information & analysis radio electronic ...the su-35s appeared as a product of long and eventful...

RADIO ELECTRONICTECHNOLOGY

INFORMATION & ANALYSIS MAGAZINE

№2/2020

KRET

page 4Highly intelligent Su-35S

page 12Multifunctional Compact Ku-band Radar for UAV

page 15Friend-or-foe identification Systems

page 20New Generation of Airborne Ship-Based Helicopter Radars

page 24Natural Gas as Future Aviation Foul

Photos in this issue: Sukhoi Company PJSC, Phazotron-NIIR Corporation JSC, Moscow State Technical University named after N.E. Bauman, NPO Radioelectronics named after V.I. Shimko JSC, Tupolev PJSC, Russian Engineering Union Public Organisation

Cover foto: Su-35S multirole fighter, photo by Sukhoi Company PJSC

“Radio Electronic Technology”INFORMATION & ANALYSIS MAGAZINEFounder and publisher – Concern Radio-electronic technologies JSCAuthor of the concept – Nikolai Kolesov

EDITORIAL BOARD

IOSIF AKOPYAN — Designer General, Director Scientific, Agat JSCANATOLY AXYONOV — President, Veterans of MTS, Regional Public OrganizationANATOLY ALEXANDROV — Chancellor, Moscow State Technical University named after N.E. BaumanVLADIMIR BARKOVSKY — Doctor of Technical SciencesVIKTOR BONDAREV — Chairman of the Council of the Federation Committee on Defence and Security of the Russian FederationYURI BORISOV — Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian FederationSERGEY CHERNYSHEV — Chief Scientific Officer, Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute, Academician of the RASVICTOR DOTSENKO — Assistant Rector, Tomsk State UniversityEVGENY DRONOV — Director General, Tulamashzavod Production Association JSCANATOLY ISAIKIN – Member of the Board of Directors, Rosoboronexport JSCEVGENY FEDOSOV — Research Supervisor, GosNIIAS FSUE, member of the Russian Academy of Sciences ALEXANDER FOMIN — Deputy Defence Minister of Russian FederationVLADIMIR GUTENEV — First Vice-President, Russian Engineering Union; First Deputy Chairman, Committee for Economic Policies, Industry, Innovative Development and Entrepreneurship, State Duma of the Russian FederationYURI GUSKOV — First Deputy Director General — Designer General, Phazotron-NIIR Corporation JSCGIVI JANJGAVA — Deputy Director General, avionics R&D — Designer General, Concern Radio-electronic technologies JSCRAVIL KHAKIMOV – President, Irkut CorporationVITALY KHANYCHEV — Director General, Central Scientific Research Institute Kurs JSCSERGEI KHOKHLOV — Director General, GosNIIAS, State Research Institute of Aviation SystemsNIKOLAI KOLESOV — Director General Concern Radio-electronic technologies JSCGENNADY KOLODKO — First Deputy Director General — Technical Director, Ryazan State Instrument-making Enterprise JSCOLEG KUSTOV — Editor-in-Chief, Radio Electronic Technology magazineALEXEY KUZNETSOV – Director General, Moscow Institute of Electromechanics and Automation PJSCSERGEI LADYGIN — Deputy Director General, Rosoboronexport JSCYURI MAYEVSKY — Designer General, EW systems and equipment, Deputy Director General, Concern Radio-electronic technologies JSCANDREY MENSHIKOV – Deputy Director General for NIOKR, NPP Mikran JSC VLADIMIR MERKULOV — Deputy Designer General, Vega JSCIGOR NASENKOV — Director General, Technodinamika JSCDINA NIZAMUTDINOVA — Business Manager, Concern Radio-electronic technologies JSCBORIS OBNOSOV — Director General, Tactical Missiles Corporation JSCVLADIMIR POSPELOV — Member of the Board of the Military-Industrial Commission of the Russian FederationYURI SLYUSAR — Director General, United Aircraft Corporation JSCVYACHESLAV SHEVTSOV — Chief, Telecommunication Department, Moscow Aviation InstituteIGOR SHEREMET — Vice-President, Academy of military sciencesALEXANDER SHLYAKHTUROV — Chairman of the Board of Directors, Garnison JSCVALERIY SOLOZOBOV – Deputy Director General, Tupolev JSCKIRILL SYPALO – Director General, Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute, corresponding member of the RAS ANDREI TYULIN — Director General, Russian Space Systems JSCBORIS VINOGRADOV – Director General, Ryazan State Instrumental-making Enterprise JSCVLADIMIR ZVEREV — First Deputy Director General, Concern Radio-electronic technologies JSC

The magazine is registered by the Federal Service for Supervision of Communications,Information Technology and Mass Media.Registration Certificate: PI No. FS 77-60074 dated 10 December 2014

EDITORIAL & PUBLISHER’S ADDRESS: 20/1 p.1, Goncharnaya str., Moscow, 109240, RussiaTel./fax +7 (499) 253-65-22www.hi-tech.media, e-mail: [email protected] for printing: 01 Apr 2020 Publication Date: 18 Apr 2020

DESIGN, PREPRESS & PRINTING: United Industrial Edition LLC39 Malaya Gruzinskaya Street, Moscow, 123557Tel. fax +7 (495) 778-14-47e-mail: [email protected] Design and layout: S.V. SeliverstovaPrintrun 500 copies. Free distribution

© All rights reserved.The materials published in themagazine shall only be used withwritten permission of the editorialstaff. Reference to the RadioElectronic Technology magazine incase of reprinting is obligatory. Theeditorial staff shall not review andreturn materials submitted. Authorsare responsible for the contents ofthe materials they submit.

EDITORIAL STAFF

Editor-in-Chief OLEG KUSTOV [email protected]

Technical editor BOGDAN KAZARYAN [email protected]

Columnist VLADIMIR GUNDAROV [email protected]

Assistant Editor-in-Chief ELENA KUZNETSOVA [email protected]

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2 / 2 0 2 0 R A D I O E L E C T R O N I C T E C H N O L O G Y

c o n t e n t s

Radio Electronic Technology #2/2020 (25)Greetings from Vladimir V. Gutenev .........................................................3

FRONT LINE

Su-35S: highly intelligent and combat-proven ....................................4

Vladimir Karnozov

Electronic log book as an important step towards

improving efficiency of aircraft maintenance

in civil aviation ................................................................................................8

Evgeny Fedosov, Yuri Buryak

KRET: TASKS AND PROSPECTS

Multifunctional Сompact Ku-band Radar

for Tactical UAV ............................................................................................12

Evgeny Ilyin, Alexander Polubehin,

Vladimir Savostyanov, Oleg Samarin

Friend-or-foe Identification Systems

and Tools Current Status and Development Prospects ..................15

Ronis Sharipov

New Generation of Airborne Ship-Based

Helicopter Radars ........................................................................................20

Elena Eremina

INFORMATION FOR THOUGHT

Natural Gas as Future Aviation Fuel ......................................................24

Valery Solozobov, Bogdan Kazaryan

Optical Rectennas in Aerospace

and Energy Sectors ......................................................................................28

Alexander S. Sigov, Vladimir F. Matyuchin,

Igor N. Abashkov

2 / 2 0 2 02 / 2 0 2 0R A D I O E L E C T R O N I C T E C H N O L O G Y R A D I O E L E C T R O N I C T E C H N O L O G Y


Dear organizers, participants and guests of the Second International Aviation and Space Eurasia

Airshow-2020!

Aircraft manufacturing is a dynamically developing sector of the global industry. Science-intensive and high-tech innovations of the industry are applied in everyday life of people, improving their transport mobility, increasing safety and comfort.

Harmonious development of the world economy is impossible without international cooperation. Only in the open dialogue of the professional community is it possible to find answers to the challenges of tomorrow, to implement ambitious projects that determine the shape of the future.

Turkey has always been a kind of intermediary between East and West, and I am truly glad that this tradition continues and is being scaled up, especially in the industrial field.

The country has confidently set a course for the development of innovations and the introduction of the latest technological competencies. Turkey not only actively offers its own solutions, but also adopts successful international experience. Russian companies are ready to act as partners in this process. I am sure that Eurasia Airshow 2020 will open up additional opportunities for cooperation between us.

I wish the participants and guests of the exhibition productive work and pleasant impressions!

Vladimir GutenevChairman of the Legal Support Commission for the Development

of Organizations of the Military-Industrial Complex of the Russian Federation, the State Duma of the Russian Federation

First Deputy Chairman of the Russian Engineering Union

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Each time a customer for advanced aviation equipment makes a choice, it faces a dilemma: whether to acquire combat-proven, long-serving type or go for something newer which has no or little ser-vice record but comes with state-of-the-art technolo-gy. For those choosing among available Russian fight-ers, the Sukhoi Su-35S may look like a reasonable combination of the proven Flanker platform and very advanced avionics, mission systems and weaponry.

The Su-35S appeared as a product of long and eventful evolution of the Flanker family, a common name NATO gave to Sukhoi fighter aircraft inducted from the late 1980s through to 2018. The original Su-27 was a single-seat fighter purposely designed as a tool to achieve air superiority and establish air supremacy by means of shooting down all kinds of enemy aircraft. It came with a rather simple Su-27UB twin seat operational trainer to enable pi-lots master the type. The latter provided a base for the Su-30 interceptor whose second crew member would coordinate actions of other aircraft in a group.

On insistence of India, the tandem-cockpit plat-form received further development, into a custom-ized multirole aircraft in which the weapons officer manages a vast arsenal of smart bombs and missiles – a task that would over-load a single pilot in many combat situations. The resulting Su-30MKI was also the first mass-produced subtype in the expanding Flanker family to have vectored thrust, whose intro-duction markedly improved the aircraft performance in close-in air combat. Later, this exportable model was developed into an even more capable Su-30SM for the Russian air force and naval aviation.

Another member in the Flanker family, the Su-34 is a dedicated interdiction aircraft with a side-by-side cabin and a nose cone (housing a very advanced radar for observation of land and sea- going targets) reminiscent of the duck bill, which gives it a characteristic appearance.

A latest addition to the Flanker Family, the Su-35S was meant to combine all good qualities of

the previous subtypes in one package, and add more through exploitation of the most modern technol-ogy that became available in the new century. The scientific and technical progress in many fields has allowed Sukhoi engineers to reduce the number of crew members from two back to one. The technolo-gy is now mature to enable a single pilot to manage all onboard systems and effectively employ both air-to-air and air-to-surface missiles in a complex envi-ronment of the modern warfare. Thus, the Su-35S tops the prodigal Flanker family not only in terms of the entry-into-service date, but also innovations and technology insertions.

A commonly asked question is how the Su-35 compares to the most modern American warplanes attributed to the fifth generation. Well, the Su-35S and F-22A have similar dimensions. Overall length is 21.9m against 18.92, wingspan 14.75m ver-sus 13.56. Gross weight is 38.8 tons against 38, operational empty weight is 19 tons against 19.7. While lacking inner weapons bays, the Su-35S comes with a larger inner fuel capacity, which gives it an advantage in an unrefueled range.

Development of this airplane in its current form (Su-35S) began in 2005, the same year the F-22A was officially accepted into service with the U.S. Air Force. The Russian top brass instructed the indus-try to produce an improved Flanker that would be able to “withstand” the Raptor in a number of typical combat situations in both local and large-scale mil-itary conflicts.

SHIPMENTSBy the time the Su-35S took to the air for the

first time, 112 deliverable F-22As had been assem-bled. Shipments to U.S. Air Force – 195 aircraft in-cluding eight for tests and 187 operational – com-pleted in 2011. As such, the Su-35S is more to do with recent events. Some of its systems are more modern even though the plane is formally a gener-ation behind.

VL ADIMIR K ARNOZOV,

science editor,

United Industrial

Publishing

Su-35S: highly intelligent and combat-proven

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Commencing in 2008, the Su-35S production run passed a one-hundred mark ten years later. To-date, the number of copies built is about 120 and counting. The initial qualitative order from the Rus-sian defense ministry came in 2009, for 48 aircraft. Six years ago, it was supplemented by a follow-on contract for fifty more. Since February 2016, the Su-35S has been in Syria, flying both air cover and strike missions against the anti-government ele-ments in the country.

Today, the Russian Air and Space Force (local acronym VKS) operates some seventy examples in line combat units. Besides, in November last year, four aircraft went to the VKS air display team, the Russian Knights. A handful of airframes remain with the industry for various tests, improvements, and demonstration purposes.

To-date, the Su-35S is in service with only one ex-port customer. People’s Liberation Army’ Air Force of China took delivery of 24 aircraft in the 2016-2018 times frame. Two years ago, Indonesia placed order for 11 such aircraft in 2018. Reportedly, Egypt also signed for the Su-35S, although confirmation is yet to come from official sources. There is some proof to that, though. The matter was discussed among the country’s parliament members and also mentioned by the U.S. officials and congressmen, who threaten Egypt with sanctions for purchasing advanced Rus-sian equipment. Most recently, India has showed in-terest in the Su-35S, as well as the F-15EX, in frame of the ongoing competition for 110-114 new fighters.

MAJOR POINTSHere are the following points that set the

Su-35S apart of the other members in the prolific Sukhoi “Flanker” family fighters.

First. Much more powerful radar with consider-ably longer detection ranges.

Second. Extended arsenal of PGMs that now in-cludes long-range radar-guided missiles.

Third. Supercruise capability (M=1.1) thanks to the more powerful Item 117S engines.

Fourth. Smarter pilot’s station with a wide-view HUD, two huge MFDs and new-generation HMS.

Fifth. Modern EW features by way of modern ra-dar technologies and podded systems.

Sixth. Advanced electro-optics.Seventh. Various refinements in aerodynamics

and FCS resulting in better maneuvering qualities.

Eighth. Bigger inner tanks for longer range.Ninth. Longer lifetime and lower maintenance,

comparable with best designs from the West.Above listed are “extra” qualities to the already

recognized merits of the Su-27/30 Flanker family.These are: Super maneuverability through use

of vectored thrust (Su-30MKI/MKM/SM); admirable payload-range performance, exceeding that of many competing fighter designs; Ruggedness and main-tainability; Proved service record. Besides, many manuals, instructions and training tools have been prepared and service-proven, including top-stan-dard procedural and flight simulators, maintenance and combat planning software.

KEY FEATURESAccording to Sukhoi, the Su-35S is an aviation

complex able to fill the niche of heavyweight multi-role fighters until the Su-57, attributed to fifth-gen-eration supersonic fighters, becomes mature enough and available in worthwhile numbers. At the same time, the Advanced Flanker already uses some tech-nologies that have been developed for fifth genera-tion fighters. Their development commenced in the late 1980s, when the respective work began in So-viet Union, and then proceeded in a modern Russia.

Sometimes, the maker even calls Su-35S “a sort of flying laboratory to prove some solu-tions for use in future on the Su-57”. As such, the Su-35S has a digital information management system [IUS] which includes two central onboard computers. Computing power is provided by Baget-53-31M central processors.

The Su-35S is advertised as a truly multifunc-tional aircraft able to perform both air-to-air and ground attack missions. Maximum takeoff weight is 38.8 tons. The aircraft has twelve hard points to carry up to eight tons of external loads. Besides, it regains the GSh-301 single-barrel 30-mm rapid fire

Su-35S, the Russian Air

and Space Force,

photo by V. Karnozov

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cannon from the Su-27, with 150 rounds of ammu-nition.

The Su-35S has a wing with “quasi adaptive” leading and training edges for optimal perfor-mance at low speeds and dogfight. At the same time, the aircraft has a limited super-cruise capa-bility. It is able to fly supersonically (M=1.1) on “mil-itary power” setting.

The refined design of the fuselage allows for almost one-fifth increase in external fuel capaci-ty. The figure is now 11,500kg against 9,400kg for the Su-27. The Su-35 can carry two 1,800-litre drop tanks on underwing pylons to boost fuel capacity to 14,500kg. Clean, the Su-35S can ferry 3,600 km and 4,500 km with fuel tanks. The aircraft is equipped with a telescopic fuel probe for “probe-basket” sort of aerial refueling. It can take refuel mid-air from an Il-78 tanker at a rate of 1,100 liters per minute.

Shaping the Su-35S, Sukhoi engineers tried to introduce many improvements so as to eliminate or reduce negative points discovered during long ser-vice of the Su-27 family (inducted some thirty years back). They also tried to make use of some new tech-nologies now available and do so in such a way that it does not change the well-tried design solutions of the original Su-27. This would reduce the need in lengthy and expensive tests.

Aerodynamics refinements include redesign of air intakes for higher flow and less drag. The aircraft used to have a large air brake on the upper fuse-lage. Its function is now carried out by differential [inwards] deflection of the rudders. Larger and heavier forward fuselage section created the need in a stronger nose gear strut and the use of two wheels instead of one on the early Flankers.

Pilot’s station is designed to HOTAS concept. It features by two large LCDs each measuring 9x12 inches (23 cm × 30 cm), with a resolution of 1400x1050 dots. The LCD is a part of the MFD-35 multifunctional display. The HUD is OKSh-1M type with field of view 20x30 degrees.

The Su-35S comes with the KSU-35 compre-hensive digital flight control system from MNPK Avionika. It replaces several less complex systems aboard Su-27 and, additionally, provides for “active safety” feature and better maneuverability.

Technologies to reduce radar effective cross section (ECS) are applied to reduce visibility to ra-dars operating in cm wavelength typical for fighters.

Admittedly, reduction in radar signature is not the same scale as on the F-22A or F-35A. The Su-35S is equipped with the L175M Khibiny-M electronic countermeasure system can well diminish the afore-mentioned difference.

N-035 IRBIS-E RADARThe N-035 Irbis-E multifunctional radar is de-

veloped by Tikhomirov’s NIIP. This all-weather, mul-tifunctional, wideband, multipurpose system can detect, identify and track aerial, ground and sea-go-ing targets, illuminate them and provide cueing for guided missiles. In ground mapping mode with the real beam, synthesized aperture the device takes de-tailed pictures with a resolution of 1 m.

Work on the N-035 commenced in 2004. By September 2008 five units had been assembled for testing. Technologically, the Irbis-E represents a next step in development of NIIP’s airborne phase-array radars after the N-011M Bars on the Su-30MKI and the Zaslon on the MiG-31.

According to NIIP general director Yuri Belyi, the mean emitting power for the N-035 averages at 5 kW, while the maximum emitting power peaks at 20 kW. This is a record figure for fighter radars, and al-lows for maximum detection range for fighter-sized target (ECS 3 square meters) of “about 400 kilome-ters” (216 nm). Big sea-going target, such as aircraft carriers, are detected at the same distance.

The Irbis can track up to 30 aerial targets while continuing to search for new ones. It can direct mis-siles with active radar guidance (such as the R-77 or its exportable version RVV-AE) at eight aerial or four ground targets simultaneously while continuing to scan airspace. In target illumination mode the mean emission power at a selected waveband can be as high as 2kW.

Unlike the latest U.S. and European airborne fire control radars with active electronically scanned arrays (AESAs), the N-035 has passive e-scan. “I be-lieve that, despite the rapid development of active array technologies, the passive array still has a mar-ket niche. The active array is costly and not afford-able for some customers,” said Belyi. In a head-on scenario, the high-power N-035 enables the Su-35S to detect the F-22A Raptor at a greater distance, and, consequently, shoot first, he believes.

Passive e-scan has relatively narrow body angle of view. This shortcoming has been tackled by intro-

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duction of tilting system which moves the antenna mechanically. The antenna – measuring 900mm in diameter – can be tilted vertically and horizon-tally by a two-stage electro-hydraulic mechanism. In horizontal plane, this solution allows to double the search angle, to 240 degrees. And thus make it comparable with best mechanically steered radars (now considered outdated and obsolete).

Apart from radar, the Su-35’s Weapons Control System (WCS) contains electro optics. There are six conformal sensors placed all over the airframe (for a spherical all-round view which can found a reflection on MFDs in pilot’s cockpit) and two de-tectors for laser illumination. Podded optics loca-tor OLS-NTs is for surveillance of ground surface. Observation of the forward hemisphere is done by the OLS-35 (OLS-VT) optics locator placed ahead of the canopy. The latter’s field of view in azimuth is -/+90 degree, and elevation -15/+50 degree. A Su-27-sized target can be detected at a distance of 90 km in rear hemisphere and 35km in forward hemisphere. an optoelectronic targeting system)

POWERPLANTThe Su-35S is powered by a pair of AL-41F1s

augmented turbofans. Their flight trials on a Flank-er commenced in March 2004. That tine a Su-27M side 710 flew in the role of a test-bed, to attest a semi-experimental “Item 117S”. This turbofan motor was developed by Arkhip Lulka’s design house (then part of NPO Saturn, itself a member in the United Engine Corporation) on the base of the highly successful AL-31F family, using technol-ogies from the abandoned AL-41F program. To re-flect the latter’s influence, NPO Saturn sometimes refers to the Item 117S as the AL-41F1S.

The newer engine has an air inlet with diame-ter increased by 27mm, to 932mm. Combined with AL-41F-alike HP and LP turbines, FADEC and other novelties, this boosted thrust to 8,800 kg at “mili-tary power” setting and to 14,500kg at “full after-burner”.

The latter figure is two tons above the maximum augmented thrust for the ordinary AL-31F. Other improvements have been TBO extension to 1,500 hours and lifetime to 4,000 hours. Thrust vectoring is an integral part of the engine design.

Flight trials proved Item 117S to be a design success. Its high thrust-to-weight ratio was ren-

dered good enough even for a fifth generation fighter. Replacing the ordinary AL-31F by an exper-imental Item 117S gave the Su-27M side 710 ex-tra thrust at transonic speeds. This fact encouraged Sukhoi to make a research whether the aircraft could actually stay supersonic at “military power” setting (maximum non-reheated thrust).

Calculations showed that it could, provided the canards were removed and center of gravity position changed so as to reduce losses to aerodynamic drag. This finding gave reason to resume the program. And to rework the Su-35 so as to abolish the earli-er “integral triplane concept” (Su-30MKI, Su-33 and Su-27M) for classic aerodynamic design, and thus reduce drag at transonic and supersonic regimes.

First public display of the Su-35S equipped with Item 117S engines took place at MAKS’2007. That time it was a demonstrator aircraft statical-ly. This airframe flew for the first time in February 2008. At first, funding for the program was largely commercial. It was provided by leading Russian banks in a belief that the Su-35 international sales campaign may win interest of foreign buyers, Vene-zuela and China in the first place.

Even though the intended customers liked the aircraft, they hesitated to play the role of a launch customer. Subsequently, Sukhoi went back to the Russian defense ministry. It was more successful this time.

The ministry placed initial order for 48 aircraft in 2009, with shipments due in 2012 through to 2015. The version for the Russian air force was giv-en designation “Su-35S”.

Relaunched, the Su-35 attracted China’s at-tention. The customer filed a formal application to buy the type in 2011. According to Russian sourc-es, that time an exportable Su-35 was offered at $85 million apiece. Preliminary agreement was reached the following year, but contractual work on financial and technical issues proceeded slow-ly. Shipments of all 24 aircraft were made in the 2016-2018 timeframe.

Overall, the Su-35S is rather complex an air-craft, requiring regular, skillful maintenance done by dedicated professionals. Again, for those cus-tomers choosing among available Russian fighters, this model may look like a reasonable combination of the proven Flanker platform and very advanced avionics, mission systems and weaponry.

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Following current trends, aircraft manufac-turers develop all the flight operation manuals in digital format, which allows users to quickly access all changes in operation and maintenance publications using, among other things, mobile devices.

Aircraft electronic log book (AELB) is an inter-active software application installed in the pilot electronic portfolio, which is a visual display of the aircraft technical and pilot log books, allow-ing the flight crew and maintenance personnel to solve operational tasks previously performed on a paper basis.

The purpose of the development is to in-crease the efficiency of transit maintenance processes by accelerating information ex-change between participants, increasing the level of awareness of the crew and, ultimately, the safety of the next flight.

The block diagram of the information system (Fig. 1) involves placing the components of the log for the crew (onboard), which interacts with the onboard radio electronic equipment via the onboard information system, as well as for the maintenance personnel (ground) and the aircraft operator.

This diagram allows eventually closing the in-formation flow to the aircraft operator, and at the same time ensure full transparency of all actions and results in real time.

The aircraft maintenance procedure begins with importing the current AELB version from the database (Fig. 2) on the pilot’s and maintenance personnel’s tablets (1). During the maintenance the necessary changes corresponding to the oper-ations performed (2) are introduced, and after the maintenance the current AELB version is removed from the technician tablet and are exported to the database (3).

The absence of information about the current state of the aircraft on the maintenance personnel tablet before and after the work ensures that the requirements for the protection of commercially significant information are met.

The important feature of the AELB software is the careful elaboration of the human-machine interface elements (Fig. 3-6) in compliance with

EVGENY FEDOSOV,Scientific Director of the

State Scientific Research

Institute of Aviation Systems,

Academician of the Russian

Academy of Sciences

YURI BURYAK, Head of the Department of

the State Scientific Research

Institute of Aviation

Systems, Doctor of Technical

Sciences

Electronic log book as an important step towards improving efficiency of aircraft maintenance in civil aviation

Fig.1. AELB IS block diagram. OIS – Onboard Information System. OREE − Onboard Radio Electronic

Equipment. 1 – Information Protocol based on Industry Standard XML Schema for the Exchange of

Electronic log book Data Exchange (ATA Spec2000, Ch 17). 2 − Information. Interaction Protocols

agreed upon with IS developers. OpIS – Operator Information system.

AELB IS – Aircraft Electronic Log Book Information System

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such principles as: maximum information aware-ness of the pilot, uniform representation of func-tions and information, wide use of automation tools when entering data, and quick access to the necessary data.

On the main form (Fig. 2) the pilot is provided with the necessary flight information, restrictions and limits, as well as the history of technical inspections that determine the level of readiness of the aircraft for the next flight. The green color of the data indi-

Fig.2. AELB IS Operating

Procedure

TELB – Technical Electronic Log Book, PELB – Pilot Electronic Log Book, AELB – Aircraft Electronic Log Book, DB – Data Base

1 – importing the current AELB version from the database to the pilot’s and maintenance personnel’s tablets, 2 – changing the AELB

content upon completion of operations by the pilot and maintenance personnel, 3 – exporting the current AELB version to the database

Fig.3. Screen form: Current

Aircraft Status – Standard

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cates that all conditions for flight safety have been met, and the amber (yellow) color indicates that they have been violated. In this case, the pilot goes to the appropriate form (the button on the left menu is illu-minated) and performs the prescribed operations.

If defects or violations are detected, the use of the AELB information support allows quickly

creating the necessary documents (Fig. 5) with assigning the appropriate status and determin-ing the permissible operating time of the aircraft without eliminating the defect.

When detecting damage to the airframe elements (Fig. 6) the maintenance personnel uses the developed tools to control the built-

Fig.4. Screen form: Current

Aircraft Status – Violation

Fig. 5. Screen form:

Entering comments

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in camera, as well as the appropriate functions for photo-documenting the defect, locating it on the aircraft map and describing it in the re-quired scope.

To minimize operations when entering/searching data, well-known automation tools are widely used (reference books and classifiers, search and substitution of values, etc.).

If necessary, the pilot reviews the history of the aircraft’s maintenance operations with details up to the level of operations.

The important advantage of the electronic log book is the system of remote administration of its users, which allows resolving all conflicts for registered users and exclude access to the system by hackers.

The implementation of the developed solu-tion of the AELB information system has the fol-lowing obvious advantages for all participants of aircraft maintenance at a transit airport:

♦ reducing the load on the crew by maximizing situational awareness of the current state of the aircraft by displaying current flight infor-mation, restrictions and limits, and the histo-ry of maintenance operations performed,

♦ minimization of actions when entering data through the use of automation tools (refer-ence books and classifiers, search and substi-

tution of values, etc.), as well as automated data acquisition in an agreed volume from aircraft systems and onboard maintenance system through the integration with the air-craft information system,

♦ reducing the time and improving the quality of work with the aircraft by accessing informa-tion about deferred defects, failures and faults,

♦ reducing the time necessary for inspection of the aircraft, prompt receipt of complete and reliable information about failures and faults, their transfer to the destination with the nec-essary decisions,

♦ improving the quality of data for resource ac-counting and maintenance planning by defin-ing indicators being monitored,

♦ calculation of oil consumption in power plants and generators for each flight in liters per hour of engine operation separately for each power plant and generator,

♦ documenting of all personnel operations in full scope and printing of a paper version of the log book (if necessary).The universal nature of the developed solution

and its competitive advantages in relation to foreign analogues opens up opportunities for its use with re-spect to existing and prospective aircraft of domestic and foreign production.

Fig. 6. Screen form:

Description of damaged

area

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K R E T : t a s k s a n d p r o s p e c t s


As a result of research works conducted joint-ly by BMSTU and Phazotron-NIIR JSC the multi-functional compact Ku-band radar for use in com-plexes with a tactical UAV has been developed. In the course of research works, the results obtained in the Russian Federation and abroad concerning the principles for designing compact radars and their operating modes have been analyzed, and methods, algorithms and mathematical models for data processing and control processes have been developed.

The radar includes the following units: ♦ transceiver module consisting of a digital

frequency synthesizer, solid-state transmitter and microwave receiver;

♦ antenna system in the form of a biaxial gimbal with installed two-plane monopulse wave-guide-slit antenna array;

♦ high-performance on-board computer con-sisting of the digital four-channel receiver and the Central processor on the basis of domestic Quad-core micro-processor “Elbrus 4С”;

♦ high-precision small-size strapdown inertial navigation system (INS);

♦ functional software.The appearance of the radar is shown in Figure 1.

The original conformal design solutions, generally, make it possible to install the radar on any aircraft taking into account the available footprint and configurations owing to the use of the developed modules corresponding to several hierarchy levels and their interfaces.

The main operating modes of the radar are the following:

♦ Mapping by Real Antenna Beam (MRB) with strip or sector surveillance;

♦ Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) with strip, sector or spotlight surveillance;

♦ Ground Moving Target Indication (GMTI); ♦ Assessment of the Meteorological Situation

(AMS) with the formation of the images of the cross sections of the clouds;

♦ Measurement of the Slant Range to the Surface (MSRS);

♦ Low-Altitude Flight information support (LAF) with the formation of the images of the cross sections of relief;

♦ Direction Finding of radio Emission Sources (DFES);

♦ Current and Advanced radar Control (CAC).The main parameters of the radar are presen-

ted in the table below.

Multifunctional Сompact Ku-band Radar for Tactical UAV

EVGENY ILYIN,

Leading Analyst ,

Bauman Moscow

State Technical

University (BMSTU),

Doctor of Physical

and Mathematical

Sciences, Professor

ALEX ANDER

POLUBEHIN,

Chief, Innovation

Technology Center

BMSTU; MS

VL ADIMIR

SAVOST YANOV,

chief, laboratory,

Phazotron-NIIR JSC;

MS

OLEG SAMARIN,

chief, research

division, Phazotron-

NIIR JSC; MS

Technical specification

Weight, kg 35

Antenna Size (Width×Height), mm 520×140

Azimuth Scan Coverage, degrees –95…+95

Elevation Tilt, degrees –30…+5

Electrical Interfaces Ethernet, RS485, 27 V DC

Power Consumption (27 V DC), W 400

MRBRange Resolution, m 7.5…60

Range (Resolution dependent), km 35…65

SARResolution, m 0.25…60

Range (Resolution dependent), km 15…80

13



In all operating modes, the resolution, range and viewing area parameters can be changed according to a previously recorded flight program or by the operator of the Ground Control Station (GCS).

INS is installed on a common base with a radar and integrated with a global navigation satellite system receiver. According to the data obtained from INS, such parameters as the antenna beam characteristics, the repetition period of monitor-ing pulses, the location of the receiving zone and the processing parameters of the received radar signals are controlled in the radar.

The radar uses the signals with pulse-to-pulse frequency shifting, which made it possi-ble not only to reduce the requirements for the equipment, but also to increase the security level and noise immunity of the system. The high range resolution in the SAR mode is provided in the radar by synthesizing the signal spectrum.

The radar images are generated in a real time mode without the intervention of the GCS operator. When forming a message, the informa-tion is recorded in its header, which allows to automate the process of combining radar images in GCS, both among themselves and with a topo-graphic map.

The communication between the radar and the onboard radio-electronic equipment of UAV is organized via high-speed interfaces. The generated target information is then transmitted from UAV to GCS via a radio channel.

The radar developed in 2017 – 2018 was used in more than 20 field experiments as part of a flying laboratory. As a result of onboard real-time testing of MRB, SAR and GMTI modes, the radar images with various resolutions and viewing areas were obtained. The use of high- accuracy navigation information made it possi-

ble to combine image fragments and focus them, as well as provided precise determination of the objects’ coordinates.

As an example, Figures 2–4 show radar images obtained onboard of a flying laboratory in a real-time SAR mode with a resolution of 0.25 to 1 m, superimposed on satellite optical photo-graphs.

The capabilities of the radar allow to im-plement various scenarios of tactical tasks in a system with UAV: territory monitoring, objects searching and identification, and targets tracking.

The new multifunctional compact Ku-band radar has no analogues in Russia, whereas its well-known foreign counterparts do not have so many implemented functions. Improved informa-tion capabilities and potential capacities of the designed radar provide a solution to a wide range of tasks for complexes with a tactical UAV.

GMTIThe Detection Range of the object with RCS=5 m2 (15 km/h), km 50

The Detection Range of the object with RCS=1 m 2 (5 km/h), km 25

AMSRange of the Weather Detection (≥40 dBZ), km 150

Range of the Turbulence Detection, km 40

MSRSMeasuring Range, km 0.2…12

RMSE of Measuring Range (Range and Hade dependent), m 5…20

LAFThe Range of Detection of Obstacles, km 0.2…2

Viewing area (Azimuth×Elevation), degrees 60×20

Figure 1. Radar appearance

14



Figure 2. Radar image with

a resolution of 0.25 m (a),

and a satellite photograph

(b) of the production site:

1 – fencing, 2 – fencing

posts, 3 – vehicle tracks

on the ground, 4 – path,

5 – pow-er transmission

tower, 6 – building


a resolution of 0.5 m (a),

and a satellite photograph

(b) of the embankment:

1 – roof of the building,

2 – buoy, 3 – motorway

bridge, 4 – stream,

5 – pedestrian crossing,

6 – descending path to

the river


a resolution of 1 m (a), and

a satellite photograph (b)

of the motorway bridge:

1 – motorway bridge,

2 – road junction, 3 – cars,

4 – berth, 5 – lighting

poles, 6 – buoy

15



The task of identifying objects according to the “friend or foe” principle remains critical throughout the entire history of armaments and military equipment development. Successful ful-filment of this task helps avoid erroneous attack of our armament systems on own objects and thereby prevent unnecessary loss of troops.

Identification task in the Russian Federation is the state prerogative and ensures:

♦ intended armament efficiency through elimi-nating erroneous attacks on own objects;

♦ control over the use of the country’s air and above-water territory;

♦ necessary cooperation with the armed forces of friendly states, including the situation of conducting combat operations by peacekeep-ing forces.Identification friend-or-foe (IFF) system of the

Russian Federation is a multi-service, interdepart-mental and interstate system whose operational procedure is determined by the intergovernmen-tal agreement on the provision of radar identifica-tion of aerial, above-water and ground facilities of the countries participating in the Collective Security Treaty Organization equipped with the identification system responders.

Since ancient times, the most important war-fare skill was the ability to distinguish own troops from enemy units. To solve this task, flags, spe-cial colors and various signs on the elements of soldiers’ clothing were used. In most cases, such measures were satisfactory, since the detection of troops and their identification was carried out

visually or by ear according to specific sound fea-tures.

With implementation of the first radar sta-tions detecting air objects at a distance of several dozens or even hundreds of kilometers, it became necessary to design special-purpose equipment that could identify own objects.

The first identification systems appeared during the Second World War. In the USSR, the systems developed in 1941, 1942 and 1944 were used. Specification-wise, these systems were not inferior to the identification systems available in the armies of the United States, Great Britain and Germany.

In 1948, “Kremniy-1” autonomous identifi-cation system was put into service in the USSR. This system contained interrogators and responders with their own transmitters and receivers enabling exchange of radio signals within a dedi-cated frequency range.

In 1954, “Kremniy-2(M)” special-purpose indigenous system was developed and stayed in service for more than 40 years. All military and civil aircraft, ships and vessels, radar systems and anti-aircraft missile complexes, including the por-table ones, were equipped with Kremniy-2(M).

“Kremniy-2” used some of the new techni-cal solutions, such as response signals in form of code frequency amplitude-modulated puls-es, and a combined query with simultaneously transmitted radar pulses. However, in late 1950s it became obvious that “Kremniy-2” does not meet the modern requirements for friend-or-foe

Friend-or-foe Identification Systems and Tools Current Status and Development Prospects

RONIS SHARIPOV,

General Director of JSC

Scientific Production

Association

RADIOELECTRONICS

named after V.I .

Shimko, Candidate of

Economic Sciences

16



identification (IFF). Its main drawback was a limited number of codes being used. Captured by the enemy, the system could be compromised due to the fact that the enemy obtained the oppor-tunity to imitate the “friend” attribute, whereas updating the equipment for restoring its op-erability in scope of the entire armed forces required enormous expenses.

In this regard, it was decided to promptly develop the new “Parol” friend-or-foe identifica-tion system. To accomplish this task, in accordance with the Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the USSR Council of Ministers dated April 22, 1962, a leading designer enterprise for the NII-334 system was established on the basis of the experimental design bureau OKB-294 in

Kazan. The enterprise presently exists as Scien-tific Production Association RADIOELECTRONICS named after V.I. Shimko JSC.

It was necessary to address a large number of complicated engineering and management chal-lenges. It’s enough to say that the process of de-veloping the prototypes involved a large number of enterprises, and in one of the working periods, their total number reached 78.

Upon completion of the state tests, the USSR Council of Ministers issued the Decree on putting the “Parol” combined-arms radar friend-or-foe identification system into service with the Soviet Army and Navy.

Owing to the novelty of technical and tech-nological solutions introduced by the designers

Figure 1. Strazh

friend-or-foe identification

system parameter range

Aircraft interrogator and responder for Air Forces objects

Compact responder for UAV

Compact ground-based interrogator for the portable

air defence system

Shipborne interrogator and responder for Navy objects

Ground-based interrogator for the air defence complexes of Radio-

technical Troops and Land Forces

17



and endowing the system with superior for-ward-looking capabilities to meet the tactical and technical requirements of the troops and an outstanding modernization potential, the “Parol” system is still in operation with the Russian Armed Forces.

In order to ensure the effectiveness of the system and tools of friend-or-foe identification in the estimated conditions of their combat use,

“Parol” system upgrade was launched in 1981. Upon completion of the works in 2006, the sys-tem and its tools were put into service with the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federa-tion. It was named “Strazh” (“Guardian”).

The “Strazh” system equipment was designed using the modern electronic component base. It has a high-performing specification, as well as the best-in-class weight-size and operational parameters.

Despite some conservatism due to the need to ensure continuity, the friend-or-foe identification system must adapt to changes in warfare methods, and should take into account the development of existing and the emergence of fundamentally new types of weapons, military and special-purpose equipment. The main factors determining the

need to improve the friend-or-foe identification system are the following:

♦ increasing requirements to the quality of solv-ing the identification tasks in more complex operational conditions;

♦ increasing capabilities of the enemy to counter the tools of the friend-or-foe identification system;

♦ continuous improvement of military and spe-cial-purpose equipment units with friend-or-foe identification systems, introduction of some changes in their placement order and integration with radio-electronic equipment;

♦ ensuring spoofing-resistant identification of military and special-purpose equipment pre-viously unequipped with friend-or-foe identi-fication systems;

♦ improved convenience of use and adherence to specified parameters of the identification tools in service.The solution to the tasks mentioned above

should ensure a proper increase in the target detection range and in the accuracy of deter-mining their coordinates, complexation and integration of the object’s electronic means, enhancing the information content of its elec-tronic means, including the possibility to obtain

Figure 2. UAV “Altair”

18



information about the attributes of the targets being monitored.

Over the recent years, the range of objects re-quiring friend-or-foe identification tools had to be extended due to the active development of mili-tary equipment, expansion of its capabilities and range of tasks. The list of such objects includes equipment of the armed forces and corps of all types, including the objects and units on the bat-tlefield, unmanned aerial vehicles of various types, as well as emerging ground-based and sea-based military robotic complexes.

In modern conditions, the battlefield iden-tification situation implies presence of a large number of simultaneously interacting objects of various types of armed forces and corps, which requires high accuracy in determining their coordinates. In addition, the identification pro-cess is carried out against the background of the earth’s surface in the conditions of reflections from the terrain and objects located on it. The armament systems involved in combat operations

are equipped with detection tools governed by different physical principles and varying in their range and accuracy of determining the target coordinates. Another distinct challenge is to ensure the guaranteed (spoofing-resistant) identi-fication of ground objects and units of the troops in the conditions of a high probability of the equipment seizure by the enemy.

Over the recent years, the ground-based and sea-based unmanned and robotic military sys-tems are being actively developed. They play an increasing role in determining the composition of prospective military forces. The expanding range of their tasks dictates the need to take measures to protect them against the “friendly fire”.

Particularly, such systems include unmanned and robotic packages that can perform com-bat functions (Figure 2). Their use of weapons necessitates solving the tasks of friend-or-foe identification, and it will become mandatory to place the friend-or-foe identification onboard of such systems.Figure 3. Antenna room

19



Notably, such friend-or-foe identification equipment will require some reduction in weight, size and energy consumption param-eters.

Despite the significant improvement in the information capabilities of the modern radio-electronic systems, they do not have enough own capacity to identify objects with the required accuracy. A special-purpose sys-tem of friend-or-foe identification has been and remains one of the most important means of information support for command and con-trol posts in terms of warfare organization and operations by our Armed Forces. Therefore, spe-cial attention is paid to the development of the friend-or-foe identification system in the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.

A critical improvement in specification pa-rameters can be achieved through the use of in-novative technologies, implementation of which will be the basis for developing friend-or-foe identification systems of the new generation to ensure high efficiency in difficult tactical situa-tions and conditions of enemy countermeasures. These systems will have information capabilities to interact with the troops, forces and weapons control systems in order to increase the situation-al awareness of commanders and headquarters at all levels.

With more than half a century of experience in developing systems and means of friend-or-foe identification, the Scientific Production Associa-tion RADIOELECTRONICS named after V.I.Shimko is now conducting modernization of the existing friend-or-foe identification system and develop-ment of identification means for new armaments to ensure identification systems performance in modern conditions.

Improving the friend-or-foe identification system development capabilities is provided by re-equipment and modernization of the existing process facilities, as well as by development of new industrial technologies within the framework of Federal Target Programs.

From 2012 to 2018, we established a state-of-the-art hi-tech process of production using numerical control machines, blank and thermal technology ensuring high productivity level. The press zone is fitted with new equipment; technical

refurbishment and reconstruction of the assembly lines have been carried out.

New equipment has been installed in the con-trol and test center, which allows extending the range of tests for exposure to climatic and me-chanical factors.

A modern automated measuring and computing complex has been developed for measuring radio-technical characteristics of antennas and phased antenna arrays in the frequency range of 0.5-12 GHz for receiving and transmitting lines (Figure 3).

The upgraded test equipment has been developed, certified and serially produced, which greatly simplifies the maintenance of aircraft, ship and ground interrogators, as well as aircraft and ship responders of “Parol” and “Strazh” friend- or-foe identification systems.

The equipment provides: ♦ fully automatic measurement of interrogators’

parameters; ♦ measurement of pulsed power, carrier fre-

quencies of transmitting devices, sensitivity and a dynamic range of receiving devices, intervals and parameters of video signals, as well as the generation of control request and response signals;

♦ operational control of the interrogator (responder) over the air, as well as reception and generation of interrogation (response) signals of all modes and communication lines of “Parol” and “Strazh” friend-or-foe identifica-tion systems. The Scientific Production Association RADIO-

ELECTRONICS named after V.I. Shimko is the lead-ing organization of the Russian Federation in the defence-critical area of developing the unified friend-or-foe identification system equipment. The Association employs qualified personnel and owns the required necessary scientific, technical and production base to meet the needs of the Armed Forces, working in cooperation with other enterprises of the Defence Industry of the Russian Federation.

We are also focused on development and pro-duction of national identification systems and tools in the interests of foreign customers according to their requirements. This area contributes to the expansion of the enterprise’s competencies.

20



According to the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, in 2017, the Ka-27M an-ti-submarine helicopter was ferried to the na-val aviation of the Russian Navy. Its heliborne equipment includes the Fazotron-NIIR Helicop-ter Adaptation (FHA) radar command and tactical system developed by Fazotron-NIIR and belong-ing to the Kopye-A family of airborne radars. The FHA-type system (in the export version – FHA01) provides a solution to a wide range of tasks that were previously unusual for airborne radars, but assigned to the anti-submarine helicopter and its crew.

Due to the modernization of avionics, the combat effectiveness of the Ka-27M helicopter has increased several times compared to the Ka-27.

All the technical innovations of our time have been applied in FHA. The new computing sys-tem composed of two parts – 181F4 and 501F2, two-channel receiving path and advanced data video display system at the navigator workstation, which replaced the analog tactical navigation dis-play system, have been developed.

It is installed on the Ka-27M helicopter based on a two-module principle: the first module is arranged in the lower nose of the fuselage, and the second one – in the middle part of the helicopter.

The unique feature of the FHA01 airborne radar, as a part of the Ka-27M helicopter radar command and tactical system, is the ability to solve survey and reconnaissance tasks in a cir-cular mode at long ranges in adverse marine

New Generation of Airborne Ship-Based Helicopter Radars

ELENA EREMINA,

Head of Division –

Chief Designer of

JSC Phazotron-NIIR

Corporation

Fig.1. Ka-27M Helicopter

21



climatic conditions, as well as the use of air cooling system.

The helicopter FHA, day and night, in simple and adverse weather conditions, allows you to solve the following tasks:

♦ generation of radar images of ground, includ-ing snow-covered, above-water underlying

surface in a circular mode with a surveillance radius of up to 250 km,

♦ search for mobile and fixed land and sea objects, ♦ simultaneous detection of coordinates and

motion parameters of radio contrast objects in the number of up to 10 without losing sur-veillance of the scanned area,

Fig.2. FHA02 Airborne All-

Round Looking Radar with

Slot Antenna Array

Fig.3. Airborne Fixed AESA

Radar

22



♦ air surveillance and determination of coordi-nates and motion parameters for up to 10 air objects,

♦ mapping the land and sea surface, including shorelines and surface objects, with high res-olution, detailed images in a given angular sector, and determining the linear dimensions of surface targets,

♦ detection of moisture targets, ♦ implementation of control over the appli-

cation of aviation weapons and expendable search equipment,

♦ implementation of information exchange with avionics.Currently, radio electronics field is rapidly

developing, and the technical performance of elements are improving. Fazotron-NIIR’s scien-tific and technical background for developing as-semblies, units, and airborne radar in general, as well as proper cooperation of all the specialists performing this process enabled to elaborate new versions of helicopter radars appearance similar to those installed on the Ka-27M helicopter. They will have lower weight and size parameters, in-creased reliability of the equipment and will al-low to introduce modern principles used to con-struct computing systems, provide replacement of the element base and implementation of new technologies.

At that, three types of architecture of the new Kopye-A radars are defined:

♦ FHA02 slot antenna array all-round looking radar system,

♦ FHA03 active electronically scanned array (AESA) all-round looking radar system in two modifications with electronic scanning (Modi-fication I) and mechanical scanning (Modifica-tion II) of the area.All of them are designed on the basis of a sin-

gle-module principle of deployment on board the aircraft, similar in terms of structure and composi-tion, and can be installed on board the helicopters and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).

The construction of a single-module radar system became possible after the development of new units and assemblies:

♦ 520F1 allows you to perform the functions of three units of the FHA (data processor 181F4, signal processor 501F2 and analog-to-digital converter),

♦ master unit that performs the functions of the master generator and synchronizer.At that, the technical performance of units and

their functionality have increased. The new system has a wider reception bandwidth, three indepen-dent receiving channels of radar signals with an increased processing frequency, a larger amount of RAM and a faster computer performance.

Fig.4. Airborne Movable

AESA Radar

23



In upgraded radars, the number of simulta-neously tracked targets (ground and air) without losing air surveillance increases to 20, the resolu-tion in mapping mode reaches 1m, it is possible to recognize the type of air target up to the class (turboprop aircraft, fighters, bombers and heavy transport aircraft, UAVs, helicopters, cruise mis-siles, surface-to-air and air-to-air missiles).

The unified all-round looking airborne radars developed by Fazotron-NIIR can be adapted for use on various aircrafts, including unmanned ones, with the ability to solve a wide range of tasks: naval and air military intelligence, ice reconnais-sance, search and rescue operations, and weath-er reconnaissance for civil, combat, and military transport aviation.

Performance FHA01 FHA02FHA03

Modification I Modification II

Air surveillance areas - by azimuth, deg- by elevation, deg

0…360±15

0…360±15

0…360±20

0…360±20

Air-to-air mode

DMAXof objects detection in free space with an effective scattering surface of more than 5 m2, not less than

75 km 75 km 85 km 85 km

Moisture targets detection range in the standard atmosphere, not less than 300 km

Air-to-surface mode

Resolution in high resolution mode 15 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m

Maximum detection range for targets of tank/surface target per 10m2 30/50 km 50/50 km 50/70 km 50/70 km

- railway bridge - 200 km 250 km 120 km

- missile boat 170 km 170 km 170 km 170 km

- destroyer 200 km 200 km 250 km 250 km

Weight, kg 200 140 200 150

Deployment two-module single-module

Mean time to failure, hours 200 300 500 500

FHA FAMILY RADARS SPECIF ICATION

Each of the airborne radars being modernized has its own advantages.

Products Advantages

FHA02

Low weightLow costLow power consumptionAntenna curtain resistant to mechanical impact

FHA03(Modification I)

No mechanical drivesHigh reliabilityHigh beam position rate of change

FHA03(Modification II)

Lower power consumption, weight, and cost compared to the FHA03 radar

24

i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h o u g h t

2 / 2 0 2 0R A D I O E L E C T R O N I C T E C H N O L O G Y

Natural Gas as Future Aviation Fuel

VALERY SOLOZOBOV,

Deputy General Director

for Design and R&D of

Tupolev PJSC

BOGDAN K AZARYAN,

Professor of the Academy

of Military Sciences,

Candidate of Military

Sciences

On January 18, 1989, Tu-155 experimental aircraft with the NK-89 engine set on its first liquefied natural gas fueled flight. During the tests, the aircraft flew to the Gas Congress in Nice and to Berlin. At the Prague airport, the aircraft was refueled with liquid gas by the regular Czech gas tanker. All these activities were part of the second implementation stage of the comprehensive research plan on the use of cryogenic fuel for aircraft engines, which was approved back in 1979 by the Commis-sion of the Presidium of the USSR Council of Ministers on military-industrial issues. Nowa-days, no simple and cheap technologies exist for liquefying hydrogen to be used as an energy carrier. Notably, liquid hydrogen is an environ-mentally friendly energy carrier, and we already know how to work with it safely. Its production in the required volume is associated with the prospective, so to say, excessive production of electricity, daily peaks and nightly drops in its consumption in different regions of the Earth.

The estimates of using liquefied natural gas and its most calorific component pure methane to achieve flight speeds up to Mach number 5, as well as propane-butane mixture, synthetic fuels,

methanol and other products obtained at CIAM, TsAGI, and Institutes of the Air Forces formed the basis for research and experimental plans under the common name “Holod”, which was approved by the Commission of the USSR Council of Minis-ters on military-industrial issues.

The prospects for cryogenic technologies had been seen beyond the aviation and rocket tech-nology field. In July 1984, the Council of Ministers of the USSR ordered to use such technologies in the ministries of gas, oil, automobile, shipbuil- ding, defence industries, railways, heavy, transport, chemical and oil engineering ministries, ministry of iron and steel industry.

Relying on the extensive experience in development and implementation of cryogenic technologies and equipment in our country, which by certain parameters exceeded global counter-parts. In 1985 the USSR State Committee on Science and Technology and the State Planning Committee of the USSR approved a comprehen-sive target program for research and design works in the field of production and use of liquefied natural gas. This program was given the state-run status, which predetermined the need to search for efficient methods for industrial production of

Photo 1. Experimental

Tu-155 aircraft

25



cryogenic fuels, develop prototypes and models of aircraft, gas-turbine and hypersonic ramjet en-gines powered by liquid hydrogen or natural gas.

Liquefied natural gas is produced through gas cooling, purification from admixtures and separa-tion into gas components using a simplified tech-nology which allows to achieve gas liquefaction rate of 20 thousand m3 within a maximum produc-tion area of 15 m2. During this period, a unique gas liquefaction plant developed by Valery Finko, the Russian physicist, who worked at the State Insti-tute of Applied Chemistry, was patented and manufactured at the Baltic Shipyard in St. Petersburg.

Some scientists considered Valery Finko plant operation principle to be contradictory to the clas-sical energy conservation law. But in spite of their opinion, even liquid helium was produced at this plant. The core part of the plant is a unique vor-tex cooler with an independent expansion of the two separated flows using “free of charge” high gas pressure in trunk lines which was previously wasted in the reduction gearboxes. The produced cold sequentially separated the gas fractions with different dew points.

The cryogenic properties and parameters of liquefied natural gas and its constituent meth-ane are quite moderate. A temperature increase causes all liquid hydrogen to instantaneously transition to the gas phase; conversely, for liq-uefied natural gas local heating, which is very common in technical units, is not critical. The boiling point of methane is -161.58 °C. At this temperature, no condensation or liquefaction of air-forming gases occurs in the gas mainlines or aircraft and engine fuel system components. These gases have boiling points at lower tem-peratures: oxygen – at -182.96°C, nitrogen – at -195.75°C, hydrogen – at -252.87°C.

Liquefied natural gas can be poured and stored in a tank made of aluminum alloys with minimal coefficients of thermal expansion, stress and deformation. These alloys have been developed under the supervision of the Academician Joseph Fridlyander. Thermal insulation was developed on the basis of polyurethane foam with an experimentally determined closed-cell struc-ture to exclude the penetration and subsequent freezing of air moisture causing material destruc-tion. The moisture protection technology was

institutionalized in the regulatory operational documentation in order to be used for the future Tu-156 aircraft and NK-89 engine.

It is necessary to mention two important fea-tures of the Tu-156 fuel system.

The first one is its capability to be fueled with either liquid gas or kerosene. And if the previous flight of the plane was performed on kerosene, then the fuel lines had to be cleaned of its resi-dues and purged with neutral gas (nitrogen).

The second important feature is the need to fill the NK-89 engine with gas in the amount exactly corresponding to the specified operation-al mode, to avoid discharging excess fuel into the atmosphere. The kerosene system regulator pump was used as the adjusting unit of the gas engine control program, whereas the fuel supply rate was regulated with the fuel pump drive from the turbine using an open circuit. Joint optimization and testing of the aircraft and engine integrally connected to the fuel system were carried using a tank simulator with booster pumps manufactured at the Tupolev Experimental Design Bureau.

When choosing technical solutions for the fuel system and the engine, the differences in the density, viscosity of the liquid and gaseous phases of natural gas, in the ignition and combustion temperatures, and in the air flow rates required for the jet thrust were taken into account. Such parameters as supply type, gasification, kinetics, environmental quality, efficiency of combustion and chemical reactions have an advantage over kerosene which requires spraying and forced mix-ing with a high pressure air flow.

The share of methane in natural gas of all gas fields is about 92 ± 6% in average. This gas has a lower combustion temperature, but its spe-cific combustion heat is 14% greater than that of aviation kerosene, and 2.4 times less than that of hydrogen only. These properties help reduce harmful atmospheric emissions by 5 .. . 6 times.

When using liquid natural gas or liquid hydro-gen, it is required to cool down the engines and fuel lines before startup and heat them after shut-ting them down. But in the case of gas, the time of this procedure is halved to only 10 minutes.

The density of natural gas vapors, unlike that of hydrogen, is higher than that of air. When dis-charged, these vapors will descend and concen-

26



trate at the level of equal densities of methane and air. Therefore, a three-day experimental check of changes in the pressure value of the gas being drained in the tank was carried out with opened and closed drainage. To avoid the condi-tions for generation of a dangerous gas-air mix-ture, heat exchangers were installed in the flight drain lines to heat the liquefied gas vapor, while all spaces where the gas could possibly flow were provided with ventilation.

For further large-scale use, especially in terms of safety, it was essential to assess the changes in the liquefied natural gas condition in tanks during flight and long stops, its impact on the engine and aircraft systems performance. It was found out that the stability of the thrust parameters can be maintained by reducing the methane share to 60–65%, with the share of nitrogen not exceeding 3%.

These differences of liquid hydrogen and liq-uid natural gas simplified the layout of gas tanks in the fuselage of the experimental Tu-156 air-craft. In addition, a technical solution has been developed for using the capacity of such fuel for cooling the blades of an engine turbine nozzle diaphragm in order to raise the temperature of gases prior to their entry to the turbine, which allows to reduce the specific fuel consumption.

In accordance with the technical rationale for the Tu-156 aircraft project, the Tupolev and Kuznetsov Design Bureaus have issued technical specifications for converting to liquid natural gas, safety regulations and proposals on upgrading and operating Tu-154 aircraft of the Ministry of Civil Aviation.

Chief Designers Nikolay Kuznetsov and Alexey Tupolev advanced the collaboration be-tween the Ministry of Motor Industry and the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and were instrumental to organization of theoreti-cal studies, design and experimental works. Kuznetsov believed that the development of a

“gas” airplane boiled down to the development of a “gas” engine, whereas Tupolev handled the project as the airplane designer or, in today’s vernacular, an integrator (project manager responsible for the entire scope of work).

Their commitment and unfaltering faith in the necessity of the project and its successful

outcome as the new engineering basis for real future vehicles empowered creativity and attracted bright and proactive people to their team. Many of the project members later became great leaders and scientists who successfully coped with new challenges.

The design and testing of aircraft engines and fuel systems of aircraft powerplants on liquid gas were conducted by the P. Baranov Central Insti-tute of Aviation Motors, Kuibyshev Scientific and Production Association “Trud”, and A. Tupolev Avia-tion Scientific and Technical Complex. The Central Special Design Bureau, now the Progress Rocket Space Center, participated in these research works.

All funds and resources required for research and experimental works were provided by the Ministry of Aviation Industry. To a large extent, it became possible due to the active role played in the project by Leonid Shkadov, one of the Dep-uty Ministers of the Aviation Industry. His autho- rity and competences allowed to solve project management and research tasks with due profes-sionalism.

Viktor Chernomyrdin, Chairman of Gazprom at that time, personally supervised the progress of works directly at the research-and-development facilities of the Tupolev Experimental Design Bureau in Zhukovsky. Bogdan Budzulyak, a mem-ber of the Gazprom Board and an outstanding Soviet scientist, was responsible for solving orga-nizational problems and issues concerning con-version of aviation and land transport to gas fuel. Vladimir Lopukhin, Minister of Fuel and Energy of the Russian Federation, provided great support to the project.

The results of this amicable collaboration were the following:

♦ Technical proposals for the project on development of an experimental Tu-156 aircraft, Chief Designer – Vladimir Andreev;

♦ Design project of the Tu-156 fuel system using both liquefied gas and aviation kero-sene, Chief Developer – Valentin Malyshev;

♦ NK-89 engine using LNG or kerosene, Chief Designer – Vladimir Orlov;

♦ Ground equipment complex for natural gas preparation and aircraft refueling, Deputy Head of the Flight Service of the Tupolev Company – Vyacheslav Borisov;

27



♦ Natural gas liquefaction facility and means of gas delivery to the airfields in Zhukovsky and Kuibyshev;

♦ Regulatory, technical, operational documenta-tion on the aircraft, engine, ground complex, technical specifications for liquefied natural gas, and safety regulations;

♦ Development of ground technical mainte-nance and support processes.The Tu-155 aircraft, which initially was

used in experiments and flights with liquid hydrogen, and then with the NK-89 engine on liquefied gas, has participated without inci-dents or near-misses in 27 test flights within its altitude and speed range. In addition, 12 flights were carried out during its trial operation along air routes with landing at airports located in Russia and abroad.

At that time, the State Planning Committee of the USSR developed a feasibility study on the re-equipment and operation of hundreds of gas-fueled aircraft of different types. This feasibility study was based on the scientific and tech-nical results and recommendations taking into account the volume of traffic on domestic aviation routes, the availability of the nearest gas sources, gas transportation capabilities, the cost of equip-ping liquefaction stations, as well as the required volumes of gas to provide to local industry enter-prises, land transport and utility organizations in the surrounding areas.

The Tupolev Design Bureau prepared techni-cal proposals for the project of a Tu-156 cargo- passenger aircraft with the possibility of its transformation into a passenger-type aircraft, a Tu-136 regional cargo-passenger aircraft with the TV7-117SF engines, and a Tu-330SPG cargo-

tanker aircraft, including the use of liquefied gas on a Tu-204 aircraft. Thus, to perform 7 flights per day from one airport, it is required to liquefy gas supplied via a pipeline in the amount of 12 to 15 tons of liquid gas per hour. It can be stored at large airports in tanks with a volume up to 2000 m3, and at small ones – in vertical or horizontal tanks of 100 – 250 m3.

The option of using natural gas to reduce costs and transportation fares is also relevant to the railway transportation system. Today, the Rus-sian Railways Company uses the mass-produced innovative gas-turbine locomotive GT1h-002, which was constructed at the Lyudinovsky Loco-motive Plant. Its gas-turbine unit with a capacity of 8500 kW was designed and manufactured by the Kuznetsov Design Bureau in Samara. 17 tons of liquefied natural gas are enough to run trains weighing up to 15 thousand tons over a dis-tance up to 700 km without refueling along non- electrified or insufficiently equipped northern lowland directions, and up to 9 thousand tons along the Baykal-Amur Railroad.

According to the results of the implemen-tation of the “Holod” programs and projects developed at the Tupolev and Kuznetsov Design Bureaus in 1994, the Government of the Russian Federation issued the Decree on the design of a Tu-156 cargo-passenger aircraft with the NK-89 engines powered by cryogenic gas.

Using natural gas as an aviation fuel remains a highly relevant and practicable solu-tion nowadays. According to the assessments of Gazprom experts, the infrastructure designed for implementation of this idea can be used to ensure aviation flights without significant addi-tional costs.

Figure 2. Computer

image of a Tu-330

cargo-passenger aircraft

28



The results of active research on alternative energy sources in the European Union, Japan, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Israel, China, India, and South-East Asia already allow de-signing space-based solar energy systems (Fig. 1).

Russian Technological University has proposed a variant of an aerospace solar power plant com-posed of a multi-module space segment (Fig. 1B), atmospheric intermediate accurate platforms at al-titudes of 20-30 km above the Earth, and ground-based energy reception points. Each module can accumulate and convert into laser radiation from 100 to 300 MW of solar energy, which is directed to one of the receiving stratospheric platforms.

PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR PANELS Rectennas or photovoltaic solar panels that

perform the function of receiving antennas and

radiation detectors are considered to be a key ele-ment in all space-based solar power plants projects. They are designed as panels composed of rectified antenna sensor arrays. In some cases, they can work together with solar energy film concentrators.

Considerable experience in the operation of space solar cells based on AlGaAs/GaAs, AlGaInP/GaAs/Ge and other heterostructures based on А3В5 compounds has shown their increased effi-ciency, higher values of specific energy consump-tion and radiation resistance compared to silicon batteries. Three-pass cascade photovoltaic con-verters of solar cells based on three p-n transi-tions connected in series in materials with differ-ent band gap widths in near-earth space provide a significant efficiency of more than 30%.

The spectral distribution of solar radiation outside the earth atmosphere is indicated by AM0,

Optical Rectennas in Aerospace and Energy Sectors

ALEX ANDER S. SIGOV,

President MIREA –

Russian Technological

University

VL ADIMIR F.

MAT YUCHIN,

Director of the Research

Center MIREA – Russian

Technological University

IGOR N. ABASHKOV,

Leading specialist in

International Technical

Problems of Solar

Aerospace Power Plant

Fig.1. Space solar power

plant projects: A – ALPHA

(USA); B – Modular

principle of building an

aerospace solar power

plant (MIREA – Russian

Technological University);

C – Sun Tower (Japan);

D – Space-Based-Solar-

Power.

29



and on the Earth surface, provided that the Sun is at the zenith, by AM1 (Fig. 2).

Further prospects for increasing efficiency are associated with the development of 4-and 5-step cascade photoelectronic converters. To obtain them, it is necessary to use high-performance pre-cision technological plants for growing epitaxial layers of semiconductors by joint pyrolysis, inter-action of various combinations of organometallic compounds and hydrides (MOS-hydride epitaxy), as well as modern planar technologies.

Quantum photoelectronic converters with an efficiency of more than 40% are planned to be created by forming multi-layer (dozens of layers) heterostructures, using nonlinear characteristics of metamaterials, and concentrating solar radia-tion to the level of “100-1000 Suns”.

An alternative direction in creating optical rectennas for solar space power plants is nanoan-tenna technologies for using the wave interaction of solar electromagnetic radiation with nano-structured media. Unlike rectennas with semicon-ductor photo converters, nanorectennas are based on the wave principles of receiving and convert-ing solar electromagnetic radiation into electric current. They contain the detectors for barrier devices with metal-insulator-metal contact type (MIM) or the like.

NANOANTENNA RECTENNASNanorectennas will be particularly effective

in the infrared and terahertz ranges at elevated ambient temperatures, where photo converters based on quantum principles are ineffective.

Detecting elements of nanorectennas can be formed on the basis of the film non-linear devic-es integrated in nanoantennae cells. Monatomic

layers of graphene with high conductivity, neces-sary nonlinear properties in the configuration of a geometric diode and capable of withstanding high current densities are promising for creating nanorectenna detection elements (Fig. 3). The Georgia Research Technology Institute (Atlanta, USA) has created nanorectennas with a light en-ergy conversion efficiency of 15%. In the future, the efficiency of nanorectennas is predicted to be up to 70-80%.

Optical rectannas are manufactured using nanostructures with finite size. Electrons in the metal react quickly to the electromagnetic field of solar radiation, creating an oscillating current or voltage between the antenna contacts. By fo-cusing an antenna of the required size on the Sun, you can create conditions for the resonance of electromagnetic waves of solar radiation and signal amplification. Under its influence, strong local electric field oscillations are created in the nanoantenna, affecting electromagnetic waves that pass along the metal-dielectric interface,

Fig. 2. Solar energy

spectrum intensity

distribution

Fig.3. Nanoantenna

rectennas: a – type

“butterfly”, b – helical

nanoantenna element of

rectenna ouf of graphene

on a dielectric substrate,

c – antenna matrix of

nanorectennas.

a b c

30



which are Surface plasmon polaritons. Their movement is limited in the direction perpendic-ular to the surface, and is considered as the flow of electromagnetic energy in the dielectric and the oscillation of electrons on the metal surface. Surface plasmon polaritons are reflected from the nanoboundaries of the surface along which they propagate. At a certain wavelength, the Surface plasmon polaritons resonance occurs. The ratio of the plasmon wavelength in graphene to the wavelength of light in free space is expressed by the equation

where λO is the wavelength of light in free space, α ≈ 1/137 is the constant of the thin-struc-ture layer, ε is the dielectric constant, EF is the Fermi level of graphene, ħω is the energy of the photon of light entering graphene (ωω ≈ 0.117 eV for IR wavelength of 10.6 µm), ε ≈ 1 in air, λPC /λО ≈ 2/137.

In this case, the ratio of the plasmon wave-length to the specific radiation wavelength must be L ≈ n/2 х λO/68.

MULTI-WALLED CARBON NANOTUBESMulti-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) of

optical rectenna serve as a tunnel diode electrode with high electron output performance and are simultaneously an optical antenna that receives fixed-frequency solar electromagnetic radiation.

For the production of optical rectennas based on MWCNT (Fig. 4), n-type silicon wafers with a resistivity of 0.001 – 0.005 ohms are applied by electron-beam evaporation to Ti, Al, and Fe cata-lyst layers with a thickness of 150, 10, and 3 nm. Ti forms an adhesive layer that connects the ma-trix to the silicon substrate. The Al layer holds and absorbs Fe nanoparticles on the substrate, form-ing nanostructures for the growth of carbon nano-tubes. Before applying the catalyst layers, half of the sample was covered with a 200 nm SiO2 layer to separate the sensing area from the active area of the diode.

Vertically combined MWCNT are grown by chemical vapor deposition at low pressure using a catalyst-Fe, Cu, Co (or other unnamed metals) controlled by Raman spectroscopy. The accuracy of compliance with the diameter of

Fig.4. Nanoantenna

developed by Georgia

Tech Research Institute

(Atlanta, USA)

31



8-10 nm nanotubes is +/- 0.3 nm. The spread in the thickness of the nanotubes within the ma-trix of 10 billion nanotubes does not exceed 1 nm. The catalyst nanoparticles should have the same size.

It is planned to produce optical rectennas using the technology of creating thin and ultra-thin layers of metals and dielectrics. Images of MWCNT scan-ning electron microscopy are shown in figure 5.

Despite the high accuracy of manufacturing graphene nanotubes, ultra thin layers of dielec-trics and optical rectenna metals, a conical elec-tric field on nanotubes with a diameter of 10 nm and 1.0-1.5 nm with multi-layer dielectrics MWCNT-Al2O3-ZrO2-Al2O3-ZrO2-Ag и MWCNT-Al2O3-HfO2-Al2O3-HfO2-Ag with different values of electronic affinity will be created in rectennas undulating electric field. This, as well as the need

to take into account the pondermotive force act-ing on bodies in an inhomogeneous oscillating electromagnetic field, which can lead to new physical effects, significantly complicates the calculation of the efficiency of optical rectennas in the quantum mode.

DIODES AND RECTENNA ON GRAPHENEGraphene is a two-dimensional (2D) material

made of carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice. Each atom has three strong σ bonds with the nearest neighboring carbon atoms and one π bond orient-ed beyond the 2D lattice plane.

The graphene lattice consists of two trian-gular structures formed by vectors a1 and a2. It is represented by the intertwining of two triangles in the crystal lattice (Fig. 6). The conduction band of graphene is created by the π zone.

a b c

Fig. 5. a – vertically

combined MWCNT layer;

b – cross section of the

interface of the Au/

MWCNT layer 200 nm

thick with tubes above the

“forest”; c – structure of

the “forest” treated with

plasma.

Fig.6. On the left is a

hexagonal graphene

lattice. On the right –

Brillouin zone (areas of

values of the wave vector

k, where the energy

of electrons changes

continuously, undergoing

a gap at the boundaries).

32



To establish the electronic structure of the zones or the energy-momentum ratio, a strong bond model is used, in which the electrons are strongly bound to their atoms, and interact with neighboring and next nearest neighboring car-bon atoms in a limited way. It is assumed that one electron contributes to the conductivity. The other three electrons that form the σ-zone do not contribute to the conductivity. The “jump” of π electrons occurs to the nearest atom or to the next nearest atom. In graphene, the upper π zone is the electron conduction band, and the lower π zone is the valence band of holes. The “jump” pa-rameters t1 and t2 characterize the ability of elec-trons to move to the nearest neighboring atom (in graphene, t1 ≈ 2.8 EV and t2 ≈ 0.1 EV). The zone structure of a single hexagonal ring is shown in figure 7.

In the neutral state, the Fermi level of an un-alloyed and defect-free ideal graphene is located exactly at the intersection of the valence band and the conduction band. In graphene, the speed of electrons and holes is extremely high, but 300 times less than the speed of photons.

The mobility of electrons in graphene at a temperature below 200º K is 200 000 cm2 in-1 sec-1. At temperatures above 200º K, electron

mobility drops to 40,000 cm2 in-1 sec-1 due to electron scattering by thermally created surface phonons on a SiO2 substrate.

The growth of manufactured tunnel diodes and optical rectennas occurs at a pressure of 1 kPa, a temperature of 850оС and is controlled by Raman spectroscopy. The carbon source is C2H2 gas. Al2O3. The Ti base layer holds Fe particles down on the substrate.

Doping, impurities, and defects in graphene create scattering centers and disrupt the sym-metry of the electron-hole pair, greatly chang-ing its crystal lattice. It reduces the mobility of electrons, and the length of their free path of electrons is reduced to several tens of nano-meters, which increases the width of the for-bidden zone. The properties of the substrate affect the electrophysical characteristics of the grown graphene, which is currently grown from the gas phase on copper plates and other substrates.

Development and production of optical rectennas using the technology of creating thin and ultra-thin layers of metals and dielectrics us-ing tunnel MDM diodes allows us to move to cre-ating rectennas using laser diodes for converting solar energy into laser radiation.

Fig.7. On the left – the

zone structure of a

single hexagonal ring,

on the right-the focus in

the center of the zone

structure, where the

electric neutrality point

and Dirac points coincide

(in ideal graphene).

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