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Ecological Engineering 35 (2009) 1249–1254

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecological Engineering

journa l homepage: www.e lsev ier .com/ locate /eco leng

n situ removal of contaminated suspended solids from a pond by filtration

omohiro Inouea, Masaharu Fukueb, Catherine N. Mulligana,∗, Koji Ueharac

Department of Building, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Boulevard West, Montreal, H3G 1M8, CanadaDepartment of Marine Civil Engineering, Tokai University, 3-20-1 Orido, Shimizu-ku, Shizuoka 424-8610, JapanSoil Improvement Division, Japan Industrial Land Development Co. Ltd., 3-8-15 Kaigan, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 108-8432, Japan

r t i c l e i n f o

rticle history:eceived 31 October 2008eceived in revised form 3 April 2009ccepted 19 May 2009

a b s t r a c t

Suspended solids (SS) which have been discharged into ponds, lakes, and enclosed sea areas from shoresand rivers absorb various substances such as heavy metals and nutrients. In this study, a small upwardfiltration system was developed to remove contaminated SS from the water. The system consisted of amain body with a flotation device, three pumps, two float sensors, solar panels and batteries. The filter

eywords:uspended solidsiltrationeavy metalseotextile

medium consisted of a nonwoven geotextile with a thickness of 5 mm. The pilot experiment was carriedout in Shimizu Utozaka pond in Japan. SS, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total phosphorus (T-P)removal efficiencies of 88.5%, 56.5% and 64.2% were obtained, respectively. In addition, the estimation ofpollutant removal was determined from the amount of removed SS. This calculation enables not only thedesign of filtration systems for future individual cases, but also quantitative evaluation for the effect of

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restoration.

. Introduction

Various substances have been discharged into enclosed waterreas such as lakes, ponds, and the enclosed sea areas from shoresnd rivers by natural and human activities. Suspended solids (SS)onsisting of inorganic and organic substances have been dis-harged into water areas. It was reported by Hoshika et al. (1996)hat the amount of SS discharged was over 200,000 tons during theummer in Osaka Bay in Japan. In addition, the amount of organicarticles in the SS was approximately 150,000 tons (Hoshika etl., 1996). These SS which exist in the water cause a decrease inransparency and a reduction of dissolved oxygen. The reduction ofissolved oxygen in the bottom water and the sediment causes thenaerobic condition and results in the elution of reduction productsuch as heavy metals and nutrients from the sediment. Nutrienteaching from sediments can lead to eutrophication in the water.

Eutrophication is one of the biggest environmental problemsn enclosed water areas. It was noted by the World Health

rganization (1999) that in the Asia Pacific Region, 54% of lakesre eutrophic. The proportions for Europe, Africa, North Americand South America are 53%, 28%, 48% and 41%, respectively. Thus,utrophication is a common and serious problem around the world.

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 514 848 2424x7925; fax: +1 514 848 7965.E-mail addresses: celsior412000@yahoo.co.jp (T. Inoue), fukue@scc.u-tokai.ac.jp

M. Fukue), mulligan@civil.concordia.ca (C.N. Mulligan), k uehara@kokusou.co.jpK. Uehara).

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925-8574/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.oi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2009.05.006

© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

lgal blooms are also important problems for the environment innclosed water areas (Codd et al., 2005). For example, cyanobac-eria (blue-green algae) which are found growing in lakes, ponds,nd water reservoirs are known to produce toxins frequently (Codd,996; WHO, 1999; Fleming et al., 2002). The cyanobacterial tox-ns can cause the death of aquatic biota and also can harm humanealth through the intake of drinking water (Bell and Codd, 1994;odd et al., 1997; WHO, 1999; Codd, 2000).

There are currently not many treatment methods for recre-tional waters and the existing methods for algae control have notroven to be effective and may not follow the principles of ecologi-al engineering and restoration. Ludwig et al. (2006) provided a listf eight principles as a framework for river cleanup. Among themre: do not harm, manage adaptively, use sound management andccommodate human prosperity.

Mats of filamentous algae may be removed with a rake, screenire, or a similar device, but tend to grow back as fast as they areulled out. Addition of chemicals such as copper sulfate reduceshe algae but should be used with caution with regards to domes-ic water, fish, swimming and irrigation. Existing in situ methodsuch as precipitation of phosphorus have not been successfulWHO, 1999). A biological control such as the introduction of non-ndigenous plants may introduce more problems than the original

est. Wetland treatments have been used for the removal of nutri-nts from eutrophic water (Coveney et al., 2002) but their efficiencyas not been proven for (phosphorous) P removal. Barley strawas been tested (Welch et al., 1990) for the control of planktonicnd filamentous algae but results are very mixed, and no method

1250 T. Inoue et al. / Ecological Engineering 35 (2009) 1249–1254

of the

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as shown capacity to totally eliminate the problem. New devel-pments such as the introduction of ultrasonic devices (LG Sonic)estroy algae cells but do not eliminate nutrients which will leado future growth of cyanobacteria. The importance of the improved

anagement of water quality for control of cyanobacterial bloomsnd toxins was reviewed by Codd (2000).

On the other hand, SS can influence water pollution suchs reduction of dissolved oxygen, eutrophication and algaelooms, and thus are important factors regarding water quality.S also adsorb various substances such as heavy metals, poly-yclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), bacteria and nutrients, etc.,ecause of surface characteristics of SS (Takeuchi and Hata, 1985;aithiyanathan et al., 1993; Eguchi and Kawai, 1992; Contado et al.,003; Sato et al., 2006; Umbuzeiro et al., 2006). Thus, SS exist inhe water as contaminated SS, and by sedimentation, they becomeontaminated sediments. Therefore, to improve the water quality,emoval of the SS is required.

One of the available techniques for removal of SS in the waterncludes filtration. An experiment was performed in Kasaoka Bay inapan by using a purification vessel which contained 38 sand filternits with a total area of 205 m2 (Fukue et al., 2004). The resultshowed that the SS were reduced from 30 to 2 mg/L or less.

For easier maintenance, materials other than sand needed toe examined. Geosynthetics are thin polymeric materials that areidely used in geotechnical, environmental and hydraulic applica-

ions (Bouazza et al., 2006). A geotextile is a geosynthetic fabricatedo be permeable and can be classified by the way they are man-factured as either woven or nonwoven (LaGrega et al., 2001).he nonwoven geotextiles are felt like materials which are formedrom filaments or short fibers, arranged in an oriented or ran-om pattern, and bonded together into a planar structure and

o not have any visible thread pattern (Giroud, 1984; Koerner,994). The nonwoven geotextiles are extensively used for drainagend filtration, protection and separation (Bouazza et al., 2006),ecause they are easier to handle in comparison to aggregate mate-ials.

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pilot purification system.

The objective of this study was to develop a small upward fil-ration system which will not harm the environment to removeontaminated organic SS from surface water such as lakes, pondsnd enclosed sea areas. Renewable energy in the form of solarnergy is used to power the unit. No chemicals or other materi-ls are added and only the algae and adsorbed materials on thelgae are removed. Pilot tests with geotextiles were performed tovaluate this technique in a small pond in Japan.

. Materials and methods

.1. Filtration system

In this study, a small upward filtration system was developedo remove contaminated SS, as shown in Fig. 1. The system con-isted of a main body with a flotation device, three pumps, twooat sensors, solar panels (MSK Co., LPS125-180JH) and batter-

es (GCYUASA Co). The dimensions of the panel and battery were580 mm × 802 mm × 50 mm and 282 mm × 518 mm × 276 mm,espectively (in length by width by thickness). The electric capac-ty supplied by the panels was 24 V, 180 W, and 5.05 A. Threeumps were operated continuously with the batteries that could beharged during the daytime with two solar panels, and were usedor upward and downward water flows, and for vacuuming the SShat accumulated on the bottom of the main body, respectively. Fil-ration was achieved by drawing water with a pump, as shown inig. 1. The cross-sectional area of the small unit was 0.126 m2. It isossible to easily move the system to any area where the treatment

s required.

.2. Filter medium

In this study, a nonwoven geotextile which was supplied bysahi Kasei Geotech was used as a filter medium. The thicknessf the filter was 1.0 mm, the initial coefficient of permeability was.74 × 10−3 m/s, respectively. The O95 of the filter that is defined as

T. Inoue et al. / Ecological Engineering 35 (2009) 1249–1254 1251

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Fig. 2. Experimental site of Shimizu Utozaka pond and sampling sites.

he pore size at which 95% of the pores are smaller than that sizeChristopher and Fischer, 1992) was 0.12 mm, and the peak valuef the opening size distribution was 0.103–0.126 mm, respectively.he pore size was measured by the bubble point method (ASTM,991). In this study, a stack of five filters was used as the filteredium after preliminary tests with fewer filters.

.3. Experimental site

The experiment was performed in Shimizu Utozaka pond inhizuoka City, in Japan. Shimizu Utozaka pond is a small pond withcircumference and water volume of approximately 130 m and

000 m3, respectively, as shown in Fig. 2. Table 1 shows that thennual average of water quality and physical and chemical proper-ies of SS in the Shimizu Utozaka pond. Nutrients of high levels haveeen discharged into the Shimizu Utozaka pond from St.2 in Fig. 2s inlet water. In addition, organic matter such as bread and snackshat people gave as food to the fish and waterfowl in the Shimizutozaka pond have accumulated in the water.

As shown in Table 1, the annual average of chemical oxygenemand (COD) concentration in the Shimizu Utozaka pond was0.2 mg/L. The Japanese standards for COD at fisheries define Classwater as COD of 2 mg/L or less, Class 2 water as 2–3 mg/L, and

lass 3 water as for 3–8 mg/L. The COD concentration exceededhe Japanese guidelines. Thus, algae can be found in the Shimizu

tozaka pond throughout the year.

Fig. 3 shows the grain size distribution curve and scanning elec-ron microscope (SEM) micrograph of SS from Shimizu Utozakaond. The grain size analysis of the SS was performed using the laser

able 1ater quality and physical and chemical properties of SS in the Shimizu Utozaka

ond.

ite St. 1 St. 2

ater qualitySS (mg/L) 21.9 3.9COD (mg/L) 10.22 2.33T-P (mg/L) 0.19 0.15P (mg/L) 0.02 0.09T-N (mg/L) 2.9 4.6

S propertiesParticle density (g/cm3) 1.76Grain size distribution

Sand (%) 0Silt (%) 64.4Clay (%) 35.6

Ignition loss (%) 36.5

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icrograph (B) of SS from Shimizu Utozaka pond.

iffraction method of Furukawa et al. (2001). The SEM micrographnalysis of the SS was performed using an electron probe micro-nalyzer (Japan Electron Optics Laboratories Co, JXA-8900). The SSn the Shimizu Utozaka pond consist of fine-grain materials thatnclude organic matter such as diatoms as shown in Fig. 3. Becausehe SS contain more organic matter than the sediments, the den-ity was lower than that of inorganic particles. The SS also adsorbedome substances such as nutrients and heavy metals as shown inable 2. In addition, these contaminated levels were higher thanhe guidelines shown in Table 2 and thus, the SS in the Shimizutozaka pond are contaminated. After running numerous prelimi-ary experiments, the results of the experiment are presented forhe period from February 6 to March 4, 2006.

able 2hemical properties of SS and sediments guidelines in Canada (Canadiannvironmental Quality Guidelines, 2003).

lement Shimizu Utozaka pond Guidelines in Canada,sediments (ISQG)a (freshwater)

(g/kg) 17.3 –u (mg/kg) 204 35.7n (mg/kg) 840 123.0b (mg/kg) 2.0 35d (mg/kg) 3.3 –o (mg/kg) 13.5 –n (mg/kg) 2430 –

e (mg/kg) 13000 –

a ISQG: interim sediment quality guideline.

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Tcwere reduced, respectively. In addition, there was a very strongcorrelation between SS concentrations and COD, T-P concentrations(R2 = 0.901 for COD and R2 = 0.935 for T-P). Thus, it is considered thatif the SS contain high concentrations of organic matter, a significantwater quality improvement by SS removal may be obtained. The

252 T. Inoue et al. / Ecological E

.4. Sampling sites and analysis

In this study, to estimate the filtration ability, the system wasurrounded with silt curtains which were supplied by Japan Indus-rial Land Development Co. Ltd (L × W × H: 5 m × 5 m × 2 m) ashown in Fig. 2. The samples were obtained from within the silturtains on the surface and at the bottom as before water samples,utside of the silt curtain and at the outlet of the filter directly afterltration (filtered water), respectively.

The measurements were made for SS and COD, total phospho-ous (T-P), phosphorous, total nitrogen (T-N) and coefficient ofermeability (k), respectively. The SS, COD, T-P, P and T-N were mea-ured in the laboratory as prescribed in the JSAC handbook (Japanociety for Analytical Chemistry Hokkaido, 2005). The permeabilityarameter k was measured as prescribed in the JGS handbook (The

apanese Geotechnical Society, 2000). Then the permittivity of thehin filter was calculated by dividing permeability by the thicknessf the filter.

The removal of pollutants per cross-sectional area per day wasalculated using the following equation:

n = qaSSEn (1)

here Rn is removed amount of pollutants n per cross-sectionalrea per day (mg/m2/day), q the filtration volume per cross-ectional area per day (m3/m2/day), a the SS removal ratio, SS themount of SS in the water (kg/m3), En the initial concentration oflements (n) on the SS (mg/kg). The cross-sectional area of the filteras perpendicular to the flow of the water.

. Results and discussion

.1. Effect of water quality

Fig. 4 shows the change in SS of pond water by filtration. Thenitial SS concentration in the Shimizu Utozaka pond was 30 mg/L.t the beginning of the filtration, the SS concentrations within theilt curtains on the surface and at the bottom, filtered water were6.0, 28.8 and 10 mg/L, respectively. After day 9, SS were removed tomg/L or less by this filtration system which corresponds to Classof the Japanese standards for SS in lakes and ponds (Fig. 4). The

ffluent from the filter which had a SS concentration of 2 mg/L oress was clear enough to see through to the bottom of the sampling

ottle.

In addition, after day 9, filtration lowered the SS concentra-ion within the silt curtains to lower than outside. The relationshipetween the properties of the SS and the pore size of nonwoven fil-ers is an important factor in obtaining high SS removal efficiency.

Fig. 4. Change in SS of pond water by filtration.Fd

ring 35 (2009) 1249–1254

s shown in the Fig. 3, the SS in the Shimizu Utozaka pond con-isted mainly of diatoms. The diatoms are known to be well over00,000 different species ranging from approximately 1 �m to sev-ral mm in diameter and have silica skeletons (Fowler et al., 2007).herefore, filtration can be used for the removal of diatoms.

Regarding a study with relationship between pore size of non-oven filters and particle size of filtered matter, the following

quation was used as a typical criterion for the design of a geotextilelter (Fourie and Addis, 1999),

O95

D85≤ x (2)

here O95 is the apparent opening size of the nonwoven filter, D85he particle size corresponding to 85% finer.

The value of x selected by Christopher and Holtz (1985) is 1–2.n this study, the value of x was 1.6. For this reason, the SS removalfficiency of 88.6% was obtained in this experiment.

Fig. 5 shows the change in COD (particulate and dissolved) ofond water before and after filtration. By filtration of this system,OD was reduced. Particulate COD was almost completely removed.fter 9 days, the COD levels were 5 mg/L or less. As mentionedefore, the Japanese guidelines for COD at fisheries define Classwater as COD of 2 mg/L or less, Class 2 water as 2–3 mg/L, and

lass 3 water as for 3–8 mg/L. Thus, the filtered water in which theOD level was 5 mg/L or less exhibited improved water quality tolass 3 for the Japanese standards.

Fig. 6 shows the relationships between SS and COD, and SS and-P in this experiment. As shown in Fig. 6, with a decrease of SSoncentration by the filtration, COD and T-P concentrations also

ig. 5. Change in COD of pond water by filtration (A) and change in particulate andissolved COD (B) of the filtrate.

T. Inoue et al. / Ecological Engineering 35 (2009) 1249–1254 1253

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Table 3Estimation of the amount of pollutants (n) removed inthis study.

Pollutants (n) Removed amount of pollutants(n) per cross-sectional area perday (Rn, mg/m2/day)

P 156167.1Cu 184.4Zn 758.8

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Fig. 6. Relationship between COD and T-P with SS.

emoval efficiency for this experiment was 88.6% for COD and 69.9%or T-P.

Fig. 7 shows the change in T-N of the pond water by filtration.imilar to that of COD and T-P, T-N concentrations in the form ofarticulate nitrogen also were reduced by this filtration. In addition,he T-N concentrations within the silt curtains were lower thanutside. The overall T-N removal efficiency of 22.9% was obtainedn this experiment. As nitrogen, in the form of the anionic forms ofitrate and nitrite, does not bind as strongly to negatively chargedaterials (organic matter such as diatoms) as phosphorus does,

t is difficult to remove the soluble forms of nitrogen (Yong et al.,007). Only the particulate form can be removed which was a smallraction of the total nitrogen and thus the low removal efficiency.

As above, the ability for SS removal by this system was high. Inddition, SS removal improved the quality of water in terms of COD,-P and T-N. Therefore, SS removal by filtration will improve notnly water quality, but also the quality of the bottom sediments,nd will be an effective technique for environmental restorationechnologies in the water.

.2. Filtration volume and removal of contaminated substances

The filtration volume depends on the coefficient of permeabil-ty and the cross-sectional area of a filtration system. Therefore,he size of the system can be designed with respect to the areand water volume in considered sites. The initial permittivity was

× 10−1 s−1. After 5 days of filtration, it was reduced to approx-

mately 1 × 10−2 s−1, where it remained with little change forhe rest of the experiment. In this study, the filtration rate was0.8 m3/m2/day.

Fig. 7. Change in T-N of pond water by filtration.

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An estimate of the removed amounts of pollutants such as heavyetals with this filtration system was made. As shown in Table 2,

S adsorb various substances such as heavy metals and nutrients.hese concentrations of the SS were higher than the guidelines.he estimation of the removed amount of pollutants in this studys summarized in Table 3. The values obtained from this exper-mental result were, for q, a and SS were 40.8 m3/m2/day, 0.885nd 0.025 kg/m3, respectively. As shown in Table 3, the estimationf pollutant removal can be obtained based on the removal of SS.his calculation enables not only the design of filtration systemsor future cases, but also quantitative evaluation for the effect ofestoration.

. Conclusions

In this study, the small filtration unit was developed to removeS. The results showed that this system was effective for theemoval of SS from the water. It was found that SS concentrationsere associated with COD and T-P concentrations, and these cor-

elations were very strong in the organic polluted water. Thus, SSemoval improved the quality of water in terms of COD, T-P and-N.

Therefore, SS removal will improve not only water quality, butlso the quality of the bottom sediments, because the amount ofew contaminated sediments will be reduced. In addition, the esti-ation of pollutant removal can be determined from the amount

f removed SS. This calculation enables not only the design of fil-ration systems for future individual cases, but also quantitativevaluation for the effect of restoration. Furthermore, SS removalould potentially be used for various types of ecological engineer-ng work along coastal regions and lakes, including the preventionf algal growth and red and blue tides and thus could be an integralart of improved management of surface water quality.

cknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the advice by Prof. Y.ato of Tokai University. Appreciation is also extended to Shizuokaity for the experimental site support in this study and the supportf the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).

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