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Indian Removal

Kathryn H. Braund

Auburn University

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Jackson’s Message on Indian Removal Indians able to “pursue happiness in

their own way” characterized as “fair exchange” will “save” the Indians to go to a new land to better oneself is a

normal event

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Jackson’s Message on Indian Removal end federal-state conflict open up large tracts of land for “civilized

population” national security protect Indians from “power of the

states”

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Indian Removal Act,1830 Pres. to set aside Indian territory on public

lands west of Miss. R. Exchange districts there for land occupied by

Indians in the east Grant tribes absolute ownership to new land

“forever” treat with tribes for rearrangement of

boundaries to effect removal

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Indian Removal Act, 1830 Property left behind by emigrating Indians to

be appraised and compensation paid grant emigrants “aid and assistance” on

journey and first year in new country protect emigrants from hostile western

Indians and other intruders continue power exercised over tribes by

Trade and Intercourse Acts

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Southeastern Removal Treaties (Civilized Tribes) 1830: Removal Act 1830: Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek

(Choctaw) 1832: Treaty of Pontotoc (Chickasaw) 1832: Treaty of Payne’s Landing

(Seminole) 1832: Treaty of Washington (Creek) 1835: Treaty of New Echota (Cherokee)

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Removal Treaties U.S. employed questionable methods

bribes negotiated w/ non-authorized chiefs Coercion In theory voluntary; reality very different.

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Background (1829-1832) states extends jurisdiction over

Choctaw destroy tribal sovereignty ban assemblies no right to vote, testify in court squatters on Ind. land not prosecuted Indians can’t mine gold (Georgia) No hunting, fishing, or trapping (Alabama)

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Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, 1830

First “land exchange” treaty under the Removal Act

U. S. Commissioners bribe chiefs with money and private reservations

Choctaw cede all land e. of Miss. R. (14 million acres) for 15 million in Ind. Terr.

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Choctaw Emigration Head west in fall 1830 no guides or support--very bad

experience freezing rain disease some flee to swamps to avoid removal 25% of tribe dies during process Miss. “reservations” not upheld

Fed. gov’t drafts regulations for both military and private contractors

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Chickasaw Indians 1832: Removal Treaty

sell their land for cash to use proceeds to buy land in Ind. Terr.

from Choctaws Choctaws not happy to have to give up

some of their territory Purchase not worked out until 1836-37 Easier emigration due to regulations

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Alabama and the Creeks Alabama expands jurisdiction over

Creek Nation (1832) Intruders pour into Creek lands--not

prosecuted 1832: Creeks cede territory east of

Miss. R.

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Creek Treaty of 1832 Each Creek free to emigrate or not, as

they see fit Allotments

Each head of family allowed 320 acres of private reserve

Chiefs get 640 acres (1 sq. mile) 6,557 family heads = 2,187,200 acres or

half the land owned by the tribe

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Allotments under 1832 TreatyContinued…

free to sell or stay if stay 5 years, deed to be given gov’t to keep out intruders for 5 years gov’t to pay cost of emigration and support

emigrants for 1 year in the west, also give rifle and ammo. and 1 blanket to each family

feds. agree to pay Creek Nat’l debt up to $100,000

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Treaty of 1832 Recap All Creek land divided into allotments to

be divided to heads of families Heads of families can sell or stay If sell and go west: gov’t support in the

west overall-one of the most advantageous

treaties for an Indian tribe

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Allotments = Problems Fraud and Coercion By 1834: est. 10,000 illegal settlers on

Creek lands Feds. do attempt to drive off intruders

as required by treaty Result: federal-state conflict

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Federal - State Conflict Hardiman Owen - assaults Indians Owen attempts to kill marshal sent to

arrest him and is killed by soldier Ala. grand jury indicts soldier for murder Francis Scott Key

U. S. won’t enforce treaty promises if state drops charges and tries to halt speculation

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Frauds Reserves: 6,557 heads of family

to sell: appear before agent w/witness, ID yourself, describe property & receive pmt.

speculators: hire imposters to “sell” land and real owners then driven off property

Scandal: of national proportions launches federal investigation

1836: 2nd Creek War

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Second Creek War (1836) Murders and depredations by Creeks

around Columbus and Tuskegee Result: Indians at war

federal fraud investigation halted General Thomas S. Jesup ordered to

subdue Creeks and remove them by force if necessary

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Creek “emigration” First Group

800 “hostile” warriors put in manacles and chains rest marched to Montgomery and put on boats 3000 left - 2400 reach Fort Gibson

Rest shipped out 1836-1837 under military escort via various land and water routes

Various disasters: winter travel, disease, explosion of steamboats

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Creek “Loyalty” Peace chiefs: ask for annuity pmts. to

help offset expense of emigration - refused

Feds. demand that Creek warriors assist in fight against Seminole to receive annuity and/or be allowed to retain allotments Menawa

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Seminole Btn. 1836 - 1843: approx. 4000 sent

west Some Seminoles: captured and some

surrender and some fight on and avoid removal

The Cherokees

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Worcester v. Georgia A victory? Divisions

Advocates of removal (Treaty Party) Major Ridge, John Ridge, Elias Boudinot

Removal opponents incl. most Cherokees, led by Chief John Ross

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Treaty of New Echota (1835) Ceded all Cherokee land east of the

Mississippi for $5 million Cherokee have two years to sell

improvements and move Pay relocation and one-year’s

subsistence expenses Citizenship/land for those adverse

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Cherokee Opposition Chief John Ross wages public relations

and legal campaign against treaty U.S. Senate ratifies treaty 1836

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Forced Removal U.S. Army sent to round up and deport

all Cherokee people when treaty deadline arrives Military posts/camps established Most walk Land and water routes

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Cherokee Land Cessions

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Cherokee Removal Routes

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Those Who Remain Some flee to inaccessible places

Choctaw - Philadelphia Cherokee - Eastern Band - Smoky Mts. Poarch Creeks Seminole

Some become “white people” Weatherford and family

Some: “slaves”

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Emigration: A Brutal Experience Choctaw: unprepared and under funded Creeks (war in 1836) Cherokee: Trail of Tears Seminole: fight

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Removal-Discussion Questions Were the assumptions about Indians

valid? Was removal “ethnic cleansing”? Was it constitutional? Was it in the best American tradition? What were the other options?

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Removal-Discussion Questions Indians divided over the proper course.

Put yourself in their shoes. What do you believe was the best option for Indians in the 1830s?

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Removal-Discussion Questions Wallace: “The U.S. acquired millions of

acres of fertile Southern land, which it sold at little or no profit to speculators and settlers, thereby in effect subsidizing the expansion of the cotton industry and the slave system along with it.” Do you agree?

Web Resources Choctaw Removal Chickasaw Removal Creek Removal Cherokee Removal Encyclopedia of Alabama New Georgia Encyclopedia Andrew Jackson (PBS/KCET)

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