes material informativo compuesto por reportes de manejo regional en los cuatro estados rango de la especie, así como información general sobre los principios básicos de cosecha, manejo y conservación de cocodrilos, como una base para la discusión. El material se ofreció en ingles y en español.

Tres grupos de trabajo fueron considerados: • Requerimientos básicos y técnicas de recolección de datos. • Requisitos y técnicas para la regulación de la cosecha. • Requisitos y procesos para la regulación del comercio y la exportación.

Los reportes escritos de los grupos de trabajo y el borrador de la sesión plenaria, fueron elaborados y distribuidos entre los participantes, junto a los reportes regionales, al final de la reunión.

El taller produjo un borrador del marco de manejo y regulación de caimanes, de modo tal que pueda ser adaptado y adoptado en cada estado rango. La reunión acordó la conformación de un grupo de trabajo ad hoc con los representantes de los estados rango, a efectos de proseguir las discusiones y armonizar los mecanismos de manejo y regulación en el futuro. Información previa

El yacare (Caiman yacare o Caiman crocodilus yacare) es un pequeño cocodriliano que se distribuye en cuatro países de Sud América ; Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay y Bolivia. La espacie es abundante y está ampliamente distribuida en todo tipo de cuerpos de agua (lagos, ríos, pantanos y esteros (Pantanal). La especie fue fuertemente explotada por su piel entre 1960 y 1970, pero a partir de 1990, una combinación de regulaciones, tanto a partir de CITES como de legislaciones nacionales, redujeron el comercio. Continúa aún siendo explotado localmente en algunos lugares para el consumo de su carne, y existen comentarios sobre comercio ilegal de la piel, pero esto es difícil de verificar. Se encuentra incluido en el Apéndice II de CITES, por lo que se permite su comercio internacional controlado, siempre que se verifique que las cosechas no son perjudiciales para las poblaciones silvestres. Actualmente de entre los países rango, Argentina mantiene una prohibición para el comercio, Brasil permite exportaciones de animales criados en cautiverio, y Bolivia y Paraguay han establecido cuotas de exportación de ejemplares silvestres.

Los Estados Unidos han incluido a la espacie en la lista de especies en peligro, prohibiendo las importaciones. El servicio produjo una nueva regulación en el año 2000, ubicando a la especie, (junto Caiman crocodilus crocodilus y Caiman crocodilus fuscus) como Amenazada, permitiendo a través de esto las importaciones en el país. Toda la información correspondiente a este proceso, puede encontrarse

Taller Internacional para el Manejo y Comercio de Caiman yacare

ii

en los documentos del Registro Federal de los Estados Unidos (US Federal Register Vol 65 No. 87, 4 May 2000).

En los países rango del yacaré, durante muchos años se han llevado a cabo trabajos para obtener la información biológica y desarrollar el manejo y la estructura regulatoria que permita la explotación legal sostenible y la exportación de la especie. Se han llevado a cabo estudios en todos los países rango y se han hecho grandes esfuerzos para establecer las estructuras y los protocolos que permitan a las autoridades de CITES, controlar tanto la cosecha como la exportación, verificando que esto no es perjudicial para las poblaciones silvestres. Muchas dificultades se han identificado, en la medida que estos programas evolucionaron.

Durante los muchos años que llevó el proceso para reclasificar a la especie en los Estados Unidos, tanto los miembros de los países rango, los comerciantes de pieles de aligatores en Estados Unidos, el Departamento de Pesca y Vida Silvestre y el Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos, concordaron en la conveniencia de concretar un Taller sobre la especie. En este taller, la información actualizada y las actividades concernientes a Caiman yacare podrán ser presentadas, a efectos de obtener mecanismos regulatorios coordinados entre los estados rango. El taller también será de ayuda para el Departamento de Pesca y Vida Silvestre de los Estados unidos, para completar la información requerida en la norma final de las Actas (FR 65, No 87 page 25877 – The Monitoring of Yacare caiman.). Objetivos El objetivo del taller fue reunir a los representantes gubernamentales de los países y a las autoridades de CITES, con un grupo de expertos provenientes de los países rango del yacaré, para discutir sobre la actualidad y el futuro de los planes de manejo de la especie. Como complemento, representantes de otros países y organizaciones con experiencia en programas de manejo de cocodrilos, fueron incluidos.

El objetivo inmediato del taller fue compartir información preexistente y las potenciales actividades sobre investigación, control, aplicación de las leyes, control del comercio y extensión de permisos. Sobre esta base, serán propuestos protocolos y procedimientos de común acuerdo, que aseguren que las cosechas de Caiman yacare en los países rango, operen respetando los parámetros de control de CITES de manera sostenible.


iii

Relatorio del Taller Luego de la confirmación de los fondos en Abril de 2002, se establecieron los mecanismos para su distribución desde el Departamento de Vida Silvestre, a través del Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos. Los fondos de Louisiana fueron entregados directamente al CSG y los fondos de la Secretaría CITES se entregaron directamente a TRAFFIC Sud America (Quito, Ecuador) y distribuidos desde allí. Las invitaciones fueron cursadas a las autoridades CITES de los cuatro países rango, Colombia, Venezuela, Estados Unidos e instituciones auspiciantes. Los reportes de cada país fueron requeridos y recibidos de cada uno de los países rango, traducidos de Inglés a Español o viceversa , y distribuidos entre todos los participantes y auspiciantes previo al inicio de la reunión. Copias de información aportada por algunos países también se anexó al material provisto. Los costos del taller, traslados internacionales, y traducción simultánea fueron provistos. Debido a algunas demoras en la recepción de los fondos, todos los gastos generados fueron cubiertos por el CSG para su posterior reposición por parte de los auspiciantes.

El 2 de Octubre de 2002 los 25 participantes arribaron al Sheraton Hotel, Gainesville Florida (se anexa lista de participantes). Varios observadores desde el estado de Louisiana no pudieron asistir debido un huracán en la región, y el representante de Colombia canceló su participación a último momento.

Se adjunta el programa del taller entre el 3 y el 5 de Octubre. Las discusiones y presentaciones se desarrollaron básicamente en español, pero todo se facilitó con el sistema de traducción simultánea provisto. Se registró la evolución de las deliberaciones y las conclusiones, con el uso de computadores personales durante las sesiones. Todos los documentos y productos generados por el taller han sido traducidos y se encuentran disponibles tanto en inglés como en español, y se encuentran. Todos los delegados se alojaron en el Sheraton, compartiendo las comidas, lo que permitió la extensión de las discusiones por fuera de las sesiones programadas.

El primer día, los delegados llevaron adelante un fructífero intercambio de información y actualización sobre la actualidad de la investigación y el manejo del yacaré en los países rango, y se sometieron a la discusión general los principios básicos sobre manejo y cosecha de cocodrilos. Los participantes expresaron su sorpresa por la cantidad y calidad de la información presentada.

En el segundo día, tres grupos trabajaron por separado sobre los siguientes tópicos: • Requerimientos básicos y técnicas de recolección de datos • Requisitos y técnicas para la regulación de la cosecha. • Requisitos y procesos para la regulación del comercio y la exportación.

Cada grupo regresó con un informe escrito de progreso a la reunión plenaria (reportes adjuntos). Los delegados presentes reconocieron que la diversidad de condiciones como ser: geografía, capacidad de investigación e infraestructura de manejo, y economía, política y legislación, dificultan la elaboración de una guía unificada de manejo para la especie. Por esa razón, se elaboró un listado general de factores clave a ser considerados por cada país rango, para ser adaptado a sus condiciones y capacidades. Reconociendo que esta aproximación puede aparecer como un tanto general, los participantes fueron unánimes para coincidir que esto es preferible para facilitar su implementación en cada jurisdicción.

El ultimo día los delegados discutieron extensamente sobre algunos puntos técnicos de difícil solución, como la unificación de las medidas utilizadas para definir las “clases” de los animales, para las cosechas de caimanes silvestres. Se llegó a la conclusión que los diferentes enfoques se debían a información inadecuada sobre el tamaño de madurez sexual de las hembras de Caiman yacare en los cuatro países rango, y a que este podía ser efectivamente diferente en cada uno. Se alcanzó un significativo


iv

compromiso, en el sentido de unificar precautoriamente la medida mínima de 180 cm. de largo total a efectos de restringir al máximo la cosecha a los machos adultos. Fue identificado como una necesidad inmediata, el desarrollo de investigaciones para obtener información biológica apropiada en este sentido. La resolución de este conflicto mediante la discusión informal entre las agencies nacionales, fue reconocido como un Nuevo y estimulante mecanismo para el manejo de los cocodrilos, con posibilidades de extenderse al manejo de otros recursos compartidos.

La última parte del taller, fue una dinámica sesión de intercambio y discusión, que gracias a la tecnología de las computadores, pudo ser proyectada en pantalla todo el tiempo, para recibir las observaciones y comentarios de todos los participantes durante su redacción definitiva.

Todo lo generado en la reunión (trabajos presentados, reportes de los grupos de trabajo, y recomendaciones finales de la plenaria), fue impreso y copiado en discos de computadora, para su distribución final entre todos los participantes previo a la partida.

Este documento también se encuentra disponible tanto en ingles como en español y sera compaginado para su distribución en ambos lenguajes entre los auspiciantes y participantes. También estará disponible para su distribución electrónica.


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Resumen financiero

Fondos provistos Fish and Wildlife Service. International Affairs $25.000 Louisiana Fur and Alligator Council $12.000 CITES Secretariat $10.000 Total US$47.000 Gastos (Por el CSG)

Alojamiento. comidas e instalaciones 9.487 Pasajes de avión 6.679 Transportes locales 940 Traducción simultánea 8.280 Impresiones y copias 308 Honorarios de los operadores asistentes y traductores 5.300 Impresión y distribución del reporte final 3.500 Manejo y administración 2.500

Total US$36.994 Gastos por TRAFFIC Sur America Pasajes de avión (9 participantes) 6.566,18 Alojamiento 448,48 Comunicaciones y telefonía 528,60 Tiempo del personal (TRAFFIC-Quito) 2.456,00

Total US$9.999,26


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Acknowledgements


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CROCODILE SPECIALIST GROUPS p e c i e s S u r v i v a l C o m m i s s i o n / T h e W o r l d C o n s e r v a t i o n U n i o n Chairman: Prof. Harry Messel; Deputy Chairmen: Prof. F. Wayne King and Dr. Dietrich Jelden; Executive Officer: Dr. James Perran Ross, Florida Museum of Natural History, Gainesville, FL 32611-7800, U.S.A. Tel: (1) (352) 846 2566 Fax: (1) (352) 392 9367 E-mail: [email protected]

Taller Internacional sobre Regulación, Manejo y Comercio de Caiman yacare

3-5 Octubre 2002 Localidad - Gainesville Sheraton Hotel, SW 13th St Gainesville FL. Todos los paticipantes se alojarán en el Hotel Sheraton Las trés comidas estarán dadas por el Hotel para los participantes invitados Desayuno - bufet 7:00 - 8:30 Almuerzo - menu fijado 12:00 - 13:00 Cena - bufet 19:00

Particpantes estarán responsables para bebidas adicionales y a cargas incidentales incluyendo llamadas a larga distancia

Programa Jueves, 3 Oct 2002

9:00 Introducción – bienvenida y comentarios de la apertura por Perran Ross. Descripción de la estructura de la reunión y procedimientos operativos.

9:30 Conceptos y la historia de la conservación y uso sustentable de cocodrílidos (CSG- Alejandro Larriera)

10:00 Reseña histórica del manejo y uso de Caiman yacare hasta 1990

10:30 Cafe/Descanso

11:00 Informes Nacionales – reseñas presentadas por cada país del área de distribución sobre actividades, experiencias y resultados, desde 1990 hasta 2002. Informes que describan la evolución de estatutos, resultados de censos poblacionales, estado de la producción en cautiverio, fiscalización, actividades ilegales y las confiscaciones de cueros, y datos de las exportaciones legales con permisos CITES.

11:00 Argentina, presentación por Victoria Lichtschein 11:40 Bolivia, presentación por Alfonso Llobet

12:30 - 14:00 Almuerzo

14:00 Brasil, presentación por Iolita Bampi 14:40 Paraguay, presentación por Nora Neris

15:40 Cafe / Descanso


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16:00 Informes técnicos – Experiencias de los programas exitosos de larga duración, incluyendo las estructuras y regulación

16:00 Venezuela, presentación por Alvaro Velasco 16:40 EUA, presentación por Javier Alvarez

17:00 Cierre

18:00 - Social Bienvenidos al Taller por el CSG Veirnes, 4 Octubre 2002

9:00 Organización de los Grupos de Trabajo Necesidades y técnicas de obtención de datos – censos, técnicas, aspectos logísticos, informes Necesidades y técnicas de regulación – cuotas, permisos, licencias, calendarios, verificación Necesidades y procesos de exportación – precintos, permisos, verificación, informes

9:30 - 12:00 Grupos de Trabajo en sesión

12:00 - 14:00 Almuerzo

14:00 Informes sobre el progreso de los Grupos de Trabajo (10 min. cada uno)

14:30 Discusión sobre coordinación internacional (comunicaciones, armonización de regulaciones)


4:00 Grupos de Trabajo preparen informes Sabado, 5 Octubre 2002

9:00 Sesión de redacción 1- proyecto de protocolo para el manejo de yacarés.


11:00 Sesión de redacción 2- proyecto de modelo de regulación del manejo de yacarés.

12:00 - 14:00 Almuerzo

14:00 Presentaciones de las grupos de trabajos y dos sesiones de redacción.

16:00 Comentarios finales y la clausura del taller

Resultados Esperados Una mejor comprensión y cooperación entre las Autoridades CITES de los países participantes. Una mejor percepción de los logros y de las tareas pendientes en el manejo de yacarés. Un modelo de regulaciones que sea apropiado en el ámbito nacional y regional, para consideración,

modificación y aprobación por parte de los estados del área de distribución. Un proyecto de protocolo de acciones para las partes participantes para consideración y futura

ratificación de cada Parte.

Grupo de trabajo 1

Directrices para el diseño de un plan de manejo

Coordinador: Alvaro Velasco

Redactor: Bob Godshalk

Participantes: Laura Barriento (Argentina) Luciano Verdade (Brazil) Tomas Waller (Argentina) Ignacio Avila (Paraguay) Alfonso Llobet (Boliva) Martha Motte (Paraguay) Marcos Coutinho (Brazil)

HÁBITAT

Caracterización, cuantificación y dinámica de los tipos de hábitats que pueden ser analizados a través de un sistema de información geográfica (GIS). Colecta de datos climatológicos: precipitación, temperatura del aire, escala hidrológica o fenología del agua o dinámica hídrica (ciclo del agua), lo cual resultara en la definición de ecoregiones en términos de la biología de la especie.

Definir la escala para el análisis de hábitat, definición del área y la unidad de manejo. Capacitación del personal en manejo de GIS.

POBLACIÓN 1. Abundancia y la clases de tamaños la población, deben ser estimadas o obtenidas a dos

niveles, uno regional y otro local. i. La información regional será la línea base para el diseño del programa de manejo, y la

información local puede servirá para actualizar la información regional, de monitoreo de la población y para la toma de decisiones de manejo.

ii. Definición previa de las unidades de manejo que permitirán realizar muestreos locales y posteriormente la extrapolación a una escala a nivel regional que permitirá la verificación de las unidades de manejo pre-establecidas. (mejorarlo en relación al monitoreo de la población y que produzcan mejoras al manejo de la especie).

iii. Evaluación del potencial reproductivo

2. Metodología para la obtención de la abundancia y clases de tamaños de la población

i. Abundancia: La determinación de la abundancia poblacional georeferenciada y referida a la unidad de manejo por tipo de hábitat anualmente, la cual servirá de base para determinar la abundancia a nivel regional. Para la determinación de la abundancia por unidad de manejo recomendamos las siguientes metodologías: • Censos nocturnos • Censos aéreos • Censo de nidos


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La metodología en la determinación de la abundancia poblacional debe seguir los estándares probados en el manejo y conservación de cocodrilos. La superficie a evaluar debe ser representativa de los diferentes habitats.

ii. Clases de tamaños: La clasificación debe basarse en las siguientes categorías: clase I < 50 cm,

clase II 50 – 139.9 cm, clase III 140 – 179.9 cm, clase IV > 180 cm. Para la determinación de las categorías de tamaños por unidad de manejo recomendamos las siguientes metodologías:

1. Censos nocturnos 2. Censos diurnos

Se propone la realización de estudios que permitan determinar el intervalo reales de cada clase de

tamaños, que permita la estandarización de las categorías a utilizar.

La metodología debe seguir los estándares probados en el manejo y conservación de cocodrilos. La superficie a evaluar debe ser representativa de los diferentes habitats.

3. Cosecha de la población: Se puede cosechar a tres niveles la población:

i. Colecta de nidos, proponemos dos sistemas, la primera basada en la información del potencial reproductivo de la especie, y la cosecha nidos se determinará con base a la proporción de hembras reproductora de la población; la segunda estará basada en las disponibilidad de nidos en el medio y se colectaran una fracción y esta se definirá en estudios técnicos que aseguren que no se pone en riesgo el potencial reproductivo de la especie.

ii. Colecta de juveniles (50 – 139,9 cm) estará basada en las disponibilidad de los individuos en el medio y se colectaran una fracción y esta se definirá en estudios técnicos que aseguren que no se pone en riesgo el potencial reproductivo de la especie.

iii. Colecta de adultos, estará basada en las disponibilidad de los individuos en el medio y se colectaran una fracción y esta se definirá en estudios técnicos que aseguren que no se pone en riesgo el potencial reproductivo de la especie.

Proponemos el diseño de protocolo de investigación estandarizado para los

países de distribución de la especie.


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GRUPO DE TRABAJO 2

ESTRUCTURA Coordinador: Obdulio Menghi

Relator: Bernardo Ortiz

Participantes: Victoria Lichtschein (Argentina) Alex Ferrier (Bolivia) Iolita Bampi (Brazil) Nora Neris (Paraguay) Javier Alvarez (USA)

Richard Fergusson (CSG Africa) Peter Brazaitis (CSG USA) Ruth Elsey (CSG USA) Malan Lindeque (Secretariado CITES)

NIVEL NACIONAL

1. Definición de un marco conceptual (documento de política sobre el manejo de la especie) en el

cual se describen los objetivos del programa de manejo (PM) como tal, suscrito dentro de las políticas nacionales de biodiversidad y de vida silvestre, dentro del marco jurídico del país, incluso los aspectos socioeconómicos.

Este describe los mecanismos de consulta y de toma de decisiones entre los diferentes interesados en el PM. Uno de los objetivos puede ser el montaje de un sistema de manejo basado en información científica, sensible al monitoreo (tanto de poblaciones como de procedimientos administrativos) y adaptable a condiciones de mercado (de acuerdo al tipo de sistema de manejo que se escoge o es limitado por el marco legal; p. ej. Rancheo, caza directa del medio, etc.). 2. Marco regulatorio Norma que da el marco general de aplicación del plan de manejo; adopta el plan de manejo. Es la base legal del programa.

• Como se otorgan cupos/cuotas de cosecha y de exportación. • Sistema de cosecha a utilizar. • Temporadas de cosecha. • Clase de tamaño del animal a cosechar. • Sistema de control a partir de partes de los animales (condiciones especiales de cuereado), sujeto

a cambios por temporada. Se trata de sistemas en que el administrador requiere por temporada de cosecha, la presentación por parte de los cazadores autorizados, cuando sea apropiado.

• Determinación del Sistema de marcado asociado a la fiscalización del programa. Procedimiento del sistema de marcado: en el lugar de cosecha (nacional) y de exportación.

• Registro de usuarios: requisitos para su inscripción dentro del programa. • Cazadores/recolectores. • Propietarios de terrenos donde se ejecuta el manejo. • Acopiadores • exportadores

• Licencias, tasas y destino de los fondos recogidos; (tener en cuenta diferentes alternativas para poder obviar los obstáculos legales que existen en los países en los que los fondos se destinan por


4

ley al tesoro nacional o al presupuesto general de la institución). Monitoreo financiado por la industria/ONG’s con administración externa al Estado es una alternativa

3. Monitoreo

i. Bioecológico • De poblaciones y hábitat. • De la cosecha. • De esfuerzo de captura (CpUE)

ii. Administrativo • De procesos administrativos incluido el monitoreo del destino del dinero recogido por las

tasas/impuestos. iii. Socioeconómico

• Del impacto socioeconómico del proyecto. 4. Supervisión

• Control y fiscalización en todas las etapas del proceso. • Establecimiento de estándares y control zoosanitario del sitio donde se faena y de la faena

misma. • Establecimiento de estándares y control de efluentes de sitios de faena y curtiembres.

Plenaria: Conformación de una comisión multinacional ad hoc

AMBITO REGIONAL E INTERNACIONAL.

1 Mecanismos para alcanzar la compatibilidad.

• Creación de un grupo ad hoc de las Autoridades Administrativas/Científicas CITES de los países de distribución de la especie, bajo la facilitación y coordinación del Grupo de Especialistas de Cocodrilos de la CSE/UICN a través de su Vicepresidente Regional para América del Sur, con la cooperación de TRAFFIC América del Sur, con el fin de, entre otros:

i. Adopción de estándares comunes ii. Mecanismo de resolución de discrepancias iii. Mecanismo de verificación de implementación de las pautas de manejo acordadas. iv. Punto focal para intercambio de información con otros países interesados, incluidos los

socios comerciales y la Secretaría CITES (Comité de Fauna). v. Compartir información y tomar acciones con relación a los casos denunciados sobre

trafico ilegal, con la confidencialidad que amerita cada caso. vi. El grupo o cada país hará los esfuerzos necesarios para comunicar y difundir los

programas de manejo, sus lineamientos, objetivos e implicancias de manera tal de: • evitar que la información llegue de manera confusa, inexacta o extemporánea a los

usuarios (cazadores, acopiadores, exportadores) • informar adecuadamente y crear conciencia en el publico en general acerca del

programa y sus beneficios.

La creación y operativización del Grupo ad hoc se realizara a través de la firma de un Memorando de Entendimiento entre el Grupo de Especialistas de Cocodrilos de la UICN y TRAFFIC, donde se consignan los objetivos arriba mencionados, y las responsabilidades

• Intercambio de información a través de Internet 2. Aspectos relacionados a la economía y el mercado

En primer término, expresó una de las partes, la importancia de desarrollar incentivos para la creación de mercados locales, capaces de canalizar tanto las producciones nativas, como aquellas a partir de productos importados. Por otra parte, los otros interesados manifestaron las dificultades existentes en sus países, y la casi segura imposibilidad de comercializar volúmenes significativos de derivados de Caiman yacare localmente. Por último, uno de los países importadores expresó la preocupación de su parte, en el sentido de que la estructuración de programas de manejo basados en el direccionamiento de la producción hacia solamente USA y Unión Europea, podrían terminar fracasando en el futuro a partir de algún tipo de restricciones de dichos mercados.

Existió un marcado consenso en el sentido de que si bien la mayor parte de las decisiones al respecto parecen estar fuera de nuestro alcance, la buena utilización de los medios producidos por este Taller, como ser la comisión ad hoc, y la red de especialistas de la región, pueden actuar como vehículos y fuente de contacto con los sectores relacionados al mercado para favorecer el diseño de estrategias conjuntas.

Finalmente, se planteó también la posibilidad de desarrollar a futuro, sistemas de certificación de origen o “producción verde”, lo que será materia de futuras discusiones.

Situación actual y perspectivas en torno al uso y conservación del yacaré negro (Caiman yacare)

en la República Argentina Tomás Waller

INTRODUCCIÓN El yacaré negro, Caiman yacare, es una especie de amplia representación en la República Argentina, que históricamente contribuyó de manera marginal con las economías regionales a través de la caza y comercialización de su cuero. Si bien inicialmente este comercio no estaba regulado y fue legal, a partir de 1960 todas las provincias de su distribución prohibieron su caza. No obstante ello, la caza y comercio continuó de manera ininterrumpida hasta el año 1991, a pesar de la legislación restrictiva. Esto tuvo lugar gracias a la proliferación de maniobras de importación temporal y re-exportación de las diversas formas de caimanes sudamericanos del género Caiman, que permitieron el blanqueo de pieles nativas. Estas maniobras finalizaron por completo en 1991, cuando tras las denuncias efectuadas por la Secretaría CITES, TRAFFIC y FVSA, el estado nacional prohibió la importación de esta especie y de otras formas afines (Micucci y Waller 1995). El resultado de esta norma ha sido altamente positivo, como lo refleja este informe que resume la situación actual de la especie en Argentina desde su protección efectiva a partir del año 1991 hasta el presente.

Para la preparación de este informe se consultó a las personas que hoy trabajan desde distintos ámbitos en la conservación de cocodrílidos de Argentina, se agradece entonces los aportes realizados por: Victoria Lichtschein (DFFS / Autoridad CITES Argentina), Obdulio Menghi (Fundación Biodiversidad y CSG/UICN), Alejandro Larriera (Proyectó Yacaré - Santa Fe y CSG/UICN), Patricio A. Micucci (Fondación Biodiversidad y CSG/UICN) y Walter Prado (CSG/UICN).

Para una visión histórica sobre la distribución, conservación y biología de esta especie se

recomienda ver el trabajo Micucci y Waller (1995). DISTRIBUCIÓN ACTUAL

El área de distribución actual del yacaré negro, Caiman yacare, en Argentina abarca desde la frontera con Paraguay en el norte, hasta los 30° de latitud sur aproximadamente. Esta especie ocupa los ambientes acuáticos vinculados a las cuencas de los ríos Paraná y Paraguay, aunque de manera no tan extensiva como lo hace la otra especie existente en Argentina, el yacaré overo (C. latirostris). Su distribución alcanza una superficie importante de las provincias de Formosa, Chaco y Corrientes principalmente, encontrándosela marginalmente en sectores limítrofes de Santa Fe y Misiones. Ocasionalmente, el yacaré negro ha sido hallado en cercanías de las ciudades de Santa Fe y Paraná (32° LS), aunque estos hallazgos corresponderían a migraciones pasivas en épocas de inundación (Figure 1) (Micucci y Waller 1995). ANTECEDENTES DE INVESTIGACIÓN

DURANTE LA ÚLTIMA DÉCADA

Antecedentes sobre el yacaré negro anteriores al período considerado se encuentran detallados en Micucci y Waller (1995). Para la última década se destacan los siguientes trabajos pertinentes a la conservación de esta especie en Argentina (se presentan en orden cronológico):

Teixido, C. y G. Roteta. 1992. Distribución, hábitat y abundancia de los crocodilos de la provincia del Chaco. Proyecto Yacaré. Fase I. Dirección de Fauna y Flora Silvestres - Secretaría CITES - CICuR - FUCEMA. Informe inédito. Buenos Aires.


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Waller, T. y P. A. Micucci. 1992. Elevamiento de la distribución, hábitat y abundancia de los crocodilos de la República Argentina – Fase I (1990/91): Provincia de Corrientes. Informe Final. Preparado para la Dirección de Fauna y Flora – Autoridad CITES Argentina. Secretaría CITES, FUCEMA, CICuR.

Waller, T. y P. A. Micucci. 1993. Elevamiento de la distribución, hábitat y abundancia de los crocodilos de la Provincia de Corrientes, Argentina. Pp. 341-385 in Zoocría de los Crocodylia. Memorias de la I Reunión Regional del CSG, Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos de la UICN: I Taller sobre Zoocría de los Crocodylia, Santa Marta, Colombia. Gland.

Figura 1. Distribución de C. yacare en Argentina (en negro). Se indica el límite austral y occidental de distribución de C. latirostris (línea punteada).

Waller, T. y P. A. Micucci. 1994. Situación del género Caiman en Argentina. Apuntes sobre su distribución, situación poblacional y comercio histórico. Pp. 40-49 in Memorias del IV Workshop sobre Conservación y Manejo del Yacaré Overo Caiman latirostris. "La Región" - Fundación Banco Bica - Santo Tomé. Santa Fe. Argentina.

Waller, T. & P. A. Micucci. 1995. Los Yacarés en Argentina. Hacia un Aprovechamiento Sustentable. Pp. 81-112 in Larriera, A. &

Verdade, L. M. (eds.). La Conservación y el Manejo de Caimanes y Cocodrilos de América Latina. Vol. I. Fundación Banco Bica, Santo Tomé, Santa Fe, Argentina.

Moreno, D & A. Parera. 1997. Evaluación preliminar de la disponibilidad de nidos y estado poblacional de los yacarés (Caiman latirostris y Caiman yacare) en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé y su zona de influencia. Informe inédito. Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina. Buenos Aires.


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Moreno, D. & A. Parera. 1998. Disponibilidad de nidos y estado poblacional de yacarés en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé y su zona de influencia, provincia del Chaco. Proyecto de Conservación y Uso Sustentable de Yacarés en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé. Boletín Técnico No. 39. Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina. Buenos Aires.

Prado, W. S. & D. Moreno. 2000. Population studies on Caiman latirostris and Caiman yacare in Chaco Province, Argentina. Abstract presented in the 15th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group, UICN/SSC. Varadero, Cuba.

Prado, W. S.; D. Moreno; A. Parera; G. Stamatti & E. Boló Bolaño. 2000. Primera cosecha de nidos de yacaré overo (Caiman latirostris) y negro (Caiman yacare) en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé, provincia del Chaco. Proyecto Conservación y Uso Sustentable de Yacarés en el R. V. S. El Cachapé. Boletín Técnico No. 53. Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina. Buenos Aires.

Loiselle, S., G. M. Carpaneto, V. Hull, T. Waller y C. Rossi. 2000. Feedback analysis in reserve management: studying local myths using qualitative models. Ecological Modelling, 129:25-37.

Waller, T. 2000. Monitoring temperatures in Caiman yacare nests at Iberá marshes, Corrientes, Argentina. Proyecto INCO/DC – El Uso Sustentable de los Recursos de Humedal en el MERCOSUR – Informe inédito – página web – publicación en preparación.

Waller, T. y P. A. Micucci. 2000 (versión web). Monitoring caiman population trends at Iberá marshes, Corrientes, Argentina. Proyecto INCO/DC – El Uso Sustentable de los Recursos de Humedal en el MERCOSUR – Informe inédito – página web – publicación en preparación.

Waller, T.; P. A. Micucci y E. Richard. 2000. Pp. 45-49 in Lavilla, E. O.; E. Richard & G. J. Scrocchi (eds.). Categorización de los anfibios y reptiles de la República Argentina. Asociación Herpetológica Argentina. Tucumán.

Prado, W. S. & D. Moreno. 2001. Hábitos de

nidificación de los yacarés overo (Caiman latirostris) y negro (Caiman yacare) en la provincia del Chaco. Resúmenes de la I a Reunión Binacional Argentino-Chilena de Ecología. Abril de 2001.

Prado, W. S. & O. Gómez. 2001. Cosecha e incubación artificial de nidos de Caiman latirostris y Caiman yacare en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé (Chaco). Pp. 17-25 in Prado, W. S.; E. Boló Bolaño; A. Parera; D. Moreno & A. Carminatti. (Eds.). Manejo de Yacarés Overo (Caiman latirostris) y Negro (Caiman yacare) en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé. Boletín Técnico No. 55. Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina – WWF/U.K. Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Prado, W. S.; O. Gómez; A. Parera & D. Moreno. 2001. Estructura y Dinámica Poblacional de Caiman latirostris y Caiman yacare en la Provincia del Chaco. Pp. 51-63 in Prado, W. S.; E. Boló Bolaño; A. Parera; D. Moreno & A. Carminatti. (Eds.). Manejo de Yacarés Overo (Caiman latirostris) y Negro (Caiman yacare) en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé. Boletín Técnico N° 55. Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina – WWF/ U. K.. Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Prado, W. En preparación. Estado de conservación y aspectos poblacionales de los yacarés overo Caiman latirostris (Daudin, 1802) y negro Caiman yacare (Daudin, 1802) en relación a su hábitat en el Chaco oriental. Tésis de licenciatura en preparación.

Waller, T. y P. A. Micucci. En preparación. Monitoring caiman population trends at Iberá marshes, Corrientes, Argentina. Versión web año 2000. Publicación en preparación.

SITUACIÓN Y TENDENCIA

POBLACIONAL

La categorización del estado de conservación de los anfibios y reptiles de la República Argentina, llevada a cabo con los auspicios de la Asociación Herpetológica Argentina, califica al yacaré negro como


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‘Vulnerable’ haciendo la salvedad que la especie formalmente reúne los requisitos para la categoría de ‘No Amenazada’ coincidente con la categoría de ‘Bajo Riesgo’ de la UICN, y que la categoría resuelta (‘Vulnerable’) responde a una medida precautoria ante “…la necesidad de contar en Argentina con planes de manejo o control adecuados…” (Waller et al., 2000).

La experiencia personal de los especialistas en cocodrílidos y los censos existentes permiten confirmar que el yacaré negro es una especie común y frecuente en todo el ámbito de su distribución en Argentina. Es posible observar ejemplares de todos los tamaños, y también eventos de nidificación, incluso en las vecindades de los mayores centros urbanos, a los costados de los caminos y rutas, préstamos y otros ambientes artificiales (Prado in litt. 18 Ago. 02, Micucci in litt. 18 Ago. 02, Waller; obs. pers.). La información disponible a nivel provincial se resume a continuación:

Formosa: no existen estudios poblacionales antiguos ni recientes para esta especie en la provincia de Formosa. Sin embargo, a juicio de Micucci (In litt. 18 Ago. 02) es una especie común en los ambientes propicios de toda la provincia, con poblaciones seguras que actualmente no enfrentarían problemas de conservación.

Chaco: se cuenta con censos realizados en 1991 (Teixido y Roteta 1992) y aquellos llevados a cabo por la Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina (FVSA) (Moreno y Parera 1997, 1998; Prado y Moreno 2000, Prado et al. 2001, Prado en prep.). Según Prado (In litt. 18 Ago. 02), la población está recuperándose de la caza que tuvo lugar en el pasado, como se desprende de los censos aéreos de nidos y los monitoreos que realizó en la zona. En prácticamente todos los ambientes aptos para nidificación detectados en las imágenes satelitales se han encontrado nidos. Por otra parte el hecho de que los animales estén nidificando en ambientes marginales, muy expuestos a disturbios de origen antrópico también confirma esta situación (Prado in litt., 18 Ago. 02). De acuerdo a los censos realizados en el área de estudio, la densidad relativa general observada para el yacaré negro en riachos y lagunas fue de 2,8 yac./km (ver información más detallada sobre censos en Prado, en prep.). Diez años atrás, en 1991, Teixido y

Roteta (1992) detectaron una densidad de 2,5 yac./km, aunque cabe destacar que esta densidad se basó en censos realizados principalmente en otro tipo de hábitat (valle de inundación del río Paraná) lo que no permitiría por el momento llevar a cabo comparaciones confiables.

Corrientes: Se dispone de censos para los períodos 1991-1992 (Waller y Micucci 1992, 1993) y 1999-2000 (Waller y Micucci en prep.). La especie es común en toda su área de distribución. La mayoría de los cuerpos de agua aptos para la especie, lagunas, bañados, esteros, ríos, riachos, tajamares, préstamos y canales artificiales de arroceras presentan individuos o poblaciones de esta especie. La abundancia de esta especie en muchas estancias privadas lo ha convertido en un atractivo importante para el turismo ecológico que se incrementa año a año en la provincia. En los censos del período 1999-2000 se ha verificado un incremento notable de 2,5 veces en magnitud en relación a los censos de 1991 y 1992, en hábitat afectados históricamente por la caza comercial en los esteros del Iberá. En efecto, en 90,7 km de costas de laguna monitoreados la densidad se incrementó desde 6,4 yac./km en 1991/1992 hasta 14,8 yac./km en 1999/2000, mientras que en 10,6 km de arroyos la densidad aumentó de 17,7 yac/km en 1991/1992 hasta 46,2 yac./km en 1999/2000 (Waller y Micucci en prep.).

No se cuenta con información censal para Santa Fe ni para Misiones. SITUACIÓN LEGAL ACTUAL

Ámbito nacional La conservación y aprovechamiento de la fauna a nivel nacional se encuentra regida por la Ley Nacional de Caza y Conservación de la Fauna 22.421, el Decreto Nacional 666/97 SRNyDS, reglamentario de la misma y varias normas accesorias que de éstas emanan. Entre ellas, la Resolución 793/87 SAGyP prohíbe expresamente el tránsito interprovincial, el comercio en jurisdicción federal y la exportación de pieles de yacaré negro, Caiman yacare. Por otra parte, la Resolución


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SAGyP 53/91, dictada en el mismo ámbito, prohíbe la importación de cueros de yacaré negro y todas las subespecies de C. crocodilus, con el fin de evitar maniobras ilegales que aprovechen problemas de identificación. Existen además otras normas complementarias que regulan la exhibición circense y exposición de la fauna silvestre, la exportación de especimenes científicos, la exportación de especimenes considerados mascotas y la cría en cautiverio con fines comerciales (Lichtschein in litt., 15 Ago. 02).

Ámbito provincial La caza y comercio del yacaré negro se encuentra prohibida por todas las legislaciones provinciales de su área de distribución. La provincia de Chaco autoriza solamente la recolección de huevos destinados al Programa experimental de cría en granjas en el Refugio Privado de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé, que conduce la FVSA en la zona.

Ámbito internacional La Ley Nacional 22.344 de ratificación de la Convención sobre el Comercio Internacional de Especies Amenazadas de Fauna y Flora Silvestres (CITES) y el Decreto Nacional 522/97 SRNyDS reglamentario de la misma, otorgan plena vigencia a este tratado en el país. RESULTADOS DE LA FISCALIZACIÓN A

NIVEL NACIONAL De acuerdo a los registros de la Dirección de Fauna y Flora Silvestre de la Nación (Autoridad CITES Argentina; V. Lichtschein in lit. 15 Ago. 02), sobre un total de 1.571 inspecciones llevadas a cabo en jurisdicción federal, en el período comprendido entre los años 1991 y 1999, se incautaron 1.194 pieles de Caiman (en los registros no se discriminan especies),(Tabla 1) lo que equivale a un promedio de 133 pieles por año. Es probable que parte de estas pieles ni siquiera correspondan a especies o especimenes argentinos. EXPORTACIONES ARGENTINAS PARA EL

PERÍODO 1992 - 2001 La legislación de las provincias donde se distribuye el yacaré negro prohíbe su caza desde la década del ’60, razón por la que Argentina no ha

sido desde entonces un exportador comercial de pieles de yacaré negro declaradas como de propio origen. No obstante, Argentina ha sido uno de los más importante re-exportadores de pieles de C. yacare declarados principalmente como de origen paraguayo. Todas las exportaciones llevadas a cabo por Argentina entre 1960 y 1991 correspondieron a re-exportaciones. Estas operaciones que tuvieron su auge durante fines de la década del ’80, fueron oportunamente denunciadas por la Secretaría CITES y TRAFFIC Sudamérica, por que existía evidencia contundente de que se trataba de maniobras de blanqueo de pieles nativas (Menghi, com. pers.). A partir de 1991, mediante la Resolución 53/91 SAGyP, las autoridades nacionales prohibieron la importación de cueros de esta especie y otras especies similares, poniendo fin a dichas maniobras de manera efectiva. Tabla 1. Cantidades de cueros de caimán incautados en Argentina

Año No. cueros 1991 0 1992 197 1993 115 1994 135 1995 17 1996 730 1997 0 1998 0 1999 0

La única exportación realizada por Argentina con pieles de origen nativo de yacaré negro desde 1990 hasta el presente fue en 1995, de 1 cuero destinado a Italia con fines científicos (CITES#17961; Informes Anuales CITES, Autoridad CITES Argentina). En el año 1990 se registró la exportación de dos artículos manufacturados con pieles de origen paraguayo, re-exportados por Argentina con destino a los Estados Unidos de América, y en el año 1991 Japón declaró la importación de 3.893 kg de pieles de origen paraguayo que fueron aparentemente re-exportados por Argentina, aunque dicha operación no consta en el informe anual


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argentino (WTMU CITES Database). Este embarque sería la última operación significativa con cueros de C. yacare donde participó Argentina. PRODUCCIÓN EN CAUTIVERIO Y CRÍA

EN GRANJAS Durante la década del ’90 se generaron varios proyectos que intentaron la producción comercial de yacaré negro bajo la modalidad de cría en cautiverio (‘farming’) y cría en granjas (‘ranching’), principalmente en la provincia de Corrientes y Formosa, no obstante, éstos no prosperaron. En general se trató de proyectos de carácter especulativo que aprovecharon políticas gubernamentales de fomento o de subsidio de actividades productivas no tradicionales.

Con respecto a la cría en granjas la Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina y el Refugio Privado de Vida Silvestre El Cachapé, situado en la provincia de Chaco, llevan a cabo un programa de cría en granjas con C. latirostris que incluye de manera experimental a la especie C. yacare. La granja actualmente produce pieles de yacaré negro de manera experimental y en cantidades reducidas. Esta última especie por el momento representa el 30% del total de nidos cosechados en el campo para el área de trabajo del programa en la provincia de Chaco. Esta proporción podría variar a medida que se incorporen áreas nuevas con hábitat favorables para una u otra especie. Por otra parte, en caso de confirmarse la rentabilidad de un programa comercial a gran escala con esta especie (en particular tomando en cuenta las ventajas de tipo cambiario que actualmente ofrece la Argentina), se podría aumentar el esfuerzo de ‘ranching’ con esta especie. EVIDENCIAS DE CAZA EN EL MEDIO

SILVESTRE Por el cuero con fines comerciales Consultados los diferentes especialistas en cocodrílidos que desarrollan tareas en el campo (A. Larriera, W. Prado, P. A. Micucci), existe una total coincidencia en que el yacaré negro no es perseguido con fines comerciales desde hace aproximadamente 10 años en todo el ámbito de la

República Argentina. A nivel provincial la información indica:

Corrientes: la caza de yacaré negro se detuvo a comienzos de 1990 (Waller y Micucci 1993) y la especie no despierta interés comercial hasta el presente. Los sitios usualmente utilizados como campamentos de caza por los cazadores no muestran ningún tipo de evidencias de esta actividad y se ha producido una pérdida de la tradición de caza provocando incluso el abandono de sitios y ranchadas por parte de los viejos cazadores (Waller obs. pers.). Chaco: El cuero de esta especie habría dejado de valer hace aproximadamente 10 años, y en la actualidad no hay evidencias de caza comercial sistemática. Este hecho se ve corroborado también por la experiencia de los inspectores de fauna provinciales que no registran este tipo de actividad desde hace varios años, y por la presencia común de ejemplares medianos y grandes sobre rutas y en las vecindades de asentamientos humanos (Prado in litt., 18 Ago. 02). Formosa: la caza comercial sistemática se habría detenido a principios de la década del ’90 y continúa sin valor comercial. Se observan ejemplares medianos y grandes, fácilmente, incluso a los costados de los caminos (Micucci in litt., 18 Ago. 02). Santa Fe: la caza a gran escala de esta especie se detuvo durante comienzos de la década del ’90. En 1995, las autoridades provinciales decomisaron 18 pieles grandes de C. yacare de procedencia incierta. Este es el único decomiso registrado en la provincia en la última década (Larriera, com. pers.).

No se cuenta con información para Misiones, pero dado que la presencia de esta especie en dicha provincia es marginal, acotada al valle del río Paraná, Misiones tampoco fue importante como fuente de cueros.

Por la carne con fines alimenticios

El yacaré negro es consumido en las provincias del área de su distribución con


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fines alimenticios. Si bien no se trata de una práctica masiva ni tampoco se encuentra permitida legalmente, suele ser consumida de manera particular por los habitantes de la zona. Ocasionalmente, algunos restaurantes de las rutas del norte argentino ofrecen como peculiaridad carne de esta especie. Sin embargo, no se puede hablar de una escala comercial debido principalmente a las restricciones legales que impiden la industrialización de esta actividad hoy ilegal.

La información disponible a nivel provincial indica:

Chaco: existe caza de subsistencia de yacarés en general aunque los cazadores preferirían otras especies (Hydrochaeris, Mazama, Dasypus, Tayassus, etc). No se cuenta con valores pero Prado (In litt., 18 Ago. 02) considera que las cantidades deben ser mínimas ya que es común ver yacarés clases III y IV muy expuestos y aún nidificando sobre préstamos y represas próximos a pueblos y rutas (Prado in litt., 18 Ago. 02).

Corrientes: suelen observarse ejemplares de yacarés en general muertos en la ruta (DOR) durante la primavera y el otoño que muchas veces muestran la cola seccionada. El yacaré negro también es cazado ex-profeso para consumir su carne por parte de pobladores asociados a cuerpos de agua, pero no se puede hablar de una actividad masiva sino artesanal que afecta a ejemplares clase III y IV principalmente (Waller, obs. pers.).

Formosa: cazadores y pescadores cazan al yacaré negro de manera usual por resultar una fuente de carne de fácil obtención. Si bien resulta difícil de cuantificar, Micucci (in litt. 18 Ago. 02) arriesga que esta actividad podría significar la caza anual de al menos 1.000 especimenes de diverso tamaño. También existe una actividad de caza por parte de cazadores de nivel económico alto, que lo persiguen como entretenimiento y consumen su cola, esta actividad podría agregar anualmente cientos de ejemplares.

No se cuenta con información para Santa Fe ni Misiones, pero dada la homogeneidad cultural con las provincias vecinas, es probable que ocasionalmente la especie sea consumida también por su carne.

PERSPECTIVAS DE MANEJO EN EL FUTURO Cría en cautiverio con fines comerciales

No se tiene conocimiento de emprendimientos relevantes de cría en cautiverio con fines comerciales de yacaré negro, ni se vaticina un desarrollo de este tipo, principalmente debido a la escasa rentabilidad que esta alternativa tendría al tratarse de una especie productora de pieles no ‘clásicas’.

Cría en granjas con fines comerciales El único emprendimiento que actualmente trabaja de manera experimental en la producción de pieles de granja es el que lleva a cabo la FVSA en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre “El Cachapé” en la provincia de Chaco. Si bien este programa apunta prioritariamente a la producción de pieles de Caiman latirostris (de mayor valor en el mercado internacional), también produce a menor escala pieles de yacaré negro. En este sentido, podría esperarse un aumento en la producción para esta especie una vez evaluada y confirmada la rentabilidad o sustentabilidad económica de un proyecto a gran escala con esta especie, en particular, considerando las ventajas cambiarias que ofrecería actualmente la Argentina.

Cosecha en el medio silvestre Durante el año 2001, las autoridades nacionales promovieron una carta de intención para el uso sustentable del yacaré negro en Argentina, preparada por el Dr. Alejandro Larriera en consulta con otros especialistas locales, la cual recibió el apoyo de los estados provinciales que poseen este recurso. Como continuación de este proceso, la Fundación Biodiversidad – Argentina (FB) trabaja actualmente junto al Gobierno Nacional en la preparación de un “Programa de Conservación y Utilización Sustentable del Yacaré Negro en Argentina” el cual será integrado y supervisado por integrantes del CSG en Argentina. Las autoridades nacionales y la FB tienen un acuerdo marco de cooperación para este tipo de Programas. El mismo será financiado por el sector privado


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bajo el mecanismo legal dispuesto por la Resolución SDSyPA 58/2002 que regula el aporte de privados a proyectos de investigación sobre especies de interés comercial. La Fundación Biodiversidad viene desarrollando en conjunto con las autoridades nacionales un Programa similar para la conservación y la utilización sustentable de la anaconda amarilla (Eunectes notaeus) bajo el mismo esquema.

El objetivo del Programa de Conservación y Utilización Sustentable del Yacaré Negro en Argentina es promover la conservación de la especie y su hábitat a través de la valoración del recurso por parte de las comunidades humanas que comparten su área de distribución. Para dicho programa se contempla una Etapa Experimental Piloto (EEP) de una duración de tres años durante la cual se llevarán a cabo evaluaciones rápidas para detectar sitios potenciales de cosecha y monitoreo, y se pondrán a prueba las pautas de aprovechamiento bajo un esquema de manejo adaptativo. El Programa comenzará en su primer año (2002/2003) en la Provincia de Formosa y se podrá extender a las otras dos provincias (Chaco y Corrientes) en años sucesivos. Las pautas de manejo que se establezcan de manera definitiva seguirán en principio los criterios mínimos propios de los planes de manejo de caimanes sudamericanos: cupo, tamaño mínimo, temporada y marcado de seguridad (precintado). IMPACTO ECONÓMICO DE UN

EVENTUAL PROGRAMA DE COSECHA A juzgar por la información existente, el yacaré negro podría ser aprovechado con fines comerciales en al menos tres de las provincias de su área de distribución: Formosa, Corrientes y Chaco. Un programa de manejo basado en cosecha para esta especie tendría un impacto importante en las economías asociadas de estas provincias. El tipo de cambio actual convierte a este recurso generador de bienes de exportación (cuero/carne) en una alternativa atractiva con un potencial muy alto de producción de recursos genuinos en las comunidades indígenas y criollas del norte argentino. Resulta difícil cuantificar el beneficio económico de un eventual plan de manejo al no contarse todavía con una idea de cantidades aprovechables. Sin embargo, una

estimación conservadora de cosecha de 10.000 pieles para todo el país podría generar un ingreso bruto de divisas por exportación de aproximadamente USD 400.000 por las pieles y una cantidad similar por la exportación de su carne. De este ingreso, aproximadamente 150 mil se podría estimar que llegaría a las comunidades locales.

Se ha expresado cierta preocupación respecto de los efectos que podría tener un esquema de aprovechamiento basado en cosecha de pieles silvestres de yacaré negro sobre la rentabilidad de un programa de cría en granjas, no obstante, esta preocupación tendría poco fundamento dado que el mercado para ambos productos (pieles grandes vs pieles pequeñas) sería completamente diferente (S. Trachter, com. pers.); por otro lado, y con los recaudos apropiados, ambos sistemas podrían coexistir tal como ocurre con Alligator mississippiensis en los Estados Unidos. POTENCIALES CONFLICTOS EN EL

MANEJO REGIONAL DEL YACARE NEGRO

La mayor amenaza que enfrenta un eventual programa de manejo con esta especie en Argentina es una diferencia entre las políticas de uso de los recursos silvestres entre Argentina y Paraguay. Desafortunadamente, las políticas aleatorias del Gobierno de Paraguay en torno a los recursos faunísticos compartidos (C. yacare, Eunectes notaeus), agudizadas en los últimos años, promoverían maniobras de carácter especulativo por parte de acopiadores y comerciantes ilegales que acopiarían pieles y esperarían el eventual otorgamiento de cupos por parte de Paraguay sin disponer de los estudios ni de los planes de manejo apropiados.

Para el caso específico de este informe, cabe recordar el problema suscitado el año pasado con el desecamiento de los bañados del viejo derrame del río Pilcomayo que atraviesa el sur del Paraguay y debido al cual el Gobierno de dicho país otorgó licencias especiales de caza por 2.500 ejemplares de C. yacare. Estas acciones habrían tenido lugar


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fuera del contexto del Programa de manejo para la especie. Tal situación motivó una reacción adversa en ambos países, en el ámbito internacional así como la necesidad de que el Grupo de Especialistas de Cocodrilos (CSG/UICN) enviara una misión de reconocimiento para analizar el problema.

Este año Argentina ha iniciado un programa experimental de aprovechamiento de anaconda amarilla (Eunectes notaeus) en la provincia de Formosa, con una inversión durante tres años de USD 115.000 en investigación, y la fijación de pautas de conservación inéditas para la especie (como tamaño mínimo, monitoreo de cosecha a nivel local, precintado en origen, entre otras). Más allá de los avatares propios de todo plan piloto, uno de los mayores problemas identificados ha sido la detección de un cierto grado de caza ilegal de ejemplares de un tamaño menor al estipulado, que el programa argentino prohíbe, y que estarían destinados a satisfacer una demanda especulativa de pieles por parte de empresas paraguayas. Esto ocurriría dado que dicho país habría permitido en años recientes dos exportaciones de pieles de anaconda amarilla grandes y chicas bajo los auspicios de sendos “planes de manejo” que, en la práctica, carecerían de las pautas mínimas biológicas y de control que el aprovechamiento de una especie de este tipo requiere. El Programa que próximamente Argentina piensa desarrollar con el yacaré negro requiere prioritariamente de la resolución de este conflicto. Para ello, será necesario el establecimiento de pautas similares entre ambos países para el manejo de estos recursos compartidos, siempre y cuando se establezcan las garantías necesarias para el cumplimiento de dichas pautas. Para ello, Argentina frente a un eventual Programa de manejo para la especie requerirá – entre otras medidas más estrictas- la ayuda de los países importadores (UE, Japón, EEUU, etc.) para el control en importación de todos los embarques propios, así como los que eventualmente provengan del Paraguay, con el fin de garantizar su correcto manejo y conservación en la región.

LISTADO DE PERSONAS VINCULADAS A LA CONSERVACIÓN DE COCODRÍLIDOS EN ARGENTINA

Autoridad CITES Argentina Lichtschein, Victoria. Dir. de Fauna y Flora

Silvestre: [email protected]

Especialistas locales vinculados al CSG/UICN

Imhof, Alba. Proyecto Yacaré (Santa Fe) - CSG/UICN: [email protected]

Larriera, Alejandro. Proyecto Yacaré (Santa Fe) - Regional Vice-Chairman CSG/UICN: [email protected]

Menghi, Obdulio. Fundación Biodiversidad - CSG/UICN: [email protected]

Micucci, Patricio Alejandro. Fundación Biodiversidad - CSG/UICN: [email protected]

Piña, Carlos. Proyecto Yacaré (Santa Fe) - CSG/UICN: [email protected]

Prado, Walter. CSG/UICN: [email protected]

Siroski, Pablo. Proyecto Yacaré (Santa Fe) - CSG/UICN: [email protected]

Waller, Tomás. Fundación Biodiversidad – CSG/UICN: [email protected]

REFERENCIAS Ver Antecedentes de Investigación durante la

última década.

Tomás Waller Fundación Biodiversidad – Argentina Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos

(CSG/UICN) La Pampa 1815 – 5.B., 1428 Buenos Aires ARGENTINA Email: [email protected]

Informe sobre: “Taller de evaluación del programa nacional

de aprovechamiento sostenible del lagarto (Caiman yacare) en Bolivia”

Informe: Alejandro Larriera

Aportes: Alvaro Velasco, Tomás Waller, Robert Godshalk, Obdulio Menghi, Bernardo Ortiz

INTRODUCCIÓN

Entre los días 2 y 4 de abril de 2002, se desarrolló en la ciudad de Trinidad, capital de Departamento del Beni, Bolivia, el “Taller de evaluación del programa nacional de aprovechamiento sostenible del lagarto (Caiman yacare)”. El programa se ha llevado a cabo mediante cuotas de cosecha para la especie en los Departamentos del Beni, Pando y Santa Cruz. La reunión fue organizada conjuntamente por la Dirección de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente de la Prefectura y Comandancia del Beni y por el Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible y Planificación a nivel nacional.

La reunión contó con una numerosa, participativa y heterogénea concurrencia, que por momentos alcanzó las 70 personas. En la apertura hicieron uso de la palabra el Viceministro de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Forestal de Bolivia, Lic. Hernán Cabrera; el Prefecto y Comandante General del Departamento del Beni, Arq. Víctor Hugo Rivera; el Director Ejecutivo de TRAFFIC para América Central, del Sur y el Caribe, Lic. Bernardo Ortiz; y el Regional Vice Chairman del CSG, Dr. Alejandro Larriera. Participaron además por el sector técnico administrativo de Bolivia el Dr. Mario Baudoin; la Dra. Martha Bernabet, el Dr. James Aparicio, el Dr. Oscar Rendón, y numerosos especialistas del orden nacional. A nivel de las prefecturas participaron funcionarios de los Departamentos de Santa Cruz (Angel Sandoval y Germán Busch) y del Beni (Lic. Oscar Saavedra, autor de las evaluaciones originales en el Departamento). El M. Sc. René Ibáñez, actual consultor de la

Prefectura del Beni para el Programa Lagarto, actuó como moderador del Taller. Estuvieron presentes además, miembros de las diferentes comunidades indígenas (TCO’s) beneficiadas por el programa, representantes de las asociaciones de ganaderos departamentales, representantes de las empresas curtidoras y exportadoras, organizaciones no gubernamentales nacionales e internacionales, y los miembros del CSG Alvaro Velasco, Bob Godshalk y Tomás Waller. ANTECEDENTES LEGALES Y

FUNDAMENTACIÓN (Ministerio de Desarollo Sostenible y Planificación)

1. El 31 de julio de 1997, se promulgó el D.S. 24774, que puso en vigencia el Reglamento para la Conservación y Aprovechamiento del Lagarto en los Departamentos del Beni y Santa Cruz con las siguientes bases:

• Existen suficientes estudios que determinan la factibilidad de establecer un Plan de Aprovechamiento del lagarto en el departamento del Beni y Santa Cruz.

• Se autoriza el aprovechamiento del lagarto, bajo requisitos y condiciones del Reglamento.

• Se establece el Plan Experimental de Aprovechamiento del Lagarto en áreas seleccionadas por el plazo de 2 años.

A. Larriera et al. – Evaluación del programa nacional de C. yacare en Bolivia”

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• Se establece la quema de los productos decomisados.

2. En noviembre de 1997, con base a los resultados del Plan de Manejo, se inició el aprovechamiento del lagarto, con cupos de cosecha reducidos y una metodología de cosecha permitida únicamente con arpón.

3. El mismo año, producto de los decomisos efectuados por la Prefectura del Beni, se produjeron desavenencias y enfrentamientos por el ordenamiento de la quema de 17.609.- cueros de lagarto. Esa instrucción basada en el D.S. 24774, ocasionó que varias instituciones regionales del Beni protestaran, lo que ocasiona que en 1998 se conformara una Comisión de Revisión del citado Decreto Supremo dirigida por la Presidencia de la República por mandatos de Decreto Supremo, para dar solución a los problemas generados por el D.S. 24774, autorizándose la comercialización de los 17.609 cueros bajo responsabilidad de la Prefectura del Departamento del Beni, los cuales han cumplido con los requisitos de exportación requeridos por CITES.

4. El 21 de julio de 1999 se promulga el D.S. 25458, que otorga un nuevo marco legal para el manejo de la fauna silvestre, permitiendo el levantamiento de la veda para las especies susceptibles de uso sostenible mediante Resolución Ministerial expresa.

5. El 22 de octubre de 1999 se promulga el D.S. 25555, que autoriza al MDSP, emitir Resolución Ministerial que apruebe el Reglamento Provisional con carácter de excepción que permita el aprovechamiento del lagarto durante el año 1999.

6. El 30 de noviembre de 1999, se promulga la Resolución Ministerial No. 307/99, que aprueba el reglamento con carácter de excepción para la conservación y aprovechamiento del lagarto y norma la transición entre la caza realizada en los meses de octubre a diciembre de 1999 y el nuevo proceso a ser iniciado el año 2000.

7. El 17 de diciembre de 1999, se promulga la Resolución Ministerial No. 330/99, que

autoriza la cosecha y el acopio de pieles de lagarto y establece un cupo equivalente al 60.8 % de la recomendación del grupo de expertos de la UICN de Bolivia, distribuyendo la cuota de 36.500 cueros en 30.000 cueros al Departamento del Beni, 3.500 al Departamento de Santa Cruz y 3.000 al Departamento de La Paz.

Autorización que fue efectuada con base a los siguientes parámetros:

• Incremento de la población de Caiman yacare luego de la promulgación del Decreto Supremo No. 22641 de 1990 que declara la Veda General e Indefinida.

• Estudios realizados por expertos bolivianos de la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (UICN), quienes recomiendan una cosecha máxima de 60.000 lagartos, sin afectar la dinámica poblacional de la especie ni exponiendo a la población a una disminución alarmante a escala nacional durante el año 1999.

8. Bajo este contexto el aprovechamiento del lagarto se inicia en el departamento del Beni, beneficiándose a los Pueblos Indígenas del Beni (CPIB), quienes hicieron uso de un cupo de 30.000 cueros en dicho año. Paralelamente si bien por Resolución Ministerial No. 330 se había otorgado cupos de 3.500 para Santa Cruz y 3.000 para La Paz, estos departamentos no hicieron uso de los mismos.

9. En el año 2000, la Dirección General de Biodiversidad con el apoyo de CESO/SACO – Canadá (Canadian Executive Service Organization) y el asesor Dr. Douglas Ravenstein, diseñó la eco regionalización la cual fue elaborada con base a información geo-referenciada SIG (Sistema de Información Geográfica) de la Dirección General de Desarrollo Forestal Sostenible del Viceministerio de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Forestal, del Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible y Planificación,


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como una propuesta a ser ajustada en función de nueva información. Durante el mismo año, no se emitieron autorizaciones de extracción de cueros de lagarto por la ausencia de información técnica necesaria; por otro lado se realizaron censos o estimaciones poblacionales del lagarto que permitieron elaborar el documento “Análisis y Evaluación del Estado de Conservación de la Población del Caiman yacare en el Beni; uso y conservación”. En función a éste se autorizaron cupos de 40.000 cueros para Beni, 5.000 para Santa Cruz y 1.500 para Pando. Totalizando un cupo Nacional de 46.500 cueros de lagarto para el año 2001, el cual será sujeto a evaluación, antes de determinar el nuevo marco legal, estudios complementarios y los nuevos cupos para el año 2002. Es importante aclarar que Bolivia mantiene ante la comunidad CITES un compromiso de limitar las exportaciones a 50.000 cueros anuales desde 1987.

10. A la fecha se cuenta con información de datos del monitoreo de C. yacare realizado por profesionales del Programa Integral Amazonía Sostenible (PIAS) y de la Colección Boliviana de Fauna, en eco regiones de los Departamentos del Beni, Santa Cruz y Pando

11. En cuanto a la distribución de beneficios, al encontrarse los ejemplares en propiedad privada o Tierras Comunitarias de Origen (TCO’s), el artículo 49 del Reglamento para el Aprovechamiento y uso sostenible del Caiman yacare, autoriza a los propietarios a vender en forma directa los cueros depositados en los centros de acopio.

12. Si bien, el aprovechamiento del lagarto parece estar tomando buenos pasos dentro de la conservación y el uso sostenible de esta especie silvestre, es evidente que se hace necesario evaluar el desarrollo del proceso y funcionamiento del programa de aprovechamiento del lagarto a nivel nacional. Es por esto, que se ha organizado un taller en el que participen tanto especialistas como sectores e instituciones involucradas; en este taller se tratarán temas de interés relacionados con los impactos de las cosechas anteriores, deficiencias y ventajas de la administración, control y fiscalización; lo cual, permitirá llegar

a un consenso y a soluciones que permitan un aprovechamiento sostenible que genere beneficios a los sectores involucrados y estipule una distribución equitativa de los beneficios.

OBJETIVOS DEL TALLER

Evaluar el programa "Aprovechamiento sostenible del lagarto Caimán yacare en Bolivia" con el fin de definir medidas para fortalecer el mismo en el ámbito local, nacional y regional facilitando el uso sostenible bajo la reestructuración de un programa nacional de aprovechamiento sostenible del lagarto.

Objetivos Específicos

• Fortalecer y ajustar el programa nacional de aprovechamiento sostenible del lagarto en Bolivia.

• Evaluar el aprovechamiento del lagarto en los departamentos del Beni, Santa Cruz y Pando en las gestiones 1997-2001.

• Analizar las deficiencias y ventajas de la eco regionalización, métodos de evaluación de poblaciones de lagartos e interpretación de datos utilizados hasta el momento.

• Redefinir o ajustar la eco regionalización, métodos de evaluación poblacional e interpretación de datos bajo un consenso participativo.

• Evaluar el modelo de administración y fiscalización por el Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible y Planificación (Dirección General de Biodiversidad) y los procesos de administración, control y fiscalización en los departamentos del Beni, Santa Cruz y Pando.

• Definir los lineamientos de acción para el ajuste de mecanismos y procedimientos de administración, control y fiscalización.


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• Definir los requerimientos necesarios para establecer la sostenibilidad del programa y asegurar la distribución equitativa de los beneficios.

• Proponer modificaciones al reglamento de conservación y aprovechamiento del Caiman yacare.

• Definir los mecanismos de fortalecimiento de capacidades de gestión para la conservación de la especie y su utilización sostenible a nivel nacional, departamental y local.

CONCLUSIONES (Prefectura del Beni)

Directrices generales

Visión – Bolivia maneja y aprovecha de manera sostenible el Caiman yacare y sus ecosistemas naturales en su área de ocurrencia, generando un beneficio social económico que mejora la calidad de vida de las comunidades y sociedad ligada con la especie.

Misión – El Estado boliviano, Gobierno (Nacional y Departamentales) y sociedad civil, articulan esfuerzos, desarrollan alianzas y aplican criterios normativos y de sostenibilidad orientados a la conservación y aprovechamiento sostenible del Caiman yacare, coadyuvando con ello al desarrollo sostenible.

Objetivo – Hasta el año 2007, asegurar la conservación y aprovechamiento integral y sostenible del Caiman yacare, a través del desarrollo de un Programa Nacional de Manejo del Lagarto que coadyuva el desarrollo social y económico de los habitantes del área de influencia de la especie.

Conclusiones Generales

• El proceso de aprovechamiento del lagarto se encuentra en una etapa de transición de una actividad ilegal antigua a un programa de manejo que busca la sostenibilidad, lo que genera problemas en la administración y control.

• Existe una debilidad institucional del estado en sus tres niveles nacional, departamental y local para administrar el

programa especialmente en los aspectos de control y fiscalización, para lo cual se deben definir con precisión los roles institucionales y reforzar las instancias técnicas.

• Los problemas y experiencias explicadas por las prefecturas demuestran que existe una diferencia de criterios en los temas administrativos, operativos y técnicos.

• Existe un necesidad de definir precisamente roles y funciones institucionales especialmente en los aspectos normativos y reglamentarios, y fundamentalmente en el tema de control y fiscalización.

• Se reconoce la existencia de una actividad ilícita que a disminuido sustancialmente, esta afirmación se basa en las informaciones del mercado internacional y la disminución del precio del cuero ilegal y la elevación del precio del cuero legal.

• Existe una satisfacción y conformidad de los sectores y actores beneficiarios del proceso, pues pese a los problemas identificados se ha generado fuentes de trabajo, movimiento de capital y generación de actividad económica en lugares alejados y de difícil acceso y una participación equitativa en los beneficios.

• El aprovechamiento sostenible del lagarto y otras especies de fauna silvestre aparece como un mecanismo de consolidación de los derechos propietarios y puede ampliar los criterios de la función económico-social de la tierra.

• Le devolvió la legalidad a los poseedores de los derechos como ser campesinos, indígenas y ganaderos al ser los depositarios de los precintos y se generó un proceso de conservación en las áreas con propietarios privados y comunales por considerarse a l lagarto como un bien comercial.


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• Ha existido una incoherencia entre la distribución real de cupos y lo emergente del estudio técnico debido a la debilidad y falta de consistencia del estudio técnico base, el cual es una primera lección que debe corregirse con base a las conclusiones del taller.

• Existe una falta de integración entre la base técnica y los aspectos administrativos y de control.

• El programa pese a ser piloto, a logrado avances importantes en los aspectos legales y participación social, debiendo mejorarse los aspectos técnicos, de fiscalización y control y la capacitación y difusión en base a un programa integral.

• Con base a los criterios de los especialistas nacionales e internacionales el programa presenta importantes avances y que debe ser reconducido tomando en cuenta las experiencias y lecciones aprendidas.

• El reglamento de aprovechamiento del lagarto adolece de imprecisiones y contradicciones que dificultan la administración eficiente del recurso, por lo cual con base a las recomendaciones del taller, se deberá elaborar una nueva propuesta y discutida con los actores sociales.

• Se debe crear una instancia de asesoramiento y fiscalización a nivel de las prefecturas con la participación de indígenas, ganaderos, gampesinos, empresarios, instituciones académicas y de investigación y prefecturas con la finalidad de informar, concertar y fiscalizar las determinaciones administrativas y técnicas del programa.

• Debe haber un programa permanente de divulgación, educación y toma de conciencia para proteger la fauna silvestre (lagarto, etc) para poder aprovechar estos recursos en forma sostenible.

• Se debe construir participativamente una nueva metodología de monitoreo y determinación de cupos individuales por

haberse constatado la insuficiencia de la metodología utilizada.

• Debe generarse un proceso de capacitación y promoción de la oferta de servicios técnicos especializados a nivel local y nacional.

Conclusiones Específicas

Conservación y protección

• Las ecoregiones son un instrumento para facilitar los monitoreos y la administración del programa.

• Monitorear aquellas áreas que han solicitado aprovechar el recurso, tales como las TCOs, estancias y comunidades campesinas.

• Realizar los monitoreos en las unidades de producción, visitando todos los cuerpos de agua en cada estancia o TCO escogidas, caracterizándolas en términos de la vegetación y factores paisajísticos o ecológicos, contabilizando los lagartos y clasificándolos en categorías de tamaños.

• Los resultados de los censos serán presentados de manera siguiente:

• Abundancia: Número total de lagartos/ha de terreno y no por ha/agua como se realiza en la actualidad. Clases de Tamaño: Utilizar la siguiente clasificación

Clases de Tamaño % de clase II % de clase III % de clase IV

Se recomienda una cosecha por región ecológica.

• Identificación y manejo de areas de anidación, protección de nidos y las crías.

• Radicalizar las medidas de control.

• Para la asignación de los cupos de cosecha a los solicitantes, la Prefectura contratará por medio de licitación


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pública nacional, a una entidad independiente de acuerdo a los términos de referencia avalados por la entidad nacional.

Aprovechamiento integral y

comercialización

• Adecuación del calendario a la realidad de la zona y las características ambientales y biológicas de la especies.

• Definir y respetar los requisitos técnicos y legales a ser exigidos para los solicitantes de licencias.

• Difundir a nivel nacional y local las convocatorias tanto para licencia como para la habilitación de empresas curtidoras cumpliendo los plazos establecidos por ley.

• Las licencias de aprovechamiento deben ser por periodos entre 3 y 5 años y definiendo cupos en forma anual, con base a los resultados del monitoreo anual

• Las licencias de comercialización e industrialización deben ser por todo el periodo de duración del programa, debiendo realizarse las inspecciones ambientales, técnicas y legales para una certificación anual por parte del estado.

• Se debe definir con mayor precisión y mejores elementos técnicos relacionados a la forma de aprovechamiento del cuero, calidad y manejo precintos, con la finalidad de garantizar un producto de buena calidad y la conservación de la especie.

• Se debe promover el aprovechamiento integral de carne y huesos, adecuando la norma para este fin. La Prefectura del Beni debe facilitar la infraestructura de ENFOPESCOR para la exportación de carne de lagarto por parte de un operador privado.

• Se debe desburocratizar el procesos de adjudicación y autorizaciones a nivel nacional.

• El estado debe definir mecanismos para fiscalizar la oferta y demanda de productos del lagarto.

• Se debe establecer por separado los centros de control de los centros de comercialización, los cuales deben ser adecuados a las capacidades institucionales, a la disponibilidad de recursos humanos y económicos y a las condiciones ambientales de las zonas.

Control y fiscalización

• Se debe hacer unos procesos de información y difusión de todos los aspectos relacionados al programa en diferentes medios y dirigido a los diferentes actores.

• Es imprescindible el establecimiento de un plan integral de capacitación en todos los rubros de la actividad.

• Se debe reforzar los mecanismos de control y fiscalización del estado, pues se ha constatado un debilidad de los responsables.

• Se debe descentralizar e involucrar a los municipios en el proceso de control y fiscalización.

• Se debe crear la comisión departamental del lagarto con participación de los beneficiarios

• Se debe mejorar los instrumentos utilizados en el control y fiscalización tales como los medios y centros de información, formatos y tipos de guías, precintado, ubicación de los centros de control, etc.

• Se debe institucionalizar como medida complementaria de control la medición del tamaño del cuero en las curtiembres.

SUMARIO DE LOS OBSERVADORES

EXTERNOS (CSG)

Durante las discusiones e intercambios producidos al momento de cada exposición, y en el desarrollo del trabajo interactivo del taller propiamente dicho, surgieron diferentes cuestionamientos que podrían dividirse en:


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Técnicos

• Las evaluaciones poblacionales para determinación de cuotas de cosecha por eco región se desarrollaron sobre una mínima fracción del área de estudio.

• No se aprovechó a nivel departamental, la disponibilidad de recursos humanos con experiencia técnica en los trabajos de monitoreo de la población de lagartos

• La ecoregionalización propuesta extrapola información de áreas muy pequeñas a enormes superficies.

• La interpretación de la distribución de cuotas de cosechas por ecoregiones, tal como está planteada, tiene un alto nivel de subjetividad.

Metodológicos

• La implementación de los Centros de Acopio para Fiscalización, lejos de resultar efectiva, implicó un problema serio para el funcionamiento del programa.

• La habilitación definitiva de la época de cosecha, no resultó coherente ni con la biología de los animales, ni con los aspectos prácticos de la recolección y transporte.

Administrativos

• Se produjeron reiterados inconvenientes por falta o déficit de comunicación, tanto desde las prefecturas hacia los usuarios (TCO’s, ganaderos y exportadores), como así también entre prefecturas y el gobierno central.

CONSIDERACIONES FINALES (CSG)

Los tres días de intenso desarrollo de actividades del taller en la ciudad de Trinidad, nos permitieron tomar contacto con los diferentes sectores involucrados tanto en el manejo técnico, administrativo y económico de las poblaciones del lagarto (Caiman yacare), en Bolivia, como aquellos puramente preocupados por su conservación. En todos los casos se puede decir que hay coincidencia sobre el hecho de que las

poblaciones silvestres se encuentran en buen estado en la mayor parte de su área de distribución, y que por otra parte el bajo nivel de intervención humana hasta la fecha, garantiza una abundante disponibilidad de hábitat, que en principio no parece encontrar riesgos en el corto y mediano plazo. Las conclusiones que preceden estas consideraciones finales fueron preparadas por los organizadores de la reunión, y de hecho reflejan detalladamente la marcha de las discusiones, con algunas sutiles correcciones de forma en este informe, efectuadas por nosotros. Existen sin embargo, un par de cuestiones que nos gustaría resaltar.

Resulta un aspecto altamente preocupante, que todos los cueros de talla legal, no sean precintados en origen, permitiendo a los compradores seleccionar los de mayor tamaño (aún dentro de la medida legal), y precintando solo estos, con lo que se produce una innecesaria sobrecaptura de animales, que si bien en el futuro podría disminuir por las leyes naturales de oferta y demanda, sería preferible y sencillo evitar hoy, asegurando la comercialización de todas las pieles de talla legal (dentro del cupo). Esto se lograría simplemente, precintando todos los cueros en origen, previo a la venta.

Si bien la falta de comunicación entre los diferentes sectores involucrados, y la desinformación de los usuarios con respecto no solo al espíritu, sino también a los cambiantes aspectos prácticos del programa, se han reconocido como un problema serio durante la reunión, no parece visualizarse a la luz de las conclusiones, un camino tendiente a resolver estas cuestiones.

Se debe aclarar por otra parte, que la supuesta “cuota de 50.000 pieles anuales acordada con CITES en 1987”, fue un simple compromiso informal de Bolivia, que no se encuentra respaldado por ninguna Resolución ni Recomendación de las Partes.

La mayor parte de los inconvenientes detectados en la marcha del programa, se refieren a la metodología del monitoreo de las poblaciones naturales para determinar la


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cosecha nacional, departamental y por unidad de producción (TCOs, estancias y comunidades campesinas), a la distribución interna de las cuotas de cosecha y a aspectos prácticos de la fiscalización y el control. La solución de estos problemas producirá por un lado una distribución mas equitativa de los beneficios entre los usuarios, y por el otro claramente mejorará los estándares de la cosecha, evitando las sobrecapturas y transportes de pieles de una región a otra, que aún hoy se producen. La incorporación al programa de una instancia de medición de cueros en curtiembres, permitirá establecer un monitoreo sobre la sustentabilidad del programa. Por último, el establecimiento de un canal de comunicación periódica con el CSG, facilitará la ágil corrección de los inconvenientes que pudieran surgir.

Programa de conservación y aprovechamiento sostenible

del lagarto (Caiman yacare) en Bolivia Alfonso Llobet Querejazu

INTRODUCCIÓN Latinoamérica tiene la más alta riqueza de especies de cocodrilianos que se pueda encontrar en cualquier área comparable en el mundo; doce taxa (incluyendo subespecies), se distribuyen desde México hasta la Argentina. Por otra parte, la vasta área de humedales e inmensos sistemas ribereños de esta porción del continente provee un extenso hábitat para caimanes y cocodrilos, razón por la cual el número de estos animales en la región sea probablemente el más alto del mundo, aunque actualmente las cifras reales siguen siendo desconocidas (Messel et al. 1995). Esta situación hace que los cocodrilianos representen un recurso de considerable valor ecológico y con un gran potencial económico (Pacheco 1996).

La región de América Latina ha soportado también la mayor explotación de cocodrilianos en el mundo. Históricamente, la sobre-explotación para el comercio internacional de pieles ha causado una seria declinación y extinciones locales de algunas especies; si embargo irónicamente aún en la década de los 90’ la región proveía más de la mitad de las pieles de cocodrilianos en el comercio mundial (Messel et al. 1995). No obstante que la pérdida de hábitat y la sobre-explotación continúan siendo un factor de riesgo para la supervivencia de varias especies (Ross 1995), actualmente se observa un cambio básico en la tendencia de conservación de los cocodrilianos en todo el mundo, incluida América Latina: una nueva conciencia de conservación, controles

internacionales en el tráfico de vida silvestre y programas mejorados de manejo y conservación, generan algún optimismo con respecto al futuro de caimanes y cocodrilos. La adopción de estrategias de uso sostenible de cocodrilianos ha provisto nuevos incentivos para la conservación de estas especies y sus hábitats (Messel et al. 1995).

En Bolivia el desarrollo de un programa piloto de uso sostenible del Caiman yacare surgió en 1995 con el proyecto “A Programme for the Sustainable Utilization and Management of Caiman in Bolivia” (King 1995), el cual dio pie para que en 1997 se promulgara el Reglamento para la Conservación y Aprovechamiento del Lagarto (C. yacare) para los Departamentos de Santa Cruz y Beni (D.S. 24774 del 31 de julio de 1997). Al mismo tiempo, la DNCB (ahora Dirección General de Biodiversidad – DGB), elaboró el programa Nacional de Conservación y Uso Sostenible de los Caimanes de Bolivia, en el cual se previó la evaluación y el monitoreo de las poblaciones de lagarto y otras especies de cocodrilianos (Llobet y Aparicio 1999).

A partir de ese momento, debido a la falta de consenso entre los diferentes actores, se suscitaron una serie de inconvenientes que impidieron el buen desarrollo del programa hasta 1999, año en que se otorgó un nuevo marco legal para el manejo de fauna silvestre, permitiendo el levantamiento de la veda para especies susceptibles de uso sostenible (D.S. 25458). El mismo año se aprobó un Reglamento Provisional con


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carácter de excepción que permite el aprovechamiento del lagarto durante 1999 y la cosecha y acopio de un cupo de 36500 pieles (D.S. 25555, Resolución Ministerial No 307/99, Resolución Ministerial No 330/99). Durante el año 2000, la DGB con apoyo de CESO/SACO (Canadian Executive Service Organization) inició un proceso de eco-regionalización del Programa a través del uso de sistemas de información geográfica (SIG), como una propuesta a ser ajustada en función de nueva información recolectada en el campo, al mismo tiempo que se realizaron nuevos monitoreos en los Departamentos de Beni, Santa Cruz y Pando (MDSP 2002, PIAS 2001). Con el fin de evaluar el desarrollo del proceso y el funcionamiento del programa de aprovechamiento del lagarto, el año 2002 se llevó a cabo el Taller de Evaluación del Programa Nacional de Aprovechamiento Sostenible del Lagarto (Caiman yacare) del 2 al 4 de abril, en la ciudad de Trinidad, con la participación de los actores locales y especialistas tanto nacionales como internacionales. BASES TÉCNICAS PARA PLANTEAR

EL APROVECHAMIENTO SOSTENIBLE DEL CAIMAN YACARE

Aunque desde la década de los 70’ se cuenta con información sobre los caimanes en Bolivia (Donoso-Barros 1974, Lovisek 1977 y 1980), los estudios realizados en esa época no pasaron de ser mas bien casuales y de poca trascendencia en cuanto a la conservación de los caimanes en el país (Pacheco 1996). Durante la misma década Medem realizó el primer inventario a gran escala, cuyos resultados fueron publicados diez años mas tarde (Medem 1983), donde se cuenta por primera vez con información sobre la historia natural de los caimanes en Bolivia. El segundo gran esfuerzo para recopilar información a gran escala sobre las

poblaciones de caimanes se realizó en 1986, donde después de seis meses de trabajo se logra obtener información comparable a la recopilada por Medem sobre la distribución de las especies y el estado de algunas poblaciones (King y Videz-Roca 1989). A partir de ese momento se realizaron numerosos trabajos que brindan información sobre el estado poblacional del Caiman yacare en diversas zonas del país como el Beni, Santa Cruz y Cochabamba (Ruiz 1988, Videz-Roca 1987 y 1989, Ergueta y Pacheco 1990, Vaca 1992, Pacheco 1993, Rebolledo-Garin y Tapia-Arauz 1994, Llobet 1996, Llobet y Goitia 1997).

Los estudios efectuados en 1986 mostraron que si bien la especie se encontraba prácticamente exterminada en algunas zonas del Beni, en otras resultaba particularmente abundante con densidades de hasta 70 ind./km de orilla (King y Videz-Roca 1989). La misma situación se presentó en Santa Cruz, donde en algunas zonas se reportaron densidades muy bajas (King y Videz-Roca 1989, Ergueta y Pacheco 1990, Rebolledo-Garin y Tapia-Arauz 1994), mientras que en otras, como la zona de San Matías, las agregaciones observadas (especialmente durante la época seca) produjeron altas densidades similares a las reportadas en los llanos venezolanos (Pacheco y King 1995). Se considera que actualmente la especie no está en peligro (Pacheco y Aparicio 1996), sin embargo hay que recordar que sus poblaciones sufrieron en el pasado una fuerte presión de cacería quedando deprimidas en la mayor parte de su área de distribución (Pacheco1996). De acuerdo a la recuperación que han tenido las poblaciones de lagarto en los últimos años, un programa de aprovechamiento sostenible de la especie puede ser realizado siempre y cuando se respeten las condiciones y las cuotas de cosecha establecidas en la

A. Llobet Q. – Programa de conservación y aprovechamiento del Caiman yacare en Bolivia

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normatividad vigente (Llobet y Aparicio 1999).

El aprovechamiento de cocodrilianos puede ser realizado de diferentes maneras: cosecha de animales silvestres, rancheo (cosechas de huevos y/o neonatos para la cría en cautiverio) y cría en completo cautiverio (granjas) manteniendo adultos reproductores en cautiverio. Cada sistema mantiene ventajas o desventajas en términos del valor de conservación, facilidad de regulación y costos y retorno económico (David 1994), por lo que la aplicación de cada uno (o varios) de estos métodos debe ser precedida de un análisis de la realidad tanto biológica de la especie como socioeconómica de la región donde se pretenda trabajar.

De acuerdo a la realidad boliviana, el modelo que se eligió para desarrollar un programa de aprovechamiento sostenible de C. yacare, fue el de cosechas de animales silvestres, basado en el éxito demostrado por la experiencia venezolana con C. crocodilus (Thorbjarnarson y Velasco 1998). Este sistema es el que requiere de menor inversión económica y los mayores beneficiarios son los propietarios de las tierras (Velasco et al. 1995); el aprovechamiento se basa en el dimorfismo sexual que presenta la especie para establecer los límites de tamaño mínimo de los animales a ser cosechados, de tal manera que la cosecha se enfoca hacia los animales mayores a 180 cm de longitud total, los cuales generalmente son machos, protegiendo así a las hembras reproductoras. Una situación que hay que tener presente es que la caza en la naturaleza es la más difícil de regular y tiene un alto riesgo de no ser sustentable; las poblaciones de cocodrilianos pueden ser disminuidas muy fácilmente por la remoción de adultos reproductores. Si a esto se añade que la gran sobre-explotación de poblaciones de

cocodrilianos que llevó a muchas especies a niveles críticos desde el punto de vista de su conservación, se debió en gran medida a la caza directa (King 1989), es fácil deducir que se necesitan diferentes sistemas de control que sirvan para ajustar y corregir las fallas del programa, de tal manera que se pueda asegurar el cumplimiento del objetivo principal: lograr la efectiva conservación del Caiman yacare en Bolivia.

Se ha señalado que el uso sostenible puede generar más interés en la conservación de una especie (Thorbjarnarson 1992, Jenkins 1993, Ross 1995), sin embargo en Latinoamérica los beneficios del aprovechamiento generalmente no son reinvertidos en programas de conservación de las mismas especies (Hines y Abercrombie 1987, Magnusson 1995). La idea de que el aprovechamiento puede beneficiar a los procesos de conservación es interesante y surge sobre una base de investigación de muchos años que demostró el éxito del uso sostenible de cocodrilianos en países como Nueva Guinea, Venezuela, Zimbabwe, Estados Unidos y Australia (Hutton y Child 1989, Joanen et al. 1990, Genolagani y Wilmot 1990, Webb et al. 1992, Velasco y De Sola 1997); sin embargo los programas de aprovechamiento pueden verse afectados o debilitados cuando ningún beneficio se destina a la conservación por la falta de un plan integrado.

Es necesario considerar como una realidad el hecho de que el aprovechamiento comercial de los cocodrilianos está sujeto a las fluctuaciones del mercado, donde muchas veces los actores involucrados concentran sus esfuerzos en los aspectos económicos, ocasionando que se descuide el campo de la sostenibilidad del recurso (Magnusson 1995). Las grandes fluctuaciones del mercado de productos de cocodrilianos sugieren que ningún plano de


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conservación debe basarse exclusivamente en el éxito del aprovechamiento económico. Como cualquier otra mercancía internacional, los productos de cocodrilianos son objeto de la fuerza del mercado y los cambios de precios que están más allá del control de los productores (Woodward et al. 1994); tales fluctuaciones económicas representan un gran peligro para los programas de uso sostenible, pues impulsan el balance económico hacia la disminución de los costos de producción aumentando la “tentación” de retornar a una sobreexplotación no sostenible de cueros silvestres (Ross 1995).

Uno de los problemas de los proyectos de aprovechamiento económico es que son vistos como resultados y no como una fuente para generar información. Es decir, si consideramos que el conocimiento de la dinámica de las poblaciones de cocodrilianos es todavía limitado, se debe asumir que este tipo de información tiene también una utilidad limitada en el desarrollo de planes de manejo. Si asumimos que la tarea de los investigadores y administradores de recursos responsables del manejo de los cocodrilianos es establecer programas con altas probabilidades de que el uso del recurso sea sostenible (Ross 1995), entonces los planes de manejo, al ser una fuente de datos sobre la dinámica de las poblaciones, van a retroalimentar el sistema para poder corregir los errores y asegurar el cumplimiento de los objetivos planteados. Por esta razón cada plan de manejo debe estar íntimamente ligado a un programa de monitoreo (McNab 1983 y Walters y Holling 1990 en: Magnusson 1995).

Finalmente, la capacidad de aplicar la normatividad es un tema particularmente complejo en los países latinoamericanos, pues muchas veces esta relacionada con la voluntad política para desarrollar procesos. Generalmente la falta de institucionalidad en

las agencias gubernamentales es un factor común que afecta negativamente cualquier esfuerzo de conservación. Una manera de atacar este problema es apoyándose en los diferentes convenios internacionales (como CITES) de los cuales Bolivia es signatario. ANTECEDENTES TÉCNICOS Y

LEGALES DEL PROGRAMA (Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible y Planificación – Dirección General de Biodiversidad)

El 31 de julio de 1997, se promulgó el D.S.24774, que puso en vigencia el Reglamento para la Conservación y Aprovechamiento del Lagarto (Caiman yacare) en los Departamentos del Beni y Santa Cruz, basado en la existencia de suficientes estudios que podrían determinar la factibilidad de establecer un Plan de Aprovechamiento del lagarto en los mencionados Departamentos. Se autorizó el aprovechamiento del lagarto, bajo requisitos y condiciones del Reglamento y se estableció el Plan Experimental de Aprovechamiento del lagarto en áreas seleccionadas por el plazo de 2 años. Al mismo tiempo se establece, como un mecanismo dirigido a desincentivar la caza ilegal, la quema de los productos decomisados.

En noviembre de 1997, sobre esta base legal y con financiamiento de la Embajada Real de los Países Bajos, se elaboró un Plan de Manejo (Aparicio 1997) y se inició el aprovechamiento del Lagarto, con cupos de cosecha reducidos y una metodología de cosecha consentida únicamente con arpón. Los resultados de la cosecha experimental permitieron determinar que la caza con arpón era muy difícil de realizar en Bolivia, básicamente por la falta de experiencia de los pobladores locales en el uso de este instrumento. Por otra parte, el cupo de cosecha asignado para las diferentes


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estancias era insuficiente como para poder solventar los gastos de transporte y del personal destinado a realizar dichas actividades.

El mismo año, producto de los decomisos efectuados por la Prefectura del Beni, se originaron desavenencias y enfrentamientos por la instrucción de quemar 17609 cueros de lagarto. Esa instrucción basada en el D.S. 24774, ocasionó que varias instituciones regionales de este Departamento, encabezadas por el Comité Cívico del Beni, realizaran una serie de protestas, llevando a que en 1998 se conforme una Comisión de Revisión del citado Decreto Supremo, dirigida por la Presidencia de la República con el objeto de dar solución a los problemas generados por el D.S. 24774. A raíz de la conformación de dicha Comisión, se emite la Resolución No. 01/98 que autoriza a la Prefectura del Beni, en coordinación con el Comité Cívico y la Universidad Técnica del Beni, el remate y comercialización de los 17609 cueros, además de la emisión de los correspondientes certificados CITES para la exportación de los mismos.

El 21 de julio de 1999 se promulga el D.S. 25458, que otorga un nuevo marco legal para el manejo de la fauna silvestre, permitiendo el levantamiento de la veda para las especies susceptibles de uso sostenible mediante Resolución Ministerial expresa. Por otra parte, el 22 de octubre de 1999 se promulga el D.S. 25555, que autoriza al MDSP, emitir Resolución Ministerial que apruebe el Reglamento Provisional con carácter de excepción que permita el aprovechamiento del lagarto durante el año 1999.

El 30 de noviembre de 1999, se promulga la Resolución Ministerial No. 307/99, que aprueba el Reglamento con carácter de excepción para la conservación y aprovechamiento del lagarto y norma la

transición entre la caza realizada en los meses de octubre a diciembre de 1999 y el nuevo proceso a ser iniciado el año 2000. El 17 de diciembre del mismo año se promulga la Resolución Ministerial No. 330/99, que autoriza la cosecha y el acopio de pieles de lagarto y establece un cupo equivalente al 60,8 % de la recomendación del grupo de expertos de la UICN de Bolivia (Aparicio et al. 1999), distribuyendo una cuota de 36500 cueros en 30000 cueros al Departamento del Beni, 3500 al Departamento de Santa Cruz y 3000 al Departamento de La Paz. Si bien para la elaboración del documento, los especialistas de la UICN asumieron que las poblaciones de C. yacare se habían visto incrementadas luego de la promulgación del D.S. 22641, que declaraba la Veda General e Indefinida, establecieron una serie de condiciones para asegurar que las poblaciones de Caiman yacare no se vean afectadas por una cosecha excesiva:

• No cosechar en zonas de bosque. • Distribuir la cosecha lo más

homogéneamente posible en el espacio (zonas de sabana).

• Buscar un mecanismo que impida totalmente la legalización de cueros por encima de esta cifra.

• Si no se puede asegurar la no realización de remates que legalicen cueros ilegales por encima de la cuota establecida, debería darse una cuota igual o menor a la mitad de lo propuesto en ese documento.

• Por ningún motivo se debe asignar cuotas para la cosecha del año 2000 sin realizar antes las evaluaciones poblacionales de C. yacare en la República de Bolivia durante la época seca de 1999. Se puede asegurar el financiamiento de dichos estudios durante esa gestión utilizando los recursos obtenidos de la cosecha experimental de 1999.


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Bajo este contexto, el aprovechamiento del lagarto se inicia en el departamento del Beni, beneficiándose a los Pueblos Indígenas (CPIB), quienes hicieron uso de un cupo de 30000 cueros en dicho año. Paralelamente si bien por resolución Ministerial No. 330 se habían otorgado cupos de 3500 cueros para Santa Cruz y 3000 para La Paz, estos departamentos no hicieron uso de los mismos.

En el año 2000, la Dirección General de Biodiversidad con el apoyo de CESO/SACO – Canadá (Canadian Executive Service Organization) y el asesor Dr. Douglas Ravenstein, diseñó la eco-regionalización del programa de aprovechamiento del lagarto, la cual fue elaborada con base en información analizada por un Sistema de Información Geográfica (SIG) de la Dirección General de Desarrollo Forestal Sostenible del Viceministerio de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Forestal, del Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible y Planificación, como una propuesta a ser ajustada en función de nueva información.

Durante el mismo año, no se emitieron autorizaciones de extracción de cueros de lagarto por la ausencia de información técnica necesaria; por otro lado se realizaron censos o estimaciones poblacionales del lagarto que permitieron elaborar el documento “Análisis y Evaluación del Estado de Conservación de la Población del Caiman yacare en el Beni; uso y conservación” (PIAS 2001a). Se evaluaron 4 ecoregiones (3, 5, 9 y 10) de las 11 definidas para el aprovechamiento del lagarto, recomendando un cupo de cosecha de 43683 lagartos para todo el departamento del Beni. El estudio fue aprobado por el Consejo Consultivo de Vida Silvestre, autorizándose una cuota de aprovechamiento de 40000 individuos para el departamento del Beni, 5000 para Santa Cruz y 1500 para

Pando, totalizando un cupo de 46500 lagartos para el año 2001.

Desde la perspectiva de la sostenibilidad, en el estudio realizado en el Beni, sin dudar del enorme esfuerzo realizado para evaluar esas cuatro ecoregiones, el hecho de extrapolar los resultados obtenidos a todo el departamento del Beni, hace que la definición de ecoregiones sea inútil desde el punto de vista de minimizar el sesgo que se puede producir al realizar las estimaciones del tamaño y la estructura poblacional. Por otra parte, en el estudio realizado en Santa Cruz (PIAS 2001b), independientemente de la metodología de muestreo utilizada, se reportó una estructura poblacional de C. yacare con una proporción de individuos Clase IV (mayores a 180 cm de longitud total) correspondiente al 1,72% del total de la población (sin considerar los individuos Clase I o menores a 50 cm de longitud total). El hecho de autorizar la cosecha de individuos en una población con esta característica, viola el Art. 18 del Reglamento para la Conservación y Aprovechamiento del lagarto (Caiman yacare), el cual indica que se autorizará la cosecha de lagartos de hasta un 25% correspondientes al Grupo IV en poblaciones en buen estado de conservación; entendiéndose como “buen estado de conservación” a las poblaciones donde los individuos mayores a 180 cm de longitud total (Grupo IV) superan el 15% del total formado por los Grupos II, III y IV ( es decir el total de la población sin considerar los individuos neonatos o menores a 50 cm de longitud total). Con respecto a la asignación del cupo de cosecha para el departamento de Pando, no se cuenta con documentación que respalde dicha asignación.

Por otra parte, se debe señalar que ninguna de las evaluaciones o monitoreos realizados cumplió con el Art. 6 del ya mencionado reglamento, en el cual se


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establece que se debe monitorear al menos el 10% de la extensión de cada región ecológica identificada.

El año 2002 se asumió que era necesario evaluar el desarrollo del proceso y funcionamiento del programa de aprovechamiento del lagarto a nivel Nacional. Es por esto del 2 al 4 de abril de ese año, que se organizó en la ciudad de Trinidad un taller en el que participarían tanto especialistas como sectores e instituciones involucradas; en este taller se trataron temas de interés relacionados con los impactos de las cosechas anteriores, deficiencias y ventajas de la administración, control y fiscalización (ver detalles más adelante).

El 1 de agosto del 2002, y basados en el estudio presentado por la Prefectura del Beni y con el aval del Consejo Consultivo de Vida Silvestre, se emite la Resolución Ministerial No. 155 por la cual se autoriza la cosecha de 39132 lagartos en dicho departamento. Hay que señalar como un elemento que llama la atención, el hecho de que en dicho estudio (desarrollado en ocho ecoregiones) no se haya registrado la presencia de ningún individuo neonato o menor a 50 cm de longitud total (Grupo I). Por otra parte, solo se muestreó una porción del territorio correspondiente al 0,49% de la extensión de las ecoregiones evaluadas, situación que no cumple nuevamente con lo establecido en el Reglamento para el Aprovechamiento y uso sostenible del Caiman yacare. Por otra parte, la Resolución Ministerial No. 156, de la misma fecha, otorga al departamento de Santa Cruz un cupo de cosecha de 5.000 individuos sin que este año se haya realizado el proceso de monitoreo en dicho departamento.

Es importante señalar que en cuanto a la distribución de beneficios, al encontrarse los ejemplares en propiedad privada o Tierras Comunitarias de Origen (TCO’s), el

reglamento para el aprovechamiento y uso sostenible del Caiman yacare, autoriza a los propietarios a vender en forma directa los cueros depositados en los centros de acopio. En este sentido, con base en los contratos de aprovechamiento suscritos por las Prefecturas Departamentales del Beni, Santa Cruz y Pando, se tiene evidencia de que el programa ha generado beneficios económicos a diferentes pueblos indígenas, comunidades campesinas y ganaderos. TALLER DE EVALUACIÓN DEL

PROGRAMA NACIONAL DE APROVECHAMIENTO SOSTENIBLE DEL LAGARTO (CAIMAN YACARE) EN BOLIVIA

Del 2 al 4 de abril de 2002 se desarrolló en la ciudad de trinidad un Taller con el objetivo principal de evaluar el programa “Aprovechamiento sostenible del lagarto Caiman yacare en Bolivia” con el fin de definir medidas para fortalecer el mismo en el ámbito local, nacional y regional facilitando el uso sostenible bajo la reestructuración de un Programa Nacional de aprovechamiento sostenible del lagarto (MDSP 2002).

Las conclusiones generales del taller (transcritas textualmente) fueron:

• El proceso de aprovechamiento del lagarto se encuentra en una etapa de transición de una actividad ilegal antigua a un programa de manejo que busca la sostenibilidad, lo que genera problemas en la administración y control.

• Existe una debilidad institucional del estado en sus tres niveles Nacional, departamental y local para administrar el programa especialmente en los aspectos de control y fiscalización, para lo cual se deben definir con precisión los roles institucionales y reforzar las instancias técnicas


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• Los problemas y experiencias explicadas por las prefecturas demuestran que existe una diferencia de criterios en los temas administrativos, operativos y técnicos.

• Existe una necesidad de definir precisamente roles y funciones institucionales especialmente en los aspectos normativos y reglamentarios, y fundamentalmente en el tema de control y fiscalización.

• Se reconoce la existencia de una actividad ilícita que ha disminuido sustancialmente, esta afirmación se basa en las informaciones del mercado internacional y la disminución del precio del cuero ilegal y la elevación del precio del cuero legal.

• Existe una satisfacción y conformidad de los sectores y actores beneficiarios del proceso, pues pese a los problemas identificados se ha generado fuentes de trabajo, movimiento de capital y generación de actividad económica en lugares alejados y de difícil acceso y una participación equitativa en los beneficios.

• El aprovechamiento sostenible del lagarto y otras especies de fauna silvestre aparece como un mecanismo de consolidación de los derechos propietarios y puede ampliar los criterios de la función económico social de la tierra

• Le devolvió la legalidad a los poseedores de los derechos como ser campesinos, indígenas y ganaderos al ser los depositarios de los precintos y se generó un proceso de conservación en las áreas con propietarios privados y comunales por considerarse al lagarto como un bien comercial.

• Ha existido una incoherencia entre la distribución real de cupos y lo emergente del estudio técnico debido a

la debilidad y falta de consistencia del estudio técnico base, el cual es una primera lección que debe corregirse con base a las conclusiones del taller.

• Existe una falta de integración entre la base técnica y los aspectos administrativos y de control.

• El programa pese a ser piloto, ha logrado avances importantes en los aspectos legales y participación social, debiendo mejorarse los aspectos técnicos, de fiscalización y control y la capacitación y difusión en base a un programa integral.

• Con base a los criterios de los especialistas nacionales e internacionales el programa presenta importantes avances y que debe ser reconducido tomando en cuenta las experiencias y lecciones aprendidas.

• El reglamento de aprovechamiento del lagarto adolece de imprecisiones y contradicciones que dificultan la administración eficiente del recurso, por lo cual con base a las recomendaciones del taller, se deberá elaborar una nueva propuesta y discutida con los actores sociales.

• Se debe crear una instancia de asesoramiento y fiscalización a nivel de las prefecturas con la participación de Indígenas, Ganaderos, Campesinos, Empresarios, Instituciones académicas y de investigación y prefecturas con la finalidad de informar, concertar y fiscalizar las determinaciones administrativas y técnicas del programa.

• Debe haber un programa permanente de divulgación, educación y toma de conciencia para proteger la fauna silvestre (lagarto, etc.) para poder aprovechar estos recursos en forma sostenible.


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• Se debe construir participativamente una nueva metodología de monitoreo y determinación de cupos individuales por haberse constatado la insuficiencia de la metodología utilizada,

• Debe generarse un proceso de capacitación y promoción de la oferta de servicios técnicos especializados a nivel local y nacional.

No obstante, es importante señalar que de acuerdo al informe elaborado por Larriera (2002), miembro de CSG de la UICN, resulta un aspecto altamente preocupante, que todos los cueros de talla legal, no sean precintados en origen, permitiendo a los compradores seleccionar los de mayor tamaño (aún dentro de la medida legal), y precintando solo estos, con lo que se produce una innecesaria sobrecaptura de animales, que si bien en el futuro podría disminuir por las leyes naturales de oferta y demanda, sería preferible y sencillo evitar hoy, asegurando la comercialización de todas las pieles de talla legal (dentro del cupo). Esto se lograría simplemente, precintando todos los cueros en origen, previo a la venta.

El mismo autor sostiene que si bien la falta de comunicación entre los diferentes sectores involucrados, y la desinformación de los usuarios con respecto no solo al espíritu, sino también a los cambiantes aspectos prácticos del programa, se han reconocido como un problema serio durante la reunión, no parece visualizarse a la luz de las conclusiones, un camino tendiente a resolver estas cuestiones.

Finalmente, la mayor parte de los inconvenientes detectados en la marcha del programa, se refieren a la metodología del monitoreo de las poblaciones naturales para determinar la cosecha nacional, departamental y por unidad de producción (TCOs, estancias y comunidades

campesinas), a la distribución interna de las cuotas de cosecha y a aspectos prácticos de la fiscalización y el control. La solución de estos problemas producirá por un lado una distribución mas equitativa de los beneficios entre los usuarios, y por el otro claramente mejorará los estándares de la cosecha, evitando las sobrecapturas y transportes de pieles de una región a otra, que aún hoy se producen. La incorporación al programa de una instancia de medición de cueros en curtiembres, permitirá establecer un monitoreo sobre la sustentabilidad del programa. Por último, el establecimiento de un canal de comunicación periódica con el CSG, facilitará la ágil corrección de los inconvenientes que pudieran surgir (Larriera 2002). CONCLUSIONES No hay que negar la dificultad que representa el hecho de que un uso extractivo de fauna cumpla con los requisitos de la sostenibilidad. El avance en este sentido depende en gran medida de la voluntad política y de proyectos piloto de aprovechamiento experimental que sienten las bases para la ejecución de proyectos a mayor escala. De esta manera, el uso sostenible puede ser el camino correcto, aunque largo y difícil en países en desarrollo (Ojasti 2000). Una de los desafíos existentes en Bolivia es lograr la transición de una larga tradición de uso ilegal de vida silvestre, en un manejo regulado de la misma con el fin de asegurar la sostenibilidad biológica de los programas.

El uso sostenible de los cocodrilianos ha probado en muchas situaciones ser una actividad exitosa desde el punto de vista de la conservación de algunas especies y de sus hábitats. De acuerdo a la situación de las poblaciones de Caiman yacare en Bolivia, un programa de aprovechamiento de la especie puede realizarse de manera


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sostenible siempre y cuando se desarrolle dentro del marco de las normas establecidas, sin olvidar que el objetivo principal tiene que estar orientado a la efectiva conservación de la especie.

El desarrollo de un sistema de monitoreo de las tendencias poblacionales, que esté ligado al programa de aprovechamiento, es crucial para poder ajustar y corregir las desviaciones o los errores del programa, así como para generar información confiable a la hora de asignar los cupos de cosecha o tomar decisiones sobre las acciones a seguir. La información que se obtenga del monitoreo servirá para seguir las tendencias y las variaciones tanto espaciales como temporales de la dinámica poblacional de los lagartos, obteniéndose información valiosa de la historia natural de la especie.

El valor económico que se le dé al lagarto dentro del programa de aprovechamiento y los beneficios e incentivos que se generen a nivel local, pueden cambiar el patrón de caza furtiva, hacia un sistema de cosechas, que al encontrarse reguladas y controladas, podrán mantener niveles de sostenibilidad. El desarrollo y fortalecimiento de capacidades locales debe ser un componente fundamental durante la aplicación del programa de aprovechamiento; el apoyo que pueda brindar la Dirección General de Biodiversidad a la capacitación y mejoramiento de las estructuras organizativas de los beneficiarios del aprovechamiento, puede contribuir a que las acciones se mantengan dentro de las normas establecidas.

Las fluctuaciones del mercado internacional indudablemente tienen un impacto significativo en los programas de aprovechamiento comercial de fauna silvestre. Debido a la incertidumbre que se mantiene sobre este aspecto, es necesario asegurar la auto-sostenibilidad económica del programa de aprovechamiento,

particularmente la administración, el control y el monitoreo de las poblaciones. Si se logra este objetivo, se puede garantizar la continuidad del proceso independientemente del precio de las pieles en el mercado internacional.

Finalmente, los incentivos económicos que reciban los usuarios del programa de aprovechamiento del lagarto, particularmente los dueños de tierras, pueden reflejarse no solo en la conservación de la especie, sino en la conservación de los hábitats que ocupa. Desde el momento en que se le asigna un valor económico a la especie, los propietarios de la tierra no solamente van a proteger el recurso del cual están recibiendo un beneficio (en este caso el lagarto), sino que las actividades de control de la caza furtiva que desarrollen, al mismo tiempo van a tener un efecto en la protección del hábitat del lagarto, que a su vez incidirá en la conservación de extensas áreas de humedales. BIBLIOGRAFÍA Aparicio, J. 1997. Plan de Manejo para el

programa piloto “Aprovechamiento del Caiman yacare en el Departamento del Beni”. La Paz, Bolivia.

Aparicio, J., Llobet, A. y L. Pacheco. 1999. Criterios utilizados para recomendar una cuota de cosecha de Caiman yacare en Bolivia para 1999. Documemto elaborado para la DGB. No publicado.

David, D. 1994. Harvesting wild crocodilians: Guidelines for developing a sustainable use system. Pp. 274-309 in Proceedings of the 12th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Donoso-Barros, R. 1974. Contribución al conocimiento de los Cocodrilos de Bolivia: Caiman yacare medemi. Boletín


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Sociedad Biológica de Concepción 47:131-143.

Ergueta, P. y L. F. Pacheco. 1990. Los Crocodilios de Bolivia. Ecología en Bolivia 15:69-81.

Genolagani, J. G. y J. M. Wilmot. 1990. Status of crocodile populations in Papua New Guinea: 1981-1988. Pp. 122-160 in Proceedings of the 10th Work Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Hines J. C. y C. L. Abercrombie. 1987. The management of alligators in Florida, USA. Pp. 43-47 in G. J. W. Webb, S. Manolis y P. J. Whitehead (Eds.). Wildlife Management: Crocodiles and Alligators. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.

Hutton, J. M. y G. F. T. Child. 1989. Crocodile Management in Zimbabwe. Pp. 62-79 in Crocodiles, their ecology, management and conservation. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Jenkins, R. W. G. 1993. Sustainable Use of Crocodilians – Conservation benefits in Proceedings of the 2nd Regional Meeting of the CSG, Darwin, Australia. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Joanen, T., McNease, L. y D. Ashley. 1990. Production, volume and trends in the USA. Pp. 276-285 in Proceedings of the 10th Work Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

King, F. W. 1989. Conservation and management. Pp. 216-229 in C. A Ross (Ed.). Crocodiles and Alligators. Golden Press Pty. Ltd. Australia.

King, F. W. 1995. A programme for the sustainable utilization and management of caiman in Bolivia. CITES Project

Proposal. Doc. SC.35.11. Annex 8. Project S-089.

King, F. W. y D. H. Videz-Roca. 1989. The caimans of Bolivia: a preliminary report on a CITES and Centro de Desarrollo Forestal sponsored survey of species distribution and status. Pp. 128-155 in Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 8th Working Meeting of the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN – The World Conservation Union. Gland, Switzerland.

Larriera, A. 2002. Informe sobre: “Taller de evaluación del programa nacional de aprovechamiento sostenible del lagarto (Caiman yacare), en Bolivia”. Documento no publicado.

Llobet, A. 1996. Distribución y abundancia de Caiman yacare en la cuenca del río Ichilo. UMSS. Cochabamba, Bolivia.

Llobet, A. y E. Goitia. 1997. Abundancia y estructura poblacional de Caiman yacare en lagunas de la llanura inundable de los ríos Ichilo y Chapare (Bolivia). Revista Boliviana de Ecología y Conservación Ambiental 2:39-47.

Llobet, A. y J. Aparicio. 1999. Abundancia, estructura poblacional y perspectivas de aprovechamiento de Caiman yacare en cinco estancias del Departamento del Beni. Pp. 285-293 in T. G. Fang, O. L. Montenegro y R. E. Bodmer (Eds.). Manejo y conservación de fauna silvestre en América Latina. Instituto de Ecología. La Paz, Bolivia.

Lovisek, J. 1977. To catch a caiman. Rotunda 10(3):20-25.

Lovisek, J. 1980. The reproduction of Caiman crocodilus yacare in Central Bolivia. P. 30 in Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles – Herpetologist League Meetings, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.


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Magnusson, W. E. 1995. A Conservação de Crocodilianos na América Latina. Pp. 5-17 in A. Larriera y L. M. Verdade (Eds.). La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y cocodrilos de América Latina. Vol. 1. Fundación Banco Bica. Santo Tomé, Santa Fé, Argentina.

MDSP. 2002. Memoria del Taller de Evaluación del Programa de Nacional de Aprovechamiento Sostenible del Lagarto (Caiman yacare). Trinidad, 2 al 4 de abril de 2002.

Medem, F. 1983. Los Crocodylia de Sur América. Vol. 2. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Bogotá, Colombia.

Messel, H., King, F. W., y P. Ross. 1995. Introducción: La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y cocodrilos. Pp. 1-3 in A. Larriera y L. M. Verdade (Eds.). La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y cocodrilos de América Latina. Vol. 1. Fundación Banco Bica. Santo Tomé, Santa Fé, Argentina.

Ojasti, J. 2000. Manejo de Fauna Silvestre Neotropical. F. Dallmeier (Ed.). SIMAB Series No. 5. Smithsonian Institution/MAB Program. Washington D. C.

Pacheco, L. F. 1993. Abundance, distribution and habitat use of caimans in Beni, Bolivia. M. S. Thesis. University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.

Pacheco, L. F. y F. W. King. 1995. Perspectivas de la conservación de caimanes de Bolivia. Pp. 123-134 in A. Larriera y L. M. Verdade (Eds.). La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y cocodrilos de América Latina. Vol. 1. Fundación Banco Bica. Santo Tomé, Santa Fé, Argentina.

Pacheco, L. F. 1996. Plan de Acción para los Caimanes de Bolivia. Ecología en Bolivia 27:43-53.

Pacheco, L. F. y J. Aparicio. 1996. Reptiles. Pp. 73-93 in P. Ergueta y C. B. De Morales (Eds.). Libro Rojo de los Vertebrados de Bolivia. CDC, Bolivia.

PIAS. 2001a. Análisis y Evaluación del Estado de Conservación de la Población del Caiman yacare en el Beni; uso y conservación. Documento no publicado. Programa Integral Amazonía Sostenible.

PIAS. 2001b. Evaluación del estado de conservación de poblaciones de Caiman yacare en el Departamento de Santa Cruz (Provincias Ángel Sandoval y Cnl. Germán Busch). Programa Integral Amazonía Sostenible.

Rebolledo-Garin, P. P. y M. C. Tapia-Arauz. 1994. La herpetofauna de la Reserva de Vida Silvestre de los Ríos Blanco y Negro: Diversidad, distribución, pautas para su conservación y uso sostenible. Informe preliminar. Fundación Amigos de la Naturaleza (FAN).

Ross, P. 1995. La importancia del uso sostenible para la conservación de los cocodrilianos. Pp. 19-32 in A. Larriera y L. M. Verdade (Eds.). La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y cocodrilos de América Latina. Vol. 1. Fundación Banco Bica. Santo Tomé, Santa Fé, Argentina.

Ruiz, E. 1988. Ecología del lagarto (Caiman crocodilus yacare) en la Estación Biológica del Beni (Bolivia). Informe preliminar. La Paz, Bolivia.

Thorbjarnarson, J. 1992. Crocodiles. An Action Plan for their Conservation. UICN. Gland, Switzerland.

Thorbjarnarson, J. y A. Velasco. 1998. Economic incentives for management of Venezuelan Caiman. Conservation Biology. 13(2):397-406.

Vaca, N. 1992. Ecología y distribución de los crocodílidos en la Estación Biológica Beni. Tesis de Licenciatura. Universidad


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Autónoma Gabriel René Moreno. Santa Cruz, Bolivia.

Velasco, A., De Sola, R. y M. Quero. 1995. Programa de manejo de la baba (Caiman crocodilus) de Venezuela. Pp. 213-220 in A. Larriera y L. M. Verdade (Eds.). La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y cocodrilos de América Latina. Vol. 1. Fundación Banco Bica. Santo Tomé, Santa Fé, Argentina.

Velasco, A. y R. De Sola. 1997. Programa de manejo de la baba (Caiman crocodilus) de Venezuela. Pp. 235-246 in Memorias 4ª Reunión Regional del Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos de América Latina y el Caribe. Villahermosa, México.

Videz-Roca, D. H. 1987. Levantamiento poblacional del lagarto en la Estancia San Luis (Caiman crocodilus yacare). Informe a Estancia San Luis. No publicado. Santa Cruz, Bolivia.

Videz-Roca, D. H. 1989. Proyecto de creación del Refugio de Vida Silvestre “Lago Taborga”. Informe a CDF. No publicado. Santa Cruz, Bolivia.

Webb, G., Manolis, C., Otley, B. y A. Heyward. 1992. Crocodile Management and Research in the Northern Territory: 1990-1992 in Proceedings of the 11th Work Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Woodward, A. R., Dennis, D. y R. Degner. 1994. The rise and fall off classic crocodilian prices: where do we go from here? in Proceedings of the 2nd Regional Meeting of the CSG, Darwin, Australia. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Políticas de conservação e manejo de jacaré (Caiman yacare) no Brasil

Maria Iolita Bampi e Marcos Coutinho República Federativa do Brasil

Ministério do Meio Ambiente (MMA) Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis (IBAMA)

Centro de Conservação e Manejo de Répteis e Anfíbios (RAN) SUMÁRIO

O relatório é introduzido com a descrição da importância do uso sustentável dos estoques genéticos da fauna como mecanismo de conservação. A caracterização da evolução do programa de conservação de Caiman yacare no Brasil descreve as formas de manejo já utilizadas, a trajetória da produção nos últimos 12 anos e suas relações com as alterações nos sistemas normativos ocorridos no Brasil e no exterior. Em seguida, são apresentadas algumas das principais informações que vem subsidiando a definição das políticas de conservação e manejo jacaré no Pantanal. Dentre elas, são mostrados dados sobre a área de distribuição da espécie e caracteríticas ambientais, hábitos alimentares e a condição corporal, biologia reprodutiva, taxa de crescimento populacional e o status atual e as tendências no tamanho populacional. O momento atual, marcado pela abertura do comécio com os Estados Unidos de produtos de Caiman yacare, é oportuno para adoção de medidas de organização nos programas de manejo que por sua vez, devem ser definidas com base no diálogo entre os países. Espera-se que o “Taller Internacional sobre Regulación, Manejo y Comercio de Caiman yacare” caracterize o início desse diálogo e as recomendações advindas do encontro possam orientar estratégias de ação conjunta, visando garantir a viabilidade dos programas de conservação e manejo de Caiman yacare em toda área de distribuição da espécie. DESENVOLVIMENTO E CONSERVAÇÃO

ATRAVÉS DO USO SUSTENTADO DA FAUNA

Segundo entidades conservacionistas internacionais (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1980, IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991), o uso sustentado da vida silvestre representa uma estratégia importante para promover o desenvolvimento sócio-econômico compatível com a conservação de ambientes naturais e a preservação da biodiversidade. Tal estratégia tem sido especialmente direcionadas aos países tropicais, onde os ecossistemas naturais não foram ainda completamente destruidos ou modificados. O Brasil encontra-se numa posição privilegiada para promover o uso da vida silvestre como mecanismo de conservação e desenvolvimento sustentado. As grandes extensões de áreas úmidas tropicais, o vigor das populações de espécies de valor econômico reconhecido e o

cenário sócio-econômico favorecendo os produtos ambientalmente inteligentes são alguns dos principais fatores que contribuem para que o país assuma posição de destaque na produção mundial de produtos da fauna.

A planície do Pantanal, com extensão de 140 mil km2, é uma das maiores áreas de inundação do planeta. Situada no centro do Continente Sul Americano, a região é de especial importância biogeográfica por fazer limites com outros grandes ecossistemas do continente, tais como a Floresta Amazônica ao norte, o Cerrado a leste, a Mata Meridional Atlântica a sudeste e o Chaco Paraguaio ao sul. Na Constituição do Brasil, a região é considerada Patrimônio Nacional e, recentemente, foi reconhecida pela UNESCO como Patrimônio da Humanidade, merecendo alta prioridade de conservação. O Pantanal é notável pela riqueza e abundância da vida silvestre, amplamente distribuída num mosaico


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de áreas alagáveis, incluindo rios perenes e temporários, lagoas de água doce e salobra, brejos e campos sazonalmente inundados. Muitas espécies da fauna nativa apresentam perspectivas de utilização sustentada. Dentre elas, destaca-se o jacaré-do-Pantanal (Caiman yacare), que encontra-se amplamente distribuído por toda planície (Mourão et al. 2000), podendo alcançar as maiores densidades até então relatadas para qualquer outra espécie de crocodiliano no planeta (150 indivíduos/ km2, Coutinho & Campos 1996). A utilização sustentada desses estoques naturais deve funcionar como incentivo para conservação e representa uma oportunidade para abrir novos negócios e mercados agrícolas, novas alternativas de trabalho que garantem a fixação de gente nas áreas rurais e o redirecionamento do uso das terras consideradas inapropriadas para a implantação de sistemas agrícolas tradicionais. EVOLUÇÃO DAS POLÍTICAS DE

CONSERVAÇÃO E MANEJO DO JACARÉ-DO-PANTANAL

Anteriormente ao ano de 1967, não havia praticamente restrições ao uso da fauna no Brasil. O uso do jacaré no Pantanal vinha sendo feito em escala industrial, com a produção anual atingindo a ordem de milhões de peles. Embora sem organização definida, o sistema era composto por um número relativamente grande de caçadores, que forneciam as peles para alguns centros receptores, localizados nas principais cidades do Pantanal. Posteriormente, as peles salgadas eram exportadas para serem beneficiadas principalmente em curtumes europeus. Os proprietários de terra estavam relativamente pouco envolvidos com a atividade e o manejo era conduzido independentemente dos limites das fazendas. O jacaré, a exemplo de outras espécies da fauna, era considerado produto de menor importância, mesmo representando renda complementar à da produção pecuária. As informações sócio-econômicas sobre essa época são escassas, mas sabe-se que o uso comercial da fauna era importante para região, especialmente como fonte de renda para as classes mais carentes da população.

Com a promulgação da Lei de Proteção à fauna (Lei 5.197 de 1967), a caça profissional e o comércio de produtos advindos de animais silvestres foram proibidos. A fauna passou a ser propriedade do Estado e seu uso foi previsto somente a partir de animais manejados em criadouros devidamente registrados. A maior parte das pessoas envolvidas com o sistema extensivo de produção de jacaré no Pantanal dele dependia para seu sustento e, em muitos casos, como única fonte de renda. A alta demanda de peles de caimans no mercado internacional, aliada à falta de alternativas no mercado de trabalho da região, determinou a emergência do comércio ilegal. O período abrangendo a década de 70 até os meados da década de 80 foi caracterizado pela repressão policial à caça do jacaré no Pantanal. Nesse período, assistiu-se a uma verdadeira guerra civil no Pantanal, travada entre policiais determinados a cumprir a nova lei e os caçadores, maioria deles empregados rurais no Pantanal, resistentes à proibição. O controle da caça por meio da repressão policial era apoiado pela maior parte da população residente nos grandes centros urbanos no Brasil e no exterior, onde era emergente o movimento ecológico e a caça era vista como a uma das principais causas de extinção das espécies.

A instalação de criadouros do tipo “Farming” (onde todo ciclo de vida da espécie ocorre em criadouro fechado), foi normatizada pela Portaria n.º 130-P de 06 de Abril de 1978, publicada pelo Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal (IBDF). Este modelo de criação recebeu considerável incentivo da mídia e o número de criadouros registrados cresceu substancialmente durante década de 80, inclusive com a instalação de criadores de C. yacare em várias regiões do país, a partir de machos e fêmeas retirados principalmente do Pantanal. A propagação de criadores de C. yacare fora da área de ocorrência natural da espécie foi um dos principais incentivos para que o IBDF publicasse a Portaria n.º 324-P de 22 de Julho de 1987, definindo que C. yacare fosse criado ou manejado somente nas sua respectiva bacia hidrográfica ou áreas de ocorrência natural. A grande maioria dos empreendimentos do tipo “Farming” dentro e

M. I. Bampi e M. Coutinho – Políticas de conservação e manejo de jacaré no Brasil

fora da Bacia do Rio Paraguai não apresentou viabilidade econômica em função de vários fatores, dentre os quais devem ser salientados a falta de conhecimento sobre a espécie e de técnicas de manejo em cativeiro. Adicionalmente, a contribuição desse modelo como mecanismo de conservação da espécie e de seus respectivos habitats foi reconhecido como bastante limitado.

Paralelo à evolução do manejo no Brasil, a experiência de outros países tais como os Estados Unidos, Austrália e países do continente Africano, incentivava com o apoio da CITES (Convenção Internacional sobre o Comércio das Espécies da Fauna e Flora Selvagem em Perigo de Extinção), a implantação de um sistema de manejo caracterizado pela extração de ovos das populações naturais, em substituição à extração dos indivíduos adultos, e a recria de jovens em cativeiro fechado para fins comerciais. Esse modelo de manejo denominado “Ranching”, foi prontamente adotado pelos criadores Pantaneiros, com o suporte técnico advindo dos estudos realizados por proprietários de terra, juntamente com técnicos de instituições governamentias de pesquisa (eg. Marques & Monteiro 1997). O suporte legal para implantação de criadores utilizando a modalidade tipo “Ranching” foi estabelecido com a promulgação da Portaria do IBAMA n.º 126, de 13 fevereiro de 1990, que normatizou o registro de criadouros comerciais de C. yacare na Bacia do Rio Paraguai e pela Portaria n.º 119-N, de 17 de Novembro de 1992, que normatizou a comercialização de peles de C. crocodilus e C. yacare. Mais uma vez incentivados pela mídia e na expectativa de alta lucratividade, vários produtores obtiveram registros para implantar criadouros comerciais no Pantanal. No estado de Mato Grosso, os produtores rurais organizaram-se em cooperativas, formadas por até 30 fazendas, que em conjunto supriam com ovos uma única instalação de incubação e recria. No Mato Grosso do Sul tal tendência não foi verificada, prevalecendo a implantação de criadouros independentes. Até 1995, os criadores do Mato Grosso foram responsáveis pela maior parte da produção de jacaré no Pantanal. Em apenas três anos de atividade, as

cooperativas localizadas nos municípios de Cáceres (Coocrijapan) e Várzea Grande (TecnoCaiman) atingiram uma produção de cerca de 80.000 e 123.500 jacarés, respectivamente. Após 1996, houve uma queda acentuada na produção, que praticamente caracterizou a falência do sistema de produção do jacaré no Pantanal. A cooperativa de Várzea Grande encerrou suas atividades e a cooperativa de Cáceres foi dividida e a produção decresceu substancialmente. Segundo o relato dos produtores, os principais fatores que inviabilizaram a atividade foram os altos custos de produção e de processamento dos produtos, bem como os problemas de comercialização, em especial as barreiras comerciais impostas pelo governo dos Estados Unidos aos produtos de C. yacare. Ainda que C. yacare não estivesse incluido no Apêndice I da CITES, a barreira comercial imposta pelos Estados Unidos exerceu grande impacto negativo sobre o programa de manejo do jacaré no Pantanal. Além de impossibilitar o comércio com um dos principais centros consumidores de produtos da fauna, a posição dos Estados Unidos exercia influência negativa sobre outros centros consumidores, dificultando ainda mais a abertura de novos mercados. Após intensos trabalhos de negociação liderados pela Coordenação Geral da Fauna do IBAMA e subsidiados pelos resultados de pesquisa de vários pesquisadores Brasileiros e extrangeiros, inclusive membros do Grupo de Especialistas em Crocodilianos da IUCN, a posição do governo dos Estados Unidos foi finalmente revista em Julho de 2000. A partir desta data, C yacare foi excluido da lista de espécies ameaçadas de extinção dos Estados Unidos, fato que tem permitido a retomada das relações comerciais com aquele país. Isto vem ocorrendo com o Brasil e também com outros países da América do Sul onde a espécie está naturalmente distribuida. Contudo, o governo dos Estados Unidos estabeleceu algumas exigências que devem ser cumpridas para assegurar a abertura do comércio com os países produtores. Dentre elas, ficou definido que o países produtores devem apresentar relatórios a cada dois anos, disponibilizando informações sobre a área de distribuição e o status populacional, os projetos

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de pesquisa em desenvolvimento, em especial sobre a biologia reprodutiva da espécie, a descrição das leis, os mecanismos de regulação e a descrição das taxas vigentes de extração e os dados oficiais de exportação. O primeiro relatório Brasileiro denominado “National Policies for the Conservation and Management of Caiman yacare in Brazil: species status & monitoring, research and current regulations” foi enviado ao Fish and Wildlife Service, do Departamento do Interior dos Estados Unidos, em abril de 2002. A evolução da trajetória de produção da Cooperativa Coocrijapan de Cáceres-MT é um bom exemplo para ilustrar a dinâmica do setor

produtivo do jacaré no Pantanal nos últimos 12 anos (Figura 1). A partir de 1990, com o advento da regulamentação da modalidade de manejo tipo “Ranching”, iniciaram-se os trabalhos de coleta de ovos e recria dos jovens. A produção anual cresceu gradativamente até atingir o pico de cerca de 20 mil jacarés em 1993. Em 1993 e 1994 houve um forte declínio na produção e o período de 1996 a 2000 foi marcado por uma completa desativação da cooperativa. A partir de 2001, observou-se a retomada da produção, fato que coincide com as alterações na legislação dos Estados Unidos e com a possibilidade de abertura de novos mercados consumidores.

Figura 1. Evolução da trajetória de produção de Caiman yacare no Pantanal, com a regulamentação da modalidade de manejo do tipo “Ranching” a partir de 1990, exemplificada pelos dados de produção da Cooperativa Coocrijapan, localizada no município de Cáceres, MT, Brasil.

Tabela 1. Dados de exportação Brasileira de peles de Caiman yacare, desde 1993

Os dados de exportação de peles com licença CITES mostram padrão semelhante àquele observado no setor produtivo. Os últimos cinco anos foram caracterizados por uma forte recessão da indústria. De 1993 a 1997, mais de 51 mil peles foram exportadas, enquanto que em 1998 e 1999 o número foi inferior a mil peles. A partir de 2000 observou-se uma nova fase de crescimento e a indústria vem ganhando força. De 2000 até Maio de 2002, mais de cinco mil peles alcançaram o mercado internacional (Tabela 1).

Ano Peles exportadas

1993 - 1997 57.656 1998 - 1999 911 2000 - 2002 5.167 Total 58.567

Apesar do incremento na produção observada recentemente frente às novas possibilidades de comercialização, visitas técnicas às fazendas e às unidades de recria comprovam que é possível promover avanços no setor produtivo e uma melhor articulação entre os componentes da cadeia produtiva. Nesse sentido, o Governo

Atualmente existem 27 criadores com registros ativos no IBAMA e seis unidades de recria com finalidade comercial, com capacidade instalada superior a 200 mil jacarés.


Brasileiro, através do IBAMA e em parceria com orgãos dos setores público e privado, vem implementando um conjunto de ações articuladas de desenvolvimento e revitalização ordenada do sistema de produção, visando garantir que os propósitos conservacionistas do programa de manejo sejam atingidos. BASES BIOLÓGICAS DO PROGRAMA DE

CONSERVAÇÃO E MANEJO DO JACARÉ NO PANTANAL

Estudos conduzidos desde o início da década de 80 tem gerado várias informações sobre diferentes aspectos da biologia e ecologia populacional do jacaré no Pantanal. Por exemplo, podem ser mencionados os estudos sobre a abundância, estrutura de tamanho e razão sexual da população (Campos et al.1994; Mourão et al.1994; Coutinho & Campos 1996; Mourão et al.2000), produção de ninhos e comportamento reprodutivo (Crawshaw & Shaller 1980; Cintra 1988; Campos & Magnusson 1995; Pinheiro et al. 1997; Aleixo & Maciel 1998, Coutinho et al.2001), dieta e comportamento alimentar (Shaller & Crawshaw 1982; Santos et al. 1996). O potencial para utilização em serviço da conservação também tem sido considerado (Coutinho et al. 1994; Mourão et al. 1996), bem como os possíveis impactos e riscos de super-explotação (Crawshaw 1991; Brazaits et al. 1998) e o aperfeiçoamento das políticas atuais de manejo (Coutinho et al. 1998). Mais recentemente, tem sido utilizado a abordagem de análise de sistemas para desenvolver a estrutura conceitual onde os dados quantitativos podem ser sumarizados, afim de avaliar o comporamento da população em função de mudanças nas condiçoes ambientais e sob diferentes estratégias de manejo (Coutinho 2000). Adicionalmente, foram desenvolvidas técnicas de abate e processamento de carne, cuja experiência poderá ser usada como modelo em outras regiões do Brasil. Para viabilizar o aproveitamento integral do couro, foram aperfeiçoadas técnicas de curtimento para assegurar produtos de alta qualidade para serem utilizados na confecção de diferentes produtos, visando atender mercados distintos. Em todas as etapas do programa, tem sido fundamental o envolvimento da população

local. Neste aspecto, criou-se a oportunidade de aprender, observar e registrar a riqueza da cultura regional no que se refere aos conhecimentos biológicos e às práticas de aproveitamento da fauna nativa no Pantanal. Todas essas informações constituem corpo de conhecimento valioso que tem sido usado para vários propósitos, pricipalmente na definição das políticas de conservação e manejo. Nos itens abaixo, serão sumarizadas algumas das principais informações, em especial aquelas de ordem biológica, que vem subsidiando as decisões políticas Brasileiras.

Aspectos taxonômicos Grande parte das incertezas taxonômicas entre os crocodilianos reside no chamado “Complexo Caiman” (Groombridge 1987). Isto é bem ilustrado pelas controvérsias envolvendo o jacaré do Pantanal. A espécie foi inicialmente descrita por Daudin in 1802, que a denominou Crocodilus yacare. Posteriormente, o taxon sofreu sucessivas revisões e foi renomado várias vezes, alternando de sub-espécie de Caiman crocodilus (Jacaretinga crocodilus yacare or Caiman crocodilus yacare), ou recebendo status de espécie, Caiman yacare (Carvalho 1951). De acordo com Groombridge (1987), duas novas sub-espécies, Caiman crocodilus mattogrossiensis e Caiman crocodilus paraguayensis, foram registradas com ocorrência na área do Pantanal e, mesmo baseado em poucas evidências científicas, ambas foram incorporadas aos manuais oficiais de identificação da CITES. Embora ainda existam controvérsias taxonômicas (eg. Monteiro et al. 1997; Brochu 1999), a maioria dos pesquisadores concorda com o tratatamento específico Caiman yacare, sendo esta a convenção adotada atualmente pela Autoridade Ambiental Brasileira (MMA/IBAMA). Na figura 2 é mostrado o Caiman yacare adulto no Pantanal.

Área de distribuição e caracteríticas ambientais

O Pantanal é a principal área de ocorrência de Caiman yacare no Brasil. A região é uma das maiores áreas de inundação do planeta e consiste de 140.000 km2 de áreas baixas,

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cercadas por 356.000 km2 de planaltos. Planície e planaltos juntos formam a Bacia do Alto Paraguai que é considerada uma das mais importantes bacias hidrográficas da América do Sul (Figura 3). A área está localizada no centro do continente Sul-Americano, com a maior parte no território Brasileiro (393.600 km2) e a parte oeste restante abrangendo os territórios Boliviano e Paraguaio. O Pantanal é drenado pelo Rio Paraguai, que flui no sentido norte-sul ao longo da parte oeste da bacia e por seus tributários que drenam a região no sentido leste-oeste. Em função do relevo e da pouca

declividade, as inundações são os princiapais fatores abióticos que afetam os processos geo-ecológicos na planície. Os pulsos de cheia e seca determinam a produtividade e exercem papel fundamental na dinâmica do ecossistema. Os melhores dados que descrevem a dinâmica das inundações no Pantanal são as medidas de nível d’água do Rio Paraguai obtidas diariamente, desde o início do século, pela Marinha Brasileira no município de Ladário, Pantanal Sul.

Figura 2. Indivíduo adulto de Caiman yacare no Pantanal, Brasil.

Figura 3. Mapa da Bacia do Alto Paraguai mostrando os limites do planalto e da planície (área escura), os principais rios que drenam o Pantanal.


O nível d’água varia sustancialmente num mesmo ano e entre os anos, sendo possível reconhecer padrões plurianuais que indicam a ocorrência de anos secos ou úmidos (abaixo e acima da média, respectivamente, Figura 4). Hamilton et al. (1996), utilizando-se técnicas de sensoriamento remoto, relacionaram o nível d’água do Rio Paraguai com a extensão da área inundada. Durante o período estudado (1979-87), foi observado que a área inundada variou de 11.000 nos meses secos até 131.000 km2 no pico do período inundado. Foi demonstrado que o nível d’água do Rio Paraguai, medido em Ladário, reflete de forma acurada a quantidade de área inundada no Pantanal, e portanto, trata-se de uma ferramenta eficiente para prever a intensidade de inundação em toda a planície Pantananeira. Tal informação é especialmente importante para a definição das estratégias de manejo, já que a disponibilidade de água exerce

efeito determinante na dinâmica do jacaré, podendo ser usada para orientar decisões nas escalas local e regional.

Hábitos alimentares e condição corporal no ambiente sazonal

Os jacarés utilizam ampla diversidade de ítens alimentares, incluindo várias ordens de invertebrados eas quatro ordens de vertebrados. Entre os invertebrados, insetos (principalmente Odonata, Hemiptera e Coleoptera), Mollusca (principalmente Pomacea e Bivalvia) e Crustacea (principalmente carangueijos) são preferencialmente predados. Entre os vertebrados, peixe é o ítem mais consumido. Fragmentos de rãns, pássaros, mamíferos e alguns casos de canibalismo podem também ser encontrados, mas em baixas frequências relativas (<5%).

Figura 4. Variação anual do nível máximo do Rio Paraguai observado na régua de Ladário, Pantanal Sul, de janeiro de 1900 a Dezembro de 1997. Notar o período de 25 anos consecutivos de altos níveis de inundação desde 1974, que exercem impacto positivo no crescimento populacional de jacaré.

A maior parte da variação no sucesso alimentar, na composição da dieta e na condição corporal está relacionado às mudanças sazonais na temperatura e nível d’água. No Pantanal, em função da interação dessas duas variáveis, os jacarés experimentam quatro épocas distintas nas condições de habitats. Alto nível d’água e temperaturas quentes (Jan-Mar) estão relacionados com maior sucesso alimentar e a maioria dos indivíduos utiliza vertebrados, que por sua vez, tem efeito positivo sobre as reservas lipídicas e a condição corporal. Quando as

temperaturas diminuem e o nível d’água se mantém elevado (Abr-Jun), a maioria dos indivíduos utiliza invertebrados e o sucesso alimentar continua alto. Dado que o valor nutricional dos invertebrados é menor, mas o sucesso alimentar continua alto, a condição corporal reflete o balanço entre os efeitos desses dois fatores. Temperatura e nível d’água baixos (Jul-Set) é uma combinação crítica para os jacarés. As baixas temperaturas determinam dieta composta principalmente por invertebrados que, juntamente com o baixo sucesso alimentar

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devido ao baixo nível d’água, tem um forte impacto negativo na condição corporal dos indivíduos. Quando a temperatura aumenta mas o nível d’água permanece baixo (Out-Dez), a condição corporal pode melhorar em resposta à prevalência de vertebrados na dieta, mas este efeito é contrabalanceado pelo baixo sucesso alimentar. Esse padrão é geralmente consistente ao longo dos anos, contudo, existe marcada variação interanual nas condições ambientais, particularmente na disponibilidade de água nas épocas secas (vide Figura 3). Considerando que os crocodilianos dependem da água para manter a temperatura corporal diferente do ar durante os períodos frios e à noite e o sucesso alimentar e os processos digestivos são fortemente influenciados pela temperatura do corpo (Diefenbach 1975 a, b; Coulson e Hernandez 1983), é esperado que haja alta variabilidade temporal na condição corporal dos indivíduos. Isto por sua vez, tem impacto marcante na reprodução e na história de vida do jacaré no Pantanal, cujos efeitos tem sido considerados nas decisões de manejo.

Biologia reprodutiva dos machos

A taxa de produção de esperma é o componente mais importante da fertilidade, com implicações diretas no crescimento populacional. Independentemente do efeito da duração dos ciclos do epitêlio seminífero, a massa testicular está fortemente correlacionada às taxas de produção de esperma (Amann, 1970). Assim, diferenças intraespecíficas na fertilidade podem ser avaliadas com base nos valores do índice gonadosomático (IG) e nas características histológicas dos testículos. Os machos >90 cm SVL (comprimento rostro-anal) apresentam IG seis vezes maior que os indivíduos menores e somente eles atigem o estágio máximo de desenvolvimento definido por exame histológico das gônadas. Isto mostra que valor reprodutivo dos indivíduos >90 cm SVL é muito superior ao dos indivíduos menores. Baseado em estudos de marcação e recaptura, bem como na recaptura de indivíduos de idade conhecida, 90 cm SVL é atingido com cerca dos nove anos de idade, definindo asssim, a idade de maturidade sexual dos machos.

É fundamental que as diferenças intraespecífica na fertilidade sejam consideradas na definição de critérios de utilização sustentada das populações naturais. Os dados indicam que a pressão de caça sobre indivíduos adultos, mesmo que em baixas intensidades, pode causar sérios impactos no potencial reprodutivo da população. De fato, o modelo de simulação da dinâmica populacional indica que existe alto risco de extinção local se a população for submetida à caça seletiva de indivíduos adultos (Coutinho, 2000). No Brasil, por força de legislação federal, não é permitida a caça de animais na natureza para fins comerciais.

Biologia reprodutiva das fêmeas

As fêmeas iniciam a vitelogêneses com cerca de 55 cm SVL. Baseado na relação tamanho-idade, tal tamanho é alcançado aos cerca de 5 anos de idade. Ovário maturo, com folículos em vitelogênesis avançada somente é observado em fêmeas >70 cm SVL, cuja idade é estimada em cerca de 7 anos de idade. Contudo, a nidificação ocorre pelo menos um ano mais tarde, como tem sido constatado pelo tamanho da menor fêmea reprodutiva encontrada próximo ao ninho (74 cm SVL). A maioria das fêmeas começa a vida reprodutiva aos 80 cm SVL, ou seja, aos cerca de 10 anos de idade. Esses dados mostram que a idade de maturação sexual não deve ser definida com base no tamanho das menores fêmeas reprodutivas, uma vez que elas são exceção e representam pequena parcela da população de fêmeas com alto valor demográfico, que realmente contribuem para o crescimento populacional. Portanto, a idade de maturação sexual das fêmeas está em torno dos 10 anos de idade. Conforme já mencionado, estratégias de manejo direcionadas para o abate seletivo de indivíduos grandes pode atingir esse segmento da população, que por sua vez, determina declínio no potencial reprodutivo da população.

A proporção de fêmeas reprodutivas pode ser calculada baseado no nível d’água do Rio Paraguai. Conforme mostrado anteriormente, o nível d’água medido na régua de Ladário pode ser usado para prever a intensidade de inundação em toda planície Pantaneira. Essa relação tem várias implicações importantes para conservação


e manejo do Pantanal. A primeira implicação e talvez uma das mais importantes, é que qualquer distúrbio antropogênico na dinâmica de inundação natural do Rio Paraguai pode causar fortes impactos não somente nas populações naturais de jacarés, mas também em várias espécies de vida selvagem em toda a planície de inundação. Em relação ao manejo do jacaré, baseado nas condições ambientais, é possível prever com cerca de seis meses de antecedência a proporção de fêmeas reprodutivas. E ainda, com base na condição corporal da fêmea, é possível determinar com cerca de 2-3 meses de antecedência, a probabilidade de uma determinada fêmea reproduzir. Portanto, o nível d’água do Rio Paraguai é o melhor indicador (mais fácil e menos honeroso) para prever as tendências de longo termo no tamanho da população de jacarés e para auxiliar nos cálculos das cotas de extração, sejam elas de ovos ou de indivíduos sub-adultos e/ou adultos.

Taxa de crescimento populacional

Durante os anos de 1962 a 1973, o Pantanal passou por um período de 12 anos consecutivos de seca severa (vide Figura 4), que juntamente com o efeito da caça comercial, exerceu grande impacto na população de jacarés. Apesar de não existir registros formais do tamanho populacional nessa ocasião, sabe-se que no início dos anos 70 as densidades eram bastante baixas. Conforme relatado pela população local, grande número de jacarés eram vistos mortos ou perecendo por falta de alimentos nos campos secos. Desde 1974, o nível d’água do Rio Paraguai tem flutuado em patamares relativamente altos e o número de jacarés voltou a aumentar. Durante a década de 80, apesar da repressão policial, a espécie foi extensivamente caçada, sendo reconhecida como uma das populações de crocodilianos mais fortemente explotadas (Brazaitis et al. 1998). Desde o início dos anos 90 não tem havido caça comercial e os levantamentos recentes mostram populações bastante vigorosas, distribuidas por toda planície Pantaneira (ver Status e tendências no tamanho populacional).

Baseado nessas informações, é possível calcular uma estimativa aproximada da taxa de crescimento populacional do jacaré no Pantanal.

A densidade atual, que muito provavelmente reflete a capacidade suporte do ambiente, foi fixada em 150 ind./km2. As densidades iniciais simuladas após o período de seca foram 5, 10, 20, 30 e 40 ind./km2, que representam 3%, 7%, 13%, 20% e 27% do tamanho populacional atual. As taxas de crescimento foram então estimadas avaliando as inclinações das retas das regressões. A taxa média anual de crescimento populacional variou de 13,7 a 5,5%, caso a população tivesse diminuido para 3% e 27%, respectivamente, do valor atual após os 12 anos de seca (Tabela 2). Tabela 2. Simulação da taxa de crescimento médio anual da população de Caiman yacare no Pantanal. A capacidade suporte foi fixada em 150 ind./km2 baseado em levantamentos recentes e os valores iniciais expressam as possíveis densidades após o período de 12 anos consecutivos de seca.

Densidade inicial

(ind./km2)

Inclinação da reta (β)

Taxa de crescimento

(1-e-β)

5 0,147 0,137 10 0,118 0,111 20 0,087 0,083 30 0,070 0,067 40 0,057 0,055

Exceto os altos valores estimados caso a população tivesse sido reduzida para 3 e 5% das densidades atuais (13,7 e 11,1%, respectivamente), as taxas de crescimento variando entre 5,5 e 8,4% são similares às estimativas descritas para várias outras espécies de crocodilianos. Isto inclui Caiman crocodilus na Venezuela (7%, Thorbjarnarson 1991), o aligator (7-8%, Hines and Abercrombie 1987) e os crocodilos Australianos (5-7% para C. porosus, Bayliss 1987; Webb e Manolis 1993, 1,5-4% para C. Johnstoni, Smith & Webb 1985; Tucker 1997). É interessante notar que os caimans são frequentemente reconhecidos por apresentarem história de vida e parâmentros demográficos distintos dos demais crocodilianos (e.g. Tucker 1997). Contudo, as taxas de crescimentos, que expressam a combinação entre mortalidade e reprodução idade-específica,

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são similares àquelas observadas para outras espécies. Portanto, assumindo taxas de crescimento equivalentes aos caimans da Venezuela e ao aligator norte-americano, é válido assumir taxas médias anuais de crescimento entre 5 e 7% para o jacaré no Pantanal.

Tais informações são especialmente importantes para duas outras finalidades. Primeiro, elas mostram a capacidade de recuperação da população frente a distúrbios acentuados tais como a caça excessiva ou longos períodos de seca. Segundo, os dados são importantes para definir a amplitude de variação dos valores de crescimento populacional, que por sua vez, são essenciais para orientar estratégias de manejo.

Status e tendências no tamanho populacional

Como mencionado anteriormente, os últimos 25 anos tem sido caracterizados por altos níveis de inundação no Pantanal (ver Figura 4). Alto nível d’água está relacionado com alto potencial

reprodutivo, maior taxa de crescimento e sobrevivência dos indivíduos e baixa mortalidade (Coutinho 2000). Tais relações indicam que a população de Caiman yacare no Pantanal está crescendo ou flutuando em níveis estáveis, mas definitivamente não diminuindo.

De fato, pesquisas recentes confirmam que no Pantanal Brasileiro o Caiman yacare apresenta uma das mais vigorosas populações naturais de crocodilianos no mundo. Resultados de levantamentos aéreos mostram altas densidades de jacarés (>100 ind/km2), distribuidos por toda planície Pantaneira (Figura 5). O tamanho populacional está na ordem dos milhões, provavelmente alcançando a ordem dos 30 milhões de indivíduos por toda planície, enfatizando que a espécie não está ameaçada ou em risco de extinção.

Na figura 6 são mostrados dados de densidade populacional obtidos durante um período de cinco anos (1993 to 1997) por levantamentos sistemáticos utilizando aviões do tipo ultraleve como plataforma de contagem.

Figura 5. Distribuição e abundância de Caiman yacare no Pantanal Brasileiro definido por levantamento aéreo em Setembro de 1991 (segundo Mourão et al. 2000).


Observa-se que a população se manteve estável, não apresentando tendência de aumento ou declínio durante o período de estudo. Da mesma forma, estimativas de abundância obtidas por ténicos da EMBRAPA (www.cpap.embrapa.br/peld) em toda planície Pantaneira usando aviões tipo Cessna mostram que, exceto o alto valor observado em 1993, não houveram mudanças significativas durante o perído de 1991 a 2000 (F1,3 =0,24; p=0,66, Figura 6).

Figura 6. Estimativas de densidade de Caiman yacare obtidas por contagens aéreas de ultraleve de 1993 a 1997, no Pantanal Sul, Brasil.

Figura 7. Estimativas de abundância de Caiman yacare em toda Planície Pantaneira de 1991 a 2000, utilizando aviões tipo Cessna como plataforma de contagem. Não foram usados fatores de correção (dados de www.cpap.embrapa.br/peld).

Em síntese, as informações apresentadas nesse relatório fornecem os subsídios biológicos sobre os quais tem sido estruturado o programa de conservação e manejo de jacaré no Pantanal Brasileiro. Os dados são fortes evidências que Caiman yacare pode ser usado como recurso natural renovável em bases sustentáveis. Sob o presente regime hídrico, caracterizado por um longo período de alto nível d’água (os maiores níveis no século foram registrados em 1988 e 1995), as políticas de manejo devem ser direcionadas à incorporação dos caimans como alternativa de produção na planície Pantaneira. As vantagens advindas da implementação dessas políticas são significativas quando os efeitos sobre o desenvolvimento social regional e a conservação da biodiversidade são levadas em consideração. Contudo, para que as políticas de utilização sustentada funcionem a serviço da conservação, é preciso assegurar relações comerciais justas entre os países. Espera-se que o “Taller Internacional sobre Regulación, Manejo y Comercio de Caiman yacare” caracterize o início do diálogo entre os paíse e as recomendações advindas do encontro possam orientar estratégias de ação conjunta, visando garantir o sucesso e a viabilidade dos programas de conservação e manejo de Caiman yacare em toda área de distribuição da espécie. BIBLIOGRAFIA

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IUCN/UNEP/WWF. 1980. World Conservation Strategy. Living Resources: Conservation for Sustainable Development. IUCN Report, Gland.

IUCN/UNEP/WWF. 1991. Caring for the Earth. A Strategy for Sustainable Living. IUCN Report, Gland.

Jenkins, R. 1987. The world conservation strategy and CITES: principles for the management of crocodilians. Pp. 27-31 in G. W. Webb, S. C. Manolis and P. J. Whitehead (Eds.). Wildlife Management: Crocodiles and Jacarés. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, NSW, Au.

Joanen, T. and L. McNease. 1987. Management of Jacarés in Louisiana, USA. Pp. 33-42 in G. W. Webb, S. C. Manolis and P. J. Whitehead (Eds.). Wildlife Management: Crocodiles and Jacarés. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, NSW, Au.

Lang, J. 1987. Crocodilian behaviour: implication for management. Pp. 273-294 in G. W. Webb, S. C. Manolis and P. J. Whitehead (Eds.). Wildlife Management: Crocodiles and Jacarés. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, NSW, Au.

Ludwig, D., R. Hilborn and C. Walters. 1993. Uncertainty, resource exploitation and conservation: lessons from history. Science, 260:17-18.

Luxmoore, R. 1990. International crocodilian skin trade: trends and sources, 10th Working Meeting

of the Crocodile Specialist Group, pp. 302-305. IUCN/CSG, Gland, Switzerland.

Magnusson, W., and G. M. Mourão. 1997. Manejo extensivo de jacarés no Brasil. Pp. 214-221 in C. V. Padua, R. E. Bodmer and L. Cullen (Eds.). Manejo e Conservação de Vida Silvestre no Brasil. CNPq, Brasília.

Monteiro, L., M. Cavalcanti and H. Sommer. 1997. Comparative ontogenetic shape changes in the skull of caiman species (Crocodylia, Jacaréidae). J. Morphology, 231:53-62.

Mourão, G., P. Bayliss, M. Coutinho, C. Abercrombie and A. Arruda. 1994. Test of an aerial survey for caiman and other wildlife in the Pantanal, Brazil. Wildl. Soc. Bull., 22:50-56.

Mourão, G. M., Z. Campos, M. Coutinho and C. Abercrombie. 1996. Size structure of illegal harvested and surviving caiman (Caiman crocodilus yacare) in the Pantanal, Brazil. Biological Conservation, 75:261-265.

Mourão, G., M. Coutinho, R. Mauro, Z. Campos, W. Tomás and W. Magnusson. 2000. Aerial surveys of caiman, marsh deer, and pampas deer in the Pantanal Wetland of Brazil. Biol. Con., 92:175-183.

Pinheiro, M. and S. Santos. 1992. Effeito da temperatura da água sobre o crescimento inicial de Caiman crocodilus yacare. Rev. Bras. Biol., 52:161-168.

Pinheiro, M., G. Mourão, Z. Campos and M. Coutinho. 1997. Influência da temperatura de incubação na determinação do sexo do jacaré (Caiman crocodilus yacare). Rev. Brasil. Biol., 57:383-391.

Robinson, J. and K. Redford. 1991. The use and conservation of wildlife. Pp. 3-5 in J. G. Robinson and K. Redford (Eds.). Neotropical Wildlife Use and Conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Santos, S., M. Nogueira, M. Pinheiro, Z. Campos, W. Magnusson, and G. Mourão. 1996. Diets of Caiman crocodilus yacare from different habitats in the Brazilian

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Pantanal. Herpetological Journal, 6:111-117.

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Thorbjarnarson, J. 1994. Reproductive ecology of the spectacle caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in the Venezuelan Llanos. Copeia, 4:907-919.

Tucker, A. 1997. Ecology and demography of freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus johnstoni) in the Lynd River of north Queensland. PhD Thesis, Dept. Zoology. The UQ/Au, p.230.

Webb, G., H. Messel, J. Crawford and M. J. Yerbury. 1978. Growth rates of Crocodylus porosus (Reptilia: Crocodilia) from Arnhem Land, Northern Australia. Australia Wildlife Research, 5:385-399.

Webb, G. and S. Manolis. 1993. Conserving Australian's crocodiles through commercial incentives. Pp. 250-256 in D. Lunney and D. Ayers (Eds.). Herpetology in Australia. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, NSW, Au.

Woodward, A., D. David and R. Degner. 1993. The rise and fall of classic crocodilian skin prices: where do we go from here? Second Regional Conference of the Crocodile Specialist Group, pp. 302-305. IUCN/CSG, Gland, Switzerland, Darwin, NT, Au.

Responsáveis pela elaboração do relatório Delegados do Brasil no “Taller Internacional sobre Regulación, Manejo y Comercio de Caiman yacare” Gainsville - USA 3-5 de Outubro de 2002:

Maria Iolita Bampi é Coordenadora Geral da Fauna, vinculada à Diretoria de Fauna e

Recursos Pesqueiros do Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e Recursos Naturais Renováveis – IBAMA,

Marcos Coutinho é pesquisador III da Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária - EMBRAPA e atualmente está vinculado à Coordenação Geral de Fauna e ao Centro de Conservação e Manejo de Répteis e Anfíbios do IBAMA

Endereço para correspondência Maria Iolita Bampi e/ou Marcos Coutinho Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e Recursos Naturais Renováveis – IBAMA Diretoria de Fauna e Recursos Pesqueiros Coordenação Geral da Fauna SAIN - L4 Norte Edifício Sede do IBAMA 70.800-200 BRASÏLIA - BRASIL Fone: ++55 61 225 81 50 e-mail: [email protected]

Evaluación del Programa de Manejo de Caimanes en Paraguay

Alejandro Larriera & James Perran Ross

INTRODUCCIÓN

El estudio de los caimanes paraguayos tiene una larga y fructífera historia, que se ve reflejada en infinidad de publicaciones científicas de vieja data, hasta llegar a los relativamente recientes reportes de Don Federico Medem en 1983, los estudios de Aquino en 1988 y Scott et al., que en 1990 sientan las bases para un programa de monitoreo de mediano plazo. En 1992, Messel y King producen un reporte sumario de evaluaciones poblacionales realizadas por conteos nocturnos y sobrevuelos diurnos. Finalmente, King et al. publican en 1994 un pormenorizado informe sobre la situación de los Crocodylia paraguayos, que en sus recomendaciones delinea los aspectos que fueran tenidos en cuenta para las cuotas de cosechas del programa de manejo ejecutado hasta el año pasado.

Existen algunos antecedentes sobre inconvenientes en la aplicación del programa de referencia, ya que en una primera ocasión debió incrementarse el cupo original debido a algún malentendido entre los industriales sobre la distribución de la cuota, y el año último se presentaron dificultades para completar las cuotas en algunos departamentos. Recientemente se han producido algunos cambios administrativos en Paraguay, a partir de la creación de la Secretaría de Medio Ambiente por un lado, y el alejamiento de personal de la Secretaría CITES de Paraguay, a lo que se atribuye cierto nivel de desinformación de las nuevas autoridades y personal, como así también dificultades de comunicación con el Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos.

La estructuración del nuevo programa de cosechas de Caiman yacare, parece haberse superpuesto en esta ocasión con el negativo efecto de los informes de la prensa sobre los problemas ambientales producidos en la zona

del Pilcomayo, generando marcada confusión a todos los niveles.

Tanto a nivel de la Oficina Ejecutiva del CSG, como de la Regional, se recibieron preocupantes reportes/reclamos/solicitudes de acción, sumados a una interminable sucesión de muy poco serios enfoques periodísticos del tema. Esto nos motivó a generar los primeros contactos oficiales con el Gobierno paraguayo desde la Oficina Regional del CSG, manifestando nuestra especial preocupación. Esta acción que concluyó con la invitación de la Secretaría de Medio Ambiente, para que miembros del CSG visiten el Paraguay en el corto plazo. El tema fue tratado durante la reunión del Steering Committee del CSG en la ciudad de Guangzhou, China, durante los primeros días de Setiembre, aceptándose la referida invitación, y designándosenos como representantes del CSG al efecto.

Una vez coordinadas las fechas con las autoridades de la Secretaría de Medio Ambiente, se decide la visita entre el 26 y el 29 de Setiembres ppdos. CRONOGRAMA DE ACTIVIDADES

En virtud de la limitada disponibilidad de tiempo disponible, se ajusta el cronograma de la visita privilegiando las reuniones con las partes involucradas antes que las visitas al campo.

Miércoles 26 septiembre 2001

JPR – Conversaciones con autoridades de la Secretaría del Ambiente (Miguel Elias y Nora Neris).

Jueves 27 JPR & AL – Reunión con el Presidente de la Cámara de Diputados, el Secretario del Ambiente, y un grupo de Diputados. Reunión con el personal técnico paraguayo (Tabla 1).


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Reunión con Productores agropecuarios, Curtidores y exportadores (Tabla 1)

Viernes 28: (JPR & AL) Reuniones de trabajo con el personal de la

Secretaría del Ambiente. Reconocimiento de Ambientes: Laguna Ypoa

Cena de agasajo: Asociación de Productores y Exportadores.

Sábado 29 JPR – Reunión con Lucy Aquino (Miembro

paraguayo del CSG)

Tabla 1. Lista de oficiales visitados y entrevistados

Personal del Ministerio Contactado Edmundo Rolon Osnaghi- Secretario de Medio Ambiente. Miguel Elias- Asesor Ministerial Nora Neris de Colman- Departamento de Vida Silvestre. Personal Técnico, Reunión del Jueves 27 (Mañana) Martha Motte, Museo Nacional de Historia de PY Isabel Cammarra de Fox- Museo Nacional de Historia de PY Laura Villalba, Technica de la Gobernacion Alto Paraguay Francisco Brusquetti Technica de la Gobernacion Alto Paraguay Julian Ortiz Laria, Zoologico Iteipu Binacional Cristina Morales, Direcion de Areas Protegidas SEAM Ignacio Avila, Biologo controlado proyecto privada de criadero de yacare Wilfredo Sosa, Dir. General de Biodiversidad SEAM Felicita Areco, Directora de Gestion Ambiental SEAM Nora Neris, Dept.

Productores e Industriales, Reunión del Jueves 27 (Tarde) Jean Ramon Rios, Est. San Jorge(?) General Diaz-Pilcamayo Hetty Abadie, Estancia Genl, Diaz, Alto PY Angel Romero Estancia Kyranty Alto PY (y curtiembre?) Cosme Lacour, Leather Paraguay SRL Atilio Fernandez Quantum S.R.L. Helena C. Acereolo, Quattra “A” SRL Mabel de Hernandez, Reptiles BelGel SRL Beconi Vicencio, Delbeco Trading Co. Juan B. Beloto, Cueros del Norte SRL Jose R. Belotto, Curtiembre JB Ovidio Rodriguez, O. R. Export Import Joshua Rodgers, Exportacion de animales sylvestres Walter Gomez, Exportacion de Animales Vivos Bryce Owen, Exportacion de Animales Vivos

RESULTADOS

Evaluación de los fundamentos técnicos del manejo – Estudios recientes.

Debe destacarse y felicitar a los responsables del área de medio ambiente (Personal Técnico, Político y Administrativo) ya que los estudios que fundamentan la cosecha propuesta para el corriente año, se constituyen en las primeras investigaciones de campo desde 1993.

Consideramos a este hecho un muy buen comienzo, aunque de momento limitado a las áreas a cosechar, que debería ampliarse a otras regiones en el futuro. Asimismo, si bien la cuota

de cosecha asignada de extracción del 10%, puede considerarse como estándar, indudablemente deberán profundizarse los estudios a efectos de definir la proporción más apropiada a la especie y condiciones regionales (Table 2).

Se deben perfeccionar técnicamente los estudios de campo (Ver recomendaciones). Si bien el personal técnico resulta apropiado para la escala actual del programa (18 estancias), deberá considerarse una expansión en el equipo al momento de planificar una ampliación del trabajo.

A. Larriera and J. P. Ross – Evaluación del Programa de Manejo de yacare en Paraguay

Tabla 2. Cuotas de Cosecha y Estimaciones Poblacionales, Paraguay 2001

Estancia Cuota cosecha 2001 Estimación pobl.1 Estimación pobl. 2

Uruguayana 100 130 KueKue 160 1.607 Loma Hovy 165 1.653 Manuela 670 6.700 Aguada 182 1.824 Barrero 200 2059 San Juan 100 896 San Antonio 584 5.844 Loma Verde 654 6.546 Inglesa 100 416 General Diaz 2.800 2.876 30.000+ Aguada Ita 1.815 751 18.151 Luna 100 880 Lobo Perten 100 175 Bernal Kue — 3 8.856 Riacho Miranda — 3 8.302 San Jorge (Pilcomayo) 2.426 10.000 TOTAL 10.156

Notas 1 Datos de reportes a la SEAM. Estudios realizados emtre Julio y Septiembre de 2001 por personal de la SEAM o Dept. de Biología. Se proveyeron además las planillas de campo. Conteos nocturnos de animales visibles en lagunas bien definidas, incluyendo distribución de clases. 2 Algunas poblaciones mas grandes y densas, estudiadas por transectas o cuadrantes, extrapolando números totales. 3 Al momento de nuestra visita, estas estancias no tenían cuota asignada, debido a que los estudios se realizaron tardíamente (su inclusión se estaba apelando). Evaluación del nuevo sistema de cosechas propuesto

Claramente se trata de la adaptación y aplicación del modelo venezolano, de comprobado suceso a través de los años. Sobretodo debe destacarse el hecho de que en este sistema, el núcleo productivo es la estancia ganadera, que es la responsable de solicitar el estudio y la cuota de habilitación, y no el curtidor o exportador, reduciendo notablemente el nivel de conflicto potencial con los propietarios de las tierras.

Memoria descriptiva (Figura 1): • Estancias solicitan la habilitación de una

cuota de cosecha. • Se estudian las solicitudes (Antecedentes

del solicitante, situación impositiva, etc.) • Se lleva a cabo el estudio de campo (Por

personal de Medio Ambiente) • Se asigna la cuota a la estancia (si

corresponde)

• Se establecen las reglamentaciones a partir de resoluciones ministeriales. • Época de cosecha. • Tamaños autorizados.

• La posesión y el movimiento de las pieles frescas, antes de ser marcadas, está amparada por la resolución de referencia.

• Centralización del acopio. Se verifica el cumplimiento de la cuota mediante la colocación de los precintos domésticos.

• Movimientos hacia y dentro de las curtiembres

• En las curtiembres se retiran los precintos domésticos para iniciar el proceso de curtido.

• Las partes curtidas (flancos, colas, etc.) son inspeccionadas y marcadas con los precintos CITES.

• La posesión, o el transporte de pieles sin precintos, por personas sin resoluciones de cosecha para estancias, está terminantemente prohibida.

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• El transporte hacia el punto de exportación (aeropuerto), son tareas supervisadas por personal oficial.

• Los permisos CITES incluyen los números de precintos de las pieles del envío, y son inmediatamente exportadas.

Programa actual (2001)

Son 18 estancias con cuotas de cosecha de entre 100 y 2.800 animales cada una. En total cerca 10.000 (10.146 de acuerdo a nuestra evaluación de las resoluciones).

Situación actual

Los estudios y las cuotas establecidas tienen vigencia hasta el 6 de Octubre, y se están llevando a cabo al momento de realizarse esta visita. Los precintos CITES y los domésticos ya están disponibles.

Evaluación general

El proceso es adecuado en teoría, la clave está en verlo funcionar tanto en implementación como en efectividad.

ANÁLISIS DE LOS PUNTOS DÉBILES • Movimiento de cueros de unas estancias a

otras, desde áreas protegidas y desde o hacia países limítrofes. (Se trata de un factor limitado por la cuota asignada a las estancias)

• Movimiento de pieles ilegales y sin precintos a través de países vecinos, o directamente a los consumidores. (Factor limitado por los controles de CITES a nivel de los países importadores)

• Movimientos de pieles ilegales, sin precintos, de diversos orígenes, directo a las curtiembres. Este es el punto mas vulnerable y el que requiere mas control, inspeccionando la coherencia entre los precintos CITES y el inventario.

Evaluación de los aspectos técnicos y la

capacidad de implementación

• Capacidad para realizar los estudios – Inicialmente aparece como suficiente, aunque deben considerarse algunas recomendaciones (mas abajo), para cumplir

de manera completa con los estándares internacionales.

• Debe evaluarse además, la posibilidad de incluir a las Universidades con carreras de incumbencia, para que tengan una participación activa en los aspectos técnicos.

• Capacidad para inspeccionar el cumplimiento de las reglamentaciones – En principio aparece como inadecuada, y sin personal suficiente para realizar las inspecciones y el control de precintado. Policía ambiental de orden nacional: Existen variados reportes de ineficiencia. La clave de solución parece ser la integración con las autoridades departamentales y las autoridades militares para garantizar la aplicación de las reglamentaciones.

Evaluación del problema en la región del

río Pilcomayo

La difusión masiva de los problemas ambientales en la región, junto a la ambigüedad de la información generada, que aparentemente relacionaba el programa de cosechas del Paraguay, con la mortandad debido a la sequía, actuaron abiertamente en contra de las posibilidades de comprensión de la situación por parte tanto de la opinión pública en general, como de algunas ONG’s en particular.

Los problemas de tipo ambiental tienen origen ambiental y las soluciones deben buscarse por las mismas vías, teniendo en claro que se trata de una situación completamente independiente de un programa de Uso Sostenible. Los intentos por proporcionar alimentos o traslocar animales en general al límite de sus fuerzas, son fútiles e innecesarios, y si bien en algunos casos pueden tener un efecto positivo calmando a la opinión pública, queda claro que del mismo modo pueden generar reacciones de impredecibles consecuencias, haciendo peligrar programas bien fundamentados, pero mal explicitados.

A. Larriera and J. P. Ross – Evaluación del Programa de Manejo de yacare en Paraguay

Figura 1. Diagrama de la cosecha de Caiman yacare (Paraguay 2001)

Este tipo de eventos, aunque en este caso favorecido por el mal manejo humano de las cuencas hídricas, son normales en la evolución de las poblaciones de la mayoría de los crocodílidos, que en general han demostrado una marcada capacidad de recuperación luego de sequías de estas características.

El manejo de las relaciones públicas, se mostró en este caso como un aspecto claramente deficitario. La cosecha sobre esa población de animales sumamente estresada fue un serio error de apreciación, junto al acceso de la prensa sin la información y orientación apropiadas. Sin dudas este evento debe dejar sus enseñanzas para evitar que se repita en el futuro.

RECOMENDACIONES

Técnicas: Estudios de Campo. • Se debe mejorar la ubicación de los

lugares de monitoreo con la utilización del GPS para punto de inicio-punto de terminación.

• Hacer constar la temperatura del aire y la temperatura del agua como datos de rutina.

• Estandarizar los conteos por tipo y tamaños.

• Calibrar las clases de tamaño (I, II, III, IV), usando datos de los animales cazados.

• Acumular los datos de los estudios en una base de datos de distribución de recursos y densidad.

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• Enviar la información actual y futura de los estudios, a las oficinas del CSG para su publicación en el Newsletter.

Técnicas – Formación de recursos humanos • Contratar la participación de un consultor

externo para evaluar el programa en curso, y entrenar al personal (Recomendación: Alvaro Velasco).

• Desarrollar un Taller de entrenamiento con la participación de miembros regionales del CSG en el dictado.

• Evaluar apropiadamente la capacidad del personal disponible para los estudios de campo, las inspecciones y la aplicación de las reglamentaciones. Considerar en tal sentido, las posibilidades de incrementar dicho personal.

• Establecer un marco de cooperación con la policía, las autoridades militares, las autoridades de áreas naturales protegidas y la policía ambiental.

Administrativas – Control de Cosecha • Usar precintos “tipo” CITES para la

circulación doméstica de las pieles, a efectos de prevenir posibilidades de duplicación de precintos de venta libre.

• Profundizar los controles de pieles sin precintos en curtiembres:

• Incentivar la retención de los precintos domésticos durante el curtido (reduciendo la tasa de precintado?) Establecer un sistema de inspección y control de inventario a efectos de mantener una relación 1:1 de precintos domésticos, pieles y precintos CITES.

• Llevar a cabo el programa de 2001, sin desviaciones de lo pautado.

• Preparar un reporte de análisis de la cosecha para Marzo de 2002 (números, logros, dificultades), para enviar a la Secretaría CITES y al CSG.

Administrativas – Relaciones Públicas • Desarrollar junto a las oficinas de educación

ambiental de la Secretaría, un programa de comunicación pública, utilizando folletería, posters, y cortos televisivos y radiales, con el objetivo de comunicar la estructura, las

regulaciones, y los beneficios del programa de cosecha.

Administrativas – Material Confiscado Disponible en la Secretaría • Es prioritario mantener la seguridad y un

cuidadoso inventario de esas pieles. • Consultar con la Secretaría CITES. • Evaluar su valor real de mercado. Si bien

los intentos anteriores de venta no fueron exitosos, la situación puede haber variado ahora que el mercado de USA se encuentra abierto para la especie.

• Evaluar la venta directa a industriales extranjeros, mas que a interesados locales.

• Considerar por ultimo, la opción de destruir el material para ofrecer una imagen positiva ante la opinión pública.

AGRADECIMIENTOS

Al Secretario de Medio Ambiente Edmundo Rolon Osnaghi; a Miguel Elias y a Nora Neris Colman. A todo el personal técnico de la Secretaría de Medio Ambiente (Ver anexo). A la Asociación de Exportadores de pieles, a los Productores pecuarios y Propietarios de tierras (Ver Tabla 1). A Lucy Aquino; Obdulio Menghi y Tomás Waller del CSG.

Alejandro Larriera Vice Presidente Regional del Latin America Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos Pje. Pvdo. 4455 (Centeno 950) Santa Fe 3000, Argentina James Perran Ross Oficial Ejecutivo Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos Florida Museum of Natural History P.O. Box 117800 University of Florida Gainesville FL 32611

Análisis de la Utilización del Jakare Hu (Caiman yacare) en Paraguay

NORA NERIS Dirección de Manejo de Vida Silvestre Pesca y Acuicultura

Secretaria del Ambiente (Seam), Paraguay

ANTECEDENTES

En el año 1975 mediante Decreto del Poder Ejecutivo No. 18.796 se declara "La protección del Estado sobre todas las especies de animales de la fauna silvestre que temporal o permanentemente, habitan el territorio de la República, se dictan medidas de conservación y se prohíbe la caza, comercialización y exportación de los mismos." A pesar de lo establecido en el año 1975 el Decreto del Poder Ejecutivo No. 13.806 del año 1986 determina que "Se suspende temporalmente la aplicación del Decreto No. 18.796 a los efectos de permitir la caza limitada de víboras y utilización de sus cueros para la confección de calzados destinados exclusivamente a la exportación".

El Paraguay es parte de la Convención CITES por la Ley 583 desde el año 1976. En el año 1991 mediante el Decreto Presidencial No.. 10.655 se creó la oficina de la Autoridad Científica de CITES por la que se “Dictan medidas de conservación, se regula la caza o recolección, exportación, importación y reexportación de las especies incluidas en los Apéndices de la CITES.

Al año siguiente la Ley de Vida Silvestre No. 96/92 establece en su Articulo No. 39 que se podrá realizar uso sustentable de las especies silvestres siempre y cuando existan estudios técnicos de campo que demuestran que no será perjudicial para las poblaciones silvestres. El Artículo 41 de Ley de vida silvestre garantiza el uso sustentable de las especies silvestre por parte de las comunidades indígenas. En 1992 fue ratificada por la Ley No. 253 la Convención sobre Biodiversidad mediante la que se establecen pautas sobre el uso sustentable de la

Vida Silvestre y las garantías sobre este uso por parte de las poblaciones locales.

Los primeros censos y estudios de la biología del jakare en Paraguay comenzaron a hacerse en 1986 dando como resultado numerosas publicaciones científicas. Aquino (1988) realizó estudios sobre la alimentación y su relación con los cambios morfológicos del Caiman yacare. Aquino y Duszynski (1989) encontraron dos nuevas especies de parásitos de Caiman yacare (jakare hu) y Caiman latirostris (jakare mariposa). Scott et al. (1991) estudiaron la distribución, hábitat y conservación de los caimanes en Paraguay. La oficina de la Autoridad Científica de CITES establecida por Decreto Presidencial se le asignó presupuesto propio abocándose al estudio poblacional de especies CITES entre las que figuran monitoreos anuales de las poblaciones de jakare hu en todo el país y estudios por consultores externos (Messel y King, 1992; King et al., 1994).

Ante reiteradas sugerencias de la Autoridad Científica de CITES-Py de entonces a la Autoridad Administrativa y a las autoridades del gobierno acerca de que la extracción de especimenes de jakare hu a poblaciones silvestres no perjudicarían a las mismas. Así, finalmente en el año 1997 se accedió a dar un cupo experimental de 5.000 especimenes de jakare hu y por problemas entre los exportadores finalmente se elevó la cuota a 6.000 individuos. En el año 2000, se abrió nuevamente un cupo esta vez de 10.000 individuos de jakare hu en la región de Alto Paraguay (Figura 1) y en el Departamento Ñeembucu al del país (Figura 2). Este último Departamento a través de sus Autoridades se opuso al desarrollo del programa de uso sustentable del jakare hu y carpincho

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(Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris) influidas fuertemente por organizaciones no gubernamentales preservacionistas. En el Departamento Alto Paraguay se realizó el programa de uso de las especies jakare hu y carpincho, a través de una cooperativa de comunidades indígenas. Hubieron quejas de

parte de propietarios privados debido a que argumentaron que el programa era anticonstitucional debido a que favorecía a una parte de la población. Por otro lado hubieron quejas de la margen brasileña debido a que se argumento que cazadores indígenas pasaban al Brasil para obtener los especimenes.

Figure 1. Mapas de sitio de muestreo de Caiman yacare en los Departamentos de Alto Paraguay (izquierda) y de Ñeembucu (derecha).

A inicios del mes de octubre del año 2000 se creó la Secretaría del Ambiente mediante la Ley 1561. En el año 2001 se creó la Dirección de Manejo de Vida Silvestre donde se encuentra la Autoridad Científica de CITES y el Secretario Ejecutivo del Ambiente es la Autoridad administrativa de la citada convención. La Ley de creación de la Secretaría del Ambiente establece que esta Secretaría será la autoridad de aplicación de la Convención CITES con asiento de ambas Autoridades. Ante el pedido de los propietarios, indígenas, curtidores y comerciantes sobre la reapertura del programa

de uso sustentable del jakare hu se inició en el año 2001 la zafra en el Alto Paraguay y en una Estancia del Departamento Presidente Hayes por razones especiales. SISTEMAS DE PERMISOS E INSPECCIÓN

Se inicio el Programa de uso por estancias en el que los exportadores contactaron con los propietarios interesados en el uso de jakare y financiaron los estudios de censos que realizaron biólogos independientes. Se presentaron los documentos de propiedad de las Fincas a la Dirección de Manejo de la Vida Silvestre donde

N. Neris – Análisis de la Utilización del Caiman yacare en Paraguay

fueron registraron en el Registro Nacional de Vida Silvestre. También fueron registrados los biólogos independientes. En el año 2001, se formó una cámara de exportadores quienes financiaron los estudios. Cada integrante siempre también inscripto en el Registro Nacional de Vida Silvestre. Todas las estancias fueron ubicadas por GPS, la ubicación correspondiente a cada estancia puede observarse en el mapa. Una vez establecidos los

censos en cada finca, del monto total se expidió un cupo correspondiente al 10 % de la población estimada. En total se otorgó cupo a 18 estancias totalizando un total de 13.736 especimenes (Tabla 1). El total exportado hasta la actualidad es de 3.888 contando los permisos CITES que salieron del país con la mercadería exportada. (En la figura 2 se puede observar lo exportado por cada empresa.

Tabla 1. Cupos otorgados por estancias en el año 2001

Resol. No. Propietario Estancia Cantidad

151/01 Lider González San Jorge 2.426 223/01 Bartolome Nuñez Uruguaya 100 224/01 Modesto Bogado Kure kue 160 225/01 Raul Rivarola Loma hovy 165 226/01 Mariana Gonzàlez Manuela 670 227/01 Ramon Soilán Aguada 15 182 228/01 Diógenes Gallagher Bernal kue 885 229/01 Victor González Barrero 200 230/01 Miguel Cuellar San Juan 100 231/01 Mirto Feltes San Antonio 584 233/01 Bernardino Suarez Loma verde 654 234/01 Benigno Santos Inglesa 100 235/01 Hetty Abadia Laguana Gral. Diaz 2.800 236/01 Ramon Medina Aguada Ita 1.815 237/01 Benjamin Gallagher Luna 100 238/01 Emilio Fiori Lobo 100 372/01 Angel Romero Riacho Miranda 830 373/01 Jose Beconi Laguna León 1.945; 1.865 acopiadoTotal 18 estancias 13.736

0500

1000150020002500300035004000

T& B C LA M FR N HD A Q S .R .L

E M P RE S A

FLA N CO S CO LAS

Figure 2. Cantidad de flancos y colas exportada de la zafra 2001-2002. Legenda T&B C = T&B Curtiembre; LAM = Luis A. Morales; FRN = Frionorte; HDA = Hetty de Abadie; Q S.R.L. = QUATRO A S.R.L.

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En el año 2002, se abrió la zafra en Alto

Paraguay desde junio hasta el 31 de septiembre este año aumentó el número de propietarios interesados totalizando 24 estancias donde se realizaron los censos, el cupo otorgado fue de 16.899 (Tabla 2). Esta tabla muestra las estancias a las que se les otorgó el cupo, con sus respectivas coordenadas.

Los propietarios compran las precintas nacionales, la SEAM les da la numeración que corresponde a cada uno de ellos y finalmente

quedan depositadas en la Oficina de Manejo de Vida Silvestre. Posteriormente una vez acopiados los cueros en sitios registrados para el acopio, los fiscalizadores de la Secretaria del Ambiente van a hacer el precintado velando que se cumplan los Artículos correspondientes a las Resoluciones expedidas por la SEAM. En caso contrario bajo acta los cueros que no cumple con la reglamentación vigente son decomisados y destruidos in situ.

Tabla 2. Cupos otorgados por estancias en el año 2002

Resol. No. Propietario Estancia Latitud Longitud Cantidad

83/02 Luis Ortíz San Francisco 21º 59`34.6¨ S 58º 11´ 16.8Ö 110 84/02 Mirto Feltes San Antonio 21º 09` 00¨ S 57º 56´ 52Ö 506 85/02 Bernardino Suarez Loma Verde 21º 09` 40¨ S 57º 56´ 06Ö 630 86/02 Fidel Castillo Cerrito 21º 21` 30¨ S 58º 10´ 35Ö 1.100 87/02 Gustavo González Estancia 23 21º 15` 18.9¨ S 58º 09´ 12.6Ö 750 88/02 Edison Gallagher Luna 21º 05` 28¨ S 58º 25´ 37Ö 100 89/02 Daniel A. Maidana Mbocayai 21º 17` 59¨ S 57º 55´ 01.8Ö 100 90/02 Emilio Fiori Fiori 21º 01` 03.7¨ S 57º 56´ 57.8Ö 160 91/02 Mariana González Manuela 21º 13` 00¨ S 57º 54´ 23.6Ö 650 92/02 Wilfrido Benitez Esperanza 20º 46` 50¨ S 57º 58´ 09.7Ö 1.100 93/02 Adolfo Benítez 4 de Julio 19º 52` 35¨ S 58º 12´ 17.6Ö 420 94/02 Diogenes y Darcio G. Bernal kue 21º 07` 53.3¨ S 57º 51´ 51.5Ö 600 95/02 Modesto Bogado Kure kue 21º 09` 31¨ S 57º 51´ 51.5Ö 150 96/02 Miguel Cuellar San Juan 21º 03` 43¨ S 58º 06´ 26¨ O 110 97/02 Benigno Santos Inglesa 21º 04` 14.4¨ S 57º 59´ 50.6Ö 350 98/02 Bartolome Nuñez Uruguaya 21º 01` 20.0¨ S 57º 59´ 58.7Ö 147 99/02 Rafael Segovia Mbocaya 21º 09` 20.0¨ S 58º 56´ 58.7Ö 850 100/02 Ramon Garcete Corochire 21º 59` 10.9¨ S 58º 76´ 52.9Ö 1.100 115/02 Hetty Abadie Laguna Gral. Díaz 4.000 116/02 Luis F. Beconi Laguna Leon 21º 25` 44¨ S 58º 42´ 31Ö 2.500 152/02 Indíg. Chamacoco Maria Elena 320 153/02 Indíg. Chamacoco Puerto Esperanza 119 154/02 Indíg. Chamacoco Santa Teresita 437 235/02 C.Hernandez 590

Total 24* 16.899

* 20 estancias, 3 comunidades Indígenas y 1 Casa Hernandez

Los cueros son exportados a las curtidurías de Asunción previo permiso de traslado solicitado por los exportadores y concedidos por el Secretario del Ambiente. Los permisos de traslado especifican el nombre del exportador, su número de Registro, Dirección de procedencia y

Dirección de destino. Generalmente son transportados por barco por el río Paraguay o bien por camiones.

En Asunción se procede al curtido y se procede al precintado ante solicitud del exportador de acuerdo al pedido del comprador


del exterior. Las precintas son confeccionadas en Venezuela a solicitud de la Secretaria del Ambiente bajo las características que esta dispone, son pagadas por los exportadores quienes depositan el dinero a la cuenta correspondiente y finalmente al llegar a Paraguay son depositadas y administradas por la Dirección de Manejo de Vida Silvestre quien envía personal para el precintado según la solicitud de permisos CITES. Finalmente los cargamentos precintados son acompañados por personal de la Secretaría hasta el aeropuerto hasta el momento del embarque. CASO PILCOMAYO En agosto del año 2001 y ante las sequías periódicas que sufre el río Pilcomayo comenzó una mortandad de animales por escasez de agua que afectó a toda la cadena trófica. No obstante por ser el jakare una especie conspicua, fue motivo para que la opinión pública nuevamente se quejara de la insensibilidad de la Secretaría del Ambiente ante los problemas ambientales. Como es sabido una fuerte sequía, si se repite periódicamente y responde a cambios de curso del río dará como resultado un cambio irreversible del ecosistema con el consecuente cambio de su biodiversidad característica. No obstante la prensa y la opinión pública cada vez se agitaban mas ante esta situación sin entender razones ecológicas y solo apelando a argumentos emotivos. Es así como la SEAM dispuso realizar un censo en la Estancia más afectada disponiendo que del total de individuos estimados se realizara una cosecha del 25 %, con el propósito de aliviar la carga de los cuerpos de agua, darle mas posibilidades de continuidad a la población ante la escasez de alimento y revertir el dinero obtenido de la cosecha en mejoras para la zona afectada.

El propietario de la estancia permitió abiertamente el acceso a todos los curiosos y a la prensa. Como resultado las notas y los materiales visuales obtenidos del lugar recorrieron todo el mundo de una manera totalmente distorsionada con la consiguiente protesta de entidades preservacionistas nacionales e internacionales. Ese fue motivo de protestas, quejas y especulaciones acerca de la

SEAM durante aproximadamente un mes. Para darle un corte definitivo al tema y a sabiendas que no era una media conservacionista, la Secretaria del Ambiente dispuso hacer un traslado simbólico de jakares a los zoológicos de las Entidades Hidroeléctricas Itaipu y Yacyreta, es así como se trasladaron 12 individuos y veinte a cada sitio respectivamente.

Estaba bien claro que para técnicos y autoridades de la SEAM que esto no solucionaría el problema ecológico pero si acallaría las quejas de la sociedad y efectivamente, una vez realizados los traslados, la población asunceña en especial se olvidó de la sequía del río Pilcomayo, los problemas que ello acarrea tanto para el cambio de su biodiversidad como para las comunidades locales. Lamentablemente no se pudo capturar y transportar a los mencionados centro de cría en cautiverio al jakare mariposa (Caiman latirostris). Lo que realmente hubiese sido beneficioso para la especie y los técnicos especialistas en el tema. PROGRAMA CON LOS INDÍGENAS Cabe destacar que en Paraguay existe una población indígena de aproximadamente 30.000 personas objetos de una transculturización, con la consecuente pérdida de identidad, falta de alternativas de trabajo y una pobreza alarmante en algunas etnias. Las poblaciones indígenas de la Región del Departamento Alto Paraguay de la etnia Chamacoco solicitaron a la Secretaría del Ambiente el acopio de cueros de jakare hu, carpincho y kuriju (Eunectes notaues), como producto del consumo de su carne por parte de las familias integrantes. Es así que se les proveyó a cada grupo de una planilla donde se constata especie, fecha y nombre de la persona que cazó el animal, además de datos biológicos como sexo, estado de madurez sexual y estado reproductivo. Esta experiencia se realizó con los integrantes de tres poblaciones. No obstante y lamentablemente a pesar de realizar propuestas y presentarlas a diversas entidades donantes no se logró obtener fondos para controlar el programa y establecer

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un cupo anual de uso sustentable para cada comunidad. Quedando las mismas desprotegidas de algunos comerciantes inescrupulosos.

Con este proyecto se le otorgó por Resolución de la Secretaría del Ambiente el cupo de 320 especimenes de jakare hu a la comunidad indígena chamacoco de María Elena, 119 a Puerto Esperanzo y 437 a Santa Teresita.

CONFLICTOS CON EL GOBIERNO Y

CURTIDORES En términos generales no hay mayores conflictos entre el gobierno y los curtidores. Paraguay en el presente está pasando por una gran crisis económica, política y social. Donde se utiliza cualquier tema incluso los ambientales para realizar proselitismo o ganar algún rédito personal. Por otro lado la Prensa en muchos casos de manera irresponsable publica aspectos sensacionalistas de los distintos temas sin realizar investigaciones responsables y objetivas. En detrimento del desarrollo socioeconómico e implementación de conceptos internacionales sobre el uso sustentable de los recursos naturales. Estos hechos dañan los esfuerzos para la implementación de programas que datan de varios años redundando en el descreimiento de las instituciones nacionales con la consecuente mala imagen del país en el exterior.

El sistema de utilización del jakare hu lejos de estar en una etapa totalmente perfeccionada se acerca bastante al ideal, debido a que se ha podido observar la desaparición de numerosas empresas fantasmas. Esto se debe a que anteriormente se realizaba la cosecha en una región sin especificar sitios y se otorgaba el cupo por empresa. Actualmente se da el cupo por propietario, o sea que solamente aquellos sitios donde se realizaron los estudios tendrán cupo de manera proporcional a las poblaciones de jakare hu que albergan. Si bien a causa del achicamiento del estado y por ende una disminución de personal y recursos económicos para el control de la zafra de la especie. Se sustituye esta falencia mediante el interés de control que presentan los estancieros y exportadores que no escatiman en denunciar las

irregularidades debido a que las mismas van en detrimento de sus intereses económicos. Además se trabaja en forma conjunta con otras entidades estatales, como la Fiscalía del Ambiente y las fuerzas militares y policiales. Recientemente se firmo en fecha 17 de septiembre del corriente año un convenio entre la Secretaria del Ambiente y las fuerzas militares con el propósito de realizar un control más eficiente sobre el tráfico interno de vida silvestre. Por otro lado la policía ecológica realiza controles sobre el tráfico interno de la vida silvestre, abigeato en distintos puntos del país y controles en las principales rutas en forma conjunta con la policía caminera. Recientemente, en fecha 21 y 22 del corriente la Fiscalía del Ambiente Realizó un procedimiento sorpresivo en depósitos de Fuerte Olimpo, Departamento Alto Paraguay. De los depósitos controlados uno de ellos poseía un monto de cueros superior al que se le había concedido por Resolución. Como resultado de este procedimiento el responsable fue detenido y será sujeto a un proceso judicial. Esto constituye un hecho afortunado debido a que es la primera vez que la justicia toma parte en el tema comercio ilegal del jakare hu, eliminando los resabios de un posible comercio ilícito de la especie en el pasado. Si bien las instituciones quieren sacar rédito de estos sucesos lo importante es que estos procedimientos, más allá de quién los haga, el único beneficiado es el país por eliminarse los hechos ilegales y los comerciantes que actúan sin reglas claras. De esta manera se ocasiona grandes pérdidas económicas para los mismos, lo que demuestra que es mas rentable trabajar en forma coordinada y bajo las Resoluciones legales establecidas por la Secretaría del Ambiente. EXPORTACIÓN Y PROBLEMAS

LEGALES Debido a que este nuevo sistema se implementó en el año 2001 y en el presente año. A pesar de hacerse monitoreos poblacionales se está iniciando de una manera incipiente los monitoreos de exportaciones, demandas del mercado, costos y beneficios locales. Elementos indispensables para incorporar en un análisis


para establecer un plan de manejo definitivo que sea incorporado a la Legislación. Lo que se puede observar hasta el momento que no hay un monopolio del comercio de la especie por algunos exportadores. PIELES FURTIVAS CON BOLIVIA En el año 2000 fue incautado por la fiscalía del Ambiente un cargamento de 4.096 pieles de crocodílidos en la ruta transchaco a la altura de Filadelfia, provenientes de Bolivia. El juicio fue llevado a cabo por la Fiscalía del Ambiente y el proceso judicial ya ha llegado a su término. El cargamento era traído por tres personas de nacionalidad Boliviana y lo depositaron en la propiedad del Mayor Murray. Los especimenes eran de diferentes especies de caimanes algunos de con distribución en Bolivia y carpinchos. Se encontraron dos personas de nacionalidad paraguaya implicadas en el tema, a ambas se les prohibió la salida del país, además la justicia estableció que el militar diera clases sobre ambiente y ecología en colegios y a los soldados de los destacamentos militares de la zona. La otra persona (un panadero) debe proveer de productos panificados a las comunidades indígenas del lugar de manera periódica. Las pieles incautadas están saladas y se encuentran en depósitos de la Fiscalía del Ambiente, ésta conjuntamente con la SEAM próximamente determinarán a que especies corresponden los cueros y posteriormente se procederá a disponer sobre el destino final de los mismos.

DISCUSIÓN El programa de utilización del jakare hu en Alto Paraguay a pesar de haber comenzado el año pasado está dando resultados para el análisis. No obstante con uno o dos años mas se tendrán los elementos para evaluarlo, mejorarlo y establecerlo. Si bien el programa pretende capitalizar la experiencia de otros países con trayectoria en el uso de las especies silvestre, es nuestro interés adecuarlos a los intereses del país, su situación económica, sociocultural e idiosincrasia que lo caracterizan. Es evidente que la apertura del programa de uso sustentable del jakare hu despertó un interés creciente a los propietarios, lo que demuestra

que están viendo que existe un valor agregado al de sus propiedades representado por los recursos naturales. No obstante para que no se creen falsas expectativas es necesario crear otras alternativas de uso sustentable de otras especies, de manera tal que se utilicen los recursos en la mayor parte del año. Como puede verse en la tabla 3 y en la figura 1, el cupo otorgado fue mayor a la cantidad exportada hasta el presente lo que significa que las expectativas de los exportadores fueron mayores a su capacidad de venta, si en el transcurso del año 2002-2003 no se exportan cantidades mayores de las del presente, se deberá adecuar el cupo a la capacidad de exportación de los curtidores de pieles. Table 3. Cantidad de flancos y colas exportado

de la zafra 2001/2002

Empresa Flancos Colas T&B Curtiembre 1.038 Luis A. Morales 3.816 737 Frionorte 1.584 Hetty de Abadie 300 Quatro A S.R.L 1.038 519

Total 7.776 1.256

Cabe destacar que esta nueva mentalidad que se está generando en la zona es importante debido a que contrapone a los intereses de la expansión de la frontera agrícolo-ganadera por las comunidades mennonitas. Cabe destacar que hasta el año 1995 la zona del Chaco Central dedicada a la agricultura y ganadería tradicionales eran de 1.000.000 de ha. La única manera de frenar la destrucción de hábitat, y desertificación de los suelos es brindando nuevas alternativas de utilización de los recursos naturales. La tabla 4 muestra el cupo de exportadores de animales vivos. Tabla 4. Total de yacare hu vivos exportado de la zafra 2001/2002

Propietarior Cant. vivos

Myriam Fernandez 100 Roberto Serrati 100

Total 200

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Por otro lado hasta el presente una de las pocas alternativas para detener la destrucción de hábitat la constituyen el uso sustentable de especies silvestres in situ. Con este Programa se ha logrado establecer una cadena de comercialización que va desde el cazador a quien se le paga alrededor de $5 a $6 por animal, tiene ganancia el propietario de la estancia, los biólogos que realizan los estudios de campo, los empleados de las curtidurías y finalmente los exportadores que venden cada piel alrededor de $50. FORTALEZAS Y DEBILIDADES DEL

SISTEMA

Fortalezas

• Se pudo controlar el paso de cazadores al lado Brasileño.

• Según pobladores locales disminuyó el abigeato en las estancias.

• Disminuyó la cantidad de empresas exportadores, lo que implica disminución de especuladores por los cupos.

• Se generó una cadena de comercio que se inicio desde los cazadores locales, estancieros y curtidores.

• Se logró frenar el comercio ilícito proveniente de otros países, Brasil y Bolivia.

• Se incentivó a biólogos que hasta el momento trabajaban en otras áreas para el trabajo y estudios de la ecología de campo ecología de campo.

• Se frenó el tráfico ilegal de pieles debido a que al participar los dueños de estancias y los exportadores de pieles ellos mismos defienden y denuncian las actividades ilícitas.

• Mayor cantidad de biólogos se interesan por el estudio de la especie.

Debilidades

• Este año aumentaron el número de estancias muestreadas sin aparentemente responder a las demandas del mercado internacional.

• Debido a que es una actividad relativamente las organizaciones ecologistas la usan para hacer su propia promoción.

• En época electoralista la cosecha de jakare es utilizada con fines políticos para beneficios partidarios o personales, sin ser reconocido hasta el momento como un área basada meramente en elementos biológicos, sociales, culturales con beneficios económicos para el país.

• Aún falta desarrollar técnicas para el curtido de las pieles para satisfacer las demandas del mercado.

• Falta de desarrollo de un sistema de control en los Departamentos.

• Establecer por Legislación el Programa de Utilización.

• Establecer por Legislación el Manual de Procedimientos del Programa.

• Capacitar a los biólogos que realizan los censos en las técnicas de censo.

• Cursos de capacitación para biólogos interesados

• Establecer el sistema de impuestos y crear el fondo de Vida Silvestre y reinvertirlo al Programa.

BIBLIOGRAFÍA Aquino, A. L. 1988. Ontogenetic food shifts and

theis relation to morphological changes in the crocodilian Caiman yacare. M. S. Thesis. University of New Mexico. Albuquerque. 79 p.

Aquino y Duszynaski, D. W. 1989. Coccidian Parasites (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) from two species of caiman, Caiman yacare Daudin and Caiman latirrostris (Alligatoridae), from Pareaguay. J. Parasitol., 75(3): 348.352.

King, F. W., A. L. Aquino, N. J. Scott, Jr and R. Palacios. 1994. Status of the Crocodilians of Paraguay: Results of the 1993 Monitoring surveys. A report to the Government of Paraguay. 198 pp.

Messel, H y F. W. King. 1992. Conservation and Sustainable use of Caiman yacare in Paraguay. A report to the Government of Paraguay. 19 pp.

Scott, N. J. Jr., A. L. Aquino y L. A. Fitzgerald. 1991. Distribution, Habitats and Conservation of the Caimans (Alligatoridae) of Paraguay. Vida Silvestre Neotropical 2(2): 43-52.


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Reclassification of Yacare Caiman in South America From the Federal Register Online via GPO Access wais.access.gpo.gov

[DOCID:fr04my00-10] http://www.access.gpo.gov/su_docs/aces/aces140.html

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Fish and Wildlife Service 50 CFR Part 17 RIN 1018-AD67 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Reclassification of Yacare Caiman in South America From Endangered to Threatened, and the Listing of Two Other Caiman Species as Threatened by Reason of Similarity of Appearance AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior. ACTION: Final rule. SUMMARY The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) is reclassifying the yacare caiman (Caiman yacare; also known as Caiman crocodilus yacare) from its present endangered status to threatened status under the Endangered Species Act because the current endangered listing does not correctly reflect the present status of this species. The Service also is listing the common caiman (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus) and the brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus fuscus) as threatened by reason of similarity of appearance. Caiman yacare is native to Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Bolivia. Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and C. c. fuscus occur in Mexico and Central and South America. All three taxa are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which allows for international commercial trade in these species. Listing the two taxa as threatened by reason of similarity of appearance will assist

in protecting the yacare caiman by facilitating wildlife inspections of shipments at the ports of entry and detection of illegal shipments. A special rule for these three caiman populations allows U.S. commerce in their skins, other parts, and products from individual countries of origin and countries of re-export if certain conditions are satisfied by those countries prior to exportation to the United States. These conditions largely pertain to the implementation of a CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution for crocodilian skins (adopted at the ninth meeting of the Conference of the Parties) as well as provisions intended to support sustainable management of wild populations of the above three caiman species/subspecies. In the case where tagged caiman skins and other parts are exported to another country, usually for tanning and manufacturing purposes, and the processed skins and finished products are exported to the United States, the rule prohibits importation or re-exportation of such skins, parts, and products if we determine that either the country of origin or re-export is engaging in practices that are detrimental to the conservation of caiman populations. The purpose of this rule is threefold. First, the rule accurately reflects the conservation status of the yacare caiman. Second, we wish to promote the conservation of the yacare caiman by ensuring proper management of the commercially harvested caiman species in the range countries and, through implementation of trade controls (as described in the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution), to reduce commingling of caiman specimens. Third, downlisting of

C. yacare to threatened reconciles listings of the species in the Act and CITES. EFFECTIVE DATE: This final rule is effective on June 5, 2000. ADDRESSES: The complete file for this rule is available for public inspection by appointment, from 8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., Monday through Friday, at the Office of Scientific Authority, 4401 N. Fairfax Dr., Room 750, Arlington, Virginia. FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Dr. Javier Alvarez, Office of Scientific Authority, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Mail Stop ARLSQ-750, Washington, DC 20240 (phone: 703-358-1708; fax: 703-358-2276; e-mail: [email protected]). SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION Note: Portions of the original proposed rule were re-written to conform to the new Federal policy on the use of "plain English'' in Federal documents. However, the original intent of the text remains the same. Text in the proposed rule has also been amended in this final rule in response to comments submitted by the public (see "Comments Received" below) and to coincide with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution. Background The yacare caiman was listed as endangered throughout its entire range under the predecessor of the Endangered Species Act (Act) of 1973 on June 2, 1970 (35 FR 8495). (At the time of the original listing, Peru was incorrectly listed


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as one of the range countries, whereas Paraguay was excluded. In this final rule, we correct that situation.) On July 1, 1975, it was also placed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora--CITES (42 FR 10465). (The species has never been listed in CITES Appendix I, which prohibits international trade in the species if such activity is conducted for primarily commercial purposes and/or determined to be detrimental to the survival of the species.) The endangered listing under the Act prohibited imports and re-exports of the species into/from the United States. However, the Appendix II listing allows for regulated commercial trade elsewhere in the world, based on certain findings. As a result, a substantial U.S. law enforcement problem has occurred because of the different listing status under the Act and under CITES. Imports and re-exports of yacare caiman into/from the United States without an ESA permit are prohibited under the Act, including shipments originating from countries of origin with valid CITES export documents. However, imports and re-exports of products from the common and brown caimans are legal, when accompanied by appropriate CITES documents. Since products manufactured from the yacare caiman, common caiman, and the brown caiman are often indistinguishable as to species from which they are made, products from the prohibited yacare caiman are often commingled with products from non-prohibited taxa among commercial shipments into the United States. The unauthorized entry of prohibited yacare caiman products constitutes a violation of the Act, and if the yacare is legally protected in individual range countries, then Lacey Act violations may also have occurred. Until relatively recently, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay prohibited the export of caiman products (Brazaitis in comments on the October 29, 1990, Federal Register notice [55 FR 43389]). However, CITES

Notification to the Parties No. 781, issued on March 10, 1994, indicated that Brazil's CITES Management Authority had registered 75 ranching operations for producing skins of C. c. crocodilus and C. yacare. These ranching operations were established under provisions of Article 6 B of Brazilian Wildlife Law No. 5.197, of November 3, 1967. Caiman yacare from these Brazilian ranches were being legally traded in the international marketplace, except into the United States. Paraguay and Bolivia have also expressed an interest in the legal international marketing of C. yacare skins, and restricted legal hunts are currently allowed (see below). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) recognizes that substantial populations of crocodilians that are managed as a sustainable resource can be utilized for commercial purposes while not adversely affecting the survival of individual populations of the species, when scientifically based management plans are implemented. When certain positive conservation conditions have been met, the Service has acted to allow utilization and trade from managed populations of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), the importation of commercial shipments of Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) from several southern and eastern African countries, and similar shipments of saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) specimens from Australia (61 FR 32356; June 24, 1996). The CITES Parties reviewed management activities prior to transferring certain populations from CITES Appendix I to Appendix II (thereby allowing commercial trade) and included assessments of population status, determination of sustainable harvest quotas (or approval of ranching programs), and the control of the illegal harvest. Management regulations imposed after harvest included the tagging of skins and issuance of permits to satisfy the requirements for CITES Appendix II species. This final rule and its accompanying special rule allow

U.S. commerce in skins, other parts, and products from Caiman yacare, Caiman crocodilus crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus into the United States. These three Caiman populations are widespread in Mexico and Central and South America, and have high reproductive potential (Thorbjarnarson 1992, Thorbjarnarson 1994). In fact, they have survived in spite of substantial legal and illegal harvests in the past (Mourao et al. 1996, Da Silveria and Thorbjarnarson 1999). As in the case of the final rules involving Alligator mississippiensis, Crocodylus niloticus, and Crocodylus porosus (50 CFR part 17), this final rule will allow commerce in Caiman yacare, Caiman c. crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus into the United States only from range countries that regulate the legal harvest and control illegal trade of these three populations, so as to ensure that they are being sustained at biologically sound levels. Furthermore, the Service does not intend to allow importation or re-exportation of Caiman yacare, C. crocodilus crocodilus, or C. c. fuscus specimens from intermediary countries that do not properly control trade in crocodilian skins, other parts, and products. This rule reclassifies the yacare caiman (Caiman yacare = C. crocodilus yacare) from endangered to threatened status under the Act and lists two additional taxa, the common caiman (C. c. crocodilus) and the brown caiman (C. c. fuscus including C. crocodilus chiapasius), as threatened by reason of similarity of appearance. When traded as skin pieces and products, the yacare caiman is similar in appearance to the common caiman and the brown caiman, which are listed as CITES Appendix II species but are not listed in the Act. Other caiman species will be retained as endangered under the Act, including the black caiman (Melanosuchus niger) and the broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris). This rule does not affect the endangered or threatened


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status, under the Act, of any other crocodilian species in the Western Hemisphere. The original listing for the yacare caiman (under the provisions of the Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1969) was C. yacare, which is the presently accepted taxonomic name for the species (King and Burke 1989) and the name used throughout this rule. Some authors treat the taxon as a subspecies, C. c. yacare, and this is the taxonomic name presently included in the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife (50 CFR part 17.11). King believes (in litt.) that C. yacare should be considered biologically as a subspecies or at the end of a morphological cline, but indicates that, nomenclaturally, it is recognized as a full species. A recent study, including an analysis of mitochondrial DNA variation, indicates that the C. yacare of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay comprise a single taxonomic unit with substantial genetic, morphological, and zoogeographical similarities (Brazaitis et al. 1993). Those authors indicate that C. yacare populations are effectively separated from C. c. crocodilus populations by mountains and highlands that limit nesting habitat and the migration of individual animals between southern and northern river systems. Caiman yacare, C. c. crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus are considered, on the basis of their DNA sequences, to be distinct populations of a widespread and related taxon (Amato 1992) with C. yacare apparently having greater genetic differences from C. c. crocodilus than C. c. crocodilus has in relationship to C. c. fuscus (Brazaitis et al. 1993). Additional DNA analyses by Brazaitis and others support the interpretation that "Caiman yacare, C. c. crocodilus, and C. c. chiapasius (probably C. c. fuscus) are each phylogenetic species, as per the criteria of Davis and Nixon (1992)'' (Brazaitis et al. 1997a, Brazaitis et al. 1997b). However, recent work by Busack and Pandya (1996) suggests that C. c.

crocodilus and C. c. fuscus comprise a single genetic population at the subspecies level, while confirming that the yacare caiman is a distinct subspecies, C. c. yacare. Currently, no biochemical evidence indicates that recognizable subgroups of C. yacare occur within its distributional limits in the river systems of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, or Paraguay (Brazaitis et al. 1993), and, therefore, no such subgroups are recognized in this rule. Comments Received On March 15, 1988, the Service received a petition from Mr. Armand S. Bennett, President of Columbia Impex Corporation, requesting the reclassification of the yacare caiman from endangered to threatened status. The Service reviewed the petition and concluded that it did not present sufficient scientific or commercial information to indicate that a reclassification was warranted (55 FR 43387, published October 29, 1990). However, the Service, in the October 29, 1990, Federal Register notice, also solicited relevant data, comments, and publications dealing with the current status and distribution, biological information, and conservation measures pertaining to the yacare caiman. The Service also requested comments about the advisability and necessity of treating the subspecies C. c. crocodilus and C. c. fuscus as endangered or threatened due to similarity of appearance to the listed C. yacare. Based on the information received in response to the Federal Register notice and other available information, the Service published on September 23, 1998, a proposed rule for the reclassification of the yacare caiman from endangered to threatened, with a special rule allowing U.S. commerce in skins, other parts, and products of this species. The Service also proposed listing the common caiman (C. c. crocodilus) and the brown caiman (C. c. fuscus) as threatened by reason of similarity of appearance.

We received a total of 26 comments in response to the September 23, 1998, proposed rule: 6 were from crocodilian experts, 11 from foreign governments and institutions (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Paraguay, and Singapore), 1 from a State government (Louisiana), 6 from the crocodile trade industry (2 based in the United States and 4 foreign), and 2 from non-governmental organizations (World Wildlife Fund and The Humane Society of the United States). In summary, the majority of foreign government correspondents (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia) and World Wildlife Fund supported the downlisting of yacare caiman. Likewise, five of the six correspondents from the crocodile trade industry in the United States (Columbia Impex Corporation, Florida) and overseas (Tecno--Caiman Ltd., Argentina; Cooperative of Caiman Breeders from the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, Brazil; Colombian Association of Animal Ranchers; and Singapore Reptile Skin Trade Association) supported the proposed downlisting. However, the Humane Society of the United States opposed it. The Government of Paraguay considered that the original listing of yacare caiman as endangered was unwarranted, and, therefore, commented that the species should be removed form the Act. Comments from various crocodilian experts, including five members of The World Conservation Union/Species Survival Commission (IUCN/SSC) Crocodile Specialist Group (CSG), were mixed. Dr. James Perran Ross (CSG Executive Officer), Mr. Alejandro Larriera (CSG Regional Vice Chairman for Latin America and Caribbean), and Mr. Tomas Waller (CSG member from Argentina), supported the proposed downlisting of yacare caiman to threatened. Mr. Ted Joanen (CSG Vice Chairman for North America) and Mr. Peter Brazaitis (Forensic Specialist in Herpetology) opposed the


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proposed downlisting, whereas Prof. F. Wayne King (CSG Deputy Chairman) considered that the original listing of yacare caiman as endangered was unwarranted. The Department of Wildlife and Fisheries of Louisiana partially supported the proposed downlisting. Comments: The Governments of Argentina (Secretaria de Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Sustentable--Secretary of Natural Resources and Sustainable Development), Bolivia (Vice-Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Forestal, Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible y Planificacion--Vice-Ministry of the Environment, Natural Resources and Forestry Development, Ministry of Sustainable Development and Planning; Unidad de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente, Prefectura y Comandancia General del Beni--Natural Resources and Environment Unit, Government of the Department of Beni; Museo Nacional de Historia Nacional--National Museum of Natural History; Museo de Historia Natural, Universidad Autonoma Gabriel Rene Moreno--Museum of Natural History, Gabriel Rene Moreno Autonomous University), Brazil (Instituto Brasileiro de Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis--Institute of the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources; and Brazilian Embassy in Washington, DC), and Colombia (Ministerio del Medio Ambiente--Ministry of the Environment) commented that yacare caiman is abundant or has recovered in their respective countries, and, therefore, supported the proposed downlisting of yacare caiman. Argentina supports downlisting of C. yacare, even though it bans export of the species. All four countries (three of which are yacare caiman range countries) believe that the opening of commerce in C. yacare products, through a special rule allowing commercial importation and re-exportation of yacare caiman specimens into/from the United States, will provide an economic

incentive for the protection of the species throughout its range. Prof. F. Wayne King, Dr. James Perran Ross, and Mr. Tomas Waller (all members of CSG) also considered the yacare caiman to be abundant throughout most of its range. Furthermore, they argued that enough national and international regulatory and management mechanisms (such as CITES) are in place in the range countries, so that illegal harvest no longer constitutes a major threat to the species. Finally, based on recent field surveys, World Wildlife Fund also did not consider C. yacare to be threatened. Furthermore, they recognized that the proposed downlisting and special rule will help reconcile listings of yacare caiman in the Act and CITES. Response: We continue to believe that the downlisting of yacare caiman from endangered to threatened, with a special rule allowing U.S. commerce in caiman skins, other parts, and products, is warranted (See "Summary of Factors Affecting Caiman yacare'' below). Comment: Prof. F. Wayne King, Dr. John Perran Ross, and the Government of Paraguay (Ministry of Agriculture and Cattle Ranching) considered C. yacare to be abundant enough in the wild to prompt its complete removal from the Act. Response: Although wild populations of yacare caiman have recovered in portions of the species' range, we note that some populations have not fully recovered, and, therefore, we continue to believe the threatened classification is appropriate (See "Summary of Factors Affecting Caiman yacare'' below). Comments: Mr. Ted Joanen, Mr. Peter Brazaitis, the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries of Louisiana, and The Humane Society of the United States opposed the proposed special rule allowing U.S. commerce in skins, parts, and products of yacare caiman because of concerns about current management of the species in some range countries. They argued

that some range countries lack protected habitats, long-term monitoring programs, effective national legislation, or effective national law enforcement to prevent uncontrolled harvest of the species. To address those concerns, Mr. Joanen and Dr. John Perran Ross suggested that importation of C. yacare specimens from individual range countries not be allowed until these countries provide the Service with detailed written descriptions of their respective management plans, regulations, and ongoing studies for the species, as was requested in previous rules involving Australian saltwater crocodile, American alligator, and Nile crocodile. Likewise, the National Museum of Natural History of Bolivia recommended amending the special rule, so as to require that all skins allowed for import into the United States originate from populations under a sustainable use management plan, such as the one developed in Bolivia. Bolivia believes that this requirement will prevent the sale of illegally hunted crocodilian skins that are seized by government agencies, but legalized through government-sponsored auctions. Response: We note that enforcement of domestic regulations pertaining to harvest of wild yacare caimans is a domestic issue. No government or agency provides perfect management, but many governments and agencies provide sufficient management to permit sustainable use of certain individual species. A reasonable standard for the Service to use to determine sufficiency of a wildlife management program in any country is to compare management of a foreign species with management in the United States. In the United States, poaching of white-tailed deer still occurs, despite strict State laws regulating hunting of the species. However, State enforcement of deer hunting laws is sufficient to continue allowing sustainable harvest of the species. Similarly, although all range countries of yacare caiman regulate the harvest of the species,


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they are not always capable of enforcing such regulations, particularly in isolated areas. Although we acknowledge that illegal hunting of yacare caiman for local trade still occurs in many of the species' range countries, international illegal trade in crocodilian skins has been reduced significantly since the adoption by CITES Parties of Resolution Conf. 9.22 on the Universal Tagging System Resolution for crocodilians in November 1994 (see "Inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms'' below). Given that all four range countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay) are CITES Parties, we believe that international trade in yacare caiman is adequately regulated to allow commercial importation and re-exportation of yacare caiman into/from the United States. Furthermore, C. yacare and other species of caiman appear to be resilient to hunting. In Brazil, the impact of hunting on caiman populations is reduced by strong bias for males among hunted animals (Mourao et al. 1996, Da Silveria and Thorbjarnarson 1999). In C. yacare and C. crocodilus, this bias is largely due to the fact that hunters target mostly the largest animals, which are almost exclusively males. In the case of black caiman (Melanosuchus niger; a species listed as endangered in the Act), male-biased sex ratios among harvested animals appear to be caused by preference of adult females for more protected and difficult to reach areas. Since a single male can fertilize several females, this male-biased harvest is less likely to have a negative impact on the reproductive potential of caiman populations. Impact of hunting on caiman is also reduced by propensity of hunters to concentrate their harvest in areas easily accessible (Mourao et al. 1996). In anticipation to a possible increase in illegal harvest of yacare caiman, this rule contains language prohibiting importation or re-exportation of yacare caiman skins, other parts, or products, if we obtain reliable information indicating that the countries of

origin or re-export are engaging in practices that are detrimental to the conservation of yacare caiman populations in the wild. Nevertheless, we agree with the suggestion made by several correspondents of requesting updated information from the yacare caiman range countries regarding their respective management plans, regulations, and ongoing studies for the species. Maintenance of such information in our files would permit us and other interested parties to better understand the measures being taken by range countries to ensure that harvest of yacare caiman is done in a sustainable manner. Furthermore, submission of such information by range countries on a regular basis would allow us to monitor the status of yacare caiman in the wild, as required under the Act. Therefore, we have added language in this final rule requesting that the range countries of C. yacare (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay) provide to the Service every 2 years current information on the status of these taxa in their countries (see "The Monitoring of Yacare Caiman'' below). We will also monitor trade in the species by requesting import and export data on C. yacare from the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), a repository of the annual CITES reports prepared and submitted to the Secretariat by CITES Parties. Comments: Mr. Alejandro Larriera and the Colombian Association of Animal Ranchers (AZOOCOL) supported the right of the United States to prohibit imports from countries not in compliance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution or engaging in practices detrimental to the survival of the species. However, the Singapore Reptile Skin Trade Association expressed concerns about unilateral U.S. prohibition of crocodilian imports from countries not in compliance with CITES requirements. Columbia Impex Corporation also commented that the United States should never

have regulations different than those set by other countries. Response: We note that Article XV of CITES allows CITES Parties to "adopt stricter domestic measures'' regulating trade, taking, possession, or transport of specimens of any species, regardless of whether the species is listed in the CITES Appendices or not. For example, some CITES Parties currently prohibit the export of all their native species (Australia) or require permits for the export of any of their native wildlife (Mexico and Brazil), even though many of the species are not listed in the CITES Appendices. In the United States, Congress has enacted several laws for the protection of native and foreign wildlife (including the African Elephant Conservation Act, Eagle Protection Act, Marine Mammal Protection Act, Migratory Bird Treat Act, Wild Bird Conservation Act, Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation Act, and the Endangered Species Act), many of which impose stricter restrictions on trade of certain species compared to CITES. Thus, adoption of this rule is in no way contrary to the CITES treaty. Comment: Prof. King and Dr. Ross expressed concern about unilateral prohibition of yacare caiman imports from countries not in compliance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution based on "information from * * * other reliable resources". Response: We agree that any decision regarding possible U.S. unilateral prohibition of yacare caiman imports or re-exports from countries not in compliance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution should be based on the best available information. As recommended by Dr. Ross, we intend to consult with experts within and outside our agency (such as the Service's National Fish and Wildlife Forensics Laboratory, university and natural history museum researchers, and IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group), the Management and Scientific Authorities of other countries, and any other qualified persons prior to


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making a final determination related to the possible prohibition of yacare caiman imports from any country. Comments: Mr. Ted Joanen and Mr. Peter Brazaitis expressed concern about implementation of the proposed rule by the Service, particularly since most caiman skins imported into the United States arrive in the form of manufactured products, which are not marked, and, therefore, difficult to identify. Mr. Brazaitis also commented that Federal regulations do not require tamper-proof identification tags on crocodile skins for importation. Response: We consider that international illegal trade in crocodilian skins has been reduced significantly since the adoption of Resolution Conf. 9.22 (Universal Tagging System Resolution) by CITES Parties. Therefore, requiring that yacare caiman shipments imported into the United States be accompanied by proper CITES documentation, as described in this rule, diminishes the likelihood of importing yacare caiman specimens obtained in a manner detrimental to the species. Furthermore, by allowing U.S. commerce in yacare caiman, we eliminate the incentive to intentionally misidentify yacare caiman specimens for importation into the United States. Consequently, we will be able to gather more accurate trade data on the species. At this time, the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution is codified in the Federal regulations just for Alligator mississippiensis, Crocodylus niloticus, and Crocodylus porosus. However, we are currently in the process of updating the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations to include language codifying the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution for all crocodilians (see Federal Register notice 62 FR 42093, published on August 5, 1997). In the meantime, the language contained in this rule implements the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution for shipments involving C. yacare, C. crocodilus fuscus, and C. c. crocodilus.

Comment: The Humane Society of the United States supported the listing of C. crocodilus fuscus and C. c. crocodilus as threatened because of similarity of appearance, as well as the conditions in the special rule. However, Strictly Reptiles, Inc., opposed listing of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus because of similarity of appearance, since it believes that C. yacare, C. c. fuscus, and C. c. crocodilus are easily distinguishable. Columbia Impex Corporation also commented that C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus are easily distinguishable once skins are tanned, whereas the Government of Paraguay commented that as long as skins are properly tagged and accompanied by CITES permits, there is no chance for misidentification of shipments involving C. yacare, C. c. fuscus, and C. c. crocodilus. Response: Controversy still exists as to whether C. yacare, C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus can be distinguished using morphological characters. Listing of C. c. fuscus, and C. c. crocodilus because of similarity of appearance will bring C. yacare and all known subspecies of C. crocodilus under the Act (C. c. apaporiensis is already listed as endangered) and, therefore, will facilitate and expedite inspection of C. crocodilus and C. yacare shipments into the United States. Wildlife inspectors at the ports will no longer face the time-consuming and difficult task of examining individual C. crocodilus and C. yacare shipments to determine whether or not they involve protected species and/or subspecies, as all shipments involving these two taxa will be treated equally. Comment: The Government of Colombia and the Singapore Reptile Skin Trade Association commented that listing of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus will make trade in these two subspecies more difficult because of the need for permits and inspections. Likewise, the Colombian Association of Animal Ranchers (AZOOCOL) opposed listing of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus

because of similarity of appearance because they believe that such listing will punish sustainable use of C. crocodilus in Colombia. Response: As noted by the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group in their October 1998--December 1998 newsletter (Volume 17, Number 4, pages 15-18), the listing of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus as threatened by similarity of appearance does not add any new requirements to those already in place for the importation and re-exportation of skins, other parts, and products of these two subspecies into/from the United States. Since C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus are currently listed in Appendix II of CITES, a CITES permit issued by the exporting country is already required for importation of skins, parts, and products of these two subspecies into another country. This rule only requires that shipments involving skins and other parts of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus be tagged in accordance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution and accompanied by valid CITES documents, as is currently required. Furthermore, inclusion of these two subspecies just codifies in the U.S. Federal regulations an existing international requirement. However, this special rule does not cover the importation of viable caiman eggs or live caimans into the United States. In addition to a valid CITES export permit (already required), importation of these two types of specimens of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus will require an Endangered Species Act import permit. This requirement will allow scrutiny of individual applications for importation of live caimans or eggs so as to prevent accidental introduction of these exotic species into the United States (in accordance with Executive Order 13112 on Invasive Species issued by President Bill Clinton on February 3, 1999), an event that may have negative economic and ecological impacts on humans, native wildlife, and ecosystems in the United States. Comments: Dr. John Perran Ross, the Singapore Reptile Skin


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Trade Association, and the Governments of Colombia and Singapore commented on the 25 percent restriction on replacement tags and opposed the measure. Dr. Ross and the Singapore Reptile Skin Trade Association noted that the special rule goes beyond CITES restrictions on replacement tags (Resolution Conf. 9.22), which the United States helped draft. The Government of Colombia considered this restriction an indication of mistrust of range and re-exporting countries. The Government of Singapore and the Singapore Reptile Skin Trade Association commented that, since tanneries regularly removed tags from raw skins before processing them, the 25 percent restriction will create problems for skin traders in their country. Singapore made two suggestions to resolve this issue: (1) shipments involving re-tagged skins must include all tags from the country of origin, and (2) re-exporting countries should fax copies of their re-export CITES permits as well as the CITES permits from the country of origin. Response: As noted above, Article XV of CITES allows for CITES Parties to adopt stricter domestic regulations for the protection of wildlife, whether the species is listed in the CITES Appendices or not. Therefore, adoption of this rule is not contrary to CITES. Moreover, this 25 percent restriction on replacement tags is consistent with the requirements for importation of saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) published in the Federal Register on June 24, 1996 (61 FR 32356—"Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Reclassification of Saltwater Crocodile Population in Australia From Endangered to Threatened With Special Rule for the Saltwater and Nile Crocodiles''). Summary of Factors Affecting Caiman yacare Section 4(a)(1) of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.) and regulations promulgated to implement the listing provisions of

the Act (50 CFR part 424) set forth five criteria to be used in determining whether to add, reclassify, or remove a species from the list of endangered and threatened species. These factors and their applicability to populations of the yacare caiman in South America are as follows: A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range Since the initial listing of the yacare caiman, controversy has been associated with defining the ranges of caiman species, especially that of C. yacare in southern South America. To assist in the clarification of the distribution and status of C. yacare, the CITES Secretariat, in conjunction with the World Conservation Union/Species Survival Commission (IUCN/SSC) Crocodile Specialist Group (CSG), undertook a survey (starting in late 1986 and early 1987) to develop a conservation program for crocodilians of the genus Caiman. These surveys were conducted under the auspices of CITES and were carried out by the CSG and the Governments of Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay. We review the available data from these studies (Brazaitis 1989a; Brazaitis et al. 1990; King and Videz Roca 1989; and Scott et al. 1988 and 1990) on the distribution, ecology, and status of C. yacare in this and following sections assessing factors affecting the species. Caiman yacare is widely distributed throughout the lowland areas and river systems of northeastern Argentina, southeastern and northern Bolivia, Paraguay, and the western regions of theBrazilian States of Rondonia, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul (Thorbjarnarson, J. B. 1992). The range includes the entire Guapore River (= Itenes River) drainage, including its headwaters in the Brazilian State of Mato Grosso and its tributaries in northeastern Bolivia; eastern Bolivia and western Brazil throughout the drainage of the Paraguay River and the Pantanal of Brazil; Paraguay River and

southern Pilcomayo River in Paraguay; and the lower Salado River, the Parana River east to the Uruguay River, and south to the mouth of the Parana River in Argentina (Brazaitis et al. 1993). The yacare caiman is found in a wide variety of habitats, including those that are altered by humans. The species occurs in vegetated and non-vegetated large open rivers, secondary rivers and streams, flooded lowlands and forests, roadside ditches and canals, oxbows, large and small lakes and ponds, cattle ponds, and streams (Brazaitis et al. 1988). The common caiman, Caiman crocodilus crocodilus, occurs in the drainage basins of the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers in French Guiana, Surinam, Guyana, Venezuela, eastern Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, and Brazil (Thorbjarnarson 1992). A narrow zone of intergradation exists between C. yacare and C. c. crocodilus along the northern border of Bolivia and Brazil in the State of Acre in the Acre River and Abuna drainages, northward to approximately Humaita on the Madeira River in the Brazilian State of Amazonas (Brazaitis et al. 1990). The brown caiman, Caiman crocodilus fuscus (including C. c. chiapasius), occurs from Mexico through Central America to Colombia (west of the Andes), along the coastal and western regions of Venezuela, and south through Ecuador to the northwestern border of Peru. The CITES Secretariat and several authors consider C. c. chiapasius a synonym of C. c. fuscus, and we consider it so for the purposes of this rule. The expansion of cattle grazing and the concurrent construction of permanent water sources for cattle has increased the dry season freshwater habitats available to yacare caiman in some areas. However, cattle grazing has also diminished habitat in other areas by increasing the salinity of waterways (King et al. 1994). Habitat destruction and deterioration has taken place and continues to occur in parts of the species' range. Deforestation for


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road construction and mining not only destroys habitat, but also increases access of poachers to some yacare habitats (Brazaitis et al. 1996). Increasing human populations, development of hydroelectric projects, draining of wetlands, and deteriorating water quality due to siltation or the extensive dumping of pollutants (particularly as a result of mining and industry) also have caused habitat degradation. However, yacare caiman habitat is very extensive and the species is so widespread that it is very unlikely that the species is presently endangered or threatened because of the destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range. B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or Educational Purposes In the past, large numbers of C. yacare were taken from South America, particularly from Brazil, in violation of domestic laws protecting the species (Brazaitis et al. 1988, Brazaitis et al. 1996). Although yacare caiman populations declined in many areas, the species still could be found in varying population densities in most areas where suitable habitat remained (Brazaitis et al. 1988). Yacare caiman found in some surveys almost a decade ago also were small, extremely wary, and exhibited a high male-biased sex ratio. One hypothesis suggested that females might be more heavily harvested at a time when they might be very vulnerable while protecting their nests (Brazaitis 1989a). In spite of substantial legal and illegal harvests in the past, many caiman populations have been able to survive and recover after being protected or properly managed (Mourao et al. 1996, Da Silveria and Thorbjarnarson 1999). Recent research also suggests that C. yacare and other species of caiman in Brazil, and most likely other parts of the species' range, are resilient to hunting. Recent estimates of C. yacare in the Brazilian Pantanal show densities as high as 147 individuals/square kilometer, far larger than those

reported for other crocodilians (Coutinho and Campos 1996). In Brazil, the impact of hunting on caiman populations is reduced by strong bias for males among hunted animals (Mourao et al. 1996, Da Silveria and Thorbjarnarson 1999). In C. yacare and C. crocodilus, this bias appears to be largely due to the fact that hunters target mostly the largest animals, which are almost exclusively males. In the case of black caiman (Melanosuchus niger; a species listed as endangered under the Act), male-biased sex ratios among harvested animals appear to be caused by preference of adult females for more protected and difficult to reach areas. Since a single male can fertilize several females, this male-biased harvest is less likely to have a negative impact on the reproductive potential of caiman populations. Impact of hunting is also reduced by propensity of hunters to concentrate their harvest on areas that are easily accessible (Mourao et al. 1996). To ensure sustainable management of C. yacare in Brazil, the Instituto Brasileiro de Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis (IBAMA--Brazilian Institute for Environment and Renewable Natural Resources) regulates commerce of C. yacare. To date, IBAMA has approved and registered 65 yacare breeding facilities, with a production of over 80,000 skins (communication from the Embassy of Brazil, Washington, DC). In recent months, IBAMA has also teamed up with other Brazilian Federal and State government agencies to help enforce Brazilian laws for the protection of wildlife, thus reducing illegal trade of all native wildlife in Brazil. The yacare caiman remains widely distributed in Bolivia (communications from Unidad de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente, Prefectura y Comandancia General del Beni, Bolivia--Natural Resources and Environment Unit of the Department of Beni; Museo Nacional de Historia Nacional, La Paz, Bolivia--National Museum of Natural History; Museo de

Historia Natural, Universidad Autonoma Gabriel Rene Moreno, Santa Cruz, Bolivia--Natural History Museum, Gabriel Rene Moreno Autonomous University; and Viceministro de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Forestal, Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible y Planificacion, La Paz, Bolivia--Vice-Minister of the Environment, Natural Resources and Forestry Development, Ministry of Sustainable Development and Planning). Although caiman populations in some rivers were extirpated, caimans still survive in Bolivia due to abundant habitat and their rapid growth to sexual maturity. Where protected, populations have recovered, including those in the extensive wetlands of "El Pantanal''. In fact, the Bolivian Red Book lists C. yacare as a low-risk species (communication with Dr. Mario Suarez, Director of the Museo de Historia Natural, Universidad Autonoma Gabriel Rene Moreno, Santa Cruz, Bolivia--Natural History Museum, Gabriel Rene Moreno Autonomous University). Consequently, Bolivia has recently approved conservation and sustainable use plans for C. yacare in the Departments of Beni and Santa Cruz. Although a decade ago it was reported that the long-term continuation of the status quo could lead to the endangerment of the species in Bolivia (King and Videz Roca 1989), we believe that situation has improved considerably, with effective management of the species by Bolivian authorities. In Paraguay, King et al. (1994) reported that large populations of yacare could still be found in suitable habitats. Caiman yacare populations in Paraguay are currently being monitored annually (communications with Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia--Ministry of Agriculture and Cattle Ranching, Paraguay's CITES Authority). Recent surveys show that populations are either stable or increasing. Based on survey data, hunting quotas are established accordingly. The CSG did not conduct a survey and status assessment in


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Argentina. However, Argentina currently bans export of the species (communication with Secretaria de Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Sustentable--Ministry of Natural Resources and Sustainable Development). In summary, hunting for hides, both legal and illegal, has in the past been the major threat to the survival of populations of yacare caiman. However, the species has recovered in many parts of its range, and the four range countries either provide protection to the species by domestic legislation and/or regulate harvest by established hunting seasons and limits on the size of animals that can be legally killed for commercial trade. In spite of these actions, we believe sufficient cause exists to find, at this time, that some populations of the yacare caiman still may be threatened by illegal hunting for domestic trade in portions of its extensive range (see "Inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms'' below). C. Disease or Predation The eggs of C. yacare are eaten by a variety of predators, which in some localities include humans, and hatchlings are consumed by a variety of predators including other crocodilians. However, we have no evidence, at this time, that disease or predation are significant factors affecting C. yacare populations. D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms The yacare caiman is protected in Argentina by a total ban on commercial hunting and on the export of raw and tanned hides and other products. Brazil bans the export of wildlife and wildlife products from native species (Article 6 B of Brazilian Wildlife Law No. 5.197, of November 3, 1967), except from approved ranching programs. In Paraguay, the yacare caiman was nominally protected by a 1961 Presidential decree that prohibits hunting, commerce, and import and export of all native wildlife, their parts, and products. However, a limited harvest of yacare caiman is currently allowed, with quotas

being determined based on annual surveys of the species. Bolivia permits the hunting of yacare from January 1 to June 30, and imposes a 1.5 m size limit on all harvested caiman. The yacare was additionally listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1969 and was added to Appendix II of CITES in 1975. In the past, existing legislation and decrees protecting the yacare caiman or regulating its harvest have been inadequately or unevenly enforced. Many yacare caiman were apparently illegally killed in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay, and their skins were illegally exported with real or forged CITES export permits from some South American countries. The CITES Secretariat, in conjunction with the CSG, and with the permission and cooperation of the range countries, conducted a series of surveys of the status of the yacare caiman during the 1980s and found major inadequacies associated with the existing regulatory mechanisms. For example, Bolivia did not effectively enforce either the hunting season restriction or the minimum size limit restrictions on harvested animals. In the mid-1980s, large numbers of poached yacare caiman skins were illegally exported to Paraguay, encouraging the transnational movement of illegal wildlife products through that country in violation of CITES. As a result, in June 1986 and to November 1987, the Bolivian Government imposed a ban on the export of wildlife specimens (Decreto Supremo 21312 and Decreto Supremo 21774, respectively) and, through the CITES Secretariat, asked that the Parties to the Convention no longer accept certain CITES export permits issued illegally by the former Bolivian Government (Notice of Information No. 3-50 FR 34016; Notice of Information No. 4-50 FR 34016; Notice of Information No. 8-50 FR 50965; Notice of Information No. 11-51 FR 43978). Some countries of manufacture, knowingly or unknowingly, have also apparently

accepted illegally killed and illegally exported yacare caiman, used these materials in the production of leather goods, and shipped the resulting finished products to the United States. Although a live or whole yacare caiman can be distinguished from other caiman species, the products from tanned or processed skins are often very difficult to distinguish from other caiman species. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Wildlife Inspectors, by clearing crocodilian products from these leather good manufacturing countries, could have inadvertently allowed the import of parts and products from illegally harvested yacare caiman. Such imports would constitute violations of the U.S. Lacey Act and the Endangered Species Act, and would be detrimental to the conservation of the yacare caiman by not effectively promoting the sustainable management of the species. However, currently available information indicates that many of the irregularities have been corrected since the CITES survey in the 1980s. A combination of increased awareness of conservation needs, reduced crocodilian hide prices, increased action by government and international agencies, and increased difficulty in marketing illegally harvested crocodilian skins have relieved some of the hunting pressure on wild caiman populations (Scott et al. 1990, King et al. 1994). International illegal trade in crocodilian skins has been reduced significantly since the adoption by the CITES Parties of Resolution Conf. 9.22 (Universal Tagging System Resolution for the Identification of Crocodilian Skins) in November 1994. This resolution establishes an universal tagging system for the tracking of international trade in crocodilian skins, other parts, and products, which includes: (1) Universal tagging of raw and processed crocodilian skins with non-reusable tags for all crocodilian skins entering international trade, unless they have been further processed and cut into smaller pieces; (2) tagging of transparent


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containers for crocodilian parts; (3) use of non-reusable tags that include as a minimum the International Organization for Standardization two-letter code for the country of origin, a unique serial identification number, a standard species code, and the year of production or harvest; (4) registration of such non-reusable tags with the CITES Secretariat; (5) recording of the same information that appears on the tags on the export permit, re-export certificate, or other Convention document; and (6) implementation by the re-exporting countries of an administrative system that allows for effective matching of imports and re-exports, and ensures that the original tags are intact upon re-export, and, if tags are broken, the re-tagging of skins is performed as described in CITES Resolution Conf. 9.22. Given that all four range countries are Parties to CITES (Argentina accededon April 8, 1981; Bolivia on October 4, 1979; Brazil on November 14, 1975; Paraguay on February 13, 1977), we believe that international trade in yacare caiman is adequately regulated. To improve implementation of CITES, at the invitation of the Bolivian Government and with the financial support of the U.S. Agency for International Development's Partnership for Biodiversity, the Service's Office of Scientific Authority and Division of Law Enforcement visited Bolivia in the summer of 1998 to conduct CITES training. The participants included not only staff from the Bolivian CITES Management and Scientific Authorities, but also representatives from other Bolivian governmental agencies involved in the implementation of CITES, including the Bolivian National Police and Defense Ministry. During the one-week training, the Service also discussed with the participants how to improve collaboration between the United States and Bolivia in the protection and conservation of wildlife. The training participants also took this unique opportunity to develop a plan to implement and

coordinate CITES as well as other fish and wildlife enforcement activities in Bolivia. Although all four range countries have taken steps to curtail illegal international trade in yacare caiman and other crocodilians, enforcement of already existing laws regulating domestic trade in crocodilians may still be insufficient in some areas (Brazaitis et al. 1996, Mourao et al. 1996), due mostly to the limited resources available to local enforcement agencies as well as the remoteness and inaccessibility of many of the areas. Therefore, we believe that sufficient cause exists to find that the yacare caiman is presently threatened, but no longer endangered, in some parts of its range by the inadequacy of the existing regulatory mechanisms. E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Its Continued Existence A recent new possible threat to yacare caimans and their habitats is chemical pollution, primarily from mineral mining and industry (Brazaitis et al. 1996). However, short-and long-term effects of chemical contamination on yacare caiman populations are unknown. Summary of Findings Wildlife, such as the yacare caiman, can be advantageously utilized in commerce if management is sufficient to maintain satisfactory habitats and harvest is at levels that allow maintenance of healthy and sustainable populations. The yacare, under such conditions, can provide revenue to pay for its own management. In developing this rule, we have carefully assessed the best available biological and conservation status information regarding the past, present, and future threats faced by the yacare caiman. The available data from these studies on the distribution, ecology, and status of C. yacare indicate that this species is not endangered or in danger of extinction in any significant portion of its range. The Service

has concluded that an extensive population of yacare caiman still exists over large and seasonally inaccessible areas within the four South American range countries. The Service recognizes that yacare caimans near human populations may be illegally taken. However, the best available information indicates that this and many other species of crocodilians are capable of surviving despite unregulated harvests and that new international requirements are being implemented to curtail international trade in illegally harvested crocodile skins. Criteria for reclassification of a threatened or endangered species, found in 50 CFR part 424.11(d), include extinction, recovery of the species, or error in the original data for classification. The original listing did not encompass the survey information, such as Medem's 1973 work, which documented an extensive range for this species. Given the reproductive capabilities and current status of the yacare caiman, this species is more properly considered not as in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its vast range, but as threatened due to inadequately regulated domestic commercialization in some portions of its range. Therefore, if range countries continue to successfully implement measures to regulate its harvest and domestic commercialization, the yacare caiman should be able to maintain stable and sustainable population levels. Similarity of Appearance In determining whether to treat a species as endangered or threatened due to similarity of appearance, the Director shall consider the criteria in section 4(e) of the Endangered Species Act. Section 4(e) of the Act and criteria of 50 CFR 17.50 set forth three criteria in determining whether to list a species for reasons of similarity of appearance. These criteria apply to populations of common caiman (C. c. crocodilus) in South America and the brown caiman (C. c. fuscus) in Mexico and Central and South America.


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The Service has intercepted numerous shipments of manufactured items with documents identifying them as a lawfully tradeable Appendix II species (most often C. c. crocodilus and C. c. fuscus) and have determined that they are, in fact, made from yacare caiman. In other instances, products from other endangered species, such as Melanosuchus niger, have been declared as C. c. fuscus. One reason for this situation is that many vendors, buyers, and traders in South and Central America have deliberately misidentified yacare caiman by obtaining documents purporting to permit export of other Appendix II species. In addition, representatives of the manufacturing industry and others have indicated that a common practice in the trade is to commingle skins at the tanning, cutting, and assembly stages of the manufacturing process so that inadvertent commingling frequently occurs. While some affirmative yacare caiman identifications can be made in manufactured products, in numerous instances, proper identifications are not made and significant quantities of yacare caiman are probably being imported unlawfully. This situation occurs because a positive identification of yacare caiman depends upon whether certain indicator patterns are present on a piece of skin. However, a large proportion of commercially useful pieces of skins do not bear these identification patterns. In his comments submitted in response to the October 29, 1990, Federal Register notice, Mr. Peter Brazaitis provided extensive information on the similarity of appearance among six caiman and crocodilian species or subspecies as they occur in manufactured products and some hides. He discussed in detail the indicator characteristics for C. yacare, C. c. crocodilus, C. c. fuscus, C. c. apaporiensis, C. latirostris, and M. niger for live animals, whole skins, and untanned skins that remain after tanning and cutting, and how frequently similar characteristics

found on pieces of skin prevent positive identification. The three criteria for listing of other caiman by similarity of appearance are discussed below: (1) The degree of difficulty enforcement personnel would have in distinguishing the species, at the point in question, from an endangered or threatened species (including those cases where the criteria for recognition of a species are based on geographical boundaries). Caiman yacare, C. c. crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus are distinguishable as live animals because of different markings and coloration in the head region. However, manufactured products (shoes, purses, belts, or watchbands, etc.) are extremely difficult even for an expert to identify as to the species of origin (Brazaitis 1989b). Products from the three crocodilians often cannot readily be distinguished by law enforcement personnel, which means that under present conditions mixed products from U.S. listed and unlisted species may occur in U.S. commerce. (2) The additional threat posed to the endangered or threatened species by loss of control occasioned because of the similarity of appearance. The inability to adequately control commerce in caiman products has likely allowed losses to occur to other endangered species such as C. latirostris and M. niger. For example, the Service has records of leather goods manufactured from M. niger being included in product shipments declared as C. c. fuscus. Another problem occurs when unlawfully harvested yacare caiman skins enter commerce in non-range South American countries and then are re-exported with documents describing the export as native caiman. The Service has intercepted a number of shipments of yacare caiman from Colombia despite domestic laws that permit only the export of caimans from captive breeding programs, and despite the fact that the yacare caiman does not occur naturally in Colombia.

This rule allows for cessation of commercial trade to the United States if CITES bans are imposed for failure to implement appropriate trade control measures, including the use of non-reusable tags for species identification. A secondary effect of this rule may be to enhance the management of C. yacare, C. c. crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus to facilitate commerce in products of caiman species that can tolerate a managed commercial harvest, and to more effectively protect the endangered species of caiman or of other taxa that cannot sustain a managed commercial harvest. (3) The probability that so designating a similar species will substantially facilitate enforcement and further the purposes and policy of the Act. The Division of Law Enforcement presently inspects caiman shipments to determine the validity of the proffered Appendix II CITES documents and consults herpetologists to evaluate specimens when warranted. Due to the problems of commingling and identification, a substantial number of seizures, forfeitures, and penalty assessments have been contested. Judicial decisions have affirmed the validity of the Service's identifications, but the expenditure of funds and resources is disproportionate to that devoted to other species. An earlier judicial forfeiture action was concluded after 6 years, a full trial, and the employment, by both parties, of several expert witnesses. One of the purposes of this similarity-or-appearance listing is to shift the inquiry from one of evaluating a particular shipment to one of supporting the effectiveness of the CITES crocodilian skin control system as well as the effectiveness of yacare caiman management programs in countries of origin and re-export, thereby enhancing the management of the species while permitting other allocations of enforcement resources. The improved management of trade should enhance the conservation status of each species, and this listing action and special rule should assist CITES


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Parties to control the illegal trade in caiman skins, products, and parts. Available Conservation Measures Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or threatened under the Act include recognition of conservation status, requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions against certain practices. Recognition through listing encourages and results in conservation actions by Federal, State, and private agencies and groups, and individuals. Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, and as implemented by regulations at 50 CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies to evaluate their actions that are to be conducted within the United States or on the high seas, with respect to any species that is proposed to be listed or is listed as endangered or threatened and with respect to its proposed or designated critical habitat, if any is being designated. However, given that C. yacare is not native to the United States, no critical habitat is being proposed for designation with this rule. Currently, with respect to C. yacare, no Federal activities, other than the issuance of CITES export permits, are known that would require conferral or consultation. According to the CITES treaty, Appendix-II species need only a CITES export permit issued by the exporting country for their importation into another country. However, because of its listing as endangered under the Act, the importation and exportation of specimens from C. yacare presently require an Endangered Species Act permit issued by the Office of Management Authority. Consequently, a consultation with our Office of Scientific Authority is currently required before our Office of Management Authority can issue any import or export permit for C. yacare. The listing of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus as threatened by similarity of appearance does not add any new requirements to those already in place for the importation

or re-exportation of skins, other parts, and products of these two subspecies into/from the United States. This rule just requires that shipments involving skins and other parts of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus be tagged in accordance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution and accompanied by valid CITES export documents, as is currently required. No U.S. import permits will be required for these specimens. However, this special rule does not cover the importation of viable caiman eggs or live caimans into the United States. In addition to a valid CITES export permit (already required), importation of viable eggs or live specimens of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus will require an Endangered Species Act import permit. Section 8(a) of the Act authorizes the provision of limited financial assistance for the development and management of programs that the Secretary of the Interior determines to be necessary or useful for the conservation of endangered species in foreign countries. Sections 8(b) and 8(c) of the Act authorize the Secretary to encourage conservation programs for foreign endangered species, and to provide assistance for such programs, in the form of personnel and the training of personnel. Sections 4(d) and 9 of the Act, and implementing regulations found at 50 CFR part 17.31, (which incorporate certain provisions of 50 CFR part 17.21), set forth a series of prohibitions and exceptions that generally apply to all threatened wildlife. These prohibitions, in part, make it illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to take (within U.S. territory or on the high seas), import or export, ship in interstate commerce in the course of a commercial activity, or sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce any listed species. It also is illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship any such wildlife that has been taken illegally. Certain exceptions apply to employees or agents of the Service, other Federal land

management agencies, the National Marine Fisheries Service, and State conservation agencies (50 CFR part 17.21(c)(3) and part 17.31(b)). Permits may be issued to carry out otherwise prohibited activities involving threatened wildlife species under certain circumstances. Regulations governing permits are codified at 50 CFR part 17.32. With regard to threatened wildlife, a permit may be issued for the following purposes: Scientific research, enhancement of propagation or survival, zoological exhibition or education, incidental taking, or special purposes consistent with the Act. All such permits must also be consistent with the purposes and policy of the Act as required by section 10(d). Such a permit will be governed by the provisions of Sec. 17.32 unless a special rule applicable to the wildlife (appearing in Sec. 17.40 to Sec. 17.48) provides otherwise. Threatened species are generally covered by all prohibitions applicable to endangered species, under section 4(d) of the Act. The Secretary, however, may propose special rules if deemed necessary and advisable to provide for the conservation of the species. The special rule described here for Sec. 17.42 allows commercial importation and re-exportation into/from the United States of certain farm-reared, ranch-reared, and wild-collected specimens of threatened caiman species, which are listed in CITES Appendix II. Importation could be restricted from a particular country of origin or re-export if that country is not complying with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, or if that country has been identified as a subject to a recommended suspension of trade by the CITES Standing Committee or at a CITES Conference of the Parties. Interstate commerce within the United States and re-export of C. yacare, C. c. crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus parts will not require additional U.S. threatened species permits.


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Effects of This Rule This rule revises Sec. 17.11(h) to reclassify the C. yacare from endangered to threatened to reflect more accurately the present status of this species. The Apaporis River caiman (C. c. apaporiensis), the black caiman (M. niger), and the broad-snouted caiman (C. latirostris) retain their endangered status under the Act. Crocodylus crocodylus crocodilus and C. c. fuscus (including C. c. chiapasius) are listed as threatened by reason of similarity in appearance. /- Description of the Special Rule Currently, listing of C. yacare in Appendix II of CITES allows commercial trade in the species. This special rule allows commercial importation and re-exportation into/from the United States of C. yacare skins, other parts, and products originating from countries effectively implementing the crocodilian CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, and only from countries that have not been identified by the CITES Parties for inadequate implementation of CITES. The intent of this special rule is to enhance the conservation of the yacare caiman and the other endangered and threatened caiman populations by supporting those countries properly managing their caiman populations through the opening of commercial markets in the United States. The degree of endangerment of crocodilian species varies by species and specific populations. Some caiman species are listed on Appendix I of CITES. Such listing prohibits international trade in the species if such activity is conducted for primarily commercial purposes and/or determined to be detrimental to the survival of the species. The remaining species and populations of caiman are included in Appendix II, thereby allowing commercial trade if certain scientific and management findings are made. Some caiman species are also listed as endangered in the U.S. List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, while other species are not included. In addition to the

United States, several countries have taken domestic actions to protect wild caiman populations, but allow trade in specimens bred or raised in captivity under appropriate management programs. We agree that yacare caiman populations in some range countries are being sufficiently managed through ranching or captive breeding programs to support controlled commercial use. However, the Service is concerned about: (1) The illegal harvest and inadequate trade controls for caiman species in Appendix II of CITES; (2) the commingling and misidentification of legal and illegal skins in intermediary trading, processing, and manufacturing countries; and (3) the sustainable management of the yacare caiman in those countries allowing a legal harvest of wild specimens. The CITES Parties adopted at the 1994 Fort Lauderdale meeting (COP9) and are currently implementing provisions of the Universal Tagging System Resolution for crocodilian skins (Resolution Conf. 9.22). The Service supports these efforts, including the most recent clarifications of the resolution resulting from the Animals Committee meeting held in September 1996. At the CITES meeting of the Conference of the Parties in Zimbabwe in 1997, the CITES Secretariat reported that, to its knowledge, all range countries were effectively implementing the Universal Tagging System Resolution. Adherence to the CITES tagging requirements has reduced the potential for substitution of illegal skins and reduced the trade control problems with the similarity of appearance of skins and products among different species of crocodilians. In addition to the measures established by CITES in the Universal Tagging System Resolution, this special rule contains other steps designed to restrict or prohibit trade from countries that are not effectively implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution and, thus, to ensure that

the United States does not become a market for illegal trade in crocodilian species and to encourage other nations to control illegal trade. Effects of the Special Rule Consistent with the requirements of sections 3(3) and 4(d) of the Act, this rule also contains a special rule that amends 50 CFR 17.42 to allow commercial importation and re-exportation, under certain conditions, of whole and partial skins, other parts, and finished products from yacare caiman without a threatened species import permit otherwise required by 50 CFR part 17, if all requirements of the special rule and 50 CFR parts 13 (General Permits Procedures), 14 (Importation, Exportation, and Transportation of Wildlife), and 23 (Endangered Species Convention--CITES) are met. The reclassification of C. yacare to "threatened'' and the accompanying special rule allowing commercial trade into the United States without endangered species import permits does not end protection for this species, which remains on Appendix II of CITES. To the contrary, the special rule complements the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution for crocodilian skins by allowing imports and re-exports only from those range countries properly managing this species and controlling exports, and only from those intermediary countries properly implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution. Thus, this special rule simply reconciles ESA requirements for the importation and exportation of C. yacare shipments into and from the United States with CITES ones. The listing of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus as threatened by similarity of appearance, and the accompanying special rule allowing commercial trade into the United States, also will have no effect on the issuance of permits for the commercial importation and exportation of skins, other parts, and products of these two caiman subspecies into and from the United States. Since C. c.


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fuscus and C. c. crocodilus are currently listed in Appendix II of CITES, a CITES permit issued by the exporting or re-exporting country is already required for importation of shipments of these two subspecies into another country. This rule requires only that shipments involving skins and other parts of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus be tagged in accordance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution and accompanied by valid CITES export documents, as is currently done. No U.S. import permits are required for these specimens. However, in the case of viable eggs or live specimens of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus into the United States, an Endangered Species Act import permit will be required in addition to the already required CITES export permit. In summary, this special rule prohibits the importation and re-exportation of specimens (skins, other parts, or products) of C. caiman, C. c. crocodilus, and C. c. fuscus originating from any country (range country or a country of manufacture or re-export) that: (1) Is not effectively implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution including (but not limited to) the use of properly marked tamper-proof tags on all skins, the package of other crocodile parts in transparent sealed containers clearly marked with parts tags, the recording of the same information on the tags on the CITES documents, and maintenance of records accounting for transactions of skins, parts, and products; or (2) has failed to designate a Management Authority or Scientific Authority; or (3) have been identified by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention, the Convention's Standing Committee, or in a Notification from the Secretariat as a country from which Parties should not accept permits. In a limited number of situations where the original tags from the country of export have been lost in processing the skins, we will allow whole skins, flanks, and chalecos into the United States if CITES-approved re-export tags

have been attached in the same manner as the original tags and proper re-export certificates accompany the shipment. If a shipment contains more than 25 percent replacement tags, the re-exporting country must consult with the U.S. Office of Management Authority prior to clearance of the shipment, and such shipments may be seized, if the Service cannot determine that the requirements of the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution have been observed. In the case where tagged caiman skins are exported to another country for manufacturing purposes, and the finished products are re-exported to the United States, then neither the country of origin nor the country of re-export can be subject to a Notice of Information based on the criteria described in the special rule if imports are to be allowed. The Service will initially presume that intermediary countries are effectively implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, but the special rule has provisions to impose bans if persuasive evidence to the contrary is presented. Our Office of Management Authority will provide on request the list of those countries subject to a Schedule III Notice of Information to manufacturers in the country of re-export and to importers so that they may be advised of restrictions on caiman skins, products, and parts that can be utilized in products intended for U.S. commerce. The Management Authority of the country of manufacture should ensure that re-export certificates provided for manufactured goods intended for the United States are not for products and re-exports derived from countries subject to a Schedule III Notice of Information. In compliance with these rules, commerce in finished products from a re-export country would be allowed only with the required CITES documentation and without an endangered or threatened species permit for individual shipments otherwise required under 50 CFR part 17.

Finally, this special rule does not cover the importation of viable caiman eggs or live caimans into the United States. Importation of these two types of specimens will require an Endangered Species Act import permit and the appropriate CITES permit. This requirement will allow scrutiny of individual applications for importation of live caimans or eggs so as to prevent accidental introduction of these exotic species into the United States, which may have detrimental effects on U.S. native wildlife or ecosystems. Re-exportation from the United States of caiman skins, other parts, and products will continue to require CITES documents. Interstate commerce within the United States in legally imported caiman skins, other parts, and products will not require U.S. threatened species permits. This special rule allows trade through intermediary countries. Countries are not considered as intermediary countries or countries of re-export if the specimens remain in Customs control while transiting or being transshipped through the country and provided those specimens have not entered into the commerce of that country. However, the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution presupposes that countries of re-export have implemented a system for monitoring skins. We wrote this special rule to allow the Service to respond quickly to changing situations that may result in lessened protection to crocodilians. The criteria described in the special rule establish specific, non-discretionary bases for determining whether CITES provisions are being effectively implemented. Therefore, by the publication of such notice in the Federal Register, we can deny approval of permits, and imports into the United States can be prohibited from any country that fails to comply with the requirements of the special rule. In a separate rule-making proposal, amending 50 CFR part 23, the Service will propose implementation of the CITES Universal Tagging System


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Resolution for all crocodilians. That rulemaking will adopt CITES tags as the required tag for all crocodilian skins, including caiman chalecos and flanks, being imported into or exported from any country if the skin is eventually imported into the United States. For the reasons noted above, the Service finds that the special rule for caiman species, including the yacare caiman, includes all of the protection that is necessary and advisable to provide for the conservation of such species. The Monitoring of Yacare Caiman Requirements of the Act for the monitoring of species also apply to foreign species (see final rule "Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Removal of Three Kangaroos From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife'' published in the Federal Register on March 9, 1995; 60 FR 12887). Monitoring programs are conducted to ensure that species continue to fare well after delisting or downlisting occurs. These monitoring programs frequently include population and species distribution surveys, assessment of the condition of important habitats for the species, and assessment of threats identified as relevant to the species. The Service depends primarily on range countries to monitor C. yacare. To monitor the status of C. yacare, we will request the governments of the range countries (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Bolivia) wishing to export specimens of C. yacare to the United States for commercial purposes to provide us every two years, for the following 10 years, with the most recent information available on the status of the species, gathered by the respective range countries to fulfill their CITES scientific and management requirements. The first submission of status information is due on December 31, 2001. All information provided by the range countries will be available for public review. For each country, the following information should be provided on the status of C. yacare:

(1) Recent distribution and population data, and a description of the methodology used to obtain such estimates; (2) Description of research projects currently being conducted related to the biology of the above species in the wild, particularly their reproductive biology (for example, age or size when animals become sexually mature, number of clutches per season, number of eggs per clutch, survival of eggs, survival of hatchlings); (3) Description of laws and programs regulating harvest of the above species, including approximate acreage of land set aside as natural reserves or national parks that provide protected habitat for the above species; (4) Description of current sustainable harvest programs for the above species, including ranching (i.e., captive-rearing of crocodiles collected from the wild as eggs or juveniles) and farming (captive-breeding of animals) programs; (5) Current harvest quotas for wild populations; and (6) Export data for the last 10 years (preferably organized according to origin of animals: wild-caught, captive-reared, and captive-bred). Regulatory Planning and Review This rule is not subject to review by the Office of Management and Budget under Executive Order 12866. Regulatory Flexibility Act The Department of the Interior certifies that the special rule in Sec. 17.42(g) will not have a significant economic effect on a substantial number of small entities, as defined under the Regulatory Flexibility Act (5 U.S.C. 601 et seq.) Most or all of the potential applicants who might take advantage of the procedures implemented through this special rule are individuals or small entities. Unfunded Mandates Reform Act The special rule in Sec. 17.42(g) does not impose an unfunded mandate on State, local,

or tribal governments or the private sector of more than $100 million a year. Takings In accordance with Executive Order 12630, the special rule in Sec. 17.42(g) does not have significant takings implications. Federalism In accordance with Executive Order 13132, the special rule in Sec. 17.42(g) does not have significant Federalism effects to warrant the preparation of a Federalism assessment. Civil Justice Reform In accordance with Executive Order 12988, the Office of the Solicitor has determined that this special rule in Sec. 17.42(g) does not unduly burden the judicial system and meets the requirements of sections 3(a) and 3(b)(2) of the Order. Paperwork Reduction Act The special rule in Sec. 17.42(g) does require an information collection from 10 or more parties and, therefore, a submission under the Paperwork Reduction Act is required. The Office of Management and Budget approved the information collection requirements contained in this special rule under the Paperwork Reduction Act and assigned clearance number 1018-0093 as part of the permit requirements contained in Part 23 of Title 50. National Environmental Policy Act The Service has determined that Environmental Assessments and Environmental Impact Statements, as defined under the authority of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, need not be prepared in connection with regulations adopted pursuant to section 4(a) of the Act of 1973, as amended. A notice outlining the Service's reasons for this determination was published in the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).


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References Cited Amato, G. D. 1992. Expert Report.

Yale University, New Haven, CT. 6 pp. Unpublished report.

Brazaitis, P. 1989a. The caiman of the Pantanal: Past, present, and future, pp. 119-124, in Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 8th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 204 pp.

Brazaitis, P. 1989b. The forensic identification of crocodilian hides and products, pp. 17-43, in Crocodiles: Their ecology, management and conservation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Brazaitis, P., C. Yamashita, and G. Rebelo. 1988. CITES central South American caiman study: Phase I-central and southern Brazil. 62 pp.

Brazaitis, P., C. Yamashita, and G. Rebelo. 1990. A summary report of the CITES central South American caiman study: Phase I: Brazil, pp. 100-115, in Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 9th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group. Vol. I. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 300 pp.

Brazaitis, P., G. Amato, G. Rebelo, C. Yamashita, and J. Gatesy. 1993. Report to CITES on the biochemical systematics study of Yacare caiman, Caiman yacare, of central South America. Unpublished report. 43 pp.

Brazaitis, P., R. Madden, G. Amato, and M. Watanabe. 1997a. The South American and Central American caiman (Caiman) complex. Systematics of the Caiman: Results of morphological, statistical, molecular genetics, and species discrimination studies. Special report to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 62 pp. Unpublished.

Brazaitis, P., R. Madden, G. Amato, and M. Watanabe. 1997b. Morphological characteristics, statistics, and DNA evidence used to identify closely related crocodilian species for wildlife law enforcement. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic

Sciences. Annual Meeting, New York City, February 17-22, 1997. D28: 92-93. Published abstract.

Brazaitis, P., G. H. Rebelo, C. Yamashita, E. A. Odierna, and M. E. Watanabe. 1996. Threats to Brazilian crocodilian populations. Oryx, 30:275-284.

Busack, S. D., and S. S. Pandya. 1996. Presented at 76th annual meeting of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. New Orleans, LA. Abstract.

Coutinho, M., and Z. Campos. 1996. Effect of habitat and seasonality on the densities of caiman in southern Pantanal, Brazil. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 12:741-747.

Da Silveria, R., and J. B. Thorbjarnarson. 1999. Conservation implications of commercial hunting of black and spectacled caiman in the Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve, Brazil.

Fitch, H., and M. Nadeau. 1979. An assessment of Caiman latirostris and Caiman crocodilus yacare in northern Argentina. Unpublished progress report to World Wildlife Fund--U.S., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and New York Zoological Society. 7 pp.

Groombridge, B. 1982. The IUCN Amphibia-Reptilia red data book. Part I: Testudines, Crocodylia, Rhynchocephalia. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 426 pp.

King, F. W., and Burke, R. L. 1989. Crocodilian, tuatara, and turtle species of the world: A taxonomic and geographic reference. Association of Systematic Collections, Washington, D.C.

King, F. W., and D. H. Videz-Roca. 1989. The caimans of Bolivia: A preliminary report on a CITES and Centro Desarrollo Forestal sponsored survey of species distribution and status, pp. 128-155, in Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 8th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 204 pp.

King, F. W., A. L. Aquino, N. J. Scott, Jr., and R. Palacios. 1994. Status of the crocodiles of Paraguay: Results of the 1993 monitoring surveys. Report from Biodiversity Services, Inc., to Paraguay's Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia and the Secretariat of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). 39 pp.

Mourao, G., Z. Campos, and M. Coutinho. 1996. Size structure of illegally harvested and surviving caiman Caiman crocodilus yacare in Pantanal, Brazil. Biological Conservation, 75:261-265.

Scott, N. J., A. L. Aquino, and L. A. Fitzgerald. 1988. Distribution, habitats, and conservation of the caiman (Alligatoridae) of Paraguay. Unpublished report to the CITES Secretariat, Lausanne, Switzerland. 30 pp.

Scott, N. J., A. L. Aquino, and L. A. Fitzgerald. 1990. Distribution, habitats and conservation of the caimans (Alligatoridae) of Paraguay. Vida Silvestre Neotropical, 43-51.

Thorbjarnarson, J. B. 1992. Crocodiles: An action plan for their conservation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 136 pp.

Thorbjarnarson, J. B. 1994. Reproductive ecology of the spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in the Venezuelan Llanos. Copeia, 1994:907-919.

Authors The primary author of this rule is Dr. Javier Alvarez, Office of Scientific Authority, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC 20240 (703-358-1708 or FTS 921-1708). List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and recordkeeping requirements, Transportation. Regulations Promulgation Accordingly, the Service hereby amends part 17, subchapter


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B of chapter I, title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth

Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C. 4201-4245; Pub. L. 99-625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted. 2. Amend Sec. 17.11(h) by revising the current entry for the yacare caiman and by adding entries for the brown and the common caimans in alphabetic

order under "Reptiles'' on the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife to read as follows: below:

PART 17-- [AMENDED] Sec. 17.11 Endangered and

threatened wildlife. 1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:

* * * * * (h) * * *

3. Section 17.42 is amended by adding a new paragraph (g) as

(ii) Caiman parts means body parts with or without skin attached (including tails, throats, feet, and other parts, but excluding meat and skulls) and small cut skins pieces.

follows: Sec. 17.42 Special rules--reptiles. (iii) Caiman product means

any processed or manufactured product items (including curios and souvenirs) that are ready for retail sale, and composed, totally or in part, of yacare caiman, brown caiman, or common caiman.

* * * * * (g) Threatened caiman. This paragraph applies to the following species: Yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), the common caiman (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus), and the brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus fuscus including Caiman crocodilus chiapasius). These taxa will be collectively referred to as "caiman.'' (1) What are the definitions of terms used in this paragraph (g)? (i) Caiman skins means whole or partial skins, flanks, chalecos, and bellies (whether these are salted, crusted, tanned, partially tanned, or otherwise processed).

(iv) Country of re-export means those intermediary countries that import and re-export caiman skins, parts, and/or products. However, we will not consider intermediary countries those through which caiman skins, parts, and/or products are shipped while remaining under Customs control. (v) Universal Tagging System Resolution means the

CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) resolution entitled "Universal Tagging System for the Identification of Crocodilian Skins'' and numbered Conf. 9.22, and any subsequent revisions. (2) What activities involving yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), the common caiman (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus), and the brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus fuscus) are prohibited by this rule? (i) Import, export, and re-export. Except for the activities described in paragraph (g)(3) of this section, it is unlawful to import, export, re-export, or present for export or re-export without valid permits (as required under 50 CFR parts 17 and 23) any caiman or their skins, other parts or products. (ii) Commercial activity. Except as described in


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paragraph (g)(3) of this section, it is unlawful to sell or offer for sale, deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign commerce any caiman or their skins, other parts, or products. (iii) It is unlawful for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to commit, attempt to commit, solicit to commit, or cause to be committed any acts described in paragraphs (g)(2) (i) and (ii) of this section. (3) What activities involving yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), the common caiman (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus), and the brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus fuscus) are allowed by this rule? The import/export/re-export of, or the interstate/foreign commerce in caiman skins, other parts, or products may be allowed without a threatened species permit (issued according to 50 CFR 17.32) only when the provisions in 50 CFR parts 13, 14, and 23, and the requirements of the applicable paragraphs below have been met. (i) Import, export, or re-export. The import, export, or re-export into/from the United States of caiman skins, parts, or products may be allowed provided the following conditions are met: (A) Each caiman skin imported into or exported or re-exported from the United States after the effective date of the final rule must bear either: (1) An intact, uncut tag from the country of origin meeting all the requirements of the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, or (2) An intact, uncut replacement tag from the country of re-export where the original tags were lost or removed from raw, tanned, and/or processed skins. These replacement tags must meet all the requirements of the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, except showing the country of re-export instead of the country of origin, provided

those re-exporting countries have implemented an administrative system for the effective matching of imports and re-exports consistent with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution. If a shipment contains more than 25 percent replacement tags, the Management Authority of the re-exporting country must consult with the U.S. Office of Management Authority before clearance of the shipment. Such shipments may be seized if we determine that the requirements of the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution have not been met. (B) In accordance with the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, all caiman parts must be placed in a transparent, sealed container. Each container imported, exported, or re-exported into/from the United States after the effective date of the rule: (1) Must have a parts tag attached in such a way that opening of the container will prevent later reuse of such tag; and (2) The parts tag must contain a description of the contents plus total weight of the container and its contents. (C) The information on the export permit or re-export certificate must be the same as that on the skin and part tags, carry the same permit or certificate number, and be validated by the government authority designated as the CITES document-issuing authority. (D) The CITES permit or certificate accompanying shipments of caiman skins, parts, or products must contain the following information: (1) The country of origin, its export permit number, and date of issuance; (2) If re-export, the country of re-export, its certificate number, and date of issuance; and (3) If applicable, the country of previous re-export, its

certificate number, and date of issuance. (E) The country of origin and any intermediary country(s) must be effectively implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution. If we receive persuasive information from the CITES Secretariat or other reliable sources that a specific country is not effectively implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution, we will prohibit or restrict imports from such country(s) as appropriate for the conservation of the species. (F) At the time of import, for each shipment covered by this exception, the country of origin and each country of re-export involved in the trade of a particular shipment must not be subject to a Schedule III Notice of Information (see paragraph (g)(4) of this section) prohibiting or restricting imports of all wildlife or any members of the Order Crocodylia. A listing of all countries subject to such a Schedule III Notice of Information is available by writing to: Office of Management Authority, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Mail Stop ARLSQ-700, Washington, DC 20240, or via e-mail at [email protected]. (ii) Shipment of skulls, processed meat, and scientific specimens. The import, export, and re-export into/from the United States of skulls, processed meat, and scientific specimens of caiman is allowed without permits otherwise required by 50 CFR part 17, provided the requirements of part 23 are met. (iii) Noncommercial accompanying baggage. The conditions described in paragraphs (g)(3)(i) and (ii) for skins, skulls, meat, other parts, and products made of specimens of caiman do not apply to non-commercial personal effects in accompanying baggage or household effects. (iv) Eggs and live specimens. This special rule does not apply


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to live specimens or eggs of caiman. Import of such specimens requires an import permit as described in 50 CFR 17.32. (4) When and how will we inform you of additional restrictions in trade of yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), the common caiman (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus), and the brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus fuscus)? Except in rare cases involving extenuating circumstances that do not adversely affect the conservation of the species, the Service will issue a Notice of Information announcing additional CITES restrictions in trade in specimens of caiman dealt with in this paragraph (g) if any of the following criteria are met: (i) The country is listed in a Notification to the Parties by the CITES Secretariat as not having designated Management and Scientific Authorities that issue CITES documents or their equivalent. (ii) The country is identified in any action adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention, the Convention's Standing Committee, or in a Notification issued by the CITES Secretariat, whereby Parties are asked not to accept shipments of specimens of any CITES-listed species from the country in question or of any crocodilian species listed in the CITES appendices. (iii) We determine, based on information from the CITES Secretariat or other reliable sources, that the country is not effectively implementing the CITES Universal Tagging System Resolution. (5) What are the approved information collection requirements in this rule? The Office of Management and Budget approved the information collection requirements contained in this special rule under the Paperwork Reduction Act and assigned clearance number 1018-0093 as part of the permit requirements contained in Part 23 of Title 50.

We may not conduct or sponsor, and you are not required to respond to, a collection of information unless it displays a currently valid OMB control number. The collection of information under this rule is done to provide information necessary to evaluate permit applications. We will use this information to review permit applications and make decisions, according to criteria established in various Federal wildlife conservation statutes and regulations, on the issuance, suspension, revocation, or denial of permits. You must respond to obtain or retain a permit. We estimate the public reporting burden for these reporting requirements to vary from 20 minutes to 2 hours per response, with an average of 1 hour per response, including time for reviewing instructions, gathering and maintaining data, and completing and reviewing the forms. Dated: April 7, 2000. Stephen C. Saunders, Acting Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks. [FR Doc. 00-11055 Filed 5-3-00; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4310-55-P ––––––––––––––––––––––––––


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