inductive teaching models.doc

INDUCTIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES

1. Introduction

Approaches are learning theories which will be applied when delivering

subject matter. Methods are a set of teachers’ systemic action to reach

learning objectives in a limited time frame; it includes procedures

based on approaches. Techniques are the manipulation of the method

to optimize learning, for example, exercises in class pertaining to a

subject matter. A teacher, therefore, is free to construct a teaching

method based on an approach. The relationship between approaches,

methods and techniques delivers model. Models will explicate teaching

methods and strategies, which are in turn based on teaching

approaches (Kamaruddin, 1993).

The number of emerging models and the ones that have emerged is

uncountable. Each emerging new model either explores a new

approach or attempts a modification of the conventional ones as to

cater the uniqueness of individuals. Most importantly, any teaching

model should optimize learning experiences to the needs of each

learner by carefully exploring the learning problems and offering

tailored assistance.

Inductive teaching models are among one of the influential models that

have emerged and influenced the foundations of modern curriculum

theories (Krull, n.d.). There are many versions of inductive teaching

and learning strategies; however, the focus of this paper is on the

inductive teaching and learning strategies which are grounded on the

constructivist view of learning. This is a view which weights on

learners’ self-constructive comprehension of the lesson, and teacher’s

active and constructive guidance of the learners. In brief, the

procedures of teaching and learning of this view are modified to suit

style, circumstance, content and learning activities.

This paper, therefore, aims at describing three different models of

inductive teaching with the focus on teacher’s role, content types and

examples of lesson plan. A brief explanation on what is the

constructivist theory is also necessary.

2. Constructivist Theory

Learners are encouraged to discover facts and relationships for

themselves.

Bruner, 2001

A major theme in the theoretical framework of the constructivist theory

is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts

based upon their own knowledge. Constructivists emphasize on the

importance of learners’ reliance on cognitive structures to select and

transform information, construct hypotheses and make decisions.

Cognitive structures such as schema, mental models, attitudes and

scripts, which are related to behaviour, provide meaning and

organization to experiences and allow the individual to go beyond the

information given. However, this relationship is often complex, thus,

making it difficult to generalize result across tasks and domain

differences (Kearsley, 2003; Huitt, 1999). Consequently, the

constructivists suggest a behaviorally-oriented curriculum (Huitt, 1999)

in which knowledge and skills are taught inductively in a

constructivistically-oriented classroom (Huitt, 1999) that require

learners to carry out tasks implementing critical thinking.

According to the constructivists, as far as instruction is concerned,

teachers should encourage students to discover principles by

themselves. The teacher and learners should engage in an active

dialogue. The task of the teacher is to translate information to be learnt

into a format appropriate to the learners’ current state of

understanding; therefore, lesson plan should be organized in a manner

in which students could continually build upon what they have already

learnt.

One of the prominent founders of constructivist theory, James Bruner

provides the following principles of constructivistic learning:

1.Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and

contexts that make the student willing and able to learn

(readiness).

2.Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily

grasped by the student (spiral organization).

3.Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation

and/or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information

given).

(Kearsley, 2002; Huitt, 1999)

Thus, this shows that there should be an adequacy between learners’

acquisition of knowledge and skills, and the development of their

thinking skill. The constructivists propose three teaching models,

namely the Inductive Model, the Concept Attainment Model and the

Integrative Model.

3. The Inductive Model

The focal point of this model is the emphasis on learners’ active

involvement in the classroom activities and learners’ development of

critical thinking. One of the strategies to develop such environment is

the utilization of real examples that represent the content of the lesson

plan. Students, then, have to hypothesize on the theory based on the

presented examples. The effectiveness of this model depends on the

active role of the teacher in assisting students to process and

hypothesize the information from the examples and the active role of

learners to develop their critical thinking.

3.1 Teacher’s Role

In developing students’ critical thinking and motivation, teacher needs

to play an active role in encouraging students to interpret and explain

the information learned in the class, and teachers can focus this

through questioning. The importance of questioning is to ensure that

students keep their focus on the task, to increase students motivation,

and to establish students positive expectation on the lesson. On the

other hand, the quality of examples that teachers use and their ability

to guide students to analyze the information in the examples are also

essential to determine the success of the lesson. Furthermore, in the

Inductive Model, the teacher does not solely display or explain the

information to the students, rather the teacher guides them through

questioning.

3.2 Content Type

The focus of the Inductive Model is to assist students to build deep

understanding of specific topics or ideas. These specific topics as

promoted by the model can be categorized as follows:

Adopted from Eggen & Kauchak (1996). p.69

Concepts Relationships among Concepts

Principles Generalizations

Content Types

Academic Rule

3.2.1 Concepts

Concepts are classes or categories of ideas with common

characteristics. Concepts can be found in various areas of studies, such

as language, social sciences, science and mathematics. As such, the

Inductive Model can be utilized in art classes as well as science classes,

as long as the content of the lesson focuses on concepts. An essential

characteristic of concepts is its defining features. Concepts are also

best described through its characteristics, related concepts, examples

and definition. Therefore, the teacher should ensure that the examples

provided contain essential characteristics of the concept; and the

success of the lesson depends on how students are able to identify the

characteristics in the examples (Eggen & Kauchak, 1996; Newby,

2003). Examples of concepts are adjective, direct object and

protagonist in language arts, and democracy and social norm in social

sciences.

3.2.2 Relationships among Concepts

To understand or form ideas about concepts, we can also generalize its

common characteristics. This is because concepts possess common

patterns among its characteristics, which we tend to generalize. The

broad patterns can be categorized as principles, generalizations, and

academic rules (Eggen & Kauchak, 1996).

a) Principles

A principle of a concept is any relationship among concepts that

can be accepted as true or valid for all known cases. Principles

are mostly found in the sciences.

Examples of principles are:

• Change is inevitable.

• Like magnetic poles repel and unlike poles attract.

• The greater the unbalanced force on an object, the greater its

acceleration.

b) Generalizations

Generalizations of a concept are relationships between concepts

that describe patterns that have exceptions.

Examples of generalizations are:

• People immigrate for economic reasons.

• A diet high in saturated fat raises a person’s cholesterol level.

• Teachers increase achievement by calling on all students

equally.

c) Academic Rules

Academic rules are relationships between concepts arbitrarily

derived by people.

Examples of academic rules are:

• A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number and

gender.

• In English, an adjective precedes the noun it modifies.

• In rounding off a number, if the last digit is 5 or more, you

round up, and if it is 4 or less, you round down.

3.3 Planning the Lesson

There are three stages in implementing the Inductive Model, which

include the planning stage, the implementing stage and the evaluating

stage.

3.3.1 The Planning Stage

The planning process involves three essential steps, which are

identifying the topic, identifying the precise objective and selecting the

examples.

Process ObjectiveIdentification of Topic •To determine which model to use

•To decide exactly what students should know about the topic

Identification of precise objectives

•To teach directly toward the objectives•To guide teachers to select appropriate

examplesSelection of examples •To determine necessary characteristics of

concepts within the examples•To determine a successful delivery of the

content

In learning concepts, principles, and generalizations, examples are

critical teaching aids. Without examples, learning is often reduced to

mere memorization. Therefore, it is important to choose good

examples because good examples contain all of the information that

the students need to understand. The examples could be in any form,

as long as they contain all the necessary characteristics of the

concepts. However, it is noteworthy that the examples selected could

visualize the concepts. Among the forms of examples that can be used

are realia, pictures, models, case studies, simulation and role play.

3.3.2 The Implementing Stage

Implementing a lesson using the Inductive Model combines five

interrelated phases. The phases include the lesson introduction, the

open-ended phase, the convergent phase, the closure and the

application phase.

These five phases can be summarized into the following chart.

Students observe, describe and compare the examples –

(look for patterns and differences).

Students analyze – responding to open ended

questions from the teacher.

Teacher introduces the lesson

Teacher presents the examples

Teacher narrows downrange of students' answers.

Teacher leads students toverbally identify therelationship in the

characteristics.

Phase 2Open Ended

Phase

Phase 1Lesson

Introduction

Phase 3Convergent

Phase

Students identify the characteristics of the concept.

Students are able to state the meaning and characteristics

of the concept.

Phase 4Closure

Analyzing examples

Introduction

Constructing

meaning

Identifying concept

3.4 Assessing Student Learning

Through the application phase, students can be assessed either

through a seatwork assignment or homework assignment. The

assignments can be done in a variety of ways depending on the

teacher's creativity.

4. The Concept Attainment Model

Closely linked to the Inductive Model, the Concept Attainment Model

also suggests that learners construct their own comprehension of the

lesson. This model is designed to help students reinforce their

understanding of concepts and practice hypothesis testing. However, if

Inductive Model solely rely on the positive examples that represent the

concept, this model utilizes both the examples and non-examples to

illustrate the concepts. Since hypothesis testing is particularly common

to describe scientific method; therefore, it is useful in the sciences.

4.1 Teacher’s Role

Virtually, to create an environment where students can think and

hypothesize freely, the teacher acts as the main role by guiding

students throughout the process of learning. The model suggests, that

first, the teacher needs to encourage students to state their thinking in

the form of hypothesis. Since hypotheses can be argued, and later

accepted, rejected or modified; therefore, the teacher needs to direct

students’ thinking to come up with the rationale to their hypotheses. In

Students apply to realistic context

Phase 5Application

Phase

Assessment

essence, the teacher is not only motivating students to participate but

also to guide students towards hypothesizing their thoughts.

4.2 Content Types

The focus of the Concept Attainment Model in what types of content to

be delivered is similar to the Inductive Model but with minor difference.

There are two important differences between the two models.

First, the Inductive Model is designed to teach concepts,

principles, generalizations, or academic rules; however, the

Concept Attainment Model focuses exclusively on concepts.

Second, while the students of the Inductive Model can have zero

knowledge of the content, the Concept Attainment Model

requires that the students have some background knowlledge

with the concept.

These differences are as such because in the Concept Attainment

Model, students need to hypothesize, and in order to hypothesize,

background knowledge is needed.


Similarly to the Inductive Model, the Concept Attainment Model also

involves three stages in describing its lesson plan. The stages include

the planning stage, the implementing stage and the evaluating stage.


The planning process of the model also involves three essential stages.

Basically, the three stages are similar with the previous model, yet

individual differences have made them a little bit different from each

other. The stages are identifying the topic, identifying the clear goals

and selecting the examples.

Process ObjectiveIdentification of Topic •To determine which model to use

Identification of clear goals

•To achieve the objectives of the model •To determine development of students'

analytical thinking within the lesson plan•To ensure students' comprehension of the

conceptSelection of examples •To determine necessary illustration of

characteristics of the concept within the examples

•To determine a successful delivery of the content

The third step in the planning process is the selection of examples. This

model utilizes both the positive and negative examples in

demonstrating the characteristics of the concept. Thus, the selected

positive examples should contain and reflect the combination of the

essential characteristics, and none of the non-examples should contain

the same combination. The examples could be in any form as long as

the characteristics are reflective in the examples. Moreover, it is vital

that the form is the same for both the positive and negative examples.

Having selected the examples and non-examples, the final task in this

stage is to put the examples in sequence. It depends on the teacher on

how to arrange the sequence of the examples, but teachers have to

bear in mind the goal of developing students’ critical thinking. The

sequence should provide opportunities for students to develop their

analytical thinking. Thus, the organization of the examples should

depend on the goal of the lesson in developing students' analytical

thinking.


The implementation phase of the Concepts Attainment Model is flexible

and can be fun for both the teacher and the students. The process can

be presented as a type of game in which the students try to identify

the concept the teacher has in mind. This model occurs in four phases.

The phases include the presentation of examples, the analysis of

hypotheses, the closure and the application phase.

These four phases can be illustrated in the following chart.

During the second phase, the teacher encourages the students to

analyze hypotheses from the positive and negative examples. This

begins a cyclical process of data presentation and hypothesis

examination. In the process, it is wise to ask the students to explain

Students hypothesize

Students analyze previous hypothesis


Teacher leads students to state characteristics

and define concept

Students extend andgeneralize concept toadditional examples

Students provide theirown examples of concept

Teacher presents an example and a non-example

Students hypothesize

Teacher presents more examples

and non-examples

Phase 1Lesson

Introduction

Phase 2Analysis of Hypothesis

Phase 3Closure

Phase 4Application

Introduction

Analyzing exa

mples

Making

Hypothesi

s

Identifying concept

Assessment

why they accepted or rejected the hypothesis. The purpose is twofold.

First, it helps students develop their thinking skill by having them

articulate their own reasoning; and secondly, the explanation described

out loud will aid uniformity of understanding among the students.


There are many ways in which teachers can assess students’

understanding of the concept. This model proposes, that first, the

teacher can ask students to identify new examples of the concept. A

second form of measurement is to ask students to identify

characteristics of the concept, and thirdly relate them to other concept.

Finally, students can also be measured by asking to provide the

definition of the concept.

5. The Integrative Model

Similarly to the two previous models, the Integrative Model also aims at

developing students’ critical thinking and increasing students’

involvement in the activities. However, it is designed for a different

content of understanding. It focuses on developing students

understanding of organized bodies of knowledge. The Integrative Model

is designed to teach the combination of specific forms of concepts in

large, i.e., organized bodies of information.

5.1 The Teacher’s Role

Essentially, the teacher’s role in the Integrative Model is to help create

an environment in which students could participate freely. However,

the biggest task for the teacher is to maintain the flow of the

discussion runs smoothly, and the success of the lesson depends on

the quality of the representations the teachers use, and their ability to

guide the students’ analysis of the information.

5.2 Content Types

The focus of the Integrative Model is to develop students

understanding on the organized bodies of knowledge, which are topics

that combine facts, concepts, generalizations, and the relationships

among them. In the lesson, the goals of the model are to look for

patterns in the facts, concepts, and generalizations, to describe cause-

and-effect relationships among them, to hypothesize additional

possibilities, and to form broad generalizations that encompassed all of

the information. It does not aim to teach a single concept or

generalization but the relationships among the concepts. Examples of

topics that are organized bodies of knowledge include the following:

• A comparison of different biomes, and the life forms and

attributes of each life science.

• A comparison of well-balanced and poorly balanced meals and

the incorporation of the different food groups into each.

• A comparison of art forms in different historical periods.

Each of these topics combines facts, concepts, and generalizations,

and the teacher would want students to identify and understand

relationships among them in each other.


The Integrative Model’s lesson plan involves three stages. The stages

include the planning stage, the implementing stage and the evaluating

stage.


The planning process involves three basic stages.

Process Objective

Identification of TopicTo determine which model to useTo decide exactly what students should know about the topic

Specification of Goals To determine the teaching goals To guide teachers to select appropriate representations

Preparation of Representations

To prepare the matrix for the content of lesson

In the third phase, to present the information in a way that will allow

students to process, the data can be organized in the form of a

matrix/table. Since the topics often involve a comparison, the number

of ideas being compared depends on the developmental consideration

as well as the teacher’s goal.

Once the ideas and dimensions have been identified, the next step is to

gather the data that will appear in the matrix. Here, teachers have at

least three options.

• Assign individual or teams of students to gather the data that will

appear in each of the cells of the matrix.

• Have the students gather some of the data, and add some

additional data yourself.

• Prepare the entire matrix themselves.

In presenting and displaying the data that has been gathered, two

important factors should be considered. Firstly, it is important to

display the information in as factual manner as possible. This will

provide optimal opportunities for students to process information and

practice analytical and thinking skills. Secondly, an effective matrix

should include enough information, so that students can use data from

one part of the matrix as evidence for a conclusion about another part.


The Integrative Model is implemented in four closely related phases.

Phase 1 marks the point where students begin to analyze the

information in the matrix, and the teacher records the analysis on the

board. Writing students' hypotheses on the board provides a public

record of the process and reference points for students. The second

phase is the point where the students are immersed in the process of

critical thinking. Once students warm to the task, their analysis can

become quite advanced.

The questioning process in Phase 2 should be more demanding. Asking

students to explain why a certain similarity or difference exists notes

the shift from Phase 1 to Phase 2, and the thinking process on the part

of the students is significantly advanced.

Phase 3 often evolves directly from Phase 2. The process of

hypothesizing continues until opportunities for analysis have been

exhausted. The lesson is summarized and comes to a closure when

students derive one or more generalizations that serve to summarize

the content. Students will not automatically be good at making

summarizing statements, therefore, the teacher may initially have to

do a considerable amount of prompting.

These four phases can be illustrated in the following chart.


Teacher questions

Teacher records students'hypothesis on the board

Teacher presents the matrix

Students hypothesize and analyzefor similarities and differences

Intro

Describin

g, Comparin

g and Searching for Patterns

Explainin

g Similaritie

sand Differences

Phase 1

Phase 2


The Integrative Model proposes that a simple and effective way of

measuring students’ comprehension is through the pencil-and-paper

description of the topics studied. It could either be in the form of a test

or an assignment.

On the other hand, student thinking can be measured at two levels.

Firstly, by referring to the chart or matrix, students can provide

conclusions that are developed during the lesson; this can be done

orally or as a written assignment. At another level, the teacher could

prepare items similar to the illustration presented in the class, and

therefore, students need to analyze them.

6. Conclusion

Inductive reasoning is a branch of logic. In a valid inductive argument,

the conclusion is believed to be true on the basis of modifying,

rejecting and accepting hypotheses. One of the influential

constructivist’s curriculum developers, Hilda Taba, believes that

Students analyze the recordand teacher questions

Students hypothesize for morehypothesis and provide reasons

Teacher records, students analyze record and teacher questions

Students hypothesize the matrix andrecord for outcome

Students derive generalization and summarize content of analysis

Hypothesizing Outcome for

Different Condition

sTeacher records, students analyze record and teacher questions

Generalizing to form Relationship

Phase 3

Phase 4

students make generalizations only after data are organized and

exemplified (Hannah, n.d.). She believes that students can be led

toward making generalizations through concept development and

concept attainment strategies, and describes generalizing hypothesis

actively as a higher order of thinking. Hilda Taba (in Hannah, n.d.)

further utilizes three main assumptions in developing her teaching

model.

1.Thinking can be taught.

2.Thinking is an active transaction between the individual and

data.

3.Processes of thought evolve by a sequence that is “lawful.”

In short, the inductive teaching strategies are powerful tools that can

be utilized and manipulated by teachers in their classes. Since these

models cover contents that range from concept, relationship between

concepts to organized bodies of knowledge, these teaching strategies

can be used in pure sciences, social sciences and even art classes. It

focuses on developing students’ self-constructive of the understanding,

critical thinking and active participation in class as well as teacher’s

role as an active guidance.

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Armstrong, T. (1998). Hilda Taba: Inductive Thinking. [Online].

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June 8].

Eggen, P.D. & Kauchak, D.P. (1996). Strategies for Teachers

Teaching Content and Thinking Skills. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Hannah, L. (n.d.). Hilda Taba: The Inductive Model. [Online].

Available: http://imet.csus.edu/fundamentals/inductive/. [2003,

June 8].

Huitt, W. (1999). Constructivism. [Online]. Available:

http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/construct.html.

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Kamaruddin Hj. Husin. (1993). Perkaedahan Mengajar: Siri

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Theory into Practice Database. [Online]. Available:

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Krull, E. (n.d.). Hilda Taba. [Online]. Available:

http://www.ut.ee/curriculum/Sisu/artiklid/krull.ppt. [2003, June 8].

Newby, D. (2003). Strategies of Developing Concepts. [Online].

Available:

http://www.ut.ee/curriculum/Sisu/artiklid/krull.ppt

http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html

http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/construct.html

http://imet.csus.edu/fundamentals/inductive/

http://www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/Bruner.htm

http://ivc.uidaho.edu/mod/models/taba/index.html

http://www.ehhs.cmich.edu/~dnewby/conceptformation.htm.

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http://www.ehhs.cmich.edu/~dnewby/conceptformation.htm

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