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Modern Colonialism: ‘The Jewel in the Crown’ and ‘The Dark Continent’ ( India, Africa in the 19 th century)

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Page 1: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Modern Colonialism: ‘The Jewel in the Crown’ and ‘The Dark Continent’ ( India, Africa in the 19th century)

Page 2: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Imperialism:  India and AfricaIntroduction:

‐ focus this week on imperialism (especially British) in sub‐continent of India and continent of Africa

‐ India like ‘pivot’ for Europeans moving between Asia (Qing Dynasty) and Africa –and Europe itself (including Ottoman Empire):  merchants, military men, administrators, civil servants

Page 3: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Imperialism in India and AfricaAsian Connections:

‐ tied into hugely profitable opium trade with  Qing Dynasty (18th‐19th centuries)‐ became replacement for tea production  (mid‐19th c)

Islamic/Ottoman Connections:‐most of subcontinent under Muslim rule until early 18th century [Mughal Empire]‐ relations with British/French similar, producing similar political, intellectual movements

Page 4: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: Mughal Empire

Page 5: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: early imperialism

Combining cultural and commercial issues:

‐ respecting Hindu, Muslim culture and religion  

‐ developing commerce that benefited elites (including religious elite)

Page 6: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: early imperialism

Major ‘footholds’: Calcutta, Bombay

‐ East India Company (EIC) in Bengal amassed virtual empire (Text)

‐ population larger than Western Europe

Page 7: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

BritishTerritory[EIC controlBengal, Coast]in India1797-1805

Page 8: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: early imperialism

Bombay:

‐ Bombay rapidly growing as EIC invested in  development

‐ worked to ‘keep local princes’ happy

[for Photo Essay on Early Bombay, see “18th‐19th Century Photographs, Drawings Bombay” in ‘Resources’]

Page 9: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Bombay 18th century 

Page 10: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Bombay 19th Century

Causeway Construction, 1826

Page 11: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: cottonTrade also made it part of ‘Atlantic World’:

‐ key was ‘cotton’

Europe: from late 17th century knew ‘Calico Craze’

‐ Indian prints part of domestic home décor

‐ fashion (men and women)

‐ said that ‘French could not do without them’

‐ industry of imitations developed

Page 12: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Indian Cotton & European Life

Page 13: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: cotton

Caused economic problems:

‐ fear that preference for Indian cottons would hurt domestic wool, silk industries

‐ ‘balance of trade’ – export increasing amounts bullion

Page 14: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: cotton

Reaction: from 1680s ‘banning’ imports – France, Prussia, Spain, Britain

‐ Britain enforced c.1721

‐ reportedly ‘mobs’ chased women on London streets to strip them of calico

‐ calico still on market because Dutch commerce did not ban it

Page 15: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: cottonImpact even larger on Manufacturing:

‐ challenges part of ‘Industrial Revolution’argument that more efficient production of cotton in Britain, America undercut Indian production‐ suggests a strong ‘political hand’ assisted consumption patterns and that impact was opposite: ‘banning’ of Indian Cotton helped create domestic market for European produced products – many of which imitated Asian patterns

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Indian Cotton & African SlavesIndian Cotton, African Slaves and ‘the Triangular Trade:

‐ ‘ban’ poorly enforced in Britain but in any case, did not affect increasingly important component of trade: re‐export to Africa

‐ between 1700‐1800 “Guinea Cloths” 70% trade from Britain to Africa: 40% were of Indian manufacture

‐ almost all were payment for African slaves, destined to Americas

Page 17: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Indian Cotton & African Slaves18th Century: peak of trans‐Atlantic slave trade 

‐ generated expansion cloth imports from India as well as new production in Europe 

‐ British cotton producers, East India Co. merchants had to remain competitive with other nations: began importing Indian cloth directly into Africa along side British imitations

‐ British product improved rapidly 

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Indian Cotton

Page 19: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Indian Cotton in Global Trade

[See “Indian Cotton Textiles… 18th C. Atlantic Economy” in ‘Resources’]

Page 20: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Indian Cotton in Global Trade“Cotton did not become a global commodity because its production was mechanised and Industrialised – on the contrary it became mechanised and industrialised thanks to the fact that it was a global commodity”

It was India that underpinned that early economy – and had to be ‘pushed out’ (or at least into a new role) by 19th Century Imperialism.

[from “The Making of a Global Economy” in ‘Resources’]

Page 21: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Indian Cotton in Global TradeIndia, Africa, Europe (especially Britain) initially tied through the slave trade:  

‐ ‘trade’ in more general sense pulled Britain into India at same time as Africa‐ “Black Hole of Calcutta” incident (1756) over trade issue with British East India Company (Text): presaged actions in China (Opium Wars) and Africa ‘Gun Boat Diplomacy’‐ in India, led to direct ‘political’ control by company : 1765 ruled Bengal

Page 22: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Expansion of British Territory “Possessions” 1805-1914

Page 23: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: East India CompanyAs in China and Africa (as we will see): Britain acquired political influence through Government Companies granted monopolies

‐ taxes major concern‐ Companies used ‘private’ armies to protect trade but also to ‘push’ interests ‐ negotiated with local elites, who generally benefited ‐ India and Africa similar in degree to which early ‘company’ influence (sometimes actual political power) led way for British Political control

Page 24: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: East Indian  CompanyNature of production, trade same (India, Africa):

‐ production ‘cash crops’: raw materials meant for export 

‐ opium, coffee, tea, cotton, jute

‐ opium  (as we saw) grew significantly over 19th C

‐ Tea (also as we saw) also grew, replaced China: land  cleared to expand production

‐ coffee new crop; developed alongside Africa

Page 25: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: East India CompanyCotton, Jute:

‐ cotton cloth production declining but growing of raw cotton increasing 

‐ jute new: strong fibre used for gunny sacks, heavy cloth, rope

‐ irrigation systems installed: peasants ‘convinced’ to give land and subsistence livelihoods up to ‘cash cropping’

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India:  East India Company

Jute Producing States (recent – but gives idea of extent)

Page 27: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: East India Company

Page 28: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: East India CompanyImpact similar (India, Africa):

‐ extensive environmental change, often detrimental

‐ peasant farmers pushed, encouraged into higher paying export crops were left dependent on buying food

‐ elites taxed to meet “Company” (later Colonial) demands

‐ few of lower classes/’castes’ benefited

Page 29: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: modernizationModernization: also similar India, Africa 

‐ investment needed for cash cropping (e.g. irrigation)

‐ transport: roads but also canals 

‐ Railroads, new deep‐water docks

‐ from 1840s onward

‐ facilitated ‘colonial’ (export) economy

‐ controlling administrative jobs: British

‐menial, semi‐skilled jobs: Indian

Page 30: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Bombay 1860

“Times of India” Office, Church Gate Street

Page 31: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Bombay: Victoria Docks 1888

Page 32: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Modernization

Victoria Railroad Terminus, Completed Bombay 1888

Page 33: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: Mutiny 1857As in China: efforts to balance commercial imperialism, cultural ‘co‐operation’, class tensions stumbled

‐ irony is, happened in 1857 [just after outbreak Crimean War, middle of TaipingRebellion, lead‐up to American Civil War…]: 

a ‘difficult’ historical decade!

‐ known as ‘Mutiny of 1857’, ‘Rebellion of 1857’

Page 34: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: Mutiny 1857“Indian Military”:

‐ initially, EIC paid for private military

‐ base: Bengal, so some ethnic, religious (Muslim) coherence – ‘sepoy’ (Text)

‐ 1850s, only 38,000 British troops – more than 200,000 sepoys

‐ troops also expanded by recruitment Sikhs, Gurkhas, high‐classed Hindu

Page 35: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

Expansion of British Territory “Possessions” 1805-1914

Page 36: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India:  Mutiny 1857

Sikh Officers, British Infantry Unit, Punjab c.1858

Page 37: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: Mutiny 1857

Indian Gurkhas, 1857

Page 38: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: Mutiny 1857Cultural, Religious mix: sensitive to changing terms of employment

‐ key issue: modern rifles with packaged cartridges – had to be opened by ‘tearing with teeth

‐ cartridges ‘greased’ with unknown product

Was sure to contain some animal product:

‐ ‘bovine’? Insult to Hindus

‐ ‘pork’? Insult to Muslims

Page 39: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: Mutiny 1857Initial Rebellion: Meerut [see ‘Opening of Indian Rebellion’, in Resources – first hand account]

‐ sparked rebellions throughout central region

‐military: resentment at lack of promotion of Indian officers, orders that clashed with Hindu culture of ‘travel abroad’

‐ then spread to peasants, other ‘elites’ who felt discrimination in administration, ‘social’life

Page 40: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

1857 Mutiny

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1857 Mutiny

Fort Lucknow, after Mutiny 1857

Page 42: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

1857 Mutiny: Lucknow

Page 43: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: Mutiny 1857“Cultural Discrimination”:

‐military rebellion (‘Mutiny – refusal to obey orders to load guns) touched deeper level resentments growing over first half 19th C.‐ growing power of EIC, and British Government itself: seen as threatening overall autonomy of sub‐continent ‐ power of ‘Maharaja’ princes no longer respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

[shows many similarities with Qing Dynasty situation c. 1830s‐50s]

Page 44: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: Mutiny 1857Consequences of 1857‐58:

‐ although rebellion relatively short, geographically contained, consequences significant

‐ provoked British Government to take full political control from EIC, remaining local Mughal rulers

‐ India to be ruled from London,withGovernor General in Delhi   

Page 45: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: Mutiny 1857Princes retained  local ruling powers:

‐ had to remain ‘loyal’ to Queen

‐ raised issue of legitimacy: how to ‘rule’with traditional power when dependent on foreign authority? (same question raised in Africa)

‐ use of pageantry, ritual: elaborate, some ‘invented’– means to tie British and Indian rule together in eyes of people

Page 46: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: Mutiny 18571877 Queen Victoria 

proclaimed 

‘Empress of India’:

Page 47: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: Mutiny 1857New ‘British  Educated’ Elite:

‐ created bureaucracy Indian  Civil Service

‐ widespread local powers

‐ entry: by exam written in London

‐ therefore: Indians effectively excluded 

‐ comprised rapidly expanding ‘sub‐civil service’ under authority British administration

‐ assured large, literate ‘British’ culture with growing aspirations

Page 48: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: ‘Colonial  Culture’“Colonial Culture”:  reflected 19th century racism

‐ ‘white man’ considered most civilized

‐ questioned  as to whether ‘others’ could ever do more then imitate, ‘improve’

“It is this consciousness of the inherent superiority of the European which had won for us India. However well educated and clever a native maybe, and however brave he ma have proved himself, I believe that no rank we can bestow on him would cause him to be considered an equal  of the British Officer”[Text p.668]

Page 49: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: ‘Colonial  Culture’“Political Modernisation”

‐ (like Ottomans) movements in early part of century tried to reconcile ‘traditional’(religion, culture) with ‘West’

‐ ‘Divine Society’: addressed caste system, child marriage, widow burning (sati), later slavery and female infanticide

Page 50: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: ‘Colonial Culture’Nationalism:

‐ Post‐Mutiny: realization of what British rule meant

‐ education, exposure to Western ideas created expectations, demands: more control, more civil service opportunities (like Young Ottomans, like ‘modern Africans of early 20th C)

Page 51: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: ‘Colonial Culture’Intellectual Modernisation:

‐ by 1850s: Indian intellectuals exploring Western secular values, nationalist/democratic ideals (much like Young Ottomans)

‐Western education available, even for women

‐ by 1870: 25,000 students of elementary and secondary  levels “the new generation”

Page 52: Imperialism: India and Africa - University of Alberta · ‐fashion (men and women) ... India: Mutiny 1857 As in China: ... respected, Muslim Mughal power gone

India: ‘Colonial Culture’1885 : former Indian National  Congress

‐ Goals: larger role for Indians in the ‘Imperial Project’

‐ little attention to millions of poor and ‘untouchables’

‐ an ‘elite’ group created by the process of British Imperialism (education, culture)

‐ still too small to have impact: that would take another generation in a much larger colonial world: one that would include Africa