information processing chapter 8. information processing approach goal = examine how children/adults...

Information Information ProcessingProcessing

Chapter 8Chapter 8

Information Processing Information Processing ApproachApproach

Goal = examine how children/adults operate Goal = examine how children/adults operate on/process informationon/process information

Have limited capacitiesHave limited capacities No single theoryNo single theory General approachGeneral approach Reasoning Reasoning processing abilities processing abilities More efficient processing = better reasoningMore efficient processing = better reasoning Focus on domain specific skills rather than Focus on domain specific skills rather than

general skills that apply across domainsgeneral skills that apply across domains

Models of Information Models of Information ProcessingProcessing

Atkinson & Shiffrin’s multistore modelAtkinson & Shiffrin’s multistore model– Three parts of systemThree parts of system

Sensory registerSensory register Short term memory (STM) Short term memory (STM) (book = short term store)(book = short term store)

Long term memory (LTM) Long term memory (LTM) (book = long term store)(book = long term store)

– Inborn and universalInborn and universal– Analogy = computerAnalogy = computer

Stores = hardwareStores = hardware Control processes/mental strategies = softwareControl processes/mental strategies = software

Atkinson & Shiffrin’s ModelAtkinson & Shiffrin’s Model

Sensory RegisterSensory Register– Sights/sounds represented directlySights/sounds represented directly– Limited capacityLimited capacity

Short-Term Memory (STM)Short-Term Memory (STM)– Conscious partConscious part– Limited capacityLimited capacity

7 +/- 2 units of information7 +/- 2 units of information

– Limited timeLimited time

Atkinson & Shiffrin’s ModelAtkinson & Shiffrin’s Model

Long-Term Memory (LTM)Long-Term Memory (LTM)– Unlimited capacityUnlimited capacity– Unlimited time frameUnlimited time frame– Organization and memory strategiesOrganization and memory strategies

• Figure 8.1 A schematic model of the human information processing system. ADAPTED FROM ATKINSON & SHIFFRIN, 1968.

Levels-of-Processing ModelLevels-of-Processing Model

No “containers” with fixed limitsNo “containers” with fixed limits Retention Retention depth depth


QueenQueen PlayPlay ChairChair HotHot

BreadBread ButterButter LoveLove LampLamp

WestWest ThinThin KingKing BottleBottle

BoyBoy TableTable LakeLakeCandyCandy

ColdCold GirlGirl HatHat PhotographPhotograph

EastEast NorthNorth PencilPencil BeltBelt


Shallow Shallow decays decays Deeper Deeper retained retained Problems due to distribution of Problems due to distribution of

attentionattention


STM/STS replaced by STM/STS replaced by working memoryworking memory– The conscious pool of attentional resources The conscious pool of attentional resources

from which our information-processing from which our information-processing activities draw (Baddeley, 1992)activities draw (Baddeley, 1992)

Attention depends on Attention depends on learned/automatic processeslearned/automatic processes

Operating efficiency hypothesisOperating efficiency hypothesis – Case – Case

ComparisonsComparisons

Hardware and software changeHardware and software change Levels-of-processing Levels-of-processing software software Control processes improve with ageControl processes improve with age Controversy regarding hardware…Controversy regarding hardware…

Control Processes Control Processes (Software/Strategies)(Software/Strategies)

Strategy = deliberately Strategy = deliberately implemented, goal-directed implemented, goal-directed operations used to improve task operations used to improve task performanceperformance

Increase likelihood information in Increase likelihood information in STM STM to LTM to LTM

In general, younger children = fewer In general, younger children = fewer strategies; less effectivestrategies; less effective


Production deficiencyProduction deficiency Utilization deficiencyUtilization deficiency


Children of all ages have a variety of Children of all ages have a variety of strategies that they choose from strategies that they choose from when solving problemswhen solving problems– not stagelikenot stagelike

RehearsalRehearsal– Rarely < 6-7 yearsRarely < 6-7 years


OrganizationOrganization ElaborationElaboration

– Develops late, compared to other Develops late, compared to other strategiesstrategies

Retrieval of InformationRetrieval of Information RecognitionRecognition RecallRecall

– Free recall vs. cued recallFree recall vs. cued recall ReconstructionReconstruction

Fuzzy-Trace TheoryFuzzy-Trace Theory

Continuum of memory Continuum of memory representationsrepresentations– Verbatim = literalVerbatim = literal– Fuzzy (gist) = content, but not detailFuzzy (gist) = content, but not detail

Capacity vs. KnowledgeCapacity vs. Knowledge Why is the memory of older Why is the memory of older

children/adults better than that of children/adults better than that of younger children?younger children?

CapacityCapacity KnowledgeKnowledge

Capacity vs. KnowledgeCapacity vs. Knowledge

Differences in children’s and adults’ Differences in children’s and adults’ memory memory knowledge knowledge

Chi: children and adults tested on Chi: children and adults tested on memory for chess piecesmemory for chess pieces– Chess position presented for 10 secondsChess position presented for 10 seconds– Immediate recall – place pieces on blank boardImmediate recall – place pieces on blank board– Repeated recall – keep going until perfectRepeated recall – keep going until perfect– 4 lists of 10 digits were also presented4 lists of 10 digits were also presented– Children chess experts, adults novicesChildren chess experts, adults novices


Chi: ResultsChi: Results– Interaction between age and materialInteraction between age and material

Children outperform adults when Children outperform adults when they’re more knowledgeablethey’re more knowledgeable


Children in Chi’s study were 9 years Children in Chi’s study were 9 years old, what about younger children?old, what about younger children?

Problem: children’s knowledge may Problem: children’s knowledge may improve performance, but to improve performance, but to measure STM capacity, need a test measure STM capacity, need a test not influenced by differences in not influenced by differences in knowledgeknowledge

Attentional ProcessingAttentional Processing

ControlControl– Focused and sustainedFocused and sustained– Infants and preschoolers were seated at Infants and preschoolers were seated at

a table with age-appropriate toysa table with age-appropriate toys Concentrated involvementConcentrated involvement

Attentional ProcessingAttentional Processing

Patterns of AttentionPatterns of Attention– Young infants habituationYoung infants habituation– Preschoolers Preschoolers – 5-6 year olds5-6 year olds

AdaptabilityAdaptability

Attentional ProcessingAttentional Processing Patricia Miller: strategy development Patricia Miller: strategy development

follows a predictable sequencefollows a predictable sequence– Production deficiencyProduction deficiency– Control deficiencyControl deficiency– Utilization deficiencyUtilization deficiency

PlanfulnessPlanfulness

Thinking out a sequence of acts Thinking out a sequence of acts ahead of time and allocating ahead of time and allocating attention accordingly to reach a goalattention accordingly to reach a goal

InfancyInfancy PreschoolPreschool

MemoryMemory

Infantile amnesiaInfantile amnesia– Nonverbal formNonverbal form– Sense of selfSense of self

Development of Scripted Development of Scripted MemoryMemory

Scripts – schemes for recurring Scripts – schemes for recurring events organized in terms of causal events organized in terms of causal and temporal sequencesand temporal sequences– Organizes worldOrganizes world– Tend to remember info consistent with Tend to remember info consistent with

scriptsscripts– Become more elaborate with ageBecome more elaborate with age

Eyewitness MemoryEyewitness Memory

Attorney:Attorney: “How did you get hurt at “How did you get hurt at naptime?”naptime?”

Child:Child: “I don’t know.”“I don’t know.”

Attorney:Attorney: “Did Sandy hurt you?”“Did Sandy hurt you?”

Child:Child: nodded yesnodded yes


Older children > younger childrenOlder children > younger children Preschooler Preschooler accurate, fewer accurate, fewer

precise detailsprecise details False memories are as resistant to False memories are as resistant to

forgetting as true memories areforgetting as true memories are


Leading questions suggest answersLeading questions suggest answers Even adults are susceptibleEven adults are susceptible

– Loftus – film of car crashLoftus – film of car crash Age-related changes in susceptibility Age-related changes in susceptibility

to misleading questionsto misleading questions


Ages 3-12 told story with picturesAges 3-12 told story with pictures Some information presented both Some information presented both

verbally and in pictures, some verbally and in pictures, some information in pictures onlyinformation in pictures only

Story about a girl on the first day of Story about a girl on the first day of school who ate her breakfast too school who ate her breakfast too quickly and got a stomachachequickly and got a stomachache

Stomachache verbally and in Stomachache verbally and in pictures, eggs in picture onlypictures, eggs in picture only


Results (% correct)Results (% correct)

3-43-4 5-65-6 7-97-9 10-1210-12

Control:Control: 8484 8787 9595 9595

Biased:Biased: 3737 5858 6767 8484


Perhaps no memory distortionPerhaps no memory distortion Children are intimidated by Children are intimidated by

authority?authority? 4 and 5 year olds given same task, 4 and 5 year olds given same task,

but 7 year olds did interview second but 7 year olds did interview second dayday


ResultsResultsbiased:biased: 53% correct53% correctunbiased:unbiased: 72% correct72% correct

Selected children from experiment 1 Selected children from experiment 1 who fell in 4-5 year old rangewho fell in 4-5 year old range

biased:biased: 34% correct34% correctunbiased:unbiased: 74% correct74% correct


Misleading suggestions Misleading suggestions memory memory errorserrors

Children, especially young children, Children, especially young children, may be most susceptible, but it’s not may be most susceptible, but it’s not clear whyclear why

Children younger than 9/10 are far Children younger than 9/10 are far more susceptible than older children, more susceptible than older children, adolescents, and adultsadolescents, and adults

Memory for Actual EventsMemory for Actual Events

4 and 7 year olds went to a trailer 4 and 7 year olds went to a trailer where an adult interacted with them where an adult interacted with them and played gamesand played games– Simon saysSimon says– ClownClown

10-12 days later returned for a 10-12 days later returned for a memory testmemory test– Specific questionsSpecific questions– Misleading questionsMisleading questions


ResultsResults

Specific questions:Specific questions:

4-year-olds4-year-olds 79% correct79% correct


Misleading questions:Misleading questions:




Memory of a medical examinationMemory of a medical examination Memory: Memory:

– Free recallFree recall– Anatomically detailed dollAnatomically detailed doll– Direct and misleading questionsDirect and misleading questions


ResultsResults– Genital conditionGenital condition– Nongenital conditionNongenital condition– 3 out of 36 falsely reported in response 3 out of 36 falsely reported in response

to misleading questionsto misleading questions False reports rare, but did occurFalse reports rare, but did occur


Children may underreport abuseChildren may underreport abuse Be careful of leading questionsBe careful of leading questions

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