indus waters across 50 years: a comparative · pdf filea comparative study of the management...

INDUS WATERS ACROSS 50 YEARS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES

OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN

ASMA YAQOOB

Introduction

This paper attempts to look into the achievements and failures of India

and Pakistan in utilising their respective share of water from the Indus Basin.

Studies show that India and Pakistan share lot of similarities and fewer

differences in the management of the Indus Basin waters. Comparing notes

identifies the need for Pakistan to learn from India in increasing water

productivity and developing hydroprojects’ potential on the one hand; while on

the other, it points to the need for Pakistan to take serious policy steps against

India’s drive to build numerous hydropower projects on its eastern tributaries of

the Indus Basin, which can cumulatively increase flood level in wet seasons and

decrease water volume in dry seasons downstream Pakistan. The present and

future challenge for both the countries is efficient utilisation of existing water

Asma Yaqoob is Research Analyst at the Institute of Regional Studies.

2

resources. While India needs to focus on the maintenance of existing water-

infrastructure and follow water-efficient practices, Pakistan must embark on

major investments in building water infrastructure besides maintaining the

existing one and adopting sustainable practices for water conservation.

A profile of the Indus Basin

Arising from the Tibetan Plateau in western China, the Indus River

travels northwest through the Himalayan valleys and after crossing into the

Kashmir region and traversing Pakistan, flows out into the Arabian Sea. The

principal rivers of the Indus system are snow-fed and their flow varies

seasonally and spatially.(1) Most of the Indus Basin lies in India and Pakistan,

and only about 13 per cent of its total catchment in Afghanistan and in China’s

autonomous region of Tibet.(2)

The Indus Waters Treaty, brokered by the World Bank in 1960, divides

the Indus Basin system between India and Pakistan by allocating three eastern

rivers of the basin, namely the Ravi, Beas and Sutlej to India and the three

western rivers — the Indus, Chenab and Jhelum — to Pakistan. The Treaty

obliges both India and Pakistan to not interfere in the waters of the rivers

allocated to the other side except for the limit specified(3) for Agricultural Use,

Domestic Use and Non-Consumptive Use. India was also given the right to

generate hydroelectricity on waters of the western rivers through run-of-the

river projects, i.e. without altering the flow of water. The same right has,

however, not been given to Pakistan on the eastern rivers.(4)

3

Table 1.1

Statistics for the Indus Basin

India Pakistan

Length 1,114 km 1, 708 miles

Basin area 321289 sq. km 252,638 miles2

Average annual flow 73.31 BCM 173.63 BCM

Live storage capacity 6.57 BCM 15 MAF

Utilizable surface water 46.0 BCM —

Basin Population in 2010 58.42 million 172 million

Per capita availability of water

2010

1255 CM 1038 CM

Sources (India): Central Water Commission, 2010(5)

Sources (Pakistan): WAPDA 2011,(6) Pakistan Economic Survey 2010-2011,(7)

Planning Commission.(8)

Note: BCM = Billion Cubic Meters, CM = Cubic Meters, MAF=Million Acres Feet

Eastern rivers of Indus Basin and India

Having a catchment area of 321289 sq km up to border, the Indus Basin

is one of the six major river basins of India.(9) It lies in the states of Himachal

Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and the disputed area of Jammu &

Kashmir.

Although water is a state subject in India and states have the exclusive

power to regulate their water supplies, irrigation and hydropower infrastructure,

the central government under the provision of “economic and social planning”

of the concurrent list has been proposing various reforms such as the

introduction of participatory management in irrigation and sponsoring projects

to utilize surface and groundwater more efficiently. A Model Bill to regulate

and control the development and management of ground water was formulated

4

in 2005, which led to the establishment of a groundwater authority under the

direct control of the government. In the recent past, the Indian Government

embarked upon major reforms in the water sector,(10) which are largely focused

on improving water efficiency in agriculture and building new power projects.

These reforms however lack aspects on maintenance of old and existing

infrastructure.

The present section deals with past achievements and failures of India in

managing its share of waters in the Indus Basin within two selected study areas:

irrigation and hydropower.

Achievements and failures

Irrigation

Immediately after independence from colonial rule and in the pre-Indus

Waters Treaty (IWT) period, India embarked upon various schemes to provide

irrigation to those areas previously uncovered by the British. This included

enlarging the capacity of the Sirhind Canal, and Upper Bari Doab Canal System

as well as construction of the Bist Doab Canal System on the Sutlej.(11) The

Ferozepur Feeder and head regulator of Rajasthan Feeder was completed during

1947-1960 along with the remodelling of the pre-1947 barrages of Ropar and

Madhopur. The Bhakra-Beas system was conceived as early as the late 1950s. It

consists of the Bhakra Dam constructed on the Sutlej River in the state of

Himachel Pradesh, Nangal Barrage constructed on the same river downstream

of Bhakra Dam in the state of Punjab and its canal system. Major part of the

canal system was operational before 1960 with the Bhakra Dam being completed

in 1963. This new system of Indus canals led to the growth of irrigated area in

the Indian part of the Indus Basin from 22.0 million hectares (ha) in 1947 to

55.0 million ha in 2000.(12) The Bhakra Dam alone added an irrigated area of

5

6.8 million hectares over 35 years. The production of rice and wheat in the

Bhakra command area in 1996-97 was eight times the 1960-61 figure.(13)

One of the biggest landmarks in Indus Basin irrigation achievements is

the Indira Gandhi Canal Project. Conceived as early as 1940 and previously

known as the Rajasthan Canal Project, it was reviewed in the post-IWT years.

The main objective of the project was to convert arid and semi-arid lands of

Rajasthan into cultivable area and to provide water for drinking and industrial

uses to the local people. Construction began in 1958 to provide 9.36 BCM of

water per year to the Indira Gandhi Canal (IGC) by building links between the

main canal starting from the Sutlej River in Punjab and a feeder canal on Harike

Barrage constructed at a point downstream the confluence of the Beas and Sutlej

rivers. The IGC project with a cultivable command area of 1.55m ha is India’s

largest irrigation and drinking water project to cater for the needs of five

districts in north-western Rajasthan.(14) The project is still under construction

creating further irrigation potential in the command areas.

In the immediate post-IWT period, the Indian government embarked

upon interlinking the eastern rivers — the Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, through canal

networking and diversion projects. The idea to transfer surplus water of the

Beas into the Sutlej led to the conception of Beas-Sutlej Link Project, the largest

tunnelling project in the country.(15)

Since 1960, three important storage dams have been built on the eastern

rivers of the Indus basin, namely the Bhakra dam on the Sutlej, the Beas (Pong)

dam on the Beas and the Thein (Ranjit Sagar) dam on the Ravi, with respective

gross storage capacities of 9340 million cum, 8570 million cum. and 3280

million cum.(16) Besides building these massive reservoirs, the Indian

government embarked upon modernization of canal systems and command area

6

development programme to enhance agriculture production in areas fed by the

Indus waters.

Irrigation water management in Indus Basin: Achievements and failures

Some of the prominent achievements of India in the irrigation sector of

the Indus-fed areas are:

• In the past decades, India has achieved a steady increase in

irrigation development through various major, medium and small

irrigation projects. Over the years, states in the Indus region

became the food baskets for other areas in India. Major area

under food grain in Haryana and Punjab is irrigated and these are

the highest water productivity states in India contributing to 72

per cent and 75 per cent of consumptive water use,

respectively.(17)

• Huge investments in canal networking and inter-basin transfer

projects resulted in the popular green revolution which

transformed India from a nation facing frequent famines in the

1950s and 60s to a self-sufficient and food exporting country.

• Irrigation development in poor rainfall areas especially in Punjab

and Haryana is supported by the vast network of power supply

and distribution networks. This allows farmers to use

groundwater in addition to canal water to grow crops throughout

the year.(18) Installation of diesel pumpsets and energised

tubewells remained the largest for these two states in the Indus

Basin. Moreover, Indian Punjab received 100 per cent rural

7

electrification which gave farmers reliable and fast access to

groundwater resources.(19)

• Indian experiences with Water User Associations (WUAs) are a

good example in participatory watershed management. Within

Rajasthan alone, there are 800 WUAs. Although these WUAs are

less effective in influencing equitable water distribution and

demand management, their positive role in cost recovery, system

maintenance and service quality cannot be denied.(20

However, India today has achieved the limits of developing its water

resources for irrigation purposes. Reliability on surface water in the Indus

region is difficult due to its dependency on seasonal rainfall and snowmelt. With

regard to groundwater resources, the scenario is bleak in the face of reports of

overexploitation by the agriculture sector of the region states. India is the

world’s largest user of groundwater in agriculture.(21) Haryana and Punjab have

exploited about 94 per cent of their ground water resources. This water stress

situation combined with low rainfall in the Indus basin region of India ranging

from 300 mm in Rajasthan to 800 mm in Haryana and falling water tables by

less than one metre to several metres/per year,(22) pose alarming threats to future

irrigation in the region. With reduced rainfall levels in the past years, there has

been a sharp rise in tubewell uses for irrigation across the Indus region,

exhausting the groundwater resources and putting the high-cost incurred canal

system in jeopardy.

Some of the major failures of the Indian government in irrigation water

management in the Indus Basin are listed below:

• As the country witnessed a swift increase in irrigation potential

across the years, a gap can be identified between the potential

8

created and utilised (Table 1.2) in the Basin states. Moreover,

wide discrepancies exist between huge water withdrawals (96%)

and actual water used for crop production (37%) in the region

(Table 1.3). The table shows that the irrigation sector accounts

for 96% of total water withdrawal and the actual consumptive use

for the crops is only 37%. This leaves a balance of 59%, which

could otherwise be saved by adopting water-efficient practices at

farm level. Unconcerned about this variance, the Indian

government plans to create additional irrigation potential in the

Eleventh Plan through major and medium irrigation projects(23)

rather than focusing on increasing the efficient utilisation of

existing water supply and irrigation potential created under the

previous five-year plans.

• Waterlogging and salinity issues have also been arising out of

mismanagement of water resources. For example, the command

areas irrigated under the famously thriving Indira Gandhi Canal

Project have witnessed an average rise of groundwater of 0.42

m/annum during the two-decade period observed from 1952 to

1972. Cultivation in about 4.4% of the area has been abandoned

due to waterlogging and salinity. One of the major reasons for

high rise in soil salinity and waterlogging is the absence of

drainage system in the IGCP region. Moreover, inconsistency

between large water releases and low irrigation usage is also

leading to water seepages and subsequent waterlogging.(24)

• Lack of enforcement of energy regulations is one of the leading

causes of the inconsistency pattern in water supply and demand

9

resulting in subsequent inefficient use of water. The Indian

government has failed to restrain farmers from digging more

bore-wells in spite of the existing laws.(25) Almost 75% of all

irrigated areas in Indian Punjab depend upon well and tubewell

irrigation.(26) According to V.R. Reddy, “since water rates are

charged in terms of area, crop and season (or combinations

thereof), they fail to create enough incentive for water use

efficiency. While water rates in groundwater areas are relatively

higher, they are also related to average pump costs rather than to

water productivity or economic value.”(27)

• The cropping pattern in the Basin states is largely responsible for

the current water depletion scenario. Over the past decades, the

pre-dominance of rice-wheat production in the Indus basin of

India, Punjab and Haryana in particular, has led to a reduction in

area under low-water requiring crops, resulting in high demand

for groundwater resources.(28) The overdrawal of water beyond

the recharge capacity of the aquifers is resulting in rapid fall of

subsoil water to dangerous levels.

10

Table 1.2

Achievements of Total Irrigation Potential Created and Utilised (Cumulative) by State [Taking Major, Medium and Minor Irrigation

Schemes into consideration] (Unit: '000 Hectare)

Sr. No.

State Haryana Himachal Pradesh

J & K Punjab Rajasthan

1. Ultimate Potential

4512 353 1358 5967 5128

Irrigation Potential created

3310.0 123.0 490.0 5426.0 3699.0 2. At the end of Sixth Plan 1980 - 85

Irrigation Potential Utilised

3106.0 110.0 439.0 5373.0 3488.0


3509.0 134.6 514.3 5596.7 4176.1 3. At the end of Seventh Plan 1985-90


3245.9 118.7 463.2 5505.4 3943.3


3559.5 149.6 521.6 5657.5 4387.7 4. At the end of Annual Plan 1990-92


3274.7 126.5 488.3 5547.2 4203.6


4392.2 209.1 539.3 9390.4 6545.5 5. At the end of VIII Plan 1992-97 Irrigation

Potential Utilised

4023.4 178.2 490.5 8700.1 5832.8


4539.1 230.1 620.1 8885.6 8678.1 6. At the end of IX Plan 1997-2002


4130.3 190.8 533.1 8286.8 6372.7


4669.2 263.1 770.0 9130.4 9235.6 7. At the end of 2002-07


4220.5 214.7 616.8 8505.3 6817.6

Source: Central Water Commission, India, 2010.(29)

11

Table 1.3

Water withdrawal and Usage Discrepancies for irrigation in Indus Basin (India)

Total¹ (BCM) 98 BCM

As % of potentially utilizable resources² 135 %

Share of irrigation 96 %

NET³ as % of irrigation withdrawal 37 %

Water withdrawal

Total (Mha) 11.6 Mha

Ground water share 58 % Gross irrigated area

Ground water abstraction ratio4 67 %

Source: R. M. Saleth, 2009.(30)

Notes:

¹Total includes withdrawals for irrigation, domestic and industrial sectors

²This also includes recycling

³NET is the net evapotranspiration of all irrigated crops 4It relates total groundwater withdrawals to the total groundwater availability through

natural recharge and return flows

Hydropower

The hydroelectric potential of the Indus Basin in the country as assessed

by the Central Electricity Authority of India is 19988.00 Megawatt (MW) with a

probable installed capacity of 33382.00 MW. The total number of identified

schemes in the Basin is 190, out of which 79 (see Annex 1) have been graded

under categories A, B, and C for priority purposes.(31)


India has achieved phenomenal progress in developing its hydropower

resources although huge gaps exist between demand and supply of power across

12

the country. The five rivers of the Indus Basin — the Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Chenab

and Jhelum — provide large hydropower resources to India while for the latter

two rivers, limits and conditions have been specified in the IWT. The Sutlej

River with an identified hydropower potential of 9443.75 MW is the largest

hydropower resource in the Indian part of Indus Basin. Five schemes on the

Sutlej are already in operation with a total installed capacity of 3150.25 MW.

Projects under execution or likely to be commissioned in the near future will

add another 1880.50 MW to the installed capacity. The remaining 4296 MW

potential is yet to be developed.(32) Similar is the case with other rivers in the

basin where a large number of major and medium hydropower schemes are

already in operation, some are under study and others awaiting approval for

execution (Table 1.4).

Table 1.4

Existing Hydropower projects in the Indus Basin (India)

Name of Sub-Basin Existing Hydropower Stations Total Installed

Capacity (MW)

Sutlej River Bhakra, Ganguwal, Kotla, AP Sahib, Sanjay Bhaba, Baspa, Naptha Jhakri and Ghanvi

3556.8

Beas River Pong, Dehar, Shannan, Mukerian, Malana, Gaj, Bassi, Larji, Baner, Binwa and Kahuli

2015.5

Ravi River Chamera I, Chamera II, Baira Siul, Sewa I, Ranjit Sagar and Upper Bari Doab Canal hydropower project

1738.35

Chenab River Baglihar, Salal, Dul Hasti, Chenani and Thirot 1565.14

Jhelum River Mohara, Gandharbal, Uri, Lower Jhelum and Upper Sindh Hydropower Projects 736.6

Source: Adapted from South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers and People.(33)

13

The development of hydropower potential in the Indus Basin has become

a priority for the Indian government over the past few decades as seen from

reports of large number of proposed schemes. In fact, the valleys of Ravi, Beas

and Sutlej have been saturated with hydel projects.(34) The large number of

proposed and installed hydropower stations in the Basin are, however,

generating below the installed capacities. According to South Asia Network on

Dams, Rivers and People “a downward trend (Figure 1.1) can be witnessed in

hydropower generation across the Basin tributaries including Sutlej, Beas, Ravi,

Chenab and Jhelum.”(35)

Figure 1.1

Source: South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers and People, 2010.(36)

The viability of under-construction and proposed hydropower projects is,

therefore, a big question mark in view of the diminishing performance of

existing hydropower projects in the Basin. This also nullifies Indian arguments

14

for the need to explore the untapped hydropower potential in the occupied

Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) region. The Indian government has long been

arguing that due to the limitations of the IWT regarding the Indian use of waters

of the Jhelum and Chenab, the occupied state of J&K has to suffer energy

shortages. Whereas the reality is that the performance of big hydropower

projects in India does not match with the energy demands. For example, the two

big hydropower projects in J&K – Salal 690 MW on the Chenab and Uri 480

MW on the Jhelum — have been generating much less power than existing

demand.(37) According to Central Electricity Regulatory Commission, the

Naptha Jhakri project (1500 MW) on the Sutlej River was not generating

peaking power while it could.(38)

Like irrigation, the hydropower projects of India in the Indus Basin

suffer from lack of maintenance. New developments in the hydropower sector

can only lead to success with an integrated policy formulation. At present, the

pace to build new hydropower projects in the Indus Basin seems to be driven by

environmental changes and altered river flows in the region. The feasibility of

these projects is, however, questionable in the long run, particularly for the

large ones. Furthermore, downstream environmental aspects of these projects

will only add to riparian tensions in South Asia. Pakistan has been raising

serious objections to India’s massive designs of control infrastructures on the

Jhelum and Chenab which may reduce the level of water for Pakistan’s own

hydropower projects and irrigation schemes.

According to a US Senate report, “India has 33 projects at various stages

of completion on the Indus River tributaries. While studies show that no single

dam can affect Pakistan’s waters but cumulative effects of these projects could

15

give India the ability to store enough water to limit the supply to Pakistan at

crucial moments in the growing season.”(39)

Western rivers of Indus Basin and Pakistan

The Indus River system is the single major water resource for Pakistan.

Depending heavily on seasonal rainfall and glacial melt for its average flow, the

Indus Basin system is the backbone of agrarian economy of Pakistan.

With 56% drainage area(40) of the Indus Basin within its boundaries,

Pakistan has been facing the challenge of water management with the

hydrological changes induced by infrastructure investments and climate

variations in the basin. Pakistan’s water resources are under serious stress from

population pressure, lack of storage capacities and inefficient water management

practices at the public level. The government of Pakistan has increasingly been

paying attention to various problems in the water sector over the recent years.

For example, increases in electricity tariffs and diesel prices during recent years

have discouraged farmers from high groundwater mining through electric and

diesel tubewells. However, there is a greater need to improve and modernise the

existing canal infrastructure in order to encourage conjunctive use of surface and

groundwater for agriculture.

Existing water resources can generate more than the required energy but

this requires infrastructure investment and technological applications. The

present challenge for Pakistan is to increase water sector efficiency at the public

level besides developing new projects.

The following section deals with the achievements and failures of

Pakistan in managing its share of waters in the Indus Basin within two selected

study areas: irrigation and hydropower.

16

Achievements and Failures

Irrigation

The process of water development for irrigation was given great

attention in the post-independence period. Besides other large-scale schemes to

interlink canal irrigation in the country, three major storage reservoirs, namely

Tarbela on the Indus, Mangla on the Jhelum and Chashma on the Indus, were

built (Table 1.5) to meet the requirements for those areas earlier irrigated from

supplies of the rivers that went to India under the Indus Waters Treaty (1960).

This vast irrigation system feeds more than 40 million acres of irrigated land in

Pakistan, a country with the highest irrigated and rain-fed land ratio in the

world.(41) The same system provides fresh water supply to a population of 172

million besides sharing aggregate energy at 33.07 per cent.(42)

Table 1.5

Salient Features of Irrigation Network on the Indus Basin (Pakistan)

Source: Shams ul Mulk, 2009.(43)

17

Irrigation water management in Indus Basin: Achievements and Failures

Some of the major achievements of Pakistan in the Indus Basin irrigation system

are reviewed:

• The Indus Basin infrastructure created in the latter half of the past

century is a valuable asset for Pakistan as it generates production

that accounts for 25 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP),

47 per cent of total employment, and more than 60 per cent of

annual national foreign exchange earnings.(44) The most vibrant

and result-producing era of agriculture was the introduction and

widespread adoption of green revolution technologies with increased

canal supplies after completion of the Mangla Dam and IBP works,

giving an average growth rate of 6.3% during 1965-70.(45)

• Massive investment in surface water infrastructure during the

post-independence period has resulted in positive economic

growth commonly known as green revolution of the 1960s. The

actual power and irrigation benefits from Tarbela only (1975-

1998) were 25 per cent higher than the appraisal estimates.(46)

• Agriculture is the largest user of water (97%) in Pakistan. In

order to achieve high production targets, the water sector has

increasingly been gaining government attention during the past

decades. A number of new projects financed by the government

are in the process of completion (Table 1.6), which will add to

government’s control over surface water supply to the command

areas.

• In order to control land salinisation, the government introduced

groundwater pumps in the 1960s installing 16,700 tubewells to

18

supply water to an area of 2.6 million ha under the Salinity

Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPs). Besides reducing

the risk of soil salinity, the SCARP programme increased

irrigation supplies to the existing public canal system through

groundwater discharge.(47)

• Other water management efforts include massive projects of

National Drainage Programme (NDP), left- and right-bank outfall

drains (LBOD and RBOD), National Watercourse Improvement

Programme, On-farm Water Management (OFWM) programme

for controlling seepage and improving water delivery to the lower

reaches, rehabilitation and modernization programme of barrages

and irrigation systems by the provinces, creation of provincial

irrigation and drainage authorities, water-user associations

(WUAs), farmer organizations (FOs) and area water boards

(AWBs). Water conservation technologies like bed-furrow, raised

beds, zero-tillage, laser land levelling and dry-seeding of rice

have been introduced but are going at a very limited scale.(48)

19

Table 1.6

Major Water Sector Projects under Completion

* Date of completion for all three canals is for phase-I, whereas cost is reflected for total project. Source: Pakistan Economic Survey 2010-2011.(49)

Some of the major failures of the Pakistan government in irrigation water

management in the Indus Basin are listed below:

• Throughout the post-independence period, massive attention has

been given to the engineering aspects of the irrigation system in

Pakistan with no concern for management and conservation of

water resources. Receiving only 250 millimetres (mm) of rainfall

per year—far less than the world average,(50) Pakistan is totally

dependent on the Indus Basin waters for irrigation and other

requirements. Lack of adaptation to seasonal variations in basin

flows is the major reason for the present water crisis in the

country. The problem gets further exacerbated with irregular

Indian withdrawal and release of water in the shared river bodies.

20

This happened in August-September 2008 when India withdrew

water from the Chenab to fill its Baglihar hydroelectric dam

reducing the river flows to as low as 25,000 cusecs on 4

September 2008.(51) This also happened recently when Indian

releases of excess Sutlej water during the monsoon rains have

inundated a large number of Pakistani villages and destroyed

hundreds of hectares of ready cropped area.

• The present irrigation system supplies about 11% less water than

actual crop requirements.(52) At the time of independence,

Pakistan had about 67 million acre feet (MAF) water available for

diversion, this figure increased to about 85 MAF by 1960. The

recent statistical data shows that the Indus and its tributaries

provide about 147 MAF during flood season, out of which nearly

106 MAF is diverted into canals and is available for irrigating

14.6 million hectares of land, while about 39 MAF of water

outflows into sea annually, whereas over 8.6 MAF is considered

evaporation and seepage losses in the river system. The storage

capacity of Pakistan’s major reservoirs — Tarbela, Mangla and

Chashma — has already declined to 12.6 MAF.(53)

• Official estimates for present irrigation efficiency range from 40

to 45 per cent only About 11 million hectares of arable land in

Pakistan is affected by waterlogging while over 3 million hectares

are affected by salinity.(54)

• In spite of the fact that total water availability has increased

within the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) over the past 15

years, the average water availability is continuously falling in

21

Pakistan due to limited storage capacity and water leakages from

canals. During the monsoon season of July-September 2010,

Pakistan received an increase of 81.6 per cent in actual rainfall

but the canal head withdrawals in Kharif (April-September 2010)

decreased by 21 per cent.(55)

• The government is all in favour of increasing the cultivated area

by building more storage reservoirs. The target set for 2025 is to

increase the cropped area to 31.83 million hectares.(56) Although

the focus should be on increasing water productivity per irrigated

unit.

• Pakistan’s irrigation system is suffering from major water losses

(Table 1.7) owing to lack of canal system maintenance, siltation

in the reservoirs, saline water areas and traditional cropping

patterns. Water seepages are one of the major reasons for low

crop yields against per unit of water withdrawal.

• Lack of demand management has led to the overexploitation of

water resources resulting in falling water tables, degraded

groundwater quality and poor yields. The area irrigated by

groundwater alone has increased from 2.7 million to 3.4 million

ha whereas the area irrigated by canal water alone has decreased

from 7.9 million to 6.9 million ha.(57) The declining use of

surface water across the country is challenging the efficacy of

world’s largest contiguous irrigated network.

22

Table 1.7

Seepage losses in Indus Basin Irrigation System

Source: Medium Term Development Framework 2005-2010.(58)

Hydropower

Hydropower (11 %) after gas (50%) and oil (30%) is the third largest

source of energy supply in the country.(59) Pakistan is endowed with hydropower

resources of about 60000 MW, almost all of which lie in the provinces of

Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan, Punjab, besides Azad Jammu & Kashmir

(AJ&K). The total installed capacity of hydropower projects in the country up

till 2010 is 6720 MW, out of which 3849 MW is in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, 1699

MW in Punjab, and 133 MW in the Gilgit-Baltistan, besides 1039 MW in

AJ&K. (Table 1.8).(60)

23

Table 1.8

Hydropower Resources of Pakistan

Source: Annual Report of Private Power and Infrastructure Board, 2011, Government of

Pakistan.


At the time of partition in 1947, Pakistan inherited only 60 MWs

hydropower capacity for its 31.5 million people. By 1958, this capacity was

increased to 119 MW. During the post-Indus Waters Treaty period, the 1000-

MW Mangla and 3478-MW Tarbela Hydropower Projects were completed to

meet the rising demand of the growing population.(61) At present, 35 major and

medium hydropower stations are operating in Punjab, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa,

Gilgit-Baltistan and AJ&K. Within Gilgit-Baltistan alone, there are 84 small

hydel projects with less than 2 MW capacity (see, Annex II).

24

The development of hydropower in the country has really helped in

increasing the rural electrification network in the country. Pakistan has installed

538 micro hydelpower plants (5-50 KW capacity) with a total capacity of 7.8

MWs resulting in electrification of 700,000 houses.(62) The Tarbela and Mangla

dams are a big success story in hydropower development of the country. These

dams are paying back three times their original cost by generating

hydroelectricity at less than Re1 per unit.(63) The Tarbela Dam has in fact

exceeded the predicted levels of power generation than the actual installed

capacity.(64)

A number of new hydropower projects have been under investigation

while others are in the process of construction. According to WAPDA reports,

there are more than 150 projects of 30039 MWs which are in the process of

implementation in the provinces of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab, Gilgit-

Baltistan, and AJ&K by public and private entities.(65)

Nearly all the operational projects in Pakistan are generating 2-30 MWs

hydropower except for three large (Mangla, Tarbela and Ghazi Barotha) and

three medium hydel stations (Warsak, Chashma and Malakand). These projects

are only providing 35% of current power generation.(66) It is in this scenario that

the country has not only been facing severe power shortages but the power rates

are getting higher day by day. The full development of country’s hydropower

potential requires huge infrastructure investment which depends upon effective

planning as well as external help.

Many of the existing hydropower projects are generating below their

installed capacity either owing to siltation problem in the reservoirs or due to

old canal infrastructure. The two operating hydropower stations – Nandipur and

Chichoki located at Upper Chenab Canal system — are reportedly generating

25

power less than their installed capacity.(67) Learning from these experiences, the

government is now building run-of-the-river projects to generate electricity

without any fear of sedimentation. The Chashma Hydelpower Station on the

Indus has already set the precedent for such projects in Pakistan.

Lots of problems regarding low level of hydropower generation than the

actual potential of the country can be identified at the top of which are the

financial constraints and administrative delays in commissioning the projects.

Most under-construction projects are reportedly behind their scheduled time of

completion. The feasibility studies and engineering design of the Neelum-Jhelum

Hydroelectric Project (NJHP) were completed in 1997 for a 969-MW project by

a Norwegian company.(68) Approved in 2002, the project was supposed to be

completed in eight years time but the unnecessary delays in commissioning the

project have not only increased the project cost but also provided India good

enough time to start the construction of its Kishanganga Hydropower Project on

the same river tributary. The NJHP has achieved only 13 per cent physical

progress,(69) whereas the Indian project is in its advanced stages.

Many other projects are also facing similar delays including the Khan

Khwar and the Duber Khwar in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province and Chakothi-

Hattian and Kohala power projects in AJ&K.(70)

Notes for comparison

In the post-IWT period, both India and Pakistan embarked upon projects

for interlinking rivers in their respective water bodies. They share lot of

similarities and fewer differences in the management of the Indus Basin waters

(Table 1.9). India built the gigantic Indira Gandhi Canal Project besides many

other reservoirs and Pakistan built numerous canals and barrages to interlink its

three western rivers. Massive investments in building water infrastructure led to

26

the growth of irrigated areas in the Indus Basin (Table 1.10) which subsequently

provided a boost to the agricultural economies of the two countries. Introduction

of tubewells and rural electrification encouraged the development of

groundwater resources in both the countries. This has accelerated crop outputs

in both India and Pakistan, the latter achieving high growth in terms of

agricultural produce but low water productivity as compared to India. The

overall water productivity was reported to be 0.5 kg/m3 for Pakistani Punjab and

1.0 kg/m3 for the Bhakra system of the Indian Punjab.(71)

Table 1.9

Comparison of irrigation and hydropower development in the Indus Basin

Randomly selected areas Pakistan India

Agriculture growth rates 1947-2002 3.58 % per

year

2.8 % per

year

Maintenance of water distribution network Low Low

Water productivity* Low High

Exploitation of groundwater resources High High

Nutrient-exhaustive cropping pattern High High

Environmental degradation in canal command areas High High

Pricing of groundwater(72) (diesel pumps, electric

tube-wells)

High High

Private-public participation in energy development

projects

Low High

Inequity in water distribution High High

Seepage losses High Low

*crop yields per cubic meter of water

Sources: World Bank,(73) V.R. Reddy,(74) Tushaar, et al,(75) R.S. Sidhu, and A.S. Bhullar(76)

27

Table 1.10

Growth of irrigated area in the Indus Basin in million ha Year India Pakistan

1947 22.0 (70)* 10.75 (68)

1950 22.0 (70) 9.45 (68)

1955 23.45 (70) 10.60 (68)

1960 26. 52 (70) 12.04(67)

1965 31.25 (70) 12.95 (56)

1970 32.30 (70) 14.30 (56)

1975 39.35 (69.7) 13.83 (54)

1985 41.77 (68.1) 15.76 (52)

1990 43.05 (65) 16.30 (69.7)

1995 53.0 (61.9) 17.20 (49.4)

2000 55.0 (60) 18.00 (47)

* Figures in parenthesis show the percentage of population engaged in agriculture.

Source: H. Fahlbusch et al.(77)

There has been a shift in both India and Pakistan from surface water uses

to groundwater uses during the recent decades. In spite of massive investments

by India and Pakistan in canal networking, irrigation at present in both the

countries relies heavily on tubewell and other water supply sources. Pure canal

irrigation is on decline whereas groundwater irrigation is increasing in both.

During the seven-year period between 1994 and 2001, India and Pakistan

together lost over 5.5 million ha of canal irrigated areas despite massive

investments in rehabilitation and new projects.(78) Reports show an

overexploitation of groundwater resources not only for irrigation but also for

domestic and industrial uses. Huge estimates exist for underground drilling and

28

tubewells by the population living in the Indus Basin. According to a study by

the University of Colorado, “the most intensively irrigated areas in northern

India, eastern Pakistan and parts of Bangladesh are losing groundwater at an

overall rate of 54 cubic kilometres per year.”(79) In future, therefore, water

could be a major limiting factor in sustaining agriculture production in India and

Pakistan.

Water productivity of the Indus region varies geographically and

seasonally. Past massive investments in infrastructure development by India is

one of the major reasons for comparatively better water productivity of irrigated

crops. The existing live storage capacity of Pakistan is only 9 per cent of its

average annual flow as compare to India which has 35 per cent (Table 1.11).

Similar is the case for the development of hydropower resources in India and

Pakistan as the former is performing better with regard to the existing power

generation capacity (Table 1.12). In recent decades, Pakistan has embarked

upon huge investments in water infrastructure development which will increase

water storage capacity besides generating cheap hydelpower. Sustained

institutional support is required in the hydropower sector of Pakistan to

encourage rapid development of hydelpower resources besides taking serious

policy steps against India’s drive to build numerous hydropower projects on the

eastern tributaries of Indus Basin, which can cumulatively increase flood level in

wet seasons and decrease water volume in dry seasons downstream Pakistan.

The present day challenge for both India and Pakistan is the proper utilisation of

existing water resources by adopting water conservation practices and efficient

irrigation methods.

29

Table 1.11

Average annual flow and storage capacity of Indus Basin rivers in India and Pakistan

River Basin

Catchment Area (1000 sq. km)

Length (km)

Average Annual Flow (MAF)

No. of Dams

Storage Capacity (MAF)

% age Storage

India* Sutlej-

Beas

- 1,440 32 5 11.32 35

Pakistan** Indus and

tributaries

1,166 2,880 145 3 13.64 9

Sources: *Central Electricity Authority, India 2011.(80)

**Medium-Term Development Framework 2005-2010.(81)

Table 1.12

Status of hydroelectric potential development in Indus Basin

Sources: *Central Electricity Authority, Government of India.(82)

Identified

capacity as per

assessment

Capacity

developed

Capacity

under

construction

Capacity

developed +

under

construction

Balance

potential

MW MW % MW

% MW % MW %

Indus*

(India)

3383

2

9929.

3

29.3

4

5431.

0

16.5 15360.

3

46.51 18471.

7

54.60

Indus**

(Pakista

n)

5979

6

6720 11.2

3

3003

9

50.23 36759 61.47 23037 38.53

** Private Power and Infrastructure Board, Government of Pakistan.(83)

30

Conclusion

This research study shows that during the past 50 years, Indus Basin

development has achieved substantial progress in both India and Pakistan within

the sectors of irrigation and hydropower generation. The two countries share

few differences and more similarities in the management of their respective

share of Indus Basin waters. Massive investments in building surface water

infrastructure and exploring groundwater development have resulted in high

production rates in India and Pakistan. However, the management of Basin

waters at present is posing a number of challenges including population

pressures, climate-induced changes in water flows, groundwater depletion and

old inefficient infrastructure for surface water supply. In the background of

growing water insecurity in the region, past achievements in water management

in the Basin cannot be called sustainable. Both countries need to adopt water-

efficient practices at the public level besides maintaining existing water

infrastructure.

31

Notes and References

1. “Indus River,” Encyclopedia Britannica Online, 2011.

<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286872/Indus-River>,

(accessed 29 June 2011).

2. “History of Multipurpose River Valley Project Development in Indus

Basin”, Bhakra Beas Management Board, Government of India.

<http://bbmb.gov.in/english/menu2.asp>, (accessed 30 June 2011).

3. “Annexure B and Annexure C”, Indus Waters Treaty, World Bank.

<http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSOUTHASIA/Resources/2234

97-105737253588/IndusWatersTreaty1960.pdf>, (accessed 7 July

2011).

4. See Articles II, III and IV, Text of Indus Waters Treaty, World Bank,

Ibid.

5. “Water and Related Statistics”, Water Planning and Project Wing,

Central Water Commission, Government of India, December 2010.

<http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/water%20and%20relat

ed%20statistics.pdf>, (accessed 8 July 2011).

6. “Projects for Friends of Democratic Pakistan”, Water and Power

Development Authority, Government of Pakistan, March 2011, p.2.

<http://www.wapda.gov.pk/pdf/BrochureFODPMarch2011.pdf>,

(accessed 11 August 2011).

7. Pakistan Economic Survey 2010-2011, Ministry of Finance, Government

of Pakistan. <http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey_1011.html>,

(accessed 10 August 2011).

8. “Medium-Term Development Framework, 2005-2010,” Planning

Commission, Government of Pakistan, 2005.

32

<http://www.planningcommission.gov.pk/mtdf/27-Water%20Sector/27-

Water%20Sector.pdf>, (accessed 10 August 2011).

9. “Water and Related Statistics”, op.cit., (ref.5).

10. Philippe Cullet and Joyeeta Gupta, “India: Evolution of Water Law and

Policy”, in Joseph W. Dellapenna and Joyeeta Gupta (eds.), The

Evolution of the Law and Politics of Water, (USA: Springer Academic

Publishers, 2009), pp.166, 169-171.

11. H. Fahlbusch, Bart Schultz, and C.D. Thatte, (eds) The Indus Basin:

History of Irrigation, Drainage and Flood Management, (New Delhi:

International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage; New Delhi, 2004),

p.25.

12. Ibid., pp.25-27, 132.

13. “Report on Economic Impact of Interlinking of Rivers Programme,”

National Council of Applied Economic Research, India, April 2008, p.

xiii. <http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/99.pdf>,

(accessed 11 July 2011).

14. “Water Resources Development Projects in Indus Basin,” Hydrology and

Water Resources Information System for India, National Institute of

Hydrology, Roorkee, India. <http://www.nih.ernet.in/rbis/india_

information/iNDUS_PROJECTS.htm>, (accessed 12 July 2011).

15. Water Resources Department, Government of Rajasthan, India.

<http://waterresources.rajasthan.gov.in/4bhakhra.htm#link>, (accessed

12 July 2011).

16. Ibid.

17. Bharat R. Sharma, Upali Amarasinghe and Cai Xueliang, “Assessing

and Improving Water Productivity in Conservation Agriculture Systems

33

in the Indus-Gangetic Basin,” paper presented at the 4th World Congress

on Conservation Agriculture-Innovations for Improving efficiency,

Equity and Environment, New Delhi, India, 4-7 February 2009.

<http://cpwfbfp.pbworks.com/f/WCCA-Paper_BRS_.pdf>, (accessed

20 July 2011).

18. G. Narendranath, Uma Shankari and Rajendra K. Reddy, “To Free or

Not to Free Power: Understanding the Context of Free Power to

Agriculture”, Economic and Political Weekly, Mumbai, 31 December

2005, p.5561.

19. Nirvikar Singh and Deepali S. Kohli, “The Green Revolution in Punjab,

India: The Economics of Technological Change”, Journal of Punjab

Studies, Special Number on Agriculture and Rural Economy of Indian

Punjab, Volume 12, Number 2, Fall 2005, pp.285-302.

20. R. M. Saleth and U.A. Amarasinghe, “Promoting Irrigation Demand

Management in India: Policy Options and Institutional Requirements”, in

R.M. Saleth, (ed.), Strategic Analyses of the National River Linking

Project (NRLP) of India, Series 3. Promoting Irrigation Demand

Management in India: Potentials, Problems and Prospects, (Colombo:

International Water Management Institute, 2009), pp. 14-15.

<http://nrlp.iwmi.org/PDocs/workshops/IWMI%20NRLP-Series%203-

Latest-final%20(27-03-2009).pdf>, (accessed 20 July 2011).

21. Tushaar Shah, “Indian Irrigation in transition”, paper presented at a

Workshop on Water Resources Management – Economic Instruments,

Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai, 23-24

January 2009. <http://www.igidr.ac.in/conf/water/Indian%

34

20Irrigation%20in%20Transition-Tushaar%20Shah.pdf>, (accessed 20

July 2011).

22. World Bank and the Government of India, Initiating and Sustaining

Water Sector Reforms: A Synthesis, (Washington and New Delhi: World

Bank publications and Allied Publishers, 1999), p.95.

23. “Annual Report 2009-2010”, Central Water Commission, Government

of India, p.11. <http://www.cwc.gov.in/main/downloads/Final%

20Annual%20Report%202009_10.pdf>, (accessed 20 July 2011).

24. Bharat R. Sharma, K.V.G.K. Rao and Govind Sharma, “Groundwater

Externalities of Large Surface Irrigation Transfers: Lessons from Indira

Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana, Rajasthan, India”, in R.M. Saleth, (ed.),

Strategic Analyses of the National River Linking Project (NRLP) of India

Series 5, op.cit., pp.107-122, (ref.20).

25. Narendranath et al., op.cit., (ref. 18), pp.5565-5566.

26. Tushaar Shah et al., “Is Irrigation water free: A Reality Check in the

Indo-Gangetic Basin,” World Development, Vol.37, Issue 2, February

2009, p.4.

27. V.R. Reddy, “Water pricing as a demand management option”, in

Saleth, (ed.), op.cit., (ref.20), p.146.

28. A. K. Jain, and Raj Kumar, “Water Management Issues – Punjab,

North-West India”, presented at Indo-US Workshop on Innovative E-

technologies for Distance Education and Extension/Outreach for

Efficient Water Management, 5-9 March 2007, ICRISAT,

Patancheru/Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India, p.1.

<http://akicb.ifas.ufl.edu/upload/proceedings/jainak_water_managemen

t.pdf>, (accessed 20 July 2011).

35

29. “Water and Related Statistics”, op.cit., (ref.9), p.134.

30. Saleth, op.cit., (ref.20).

31. “Hydro development Plan for 12th Five-Year Plan (2012-2017)”, Central

Electricity Authority- Hydro Planning and Investigation Division,

Government of India, September 2008, New Delhi.

<http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/hydro/hydro_develop_12th_plan.pdf>,


32. “Tidong-II Hydroelectric Project (70 MW) Himachal Pradesh,

Preliminary Feasibility Report”, Ministry of Power, Government of

India. <www.powermin.nic.in/whats_new/PFR/HP/Tidong-II.pdf>,


33. “Declining Generation of Big Hydropower Projects”, Dams, Rivers and

People, April-May 2010, Vol. 8, Issue 3-4, p. 7, South Asia Network on

Dams, Rivers and People (SANDRP), New Delhi.

<http://www.sandrp.in/drp/DRP_Apr_May-2010.pdf>, (accessed 2

August 2011).

34. “In the Name of Clean Energy – A report on Asian Development Bank

Financed Hydropower Projects in Himachal Pradesh”, May 2011, South

Asia Network on Dams, Rivers and People (SANDRP), Delhi, p.21.

<http://www.sandrp.in/hydropower>, (accessed 2 August 2011).

35. “Declining Generation of Big Hydropower Projects”, op.cit., (ref.33).

36. Ibid.

37. “Baglihar HEP: Some Crucial Facts”, South Asia Network on Dams,

Rivers and People (SANDRP), Delhi, May-June 2005, p. 2.

<www.sandrp.in/hydropower>, (accessed 3 July 2011).

36

38. Quoted in “Diminishing Performance of Big Hydro Projects in India”,

South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers and People (SANDRP), Delhi, 1

May, 2010. <www.sandrp.in/hydropower>, (accessed 3 July 2011).

39. “Avoiding Water Wars: Water Scarcity and Central Asia’s Growing

Importance for Stability in Afghanistan and Pakistan”, A Majority Staff

Report, Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate,

Washington, 112th Congress, First Session, 22 February 2011.

40. “Report of National Seminar on Public Private Partnership (PPP) Mode

of Financing & Implementation of Water Sector & Hydro Power Sector

Projects,” Project Management and Policy Implementation Unit

(PMPIU), Ministry of Water & Power, Islamabad, 5 January 2009.

41. Aijaz Nizamani, Fauzia Rauf and Abdul Hakeem Khoso, “Case Study:

Pakistan - Population and Water Resources”, in Alex de Sherbinin and

Victoria Dompka (eds.), Water and Population Dynamics: Case Studies

and Policy Implications, (Washington DC: American Association for the

Advancement of Science, 1998).

42. “Power Generation”, Water and Power Development Authority

(WAPDA), Government of Pakistan. <http://www.wapda.gov.pk/

htmls/pgeneration-hydelpower.asp>, (accessed 15 June 2011).

43. Shams ul Mulk, “Pakistan’s Water Economy, the Indus River System

and its Development Infrastructure, and the Relentless Struggle for

Sustainability”, in Michael Kugelman and Robert M. Hathaway (eds.),

Running on Empty: Pakistan’s Water Crisis, (Washington, D.C:

Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2009), p. 64.

44. Ibid.

37

45. Dr. Shahid Ahmed, National Seminar on “Water Conservation, Present

Situation and Future Strategy”, organized by Project Management &

Policy Implementation Unit (PMPIU) of the Ministry of Water & Power,

Government of Pakistan, p.50.

46. “Pakistan Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy Water

Economy: Running Dry”, 14 November 2005, World Bank Report.

<http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PAKISTANEXTN/Resources/PW

CAS-Full.pdf>, (accessed 10 August 2011).

47. Asad Sarwar Qureshi, Peter G. McCornick, A. Sarwar, Bharat R.

Sharma, “Challenges and Prospects of Sustainable Groundwater

Management in the Indus Basin, Pakistan”, Water Resource Management

online, Spring, 2009. <http://cpwfbfp.pbworks.com/f/Sutainable+

GW+Mgt_Indus_Pak.pdf>, (accessed 11 August 2011).

48. The Punjab province of Pakistan has introduced a crash programme of

providing 2500 laser land levellers at 50 per cent subsidy to farmers in

order to have at least one unit in each union council of the province.

Abdul Hakeem Khan, Peter McCornick and Asim Rauf Khan,

“Evolution of Managing Water for Agriculture in the Indus River

Basin”, Proceedings of the second International Forum on Water and

Food, (Volume 3), Addis Ababa, 10-14 November 2008, CPWF,

Colombo, p.3. <http://cpwfbfp.pbworks.com/f/Evolution+of+

agrl+water+mgt+in+IB.pdf>, (accessed 11 August 2011).

49. “Agriculture,” Pakistan Economic Survey, 2010-2011, Ministry of

Finance, Government of Pakistan, p.25.

38

50. Kaiser Bengali, “Water Management under Constraints: The Need for a

Paradigm Shift”, in Michael Kugelman and Robert M. Hathaway (ed.),

op.cit., (ref.43), p.45.

51. Under the Indus Waters Treaty 1960, the minimum flow of the Chenab

River has to be 55,000 cubic feet per second. Kaiser Bengali, ibid.,

pp.48-49.

52. “Pakistan Water Sector Strategy”, National Water Sector Profile,

Volume 5, October 2002, Ministry of Water and Power Office of the

Chief Engineering Advisor/Chairman Federal Flood Commission,

Islamabad. <http://cms.waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/vol5.pdf>, (accessed 15

June 2011).

53. Dr. S.M. Alam and Dr. M H. Naqvi, “Water scenario and Pakistan”,

Pakistan Economist, 19-25 May 2003.

<http://www.pakistaneconomist.com/pagesearch/Search-Engine2003/

S.E180.asp>, (accessed 15 June 2011).

54. Pakistan Economic Survey, 2010-2011, Ministry of Finance,

Government of Pakistan, pp.23, 213.

55. Ibid., p. 24.

56. “Pakistan Water Sector Strategy”, op.cit., (ref.52), p.71.

57. Qureshi et al., op.cit., (ref.47).

58. “Upgrading Physical Infrastructure,” Medium-Term Development

Framework 2005-2010, Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan.

<http://www.pc.gov.pk/mtdf.html>, (accessed 16 June 2011).

59. Hassan Abbas, “Pakistan 2020: A Vision for Building a Better Future,”

May 2011, Asia Society, Pakistan 2020 Study Group Report.

<http://asiasociety.org/Pakistan2020>, (accessed 4 July 2011).

39

60. “Hydropower Resources of Pakistan”, Annual Report of Private Power

and Infrastructure Board, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad, February

2011, pp.1-2.

61. Ibid., p. 1.

62. “Success Story”, Pakistan Council for Renewable Energy Technologies,

Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of Pakistan.

<http://www.pcret.gov.pk/>, (accessed 12 August 2011).

63. Arshad H. Abbasi, “Hydropower — clean energy”, Dawn, Islamabad, 4

March 2010.

64. “Dams and Development: A New Framework for Decision Making,”

Report of the World Commission on Dams, (United Kingdom: World

Commission on Dams, 2000), p.52. <http://www.unep.org/dams/

WCD/report/WCD_DAMS%20report.pdf>, (accessed 12 August

2011).

65. “Hydropower Resources of Pakistan,” op.cit., (ref.60).

66. Rest of the 65% power generation is from thermal, nuclear and rental

power sources, –“Projects for Friends of Democratic Pakistan,” Water

and Power Development Authority (WAPDA), Government of Pakistan,

March 2011. <http://www.wapda.gov.pk/pdf/

BrochureFODPMarch2011.pdf>, (accessed 11 August 2011).

67. Z. Majeed, Z. U. Hasan and A. Piracha, “Developing Hydropower

Schemes on Existing Irrigation Network: A Case Study of Upper Chenab

Canal System,” International River Basin Management Congress Book,

Chapter 2, No. 70, (Turkey: International Congress on River Basin

Management, 22-24 March 2007), p.884. <http://www.dsi.gov.tr/

check English version>, (accessed 11 August 2011).

40

68. WAPDA Annual Report 2009-2010, Water and Power Development

Authority, Government of Pakistan, p.74.

69. Ibid.

70. Arshad H. Abbasi, op cit., (ref.63).

71. Bharat R. Sharma, Upali A. Amarasinghe and Alok Sikka, “Indo-

Gangetic River Basins: Summary Situation Analysis”, International

Water Management Institute (IWMI), New Delhi Office, New Delhi,

India, 25 July 2008, p.4. <http://cpwfbfp.pbworks.com/f/

IGB_situation_analysis.PDF>, (accessed 15 July 2011).

72. While both countries have increased the power tariffs as an approach to

groundwater management, diesel pumps in operation in the Indus region

outstrip the electric ones.

73. “Better Management of Indus Basin Waters Strategic Issues and

Challenges”, The World Bank: Pakistan, 2006.

<http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPAKISTAN/Data%20and%20

Reference/20805819/Brief-Indus-Basin-Water.pdf>.

74. V.R. Reddy, “Water pricing as a demand management option,” in

Strategic Analyses of the National River Linking Project (NRLP) of India,

Series 3. Promoting irrigation demand management in India: Potentials,

problems and prospects (Colombo: International Water Management

Institute, 2009). <http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Other/PDF/

NRLP%20Proceeding-3.pdf>, (accessed 14 July 2011).

75. Tushaar Shah, Intizar Hussain, and Saeed ur Rehman, “Irrigation

Management in Pakistan and India: Comparing Notes on Institutions and

Policies”, Working Paper 4, Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water

41

Management Institute (IWMI), 2000. <http://ideas.repec.org/p/iwt/

worppr/h027088.html>, (accessed 12 July 2011).

76. R.S. Sidhu and A. Bhullar, “Patterns and Determinants of Agricultural

Growth in the Two Punjabs”, Economic and Political Weekly, Mumbai,

31 December 2005, Vol. XL No 53, pp.5620-5627.

77. H. Fahlbusch et al., op.cit, p.27, (ref.11).

78. Tushaar Shah, Taming the Anarchy: Groundwater Governance in South

Asia, (Washington D.C: The RFF Press, 2008).

<http://waterknowledgehub.iwmi.org/PDF/REFORM_OR_MORPH.pd

f>, (accessed 16 August 2011).

79. Quoted in M Rodell, I. Velicogna and J.S. Famiglietti, “Satellite-based

estimates of groundwater depletion in India”, Nature, Volume 460, Issue

7257, 13 August 2009. <http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090812/

pdf/460789a.pdf>, (accessed 16 August 2011).

80. “Status of hydroelectric potential development — Basin wise,” Central

Electricity Authority, Ministry of Power, Government of India.

<http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/hydro/he_potentialstatus_basin.pdf>,

(accessed 30 June 2011).

81. “Upgrading Physical Infrastructure,” Medium Term Development

Framework, op.cit., (ref.58).

82. “Status of hydroelectric potential development — Basin wise”, op.cit.,

(ref.80).

83. “Hydropower Resources of Pakistan”, op.cit., (ref.60).

42

Annex I

Proposed Hydropower Projects of India on Indus Basin

44

Source: Central Electricity Authority, Government of India

45

Annex II

Existing Hydropower Projects in Pakistan

46

Source: Annual Report – Private Power and Infrastructure Board, Government of

Pakistan, February 2011.

CONTENTS

Introduction 1 A profile of the Indus Basin 2 Eastern rivers of Indus Basin and India 3

Achievements and failures 4 Western rivers of Indus Basin and Pakistan 15

Achievements and Failures 16 Notes for comparison 25 Conclusion 30 Notes and references 31 Appendix 42

indus waters across 50 years: a comparative · pdf filea comparative study of the management...

Documents