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WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 358
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WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 358
Integrated Lake andReservoir ManagementWorld Bank Approach and Experience
Wendy S. AyresAwa BusiaAriel DinarRafik HirjiStephen E LintnerAlex E McCallaRobert Robelus
The World BankWashington, D. C.
Copyright X 1996The International Bank for Reconstructionand Development/THE WORLD BANK1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.
All rights reservedManufactured in the United States of AmericaFirst printing April 1997
Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development communitywith the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordancewith the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility forerrors. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available.
The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of theauthor(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, orto members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does notguarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoeverfor any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown onany map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of anyterritory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.
The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of itshould be sent to the Office of the Publisher at the address shown in the copyright notice above. TheWorld Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, whenthe reproduction is for noncommercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to copy portions forclassroom use is granted through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., Suite 910, 222 Rosewood Drive,Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, U.S.A.
ISBN 0-8213-3867-6ISSN: 0253-7494
All authors work at the World Bank. Wendy S. Ayres is an environmental specialist in the Agriculture and NaturalResources Department. Awa Busia is a water resources specialist in the Africa Regional Office. Ariel Dinar is an econ-omist in the Agriculture and National Resources Department. Rafik Hirji and Stephen F. Lintner are water resourcesspecialists in the Environment Department. Alex F. McCalla is director of the Agriculture and National Resources De-partment. Robert Robelus is an enviromnental specialist in the Environment Department.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Integrated lake and reservoir management: World Bank approach andexperience / Wendy S. Ayres . .. (et al.].
p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper, ISSN 0253-7494 ; no.358)
ISBN 0-8213-3867-6Includes bibliographical references.1. Water resources development. 2. Lakes-Management.
3. Reservoirs-Management. 4. Natural resources-Management.I. Ayres, Wendy S., 1955- . II. Series.HD1691.143 1997 96-52606333.91'63-dc2l CIP
Table of Contents
Page
FOREWORD ...................................................... v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................... vii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................... ix
INTRODUCTION ...................................................... 1Why are lakes important? ...................................................... 1Lakes and reservoirs as part of integrated water resources management ............................... 1
CURRENT DEVELOPMENT TRENDS ...................................................... 2
CHALLENGES IN MANAGING LAKES AND RESERVOIRS ...............................................3The rate of change in lakes and reservoirs ...................................................... 5Major threats to lakes and reservoirs ...................................................... 6
POLICIES AND ACTIONS FOR MAINSTREAMING MANAGEMENT:WORLD BANK APPROACH AND EXPERIENCE ...................................................... 7Policies, strategies, and plans ...................................................... 8
Water resources planning: A comprehensive approach ....................................................8Tools for better project selection ..................................................... 11Improving the allocation of water resources ..................................................... 14Pollution prevention and abatement ..................................................... 15
Applied research, innovation, and dissemination ..................................................... 18Applied research ..................................................... 18Innovation ..................................................... 18Dissemination ..................................................... 19Technical assistance ..................................................... 19
NEXT STEPS ..................................................... 19Global Water Partnership ..................................................... 19Water Resources Management Policy ..................................................... 20Strategic action plans ..................................................... 20Borrower training ..................................................... 20Support for preventive and restorative measures ..................................................... 20Lakes Management Initiative ..................................................... 20
iv
Boxes
1 Aral Sea: The devastating effects of poor planning ........................................................... 42 Lake Victoria: A comprehensive management plan for an international lake ................... 103 Lake Burullus: Higher value as a reservoir for irrigation water or lake for fishing? ......... 124 Changing relative importance of Lake Biwa's services from ancient times to
the present ......................... 135 Restoring Lake Washington ......................... 186 Lake Sevan: Saving a temperate lake ......................... 21
Figures
1 Freshwater in circulation .22 Trends in water availability in selected countries, 1990-2025 .3
Annexes
Lakes and reservoirs: Examples of World Bank Involvement .23
Bibliography .27
v
FOREWORD
Lakes and reservoirs are key components of the world's water resources, providing water fordrinking, irrigation, power generation, and habitat for innumerable species of plants and animals.These important resources are now under serious threat. Disturbances in the watersheds, pollution,overfishing, introduction of exotic species, and excessive water withdrawals, diversions, and lakereclamation are all taking a toll. Action must be taken now to protect and manage them so that theymay provide their immense and varied benefits to the world's people in the future.
If we want to manage lakes and reservoirs effectively, we must address them as part ofcomprehensive water resource planning. This requires taking action across a broad spectrum:
* Involving all stakeholders in developing management plans.* Improving the allocation of water resources through the use of water markets and user fees,
for example.* Implementing better technologies for preventing lake and reservoir degradation through
applied research.* Disseminating information on successful technologies and proven practices, by supporting
the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and nationalinstitutions.
The World Bank, working with its partners, is committed to supporting efforts to better managelakes and reservoirs, through broad policy support, technical assistance, and improved projectdesign and implementation. The Bank is also supporting measures to address the critical issues oflake and reservoir managementthrough special programs such as the Global Water Partnership andthe Lakes Management Initiative.
This paper describes the special challenges of managing lakes and reservoirs and the Bank'ssupport of these activities. It complements the Bank's 1993 policy paper, Water ResourcesManagement and its technical papers A Guide to the Formulation of Water Resources Strategy(1994), and Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs (1995).
Andrew D. Steer, Director Alex F. McCalIa, Director
Environment Department Agriculture and Natural Resources Department
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Peter Whitford and Lucy Hancock for contributions on the Aral SeaBasin Program; Andrew Bond on Lake Baikal; Graham Donovan on Lake Victoria; Mark Kosmoon Lake Ohrid; Kathleen Stephenson and Sari Soderstrom on Lake Sevan; and Peteris Zilgalvison Lake Pape. The authors also wish to thank the many colleagues from within and outside theBank who provided helpful comments on earlier drafts. Catherine Golitzen and Jennifer Bossardprovided support in the preparation of the document and Grace Aguilar and Lisa Barczakcoordinated its production. The views presented here are the authors own and should not beattributed to the World Bank or its member governments.
ix
Integrated Lake and Reservoir Management:World Bank Approach and Experience
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The conservation and management of lakes and reservoirs must enter the mainstream of theeconomic development process through comprehensive water resources management. Actions toimprove management of lake resources on a sustained basis are necessary due to the high levels ofdirect and indirect pressure on lakes and reservoirs from rapid population growth, industrialization,and the growth of irrigated agriculture which are threatening the capacity of lakes and reservoirs toprovide their enormous and varied benefits.
Why are lakes and reservoirs important?
Lakes and reservoirs are critical elements of the earth's freshwater hydrological system and must bemanaged as part of a larger ecosystem rather than as independent units. They contain most of theearth's surface stores of liquid fresh water. Lakes and reservoirs provide water for drinking,irrigation, industrial processes, and power generation. They provide habitats for numerousspecies of fish, crustaceans, turtles, amphibians, birds, mammals, and water plants, many ofwhich are important sources of protein and income for local inhabitants. Lakes and reservoirsare important for controlling floods, retaining sediments, and recharging groundwater. They area source of recreation for swimming, boating, fishing, and quiet contemplation. Lakes are alsoimportant media for transportation in some regions. Finally, lakes and reservoirs provide, all toooften, a major disposal site for domestic sewage, industrial wastewater, and cooling water frompower stations.
Lakes and reservoirs as part of integrated water resources management
Compared with rivers, lakes and reservoirs are essentially closed systems, and their natural cycletakes tens or even hundreds of years to flush out contaminants. Because of their vulnerability todegradation, lakes require more careful and complex management than most rivers and streams.The World Bank is supporting measures to protect and manage lakes and reservoirs for the long-term future through its Water Resources Management Policy.
Current Development Trends
Lakes and reservoirs contain over 90 percent of the world's surface water stores of liquidfreshwater. Lakes are not evenly distributed, nor are reservoirs. Many lakes and reservoirs are inhigh-income countries of North America and Western Europe, but their role may be even moresignificant in the countries of Eastern and Central Europe, and in the developing countries of Asia,Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America. These countries have a growing need for freshwaterresources.
x
Until recently, population and economic growth have occurred without paying adequate attention tothe management of the lake and reservoir resources upon which economic development and humanlife depend. In many countries both the quality and quantity of freshwater available from lakes andreservoirs have declined significantly over the past 50 years. Lakes and reservoirs are increasinglyunable to serve their ecological or economic support functions.
Population in developing countries is projected to increase by nearly two thirds over the next 30years, from 4.3 billion today to 7.1 billion in 2025. It will become increasingly challenging toprovide freshwater to drink, to grow food, and to run factories and power plants to meet the needs ofthese people. Lakes and reservoirs must play a large role in managing water for these purposes.Properly managed, lakes and reservoirs can also provide crucial habitat for aquatic life, diverserecreational opportunities, and a refuge from urban stress. It is imperative that we take action nowto prevent the further degradation and depletion of lakes and reservoirs upon which so many willdepend.
Challenges in Managing Lakes and Reservoirs
* Water pollution. Pollutants threatening lakes and reservoirs come from point and non-pointsources, including sewage systems, industrial plants, mines, and runoff from farms and cities.Nutrients and organic matter from these sources accelerate eutrophication-a process whichpromotes plant growth, depletes dissolved oxygen and which may kill aquatic life and changeecosystems. Heavy metals, toxins, and chemicals contaminate sediments and bioaccumulatethroughout the food-chain exposing humans to toxins which may cause diseases, cancer, orbirth-defects.
* Water withdrawals, diversions and lake reclamation. Water withdrawals from lakes andreservoirs, water diversions from upstream dams, and lake reclamation for agriculture andaquaculture may significantly deplete the size of the waterbodies, destroying habitat forplants and animals and sometimes causing high levels of salinization.
* Disturbances in watersheds. Logging, land conversion, and other disturbances inwatersheds may lead to siltation and sedimentation of lakes and reservoirs, and block therivers and streams that feed them. This can diminish the flood-control capacity of lakes andreservoirs, shorten their lifetimes, destroy aquatic habitats, and reduce the productivity oftheir ecosystems.
* Introduction of exotic species. Inappropriate fish-farming and the introduction of exoticspecies may lead to loss of biodiversity or to a change in the ecosystem of the lake.
* Overfishing. Increasing human populations and the introduction of new fishing practicesmay lead to unsustainable fish harvesting-and even the collapse of the fisheries.
xi
Policies and Actions for Mainstreaming Management: World Bank Approach andExperience
Mainstreaming the management of lakes and reservoirs into the development process requirestaking, on a sustained basis, a series of complementary measures, as follows:
Policies, Strategies, Plans
* Water resources planning: A comprehensive approach. Managing lakes and reservoirs sothat they can provide their varied benefits for the future requires a comprehensive approachinvolving all stakeholders and covering all activities affecting the water resources throughoutthe watershed. To work effectively, management plans must be developed at the community-level, involve the participation of all the groups who benefit directly and indirectly from thewaterbodies, and have clear and transparent rules for resolving conflicts. Wherever possible,property rights should be granted to resource users, who then become responsible for theirmanagement.
* Tools for better project selection. The use of analytical tools and techniques for assessing thenet benefits of projects can help ensure that resources for projects are spent in the best possibleway. Some useful tools include benefit-cost analysis, environmental assessments, and nationalenvironmental action plans.
* Improving the allocation of water resources. Currently, enormous quantities of water arewasted through inefficient irrigation systems or through poorly monitored and maintainedurban water delivery systems. Charging users for water to reflect its economic value wouldhelp ensure that water is not wasted. Farmers and urban dwellers who pay appropriately fortheir water are much more likely to introduce water-saving technologies and practices thanthose who do not.
* Pollution prevention and abatement. Reducing pollution effectively requires controllingboth point and non-point source pollution. Many countries have successfully reduced pointand non-point source pollution using policies combining regulations, economic instruments,public education, and enforcement measures.
Applied Research, Innovation, and Dissemination
* Applied research. Much more information is needed to evaluate conditions in lakes andreservoirs in developing countries, and to understand how these are changing over time.Applied research efforts should focus on collecting basic data on water and environmentalquality, hydrology, and hydrogeology, and understanding the inter-relationships betweenlakes and reservoirs and the larger freshwater systems of which they are a part.
xii
* Innovation. Long-term management of lakes and reservoirs will require innovative, low-cost technical, financial, institutional, and policy approaches that reduce pollution, encouragewater conservation, and improve the management of aquatic ecosystems and resources.Promising technologies include spray irrigation systems that use wastewater to improve soilsfor raising crops, technologies which allow industries and municipalities to reduce, reuse, orrecycle process waters, and the use of artificial wetlands to treat municipal and industrialwastewaters.
* Dissemination. Finally, it is important that information on successful practices and proventechnologies is widely disseminated. For example, the Consultative Group on InternationalAgricultural Research (CGIAR) is working to disseminate information on sustainablefarming practices-such as terracing, contouring, crop rotation, ground-cover maintenance,and mulching-that are effective in reducing land erosion and the runoff of sediments, silt,and pollutants to lakes and reservoirs.
Next Steps
The World Bank plans to undertake the following measures to address the critical issue of lake andreservoir management:
- Global Water Partnership. At the Stockholm Water Symposium in August 1995, the UnitedNations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World Bank announced the formation ofthe Global Water Partnership (GWP) which will support the comprehensive management of ourfragile water resources. The GWP will be used as a vehicle to mainstream the management oflakes and reservoirs into the development planning process.
- Water Resources Management Policy. The World Bank will develop supplementary policyguidance concerning the management of lakes and reservoirs as an element of its overall WaterResources Management Policy which was issued in 1993. This document will identifymeasures which need to be taken to effectively integrate lake and reservoir management issuesinto strategic and project planning.
* Strategic action plans. The World Bank, subject to the availability of support from the GlobalEnvironment Facility (GEF) and other sources, will support the cooperative preparation andimplementation of programs and projects to enhance the management of lakes and reservoirs.Current activities for Lake Victoria, Lake Ohrid, Lake Sevan, and the Aral Sea would be usedas models for future activities.
* Borrower training. The World Bank, with the support of its Economic Development Institute,will incorporate policy, management and technical concerns related to lake and reservoirmanagement more fully into its training programs for integrated river basin management andintegrated coastal zone management. This process would support the development of localcapacity to address these issues in the design and implementation of programs and projects.
xiii
Support for preventive and restorative measures. The World Bank is prepared, at therequest of its borrowers, to finance lending operations for preventive and restorative measuresthat enhance the management of lakes and reservoirs, either as free standing projects or ascomponents of projects. The World Bank will continue to assure that all proposed projects aresubject to environmental review consistent with its own procedures and those of the borrowingcountry.
Lakes Management Initiative. To assure a consolidated and well coordinated approach tothis important issue, the World Bank-through its Vice Presidency for EnvironmentallySustainable Development-will support a Lakes Management Initiative. The objective of thisprogram, managed by an interdisciplinary team of specialists from our EnvironmentDepartment and our Agriculture and Natural Resources Departnent, would be to support aBank-wide exchange of knowledge and experience in the management of lakes and reservoirswhich would be reflected in policies, best practices, programs and individual lendingoperations.
1
Integrated Lake and Reservoir Management:World Bank Approach and Experience
INTRODUCTION
The conservation and management of lakes and reservoirs must enter the mainstream of theeconomic development process through comprehensive water resources management. Lakes andreservoirs are critical elements of the earth's freshwater hydrological system and must be managedas part of a larger ecosystem system rather than as independent units. Actions to better managethese valuable resources on a sustained basis need to be taken due to the high levels of direct andindirect pressure on lakes and reservoirs from rapid population growth, industrialization, and thegrowth of irrigated agriculture which are threatening the capacity of lakes and reservoirs to providetheir enormous and varied benefits.
hy are lakes important?
Lakes and reservoirs contain most of the earth's surface stores of liquid fresh water. Lakes andreservoirs provide water for drinking, irrigation, industrial processes, and power generation.They provide habitats for numerous species of fish, crustaceans, turtles, amphibians, birds,mammals, and water plants, many of which are found nowhere else. Many of these animals andplants are important sources of protein and income for local inhabitants. Lakes and reservoirs areimportant for controlling floods, retaining sediments, and recharging groundwater. They are asource of recreation for swimming, boating, fishing, and quiet contemplation. Lakes are alsoimportant media for transportation in some regions. Finally, lakes and reservoirs provide, all toooften, a major disposal site for domestic sewage, industrial wastewater, and cooling water frompower stations.
Lakes and reservoirs as part of integrated water resources management
Lakes are more complex and fragile ecosystems than rivers. Compared with rivers, lakes, and to alesser extent reservoirs, are essentially closed systems, and their natural cycle takes a long timeto flush out contaminants. The rate of water renewal in the large and deep lakes is slow, takingtens or even hundreds of years.' Because of their vulnerability to degradation, lakes require morecareful and complex management than most rivers and streams. In any water resourcesmanagement strategy, it is important to pay special attention to lakes and reservoirs, withprograms focusing on both the waterbody itself and the surrounding watershed. The World Bank
I There is considerable variation in the residence time of water in lakes. Some shallow lakes haveresidence times as little as a week. The average residence time of water for all lakes is about 21 years. (Black,1991).
2
is supporting measures to protect and manage lakes and reservoirs for the long-term future throughits Water Resources Management Policy.
CURRENT DEVELOPMENT TRENDS
Less than 3 percent of all water on the earth is fresh. Of the total freshwater, almost 75 percent is inthe polar ice and glaciers, and slightly less than 25 percent is in shallow and deep groundwater.Only 0.6 percent of freshwater is readily available on the earth's surface, divided between lakes,rivers, soils, biomass, and the atmosphere. Lakes contain almost 50 percent of this tiny proportionof freshwater (Figure 1), and over 90 percent of the world's surface stores of liquid freshwater-thewater that is most accessible to man. Reservoirs and man-made lakes contain about 3 percent of thevolume of natural lakes.
Figure 1 Freshwater in circulation (percent)
Rivers4%
Lakes Biosphere
45% 370/o
Soil Atnosphere
90/0 5%
Source: Black (1991)
Lakes are not evenly distributed, nor are reservoirs. A large number of lakes and reservoirs are inhigh-income countries of North America, and Western Europe, but their role may be even moresignificant in the formerly centrally-planned economies of Eastern and Central Europe, and in thedeveloping countries of Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America. In many of these regionspopulations are growing rapidly and the need is increasing for freshwater for domestic and urbanuses, irrigation, industrial processes, and power generation, and for the protein supplied by fish andother lake plants and animals.
Until recently, population and economic growth have occurred without paying adequate attention tothe management of lake and reservoir resources upon which economic development and human life
3
depend. In many countries both the quality and quantity of freshwater available from lakes andreservoirs have declined significantly over the past 50 years. Lakes and reservoirs are increasinglyunable to serve their support functions on an ecological or economic basis.
Population in low and middle income countries is projected to increase by nearly two thirds overthe next 30 years, from 4.7 billion today to 7.3 billion in 2025. It will become increasinglychallenging to provide freshwater for drinking, to grow food, and to run factories and power plantsto meet the needs and desires of human beings. It is imperative that we take action now to preventthe further degradation and depletion of lakes and reservoirs upon which so many will depend.
Figure 2 Trends in water availability in selected countries, 1990-2025
25
~. 20
15
r- 10C.)
C 5
Argentina Mexico France China Kenya
[1995 2000 ( 2025
Source: Water availability: World Resources Institute (1994); population: Bos, Vu, Massiah, Bulatao (1994).
CHALLENGES IN MANAGING LAKES AND RESERVOIRS
Lakes and reservoirs are not static systems but are constantly changing through natural processes.Lakes naturally eutrophy and undergo changes in water chemistry and aquatic life. Shallow lakesbecome marshes then dry lands as they receive sediments from the rivers and strearns that feedthem and their banks erode. Human activities can however, rapidly accelerate these naturalprocesses. The Aral Sea is an inland waterbody that has been gravely altered by human activities(Box 1).
4
Box 1 Aral Sea: The devastating effects of poor planning
The Aral Sea straddles the border between Kazakstan and Uzbekistan. Its catchment areaincludes, in addition to parts of these countries, sections of Turkmenistan, Kyrgyz Republic,Tajikistan, and Afghanistan. Until 1960, the Aral Sea was the world's fourth largest inlandwaterbody, smaller only than the Caspian Sea (Central Asia), Lake Superior (Canada and theUnited States), and Lake Victoria (East Africa). However, starting in the 1920s, the SovietUnion began diverting large amounts of water from the two major rivers that fed the Aral Sea,the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya, to irrigate cotton, rice, and other crops. The irrigated arearose from 3.3 million hectares in 1920 to about 5 million hectares in 1960 and 7 millionhectares in 1985. Some of the land brought under cultivation after 1960 was marginal desertland, irrigated with river water channeled through unlined canals. Because of this, and manyother inefficiencies, water withdrawals increased 75 percent between 1960 and 1985. By 1980,the amount of water reaching the Aral Sea from its tributaries was tiny. As a result:
* The volume of water in the Aral Sea has shrunk by more than 72 percent, and itssurface area has declined by more than 50 percent;
* Salinity levels have risen more than three-fold;* Nearly all the sea's native fish species have disappeared.The huge fall in the sea's area has led to changes in the climate of the near-Sea area. The
area now has hotter summers, less rainfall, and lower humidity. Furthermore, changes in thewatershed have affected groundwater aquifers near the Sea, so both the yields and quality ofwater from the aquifers have declined significantly. Consequently, sources of clean water fordrinking are now nearly impossible to find.
The shrinkage of the Aral Sea has also caused significant economic and ecologicaldamage. Wind picks up 100-140 million tons of salt and dust from the dry sea each year anddeposits it on surrounding land, damaging crops, structures, and soil fertility. Former shorelinetowns are today in a desert. Forested areas have shrunk, and in many places have disappeared.Navigation in the lake is impossible. All the sea's commercial fish species have disappeared.
Changes in the water level and salinity of the Aral Sea, 1960-2000
60 -70
50 6~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0)
50 Water~~~~~~~~~~~~~~vel~~~540 >
- 5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 -9
30 41 30 63 92
20 E20 -6
10~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0Salinity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~10
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
5
Box 1 Aral Sea: The devastating effects of poor planning (continued)
Changes in the water level and concentration of salinity of the Aral Sea are presented in thefigure above. Between 1960 and 1994, the sea's water level dropped from 53 meters to about 37meters above sea level and the salinity content of the sea's water has risen from 10 grams per literto 35 grams per liter. If current trends continue, by the year 2000 the sea's water level will fall to33 meters above sea level and its salinity concentration will increase to 60 grams per liter.
The Aral Sea Basin Program offers help to stop the decline. The World Bank withother donors is actively supporting the Aral Sea Basin Program, which is intended to stabilizethe environment of the Aral Sea Basin and rehabilitate the disaster zone around the Sea.Through its Aral Sea Basin Program Unit, the World Bank coordinates donor activities and actsas focal point for dialogue between the World Bank, the United Nations DevelopmentProgramme, and the United Nations Environment Programme.
Key activities of the Aral Sea Basin Program include:* Development of a regional water resources management strategy. With support from
the Global Environment Facility, five basin countries have identified national issuesand priorities, and have prepared a report on basic provisions for development of aregional water management strategy in the Aral Sea Basin.
* Improvement of water-use efficiency. There is considerable potential for improvingthe efficiency of water-use in the Aral Sea Basin-especially in agriculture-throughimproved technology and better water management. Basin governments are exploringways to encourage users to use water more efficiently, such as through such asthrough water pricing. In addition, basin countries are developing institutions andmechanisms for the transnational sharing of the basin's water resources.
* Development of regional water quality management plan. The Global EnvironmentFacility and the Netherlands are supporting work to collect water quality data in theindividual countries of the basin. The information will be collated into a region-widereport outlining conditions, priorities, and next steps from regional and internationalperspectives. The report will identify potential investments, including pilots andstudies.
* Investments to improve environmental conditions in and around the Sea. Severalprojects are under preparation to address a variety of environmental issues in theregion. These include a wetlands restoration project for Amu Darya delta, watersupply projects for Uzbekistan, Kazakstan, and Turkmenistan, and an ImmediateImpact Project to improve social services and provide employment in the worstaffected regions.
Source: Micklin & Williams (1996); UNEP (1993); World Bank (1995, 1996).
The rate of change in lakes and reservoirs
Many of the world's largest and most important lakes and reservoirs are changing rapidly.Excessive water withdrawals to provide water for drinking, irrigation, and power generation havecaused the volume of some lakes to fall dramatically, increasing the concentrations of pollutants
6
and of salts in the water that remains. Unsustainable harvesting of fish and other aquatic animalsfor food, and the introduction of exotic species of fish and plants has altered the numbers andcomposition of animals and plants in some lakes. Finally, excessive discharges of pollution havechanged water quality and caused major changes in ecosystems in some lakes. The degree to whichlakes and, to a lesser extent, reservoirs are affected by human activities depends on whether they aredeep or shallow, tropical or temperate, large or small. In general, shallow tropical lakes are lessable to assimilate nutrients, rapidly becoming eutrophic when nutrients loads rise. The year-roundwarm water in shallow tropical waterbodies promotes the growth of plants which deplete dissolvedoxygen.
While there is a general knowledge of the effects of human activities on lakes and reservoirs, moreresearch, continuous limnologic and hydrologic observations, and experiments are needed beforescientists fully understand how fast lakes are changing, and the specific factors that determine therate of change. Scientists know more about the hydrology of temperate lakes than tropical lakes.Temperate lakes are concentrated in wealthy countries, so pressures to research and protect themstarted earlier than for tropical lakes. For example, studies conducted on Lake Washington in theUnited States since 1933 have contributed to our knowledge of the process of eutrophication andlake recovery, and in addition defined new areas of research to answer questions that arose duringthe research effort. In most tropical lakes, especially those in poor countries, basic data either hasnot been collected or are insufficient to allow understanding of long-term trends. Still, much thathas been learned regarding temperate lakes can be useful in managing tropical lakes (see Box 4 andFigure 5 for more information on efforts to restore Lake Washington).
Major threats to lakes and reservoirs
The following are the major man-made threats to lakes and reservoirs.
- Water pollution. Pollutants threatening lakes and reservoirs come from point and non-pointsources, including domestic and municipal sewage systems, industrial plants, mines, and runofffrom farms and cities. Nutrients and organic matter from these sources accelerateeutrophication-a process which promotes plant growth, depletes dissolved oxygen, and whichmay kill aquatic life, change ecosystems, and make water unfit for drinking. Bacterialpathogens, viruses, and parasites from untreated sewage can cause diarrhea and other diseases.Heavy metals, and toxic chemicals contaminate sediments and bioaccumulate in fish flesh andin plants, exposing organisms throughout the food-chain-including humans-to toxins whichmay cause diseases, cancer, or birth-defects.
* Water withdrawals, water diversions, and lake reclamation. Excessive waterwithdrawals from lakes and reservoirs, water diversions from upstream dams, and lakereclamation for agriculture and aquaculture can significantly deplete the volume of water inlakes and reservoirs, destroying habitat for plants and animals and sometimes resulting inhigh levels of salinization. Lower water volumes also makes it more difficult for thewaterbody to assimilate pollution loads, because of reduced flow of water through the lake.
7
Diversion of water for irrigation starting in the 1 960s from the Aral Sea, which straddles theborder between Uzbekistan and Kazakstan, has caused that large in-land waterbody to shrinkby more than one half and its salt content to rise to a level unsuitable for most plant oranimal life (See Box 1).
* Disturbances in watersheds. Logging, conversion of land for grazing or cultivation,mining, fires, and other disturbances in watersheds can lead to siltation and sedimentation oflakes and reservoirs, and block the rivers and streams that feed them. This can diminish theflood-control capacity of lakes and reservoirs, shorten their lifetimes, destroy aquatichabitats, and reduce the productivity of their ecosystems.
* Introduction of exotic species. The introduction of exotic species may lead to loss ofbiodiversity or to a change in the ecosystem of lakes. The introduction of the Nile perch,which first appeared in Lake Victoria in East Africa around 1959, has led to the extinction ofbetween 200 and 400 species of the lake's endemic fish species, about half its previousnumber. The water hyacinth, which arrived in Lake Victoria around 1990, threatens todeplete the dissolved oxygen of the lake, and destroy the lake's fisheries. Zebra mussels,which came to the Great Lakes of North America attached to the hulls of ships, aredisrupting the natural communities of mussels and zooplankton, and are blocking waterintakes and heat exchangers in power plants and industries.
* Overfishing. Increasing human populations and the introduction of new fishing equipmentand technologies can lead to unsustainable fish harvesting-and even the collapse of thefisheries. In many lakes, the total catch of fish for food is now less than 20 years ago, whenfar fewer people depended on the lake resources for their subsistence. For example, in LakeChilika located in the State of Orissa in eastern India, the annual fish catch is currently nolarger than in 1979-after peaking in 1986-while the population relying on the lake hasgrown from about 25,000 in 1979 to 100,000 today. Without immediate measures to managethe resource, the fishery will disappear.
Loss of species. Many species endemic to lake ecosystems contribute to their maintenance.For example, planktonic animals such as daphnia eat small particles, including algae,mitigating the impacts of excessive nutrient loadings. Losing these species due topollution or the introduction of exotic species makes it more difficult for lake and reservoirecosystems to assimilate pollutants. For example, the decline of haplochromines in LakeVictoria-which eat prolifically, including phytoplankton-following the introduction ofthe Nile Perch to Lake Victoria has probably accelerated the eutrophication of that lake.
POLICIES AND ACTIONS FOR MAINSTREAMING MANAGEMENT: WORLD BANKAPPROACH AND EXPERIENCE
Mainstreaming the management of lakes and reservoirs into the development process requirestaking, on a sustained basis, a series of complementary measures, as follows:
8
Policies, Strategies, and Plans
Water resources planning: A comprehensive approach. Managing lakes and reservoirs so thatthey can provide their wide range of benefits for the future requires a comprehensive approachinvolving all stakeholders and covering the major activities affecting water resources throughoutthe watershed. The goal is to ensure the sustainability of lakes and reservoirs for multiple uses as acountry develops economically. The Bank is assisting countries develop plans and programs tomanage lakes, reservoirs and other water resources through its Water Resource ManagementPolicy.
Formulating a comprehensive management strategy. Formulating a strategy for managing lakesand reservoirs starts with defining a country's social, economic, and environmental objectives;evaluating the status of lake and reservoir resources; assessing the composition of projecteddemand for their services; and examining a country's existing policies for managing lakes andreservoirs. The strategy recognizes that investments, policies, and regulations in one part of thewatershed of the lake or reservoir or in one sector of the economy will affect persons and activitiesin other parts of the watershed and in other sectors. Thus decisions need to be made in the contextof a broad strategy that takes a long-term view, anticipates the impacts on various users, andconsiders the ecosystems, economic activities, and social structures that exist in the watershed. Theobjective of formulating a lake and reservoir management strategy is to define measures to managethese water resources in accordance with adopted goals and policies. The strategy that is developedfor managing lakes and reservoirs is incorporated into the broader national water resourcemanagement strategy.2
Comprehensive strategies for managing lakes and reservoirs need to be designed for the uniquephysical and biological characteristics of the watershed, including the type of ecosystem, climate,and topography, and the socioeconomic conditions, including the population density and pressureon the resources, the economic and environmental objectives, and the legal, policy and institutionalsetting in which the waterbody is a part. The process can be complex, depending on the numberand diversity of stakeholders, and the hydrological conditions of the lake or reservoir.
Integrated lake and reservoir management involves the following concepts:
* Human activities affect the resources of the waterbodies and their watersheds, but cancontrol these effects by the way in which they use the resources and the quantities theydemand.
* The effects follow watershed boundaries, not political boundaries. Thus what people do inone political unit (country, municipality, or landowner), may affect those living in anotherpolitical unit.
2 The same principles apply in formulating management strategies for international lakes and reservoirs.However, all the basin countries must be involved in developing and implementing the management plans.
9
* Because the impacts cut across political boundaries, what may be a wise use of the resourcefrom the point of view of one political unit may not be from the point of view of another.
Stakeholder participation. For lake and reservoir management plans to work effectively, they mustbe developed at the community-level, have the support of all levels of government and involve theparticipation of all the groups who benefit directly and indirectly from the waterbodies.Stakeholders in lake and reservoir resources may include fishermen, farmers, recreational users,electrical power generators and consumers, or the public as a whole. Involving stakeholders elicitsa wide variety of views and in addition:
* It fosters commitment to the final options selected. When persons who are affected bydecisions are involved in making them, by discussing the options and understanding therisks and benefits and costs, they are far more likely to accept the ultimate decisions, and tobehave in accordance with them. Persons or groups involved in making decisions are alsofar more likely to participate in implementing and managing them.
* It ensures that decisions are made transparently and with accountability.* It enhances creativity. Stakeholders can often provide a range of measures to reduce a
project's environmental impact, avoid conflicts, minimize confrontation, and generatealternatives.
The Bank will encourage countries to involve stakeholders in planning, designing, implementing,and managing the projects it supports that affect lake and reservoir resources.
Strengthening policies on land use and management. Strategies for managing lakes andreservoirs must include policies on how to use and manage land in the watershed. Proper land-use practices in the watershed can protect the hydrological balance in the lake and reservoir andprevent the runoff of nutrients, sediments, chemicals, and heavy metals, thus protecting waterquality, and aquatic ecosystems. Better land-use in the watersheds can also make flood controlmore effective and less costly. Governments should encourage the use of measures that controlfloods with natural rather than man-made systems, which in many cases are as effective and maybe far less costly than structural solutions. A combination of market incentives and regulatorypolicies will encourage persons living and working in the watersheds to prevent soil erosion,waterlogging, salinization, and flood runoff. The objective is to require land-users to bear thecosts that their management practices impose on others.
Information needs. To manage lakes and reservoirs appropriately requires information, especiallyon trends in the water quality of lakes and reservoirs, changes in aquatic ecosystems, changes inconditions in the watersheds, and likely long-term demand for water resources. The appropriatedegree of detail and the sophistication of the systems will vary by country. Countries should definepriorities for information needed to manage lakes and reservoirs more effectively, taking account ofthe multiple uses of lake and reservoir resources, review institutional arrangements for collecting,processing, and sharing data, identify and implement new mechanisms for funding information
10
systems, and define appropriate technology and human resource requirements for managing datasystems on lake and reservoir resources, and provide education and training to meet the needs.
Box 2 Lake Victoria: A comprehensive management plan for an international lake
Lake Victoria is the largest lake in Africa and the second largest lake in the world by surfacearea. The lake, which is more than 410 kilometers long and 250 kilometers wide, is shared byKenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. Two additional countries span its watershed, Rwanda and Burundi.More than 30 million people depend upon the lake for water for drinking, industrial production, andfarming and for transportation and recreation. In addition, the lake produces 120,000 tons of fish.
Due to the pressures of population (growth of population in the five countries basin in the basinis among the highest in the world), the introduction of the Nile perch and the water hyacinth to thelake, and unregulated discharges of pollution, the lake ecosystem has become seriously degraded.Although the Nile perch has become an important commercial species-generating US$100 millionin foreign exchange a year-it has eliminated between 200-400 of the lake's native fish species,many of which were important sources of protein for the local people. Discharges of untreatedsewage, wastewater from industries, runoff from agriculture and livestock operations, and runoff ofsediments due to deforestation in the watershed have contributed heavy nutrient loads to the lake.Lake water is now seriously depleted of dissolved oxygen and vulnerable to algae blooms.Contributing significantly to the problem is the water hyacinth, which first appeared in the lake in1990, and which is multiplying extremely rapidly. This destructive plant forms dense mats whichinhibit navigation and uses oxygen that could leave the lake water too oxygen poor to support thefisheries, destroying the fishing industry. Overfishing is also threatening the stocks of Nile perch.
Managing the ecosystem and fishery resources of Lake Victoria will require cooperation andcoordination among the three riparian countries. With the assistance of the Global EnvironmentFacility (GEF), the Governments of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda have agreed to develop aregional cooperative program to manage Lake Victoria. The countries have reached agreement onobjectives, priorities, and organizational arrangements to prepare the management program and onAugust 4, 1994 signed a multilateral agreement to proceed in preparing the Lake VictoriaEnvironmental Management Program for funding under the Global Environmental Facility.
The project is aimed at establishing and beginning implementation of a joint regionalenvironmental management program. It will also help strengthen the capacity of nationalinstitutions to support the regional institutions being created to implement the regional program.Major elements of the project include:
* Improving and operating a fisheries commission, improving fisheries databases, andstrengthening national organizations and enforcement;
* Managing pollution, developing and harmonizing regulations, strengthening enforcement,improving water quality databases, setting priorities;
* Controlling water weeds, especially water hyacinths;* Managing wetlands;* Coordinating land-use planning in the catchment area;* Coordinating Lake Victoria Environmental Management Plan; and* Developing institutions.In preparing the management program, Kenya is taking the lead on water quality and land use
issues, Uganda is taking the lead on fisheries management and water weed control, and Tanzania ishosting the regional secretariat serving the regional policy and steering committee.
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Mechanisms for resolving conflicts. Conflicts are inherent in any sharing of resources.Comprehensive lake and reservoir resource management strategies should include organizationaland institutional arrangements and define clear and transparent rules for resolving conflicts andinequities that may arise over allocating resources. In some countries, lake and reservoir watershedorganizations may be granted the authority to resolve disputes.
Managing international lakes. It may be particularly difficult to develop comprehensive strategiesfor lakes which span international boundaries, which include nearly half of the world's largest andmost important lakes (and more than 80 percent of the volume of water contained in fresh waterlakes on earth). For example, Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika in Africa, Lake Titicaca in SouthAmerica, the Great Lakes in North America, and the Aral Sea in Central Asia are all shared by twoor more countries. To manage these lakes requires international cooperation. For manyinternational lakes it may be feasible to create cooperative lake watershed managementorganizations that are responsible for planning, water sharing, and the preparation and execution ofjointly-owned projects. Agreements and treaties between countries dealing with lake and reservoirresources should include procedures for resolving conflicts and allocating water resources. (SeeBox 2 for an example of a program to develop a comprehensive lake management plan for LakeVictoria.)
Property rights. Open access to resources, such as fisheries, often leads to their unsustainableexploitation. Wherever the necessary institutional structures exist, property rights should begranted to resource users, who then become responsible for their management. Groups that expectto benefit in the future from the regeneration of a resource are motivated to utilize them sustainably.Management by resource users works best in the following conditions:
* Organizations are durable and operate with clearly defined boundaries regarding the areasthey serve, who can belong, and their functions.
* Member contributions are proportional to benefits.* Rules for water-allocation are not changed nor taxes imposed without representation.* Auditors of physical conditions and member behavior are accountable to members.* Violators are punished in proportion to their violations.* Members have low-cost, local ways of resolving disputes.* Governments do not interfere excessively with the groups.
Tools for better project selection. The use of analytical tools and techniques for assessing the netbenefits of projects can help ensure that resources for projects are spent in the best possible way.Some useful tools include benefit-cost analysis, environmental assessments, and nationalenvironmental action plans.
Benefit-cost analysis. Project analyses which properly value the many functions of a lake orreservoir can help quantify the benefits that would be lost with a project in addition to the benefitsthat might be gained. The lost benefits should be counted as part of the costs of the project. Thetrue costs of the project may then be compared with its benefits, giving policy makers the
12
information they need to decide whether or not a project makes sense, and to compare a potentialproject with alternative projects (see Box 3 and Box 4). Benefit-cost analyses are also useful forevaluating alternative project designs.
Box 3 Lake Burullus: Higher value as a reservoir for irrigation water or lake for fishing?
Lake Burullus in Egypt is a lagoon on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and is part of the Niledelta lakes system. The lake is an important breeding and wintering area for migrating birds, andhas been placed on the list of sites under the Ramsar Convention as a wetland of internationalimportance to migratory birds. In addition, the lake provides an environment for high-value marineand brackish fish which provide the major source of income for local fishermen.
The Government of Egypt is considering turning the lake into a reservoir to store water forirrigation by building a dam at the mouth of the lagoon. The dam would interrupt the exchange ofwater between the lake and the sea, turning the lake into a fresh waterbody from a brackish one.
The authorities asked a team of lake specialists comprised of experts from the Netherlands andEgypt to assess how the dam would affect the ecosystem of the lake, including its biodiversity andits fisheries. The scientists concluded that the value of the fisheries would decline significantly ifthe lake were made into a freshwater reservoir, principally because freshwater fish would replacebrackish and marine species, which are much more valuable. This would cause the lake ecosystemto lose its attraction as a nesting site for species of migrating birds which depend upon its brackishand marine fish for food. The analysts concluded that the lake would provide highest value in itsnatural state, so long as the fisheries were managed to produce maximum sustainable yield.
The scientists proposed alternatives for providing irrigation water for agriculture, includingartificial groundwater recharge and winter irrigation, which would allow Egypt to capture most ofthe fresh water now spilling into the Mediterranean for agriculture, but at much lower cost andwithout damnaging the ecosystem of Lake Burullus.
Source: Netherlands Economic Institute/IWACO Consultants (1992).
Environmental assessments provide information about the ways new economic activities maydirectly or indirectly affect the ecosystem of a lake or reservoir, so that the external costs of theactivity can be properly weighed against the project's benefits, and the impacts on different userscan be understood. This information may then be used to identify ways of improving projectdesign and implementation, by preventing, mitigating, or compensating for adverse environmentalimpacts. Environmental assessments should be initiated as early as possible in project processingand be integrated closely with the economic, financial, institutional, social, and engineeringanalyses of the proposed project. They should take into account the entire area likely to be affectedby the project, such as the watershed in which the project is likely to be situated, migratory routesof humans, wildlife, or fish, and areas used for livelihood activities (hunting, fishing, grazing,gathering, cultivation, etc.), or religious or ceremonial purposes. The Bank requires thatenvironmental assessments carried out for the projects it supports reflect the views of personsaffected by the project-including the poor, indigenous people, and disadvantaged groups.Regional environmental assessments can help identify the highest priority projects within a defined
13
area. For example, water projects which would alter a relatively pristine lake are likely to be muchcostlier from the point of view of society than projects which are developed in less sensitive oralready altered watersheds. The recreational and amenity values of lakes which are pristine-evenisolated lakes-may be very high. The Bank will not support projects which involve the significantconversion or degradation of critical natural habitats, unless there are no other feasible alternativesto the project and its siting and the overall benefits from the project substantially outweigh itsenvironmental costs. Regional environmental assessments can help identify project alternatives.Often the best option is to invest in existing systems: improving the reliability and adequacy oftheir services may go far to meet the needs of consumers.
Box 4 Changing relative importance of Lake Biwa's services from ancient times to thepresent
Lake Biwa is the largest and most important lake in Japan. In ancient times, the localpeople valued Lake Biwa mainly as a source of food and other lake products, including fish,waterfowl, game, nuts, shells, building materials (reeds and water plants used for roofing andwall screens), and gear for fishing. The lake was also an important medium for transportation.During the Feudal era, the lake's function of flood protection and as a means of transportationbecame increasingly important. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the lake became a keysource of water for irrigation, industrial uses, and hydropower. Its importance for floodprotection continued to grow. Finally, increases in incomes and in leisure time heightened thelake's value for recreation. Meanwhile, its worth as a source of food and other products and as amedium of transportation declined, due to a decline in the lake's fisheries and the development ofalternative transport means by road and rail.
P~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Present
a Food and productso] Water Supply
I0 vs Ej.. -l g TransportationFeudal
_ Recreationj Flood Control
Ancient
0 1 2 3 4 5Less important More important
Source: Kada (1991); Kira (1988).
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Social assessments. Social assessments provide information about the impact that investments orchanges in policies may have on persons living and working in lake and reservoir water basins.The social assessments should pay particular attention to impacts on the poor and on women. Theymay help identify persons or groups that should be included in the process of designing,implementing, and managing the project. Social assessments may also be used to initiate adialogue between the government and those affected by the project or policy-changes. Informationfrom social assessments can lead to significant improvements in project design, andimplementation by making the project much more responsive to client needs and capacities.
National environmental action plans (NEAPs) describe countries' major environmental concerns,identify the principle causes of environmental problems, and formulate policies and programs toaddress them. NEAPs may concern environmental issues throughout a country, or be morenarrowly focused on a sector or environmental unit such as the watershed of a lake or reservoir.The best NEAPs identify priority problems, define priority actions, and specify implementationarrangements, include sound technical and economic analyses which are informed by the views ofthe stakeholders, identify goals which are realistic and integral to broader political, economic, andsocial concerns. The Bank is assisting its poorest countries in completing NEAPs and encouragingall its member countries to do so.
Improving the allocation of water resources. Charging users appropriately for water fromlakes and reservoirs would help to ensure that water is not wasted and that sufficient supplies areavailable for all beneficial uses. In many countries today, farmers, urban dwellers, and industrialusers do not pay anywhere near the true opportunity value of water. As a result, enormousquantities of water are wasted through inefficient irrigation systems, through poorly monitoredand maintained urban water delivery systems, and through inadequate industrial water-usepractices.
Higher water charges may promote the more efficient use of water and may deter the high use ofwater. Farmers, urban dwellers, and industrial users who pay appropriately for their water aremuch more likely to utilize water-saving technologies and practices than those who do not. Forexample, farmers in the Yellow River basin in China who paid the highest fees for water also hadthe highest efficiencies of water use for agriculture.
Studies indicate that in water-scarce regions, the demand for water falls significantly withincreases in prices, with demand falling the most for irrigation water, and less sharply for waterfor household and industrial use. So raising water charges should dramatically reduce the use ofwater. This would not only save public resources for the development of new infrastructure, butwould also greatly reduce the environmental impacts of water drainage, including waterlogging,salinization, and the runoff of sediments, pesticides and fertilizers into lakes and reservoirs.Proper water-pricing schemes are essential components of any comprehensive water resourcesstrategy, including the management of lakes and reservoirs.
15
Introducing water pricing schemes may be politically difficult however. Those concerned aboutequity may worry that the poor will no longer be able to afford water. In fact, charging users forwater often leads to improved social equity and better access to affordable water by the poor,since governments can use the liberated resources to help the poor through direct, transparent,focused and efficient mechanisms. However, governments that wish to subsidize water for thepoor may retain many of the benefits of charging users for water by charging low rates for waterneeded to meet the basic health needs, and higher rates for additional water.
Water pricing schemes work best when appropriate institutional arrangements are in place andwhen property rights to water allocations are well-defined and legally enforceable. In addition,water supplies have to be reasonably reliable and delivered on a measured basis; and water userorganizations must be functional and effective.
Pollution prevention and abatement. Reducing pollution effectively requires controlling bothpoint and non-point source pollution. Point source pollution, which is primarily from industriesand municipal sewage treatment facilities, is often simpler to control than non-point sourcepollution. Point sources discharge at a specific location through a pipe, outfall, or ditch, whichmakes it possible to intercept the pollution stream and divert it for treatment. Point sourcepolluters are also easy to identify, making monitoring and enforcement feasible. By contrast,non-point source pollution-runoff from farms, urban storm-water, logging operations, landfills,individual disposal systems, and depositions from the atmosphere-is indirect and diffuse.These pollutants are difficult to control because there is no single source of discharge from whichthey can be collected for treatment. In general, nonpoint sources of pollution can be controlledthrough land-use management with emphasis on managing waste (reducing waste at source andlimiting its access to water), managing water (reducing runoff, diverting it from the site andwater, collecting and treating it); and managing sediments (controlling soil erosion, andremoving sediment from runoff). For example, training farmers to use techniques such asterracing, contouring, and mulching, can reduce the runoff of sediments from farms-a majorsource of total nutrient loadings in many lakes. Both point and non-point source pollution maybe controlled with regulations or economic instruments.
Regulations versus economic instruments. Broadly, there are two sets of instruments policy-makers may use to influence the behavior of polluters and resource users: standards andregulations (command and control), and prices (economic or market-based instruments).Politicians and industrialists often prefer regulatory approaches, since command and controlgives the possibility of certainty in achieving pre-determined emissions limits and are ofteneasier to implement and enforce. On the other hand market-based approaches very often achievepollution reductions at lower cost than regulatory approaches in conditions where monitoring andenforcement are feasible at reasonable cost. Market-based approaches often work well forcontrolling discharges from point sources, especially for industries where there are a variety ofproduction processes or control options available and technology is changing rapidly. Suchapproaches allow polluters to find the least cost ways of reducing discharges and provideincentives to develop new pollution control technologies.
16
Choosing the right combination of regulations and market-based instruments for controllingpollution to lakes and reservoirs will require careful assessments of the nature and sources ofpollution and the practical issues of implementation. However, it is possible to reach somegeneral conclusions:
* Pollution charges can work effectively in controlling discharges from large or mediumindustrial and municipal sewage treatment plants that can be monitored at reasonablecost. Pollution charges have been used successfully in many countries of the world toreduce discharges. For example, Poland has reduced its discharges of industrialwastewater significantly by requiring factories to pay a price reflecting environmentaldamage for every unit of wastewater discharged. This measure has induced factorymanagers to conserve, recycle, and treat its water before discharging it to theenvironment.
* Tradable discharge permits are useful in offering relative certainty about the total level ofeffluents. However, they are effective only if the number of sources within the lake orreservoir basin is large enough to sustain a reasonable level of trades without any onesource having a disproportionate influence on the market. The main experience withusing tradable permits is in the United States.
* Increasing the prices of environmentally-damaging inputs to agriculture, by removingsubsidies, levying taxes, or raising prices of agricultural chemicals or irrigation watermay be useful to control non-point source pollution. For example, removing subsidies orlevying taxes on fertilizers and pesticides may encourage farmers to apply agriculturalchemicals with less waste or to substitute less harmful products, resulting in reducedrunoff of damaging fertilizers and pesticides to lakes and reservoirs. Raising the price ofirrigation water can reduce the erosion and sedimentation that often occurs when farmersapply more irrigation water to their fields than can be absorbed within the root zone of thecrops.
Subsidizing inputs that improve environmental performance of farmers or others, such asintegrated pest management, or better fertilizers may also be justified, since they reducethe cost of environmental damage that society would otherwise have to bear. Ensuringthat extension services are available to farmers to assist in implementing new farmingpractices, will make it possible to protect the environment without reducing the output ofcrops.
17
Box 5 Restoring Lake Washington
Lake Washington is a long, narrow lake which forms the eastern border of Seattle in the stateof Washington in northwestern United States. The catchment area of the lake is small, about1,300 square kilometers. The lake, with a spectacular view of Mt. Rainier, is an importantrecreational area for residents of the city who use the lake for swimming, boating, fishing, andrelaxation.
Pollution from sewage, discharges from industries, and runoff from farms and loggingoperations in the area led to serious eutrophication of the lake by the early 1950s. In 1955 thecity initiated research on the conditions of the lake and the sources of pollution. This researchshowed that eleven small wastewater treatment plants surrounding the lake were responsible for88 percent of the loads of phosphorus and chlorophyll.
To facilitate management of the lake and its watershed, the state passed legislation creating aregional management agency consisting of the city of Seattle and the towns of the catchmentarea. Concerned individuals with the support of local government conducted an active publicinformation campaign to inform area residents about the deterioration of the lake and its causes.In 1958 voters elected to fund a program to divert sewage from the lake. Over a period from1963 to 1967, sewage from all eleven wastewater treatment plants was diverted to a large primarytreatment facility which discharged its effluent at great depth in Puget Sound. Water quality inLake Washington rapidly improved. By 1975 concentrations of phosphorus and chlorophyll haddeclined to levels found in unpolluted fresh waterbodies, and the lake reached a trophic balance.
The quick recovery of Lake Washington shows that rapid and concerted action to changeconditions can produce results. The cost however was high. The sewage diversion project costUS$366 million or about US$650 per capita (1990 dollars) and has an annual operating cost ofUS$2.1 million. The city is now building a new secondary treatment facility on the site of theoriginal plant for about US$450 million (current dollars). In the case of Lake Washington, thebenefits almost certainly exceed the costs. The lake lies in a metropolitan area of over twomillion people and is intensively used for recreation.
Lake Washington: Sewage discharge and ambient phosphorus, 1950-1972
120 80
1oo0 7060~
80 Ambient phosphorus concentrations _50 t
k;60 H4040 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~I3v o
20
20 oa 1~~~~~H 0 in +: L '\ 0
20 -N e - f hm li fo Xg 10o o r- o o.o o oo o - c-tnn W.I I'd '.D '.0 I'D T. Lh0 a0 (- 1)ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON
Source: Edmundson, W. and J. T. Lehman (1 98 1).
18
Effluent standards may be the best way of dealing with heavy metals or toxic chemicals.These substances may not be readily assimilated into the environment of lakes orreservoirs, so authorities may want certainty over the total quantity that is discharged,which regulatory instruments can provide. In addition, monitoring discharges may bedifficult and costly. Appropriate regulation may include technology standards whichrequire enterprises to install certain kinds of process or end-of-pipe controls.
The Bank is developing best-practice guidelines for minimum levels of pollution control for bothmunicipal and industrial sources. Damage to lakes and reservoirs from pollution is likely to behigher than to other water courses such as rivers, since lakes are closed systems, take a very longtime to assimilate pollution loads, and often contain fragile and unique ecosystems. Thereforestandards which limit discharges to lakes and reservoirs may need to be higher than standards forother waterbodies. The cost of meeting the standards may be made more affordable by usinginnovative systems (such as constructing wetlands for sewage treatment), conserving waterthrough demand-management, isolating toxic pollutants, and reusing water for irrigation orindustrial processes.
Public disclosure of effluent discharge data. Informing the public of the identities of pollutersand the nature and quantity of their discharges can help mobilize public pressure to reduce orstop the pollution. With better information and legal support, such public participation couldhelp reduce the costs of official enforcement efforts. Public disclosure of discharge data helpssupplement the monitoring resources of the public agencies with the concern of affectedcommunity members.
Applied Research, Innovation, and Dissemination
Applied research. Much more information is needed to learn about the conditions in theimportant lakes and reservoirs in the developing countries, and how these are changing overtime. Applied research efforts should focus on collecting basic data on water and environmentalquality, hydrology, and hydrogeology. Research is also needed to understand the linkagesbetween lakes and reservoirs and the larger freshwater systems of which they are a part.Knowledge of the inter-relationships between land use, watershed management practices, andimpacts on lakes and reservoirs is especially important to guide decision-making regarding futureuse of land and lake resources. Research on the potential role of water markets in developingcountries in encouraging the more efficient use of water resources from lakes and reservoirswould also be very useful.
Innovation. Long-term management of lakes and reservoirs will require innovative, low-costtechnical, financial, institutional, and policy approaches that reduce pollution, encourage waterconservation, and improve the management of aquatic ecosystems and resources. Promisingtechnologies include spray irrigation that uses wastewater to improve soils for crop production,technologies which allow industries and municipalities to reduce, reuse, or recycle processwaters, and the use of artificial wetlands to treat municipal and industrial wastewaters. Grants
19
should be used strategically to support the development of promising technologies. The WorldBank is supporting a wide-range of innovations in the projects it supports which could be appliedto the Middle East and North Africa; the use of. artificial wetlands for sewage treatment inEstonia and as part of the Aral Sea Basin Environment Program; integrated pest management inagricultural projects worldwide; and adoption of Vetiver grass for soil conservation in theCaribbean, China, India, and Madagascar.
Dissemination. Finally, it is important that information on successful practices and proventechnologies is widely disseminated. The Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearch (CGIAR) is working to disseminate information on farming practices-such asterracing, contouring, crop rotation, ground-cover maintenance, and mulching-that are effectivein reducing land erosion. These practices lessen the runoff of sediments, silt, and pollutantsentering the waterbodies. In addition, the United Nations Development Programme/World BankCooperative Program for Water and Sanitation is actively working to disseminate information onlow-cost technologies for drinking water and sanitation. The recently-established Global WaterPartnership would also provide an important mechanism for disseminating informationconcerning good practices in lake and reservoir management.
Technical assistance. Technical assistance to help countries strengthen their institutions willmake better environmental performance more sustainable. Better education, training, anddissemination of best lake and reservoir management practices would contribute to buildinginstitutions. Particularly helpful would be technical assistance to help countries develop andimplement legal, policy, and regulatory frameworks for better environmental management;improve countries' operational capacity to monitor water quality and water use; developmechanisms for coordinating agencies across sectors and jurisdictions; formulate ways to fosterparticipation by stakeholders in managing lakes and reservoir resources; facilitate regionalplanning; and prepare and implement projects. Training is needed to develop human resourcesand strengthen managerial systems. Skills that are needed include technical skills (for example,fisheries specialists, hydrologists, limnologists, and toxicologists), managerial skills, includingskills in financial analysis and project management, and cross-disciplinary skills (for exampleecologists).
NEXT STEPS
The World Bank plans to undertake the following measures to address the critical issue of lake andreservoir management:
Global Water Partnership. At the Stockholm Water Symposium in August 1995, the UnitedNations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World Bank announced the formation ofthe Global Water Partnership (GWP) which will support the comprehensive management ofour fragile water resources. The GWP will be used as a vehicle to mainstream themanagement of lakes and reservoirs into the development planning process. The GWP willhave four main features: (a) integrated programs at the regional and national levels that adopt
20
the Dublin/Rio de Janiero principles on water resource management; (b) capacity building toimprove the way institutions operate and collaborate; (c) investments in water resourcemanagement, especially those which address competing demands from various user groups;and (d) dissemination of information across frontiers worldwide.
* Water Resources Management Policy. The World Bank will develop and disseminatesupplementary policy guidance concerning the management of lakes and reservoirs as anelement of its overall Water Resources Management Policy which was issued in 1993. Thisdocument will identify measures which need to be taken to effectively integrate lake andreservoir management issues into strategic and project planning.
Strategic action plans. The World Bank, subject to the availability of support from theGlobal Environment Facility (GEF) and other sources, will support the cooperative preparationand implementation of programs and projects to support the management of lakes andreservoirs. Current activities for the Lake Victoria Basin, Lake Ohrid, Lake Sevan, and theAral Sea would be used as models for future activities. (See Box 6 for a description of theBank-assisted activities to save Lake Sevan in Armnenia.)
* Borrower training. The World Bank, with the support of its Economic Development Institute(EDI), will incorporate policy, management and technical concerns related to lake andreservoir management more fully into its training programs for integrated river basinmanagement and integrated coastal zone management. This process would support thedevelopment of local capacity to address these issues in the design and implementation ofprograms and projects.
* Support for preventive and restorative measures. The World Bank is prepared, at therequest of its borrowers, to finance lending operations which support preventive and restorativemeasures that enhance the management of lakes and reservoirs. These lending operations maybe either free standing projects or components of projects. The World Bank will continue toassure that all proposed projects are subject to environmental review consistent with its ownprocedures and those of the borrowing country.
Lakes Management Initiative. To assure a consolidated and well coordinated approach tothis important issue, the World Bank-acting through its Vice Presidency for Environmentallyand Socially Sustainable Development-will support a Lakes Management Initiative. Theobjective of this program, managed by an interdisciplinary team of specialists from ourEnvironment Department and our Agriculture and Natural Resources Department, would be tosupport a Bank-wide exchange of knowledge and experience in the management of lakes andreservoirs which would be reflected in policies, best practices, programs and individual lendingoperations.
21
Box 6 Lake Sevan: Saving a temperate lake
Lake Sevan, in the Caucasus Mountains of Armenia, is the largest high altitude freshwaterbody in the Transcaucasus and one of the highest major alpine lakes in the world. The LakeSevan watershed covers an area of 4,851 square kilometers, about one-sixth the total area ofArmenia. The lake is a significant fishery resource, a major destination for recreation, and holdsspecial social and historic significance for the Armenian people. The lake also provides drinkingwater for more than 250,000 people in the watershed, water to irrigate 100,000 hectares offarmland in the Ararat Valley, and water to feed six hydropower plants on the Razdan River.
The lake is threatened by excessive water abstractions for irrigation and hydropower and bypollution from municipal sewage, agricultural runoff, and industrial discharges. Withdrawals ofwater for irrigation and hydropower have led to a 41 percent decline in the lake's water volume,and a drop of 18 meters in its water level since 1934. The reduced volume of water has made itincreasingly difficult for the lake to assimilate pollutant loads. Both these developments have hada devastating impact on traditional fishery resources. The lake formerly supported high valuetrout fisheries, which have now lost their population vigor. Sections of tributary rivers suitablefor spawning are no longer accessible to the trout due to the lower water level. Non-nativewhitefish are now the dominant species in the lake. Furthermore, the worsening pollutionthreatens the local drinking water supply and could ultimately affect its use for irrigation.
Armenian authorities have undertaken a series of measures to manage the use of water fromLake Sevan in a more sustainable way. Despite the acute energy shortage in the country, thegovernment has restricted the release of water from Lake Sevan for hydropower. It has alsoundertaken a series of scientific studies to evaluate the ecological condition of the lake and togain a better understanding its key biological and physical processes. Armenian newspapers,radio, and television have been actively covering environmental issues concerning Lake Sevan.
World Bank assisted activities to protect and restore Lake Sevan. The World Bank,through a grant from the Institutional Development Fund, is supporting the development of anaction plan to manage the resources of Lake Sevan. The action plan will provide a framework forthe integrated management of the Lake Sevan basin and identify measures which can be takenbeyond the basin to reduce demand for water releases. It will include recommendations for aphased program of management and investment activities which could be supported withfinancing from domestic and foreign sources. Under the coordination of the Ministry ofEnvironment and Underground Resources, six complementary working groups comprised ofexperts from key ministries, local government, research institutes, and non-governmentalorganizations are developing proposals for the following areas:
* Institutional, regulatory and managerial issues;* Water resources management;* Management of point source pollution from municipalities and industries;* Management of non-point source pollution from agriculture;* Fishery resource management; and* Biodiversity and national park management.To support the development of the action plan, the government of Armenia hosted the
International Conference on Lake Sevan in September 1996 with the assistance of the UnitedNations Development Programme and the government of France.
ANNEX
Lakes and Reservoirs: Examples of World Bank Involvement
Lakes and Reservoirs: Examples of World Bank involvement
Name Location Characteristics Type Important fanctions Major threats Major problems Management issues World Bank involvement
Aral Sea Shared between Until 1960, the fourth Temperate Fish for food and for Water diversion from the The Aral Sea has lost A clear policy as to the World Bank supportedUzbekistan and largest inland body of commercial markets; two rivers that feed the 40% of its surface area future of the Aral Sea is activities to define aKazakstan; water in the world; (had transportation; staging Aral Sea for irrigation. and 67% of its volume needed with the program of action toKyrgyz been 67,000 kin2 ). area for migratory over the past 30 years. participation of all five address problems in theRepublic, waterfowl. Salinity has risen above basin countries. five countries of the AralTajikistan, that of seawater, killing Sea basin. World Bank isTurkmenistan in most higher animal life prepared to supportthe watershed. (all fish). Drop in water projects to implement the
level caused reduction of program.lakes and swatnps in thedeltas.
Baikal Eastem Siberia, World's largest lake by Temperate Biodiversity protection: The lake is relatively Although the lake's The Baikal Commission World Bank has assistedsouth shore is volume (contains 20 high oxygen content and undisturbed by man. assimilative capacity is was created in July in developing anless than 200 percent of world's liquid clarity of lake support There are local area of high, concentrations of 1993 to coordinate the ecotourism masterplan andkm from the freshwater), and deepest 2,600 plant and animal pollution from industries industrial and development and development plan.
t'i Mongolian (mean depth 800 meters); species 85% of which are (pulp and paper mill) and agricultural pollutants- management of theborder. seventh largest lake in endemic to the lake, urban areas. Overgrazing oils, trace metals, Baikal Basin.
surface area (31,500 km2); including many rare and and over development in pesticides, nutrients-arecatchment area of 500,000 endangered species; some tourist sites have increasing. Airkm.2 tourism and recreation. caused land degradation. emissions of sulfides
may be contributing toacidification ofthe lake.
Balaton Hungary Largest fresh waterbody in Temperate Water for domestic use; Pollution from agricultural Eutrophication (from Many municipalities in World Bank is supportingHungary; shallow (average most important runoffand municipal and high level of nutrients the region must be preparation of proposeddepth 3 meters); recreational area in industrial discharges; entering the lake and involved in regional Lake Balaton Environmentcatchment area of 6,000 Hungary (15-18 million leachates from sediments. leachates from the planning and need to Project to restore waterkm2. tourists visit the area each sediments), algal blooms, control agricultural quality of lake under
year). threatens tourism runoff. preparation.
Manzala Egypt largest of Nile Delta Sub- Fishing (30% of country's Diversion of water for Reduction in lake area by Conflicting proposals World Bank is supportingLakes, surface area: 900 Tropical fish yield, 120,000 irrigation; heavy pollution nearly 40%, decline in for use of lake, International Fund forkM2, mean depth: I meter. fishermen); biodiversity loads from untreated fish stocks in part of the reduction in size of lake Agricultural Development
protection (important for sewage and industrial lake due to declining due to conversion of in preparing East-Deltamigratory birds, a portion discharges; sedimentation salinity of water, decline lake, disruption of flow Agricultural Servicesof lake is protected area); (reduced lake size by 50% in biodiversity, increase patterns due to Project, which containpotentially irrigation. in 90 yrs.); land in bilharzia, change in construction of roads. provisions to protect the
reclamation for agriculture lake vegetation, lake.and settlements. eutrophication.
Lakes and Reservoirs: Examples of World Bank involvement (Continued)
Name Location Characteristics Type Important functions Major threats Major problems Management issues World Bank involvement
Ohrid Shared between One of world's oldest Temperate UNESCO World Cultural Pollution from untreated Lake requires protection Lake must be managed GEF project to develop aMacedonia lakes; surface area: 358 and Natural Heritage Site. sewage discharges from from point and non-point jointly by Albania and lake management action(2/3), and km2 ; shore line: 88 km, Lake Ohrid is of high Albania and inadequately sources of pollution. Macedonia. plan. World BankAlbania (1/3) depth: 289 meters. cultural and touristic treated sewage from Watershed management Intemational efforts supporting preparation of
importance to Albania and Macedonia. Large numbers plan and measures for required to control Lake Ohrid ConservationMacedonia (about 40,000 of endemic fish species properly developing pollution of the lake, Projecttourists visit the lake each could be affected by tourism are needed. watershed management,year); fishing; biodiversity introduced species. and protection ofprotection. endangered species.
Pape Latvia Omithological reserve and Temperate Biodiversity protection: Excessive water diversions Reduction in water Decisions are needed As part of the Leipajaproposed Ramsar site; important site for from the lake for irrigation; volume and flow; regarding restoration of Environment Project,surface area 12 km2; one migratory birds on runoff of fertilizer. eutrophication (90% of elements of natural assistance is beingof most important wetland African-European-Arctic lake's surface area hydrology of the lake, provided to develop andecosystems in Latvia; flyway. Provides overgrown by algae or and harvesting of reeds. implement a conservation-sanctuary for several important habitat for local reeds, which threatens Measures are needed to oriented lake managementendangered species. species. High tourism nesting and migrating manage tourism, plan.
0'a potential for bird watching. birds).
Sevan Armenia Largest high altitude, fresh Temperate Water for domestic use, Excessive water Reduction of 41% in Measures are needed to Grant from Institutionalwaterbody in the irrigation, livestock, abstractions for power water volume and 18 supply lake with Development Fund of theTranscaucasus and one of industry; fish for food; generation and irrigation; meters in water level in sufficient water while World Bank to develop athe highest alpine lakes in power generation; tourism; pollution from municipal lake; eutrophication, also meeting energy and comprehensive lakethe world. The watershed cultural symbol. sewage, industrial phytoplankton growth, irrigation needs of management plan.covers an area one-sixth discharges, and runoff from loss of habitat for fish country.the area of Armenia. farms and livestock spawning.
operations.
Victoria Shared by Largest lake in Africa with Tropical Water for domestic use, Pollution from sewage, Eutrophication, algal Must be managed by 3 Lake VictoriaKenya, Uganda a surface area of 68,800 irrigation, livestock, agricultural runoff bloom, sedimentation, riparian countries plus Environment Project,and Tanzania, km2. Shallowest of large industry; fish for food and (especially sediments), loss of biodiversity Rwanda and Burundi (with GEF, UNDP,East Africa. lakes. for commercial markets discharges from industry (between 200-400 which are in the lake's UNEP).Burundi, ($100 million revenue); (fish, and food processors, endemic species), catchment area.Rwanda in recreation; transportation. breweries, tanneries, textile overfishing, increase inwatershed mills, pulp and paper mills) bilharzia, decline in
tourism.
27
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RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS (continued)
No. 311 Webster, Riopelle and Chidzero, World Bank Lendingfor Small Enterprises 1989-1993
No. 312 Benoit, Project Finance at the World Bank: An Overview of Policies and Instrlments
No. 313 Kapur, Airport Infrastructuire: The Emerging Role of the Private Sector
No. 314 Vald6s and Schaeffer in collaboration with Ramos, Surveillance of Agricuiltutral Price and Trade Policies: A HandbookforEcuador
No. 316 Schware and Kimberley, Information Technology and National Trade Facilitation: Making the Most of Global Trade
No. 317 Schware and Kimberley, Information Technology and National Trade Facilitation: Gutide to Best Practice
No. 318 Taylor, Boukambou, Dahniya, Ouayogode, Ayling, Abdi Noor, and Toure, Strengthening National Agricultulral ResearchSystems in the Huimid and Sub-humid Zones of West and Central Africa: A Frameworkfor Action
No. 320 Srivastava, Lambert, and Vietmeyer, Medicinal Plants: An Expanding Role i71 Development
No. 321 Srivastava, Smith, and Fomo, Biodiversity and Agricuilture: Implicationsfor Conservation and Development
No. 322 Peters, The Ecology and Management of Non-Timber Forest Resolurces
No. 323 Pannier, editor, Corporate Governance of Puiblic Enterprises in Transitional Economies
No. 324 Cabraal, Cosgrove-Davies, and Schaeffer, Best Practicesfor Photovoltaic Household Electrification Programs
No. 325 Bacon, Besant-Jones, and Heidarian, Estimating Construction Costs and Schedutles: Experience with Power GenerationProjects in Developing Coutntries
No. 326 Colletta, Balachander, and Liang, The Condition of Youing Children in Sufb-Saharan Africa: The Convergence of Health,Nutrition, and Early Edutcation
No. 327 Vald6s and Schaeffer in collaboration with Martin, Sutrveillance of Agricultuiral Price and Trade Policies: A HandbookforParaguay
No. 328 De Geyndt, Social Development and Absolutte Poverty in Asia and Latin America
No. 329 Mohan, editor, Bibliography of Piublications: Teclnical Department, Africa Region, July 1987 to April 1996
No. 332 Pohl, Djankov, and Anderson, Restructuring Large Indutstrial Firms in Central and Eastern Europe: An Empirical Analysis
No. 333 Jha, Ranson, and Bobadilla, Measuiring the Buirden of Disease and the Cost-Effectiveness of Health Interventions: A Case Stutdyin Guinea
No. 334 Mosse and Sontheimer, Performance Monitoring Indicators Handbook
No. 335 Kirmani and Le Moigne, Fostering Riparian Cooperation in International River Basins: The World Bank at Its Best inDevelopment Diplomacy
No. 336 Francis, with Akinwumi, Ngwu, Nkom, Odihi, Olomajeye, Okunmadewa and Shehu, State, Commuinity, and LocalDevelopment in Nigeria
No. 338 Young, Measuring Economic Benefitsfor Water Investments and Policies
No. 339 Andrews and Rashid, The Financing of Pension Systems in Central and Eastern Eutrope: An Overview of Major Trends andTheir Determinants, 1990-1993
No. 340 Rutkowski, Changes in the Wage Structutre dutring Economic Transition in Central and Eastern Eutrope
No. 341 Goldstein, Preker, Adeyi, and Chellaraj, Trends in Health Status, Services, and Finance: The Transition in Central andEastern Eutrope, Volume I
No. 343 Kottelat and Whitten, Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia, with Special Reference to Fish
No. 344 Klugman and Schieber with Heleniak and Hon, A Survey of Health Reform in Central Asia
No. 345 Industry and Mining Division, Industry and Energy Department, A Mining Strategyfor Latin America and the Caribbean
No. 347 Stock and de Veen, Expanding Labor-based Methods for Road Works in Africa
No. 350 Buscaglia and Dakolias, Juidicial Reform in Latin American Coutrts: The Experience in Argentina and Ecuador
No. 352 Allison and Ringold, Labor Markets in Transition in Central and Eastern Eutrope, 1989-1995
No. 353 Ingco, Mitchell, and McCalla, Global Food Slupply Prospects, A Backgrouind Paper Prepared for the World Food Sutmmit,Rome, November 1996
No. 354 Subramanian, Jagannathan and Meinzen-Dick, editors, User Organizations for Suestainable Water Services
No. 355 Lambert, Srivastava, and Vietmeyer, Medicinal Plants: Rescuing a Global Heritage
No. 356 Aryeetey, Hettige, Nissanke, and Steel, Financial Market Fragmentation and Reforms in Suib-Saharan Africa
No. 357 Adamolekun, de Lusignan, and Atomate, editors, Civil Service Reform in Francophone Africa: Proceedings of a Workshop,Abidjan, Janutary 23-26, 1996
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