Modern Colonialism: ‘The Jewel in the Crown’ and ‘The Dark Continent’ ( India, Africa in the 19th century)
Imperialism: India and AfricaIntroduction:
‐ focus this week on imperialism (especially British) in sub‐continent of India and continent of Africa
‐ India like ‘pivot’ for Europeans moving between Asia (Qing Dynasty) and Africa –and Europe itself (including Ottoman Empire): merchants, military men, administrators, civil servants
Imperialism in India and AfricaAsian Connections:
‐ tied into hugely profitable opium trade with Qing Dynasty (18th‐19th centuries)‐ became replacement for tea production (mid‐19th c)
Islamic/Ottoman Connections:‐most of subcontinent under Muslim rule until early 18th century [Mughal Empire]‐ relations with British/French similar, producing similar political, intellectual movements
India: Mughal Empire
India: early imperialism
Combining cultural and commercial issues:
‐ respecting Hindu, Muslim culture and religion
‐ developing commerce that benefited elites (including religious elite)
India: early imperialism
Major ‘footholds’: Calcutta, Bombay
‐ East India Company (EIC) in Bengal amassed virtual empire (Text)
‐ population larger than Western Europe
BritishTerritory[EIC controlBengal, Coast]in India1797-1805
India: early imperialism
Bombay:
‐ Bombay rapidly growing as EIC invested in development
‐ worked to ‘keep local princes’ happy
[for Photo Essay on Early Bombay, see “18th‐19th Century Photographs, Drawings Bombay” in ‘Resources’]
Bombay 18th century
Bombay 19th Century
Causeway Construction, 1826
India: cottonTrade also made it part of ‘Atlantic World’:
‐ key was ‘cotton’
Europe: from late 17th century knew ‘Calico Craze’
‐ Indian prints part of domestic home décor
‐ fashion (men and women)
‐ said that ‘French could not do without them’
‐ industry of imitations developed
Indian Cotton & European Life
India: cotton
Caused economic problems:
‐ fear that preference for Indian cottons would hurt domestic wool, silk industries
‐ ‘balance of trade’ – export increasing amounts bullion
India: cotton
Reaction: from 1680s ‘banning’ imports – France, Prussia, Spain, Britain
‐ Britain enforced c.1721
‐ reportedly ‘mobs’ chased women on London streets to strip them of calico
‐ calico still on market because Dutch commerce did not ban it
India: cottonImpact even larger on Manufacturing:
‐ challenges part of ‘Industrial Revolution’argument that more efficient production of cotton in Britain, America undercut Indian production‐ suggests a strong ‘political hand’ assisted consumption patterns and that impact was opposite: ‘banning’ of Indian Cotton helped create domestic market for European produced products – many of which imitated Asian patterns
Indian Cotton & African SlavesIndian Cotton, African Slaves and ‘the Triangular Trade:
‐ ‘ban’ poorly enforced in Britain but in any case, did not affect increasingly important component of trade: re‐export to Africa
‐ between 1700‐1800 “Guinea Cloths” 70% trade from Britain to Africa: 40% were of Indian manufacture
‐ almost all were payment for African slaves, destined to Americas
Indian Cotton & African Slaves18th Century: peak of trans‐Atlantic slave trade
‐ generated expansion cloth imports from India as well as new production in Europe
‐ British cotton producers, East India Co. merchants had to remain competitive with other nations: began importing Indian cloth directly into Africa along side British imitations
‐ British product improved rapidly
Indian Cotton
Indian Cotton in Global Trade
[See “Indian Cotton Textiles… 18th C. Atlantic Economy” in ‘Resources’]
Indian Cotton in Global Trade“Cotton did not become a global commodity because its production was mechanised and Industrialised – on the contrary it became mechanised and industrialised thanks to the fact that it was a global commodity”
It was India that underpinned that early economy – and had to be ‘pushed out’ (or at least into a new role) by 19th Century Imperialism.
[from “The Making of a Global Economy” in ‘Resources’]
Indian Cotton in Global TradeIndia, Africa, Europe (especially Britain) initially tied through the slave trade:
‐ ‘trade’ in more general sense pulled Britain into India at same time as Africa‐ “Black Hole of Calcutta” incident (1756) over trade issue with British East India Company (Text): presaged actions in China (Opium Wars) and Africa ‘Gun Boat Diplomacy’‐ in India, led to direct ‘political’ control by company : 1765 ruled Bengal
Expansion of British Territory “Possessions” 1805-1914
India: East India CompanyAs in China and Africa (as we will see): Britain acquired political influence through Government Companies granted monopolies
‐ taxes major concern‐ Companies used ‘private’ armies to protect trade but also to ‘push’ interests ‐ negotiated with local elites, who generally benefited ‐ India and Africa similar in degree to which early ‘company’ influence (sometimes actual political power) led way for British Political control
India: East Indian CompanyNature of production, trade same (India, Africa):
‐ production ‘cash crops’: raw materials meant for export
‐ opium, coffee, tea, cotton, jute
‐ opium (as we saw) grew significantly over 19th C
‐ Tea (also as we saw) also grew, replaced China: land cleared to expand production
‐ coffee new crop; developed alongside Africa
India: East India CompanyCotton, Jute:
‐ cotton cloth production declining but growing of raw cotton increasing
‐ jute new: strong fibre used for gunny sacks, heavy cloth, rope
‐ irrigation systems installed: peasants ‘convinced’ to give land and subsistence livelihoods up to ‘cash cropping’
India: East India Company
Jute Producing States (recent – but gives idea of extent)
India: East India Company
India: East India CompanyImpact similar (India, Africa):
‐ extensive environmental change, often detrimental
‐ peasant farmers pushed, encouraged into higher paying export crops were left dependent on buying food
‐ elites taxed to meet “Company” (later Colonial) demands
‐ few of lower classes/’castes’ benefited
India: modernizationModernization: also similar India, Africa
‐ investment needed for cash cropping (e.g. irrigation)
‐ transport: roads but also canals
‐ Railroads, new deep‐water docks
‐ from 1840s onward
‐ facilitated ‘colonial’ (export) economy
‐ controlling administrative jobs: British
‐menial, semi‐skilled jobs: Indian
Bombay 1860
“Times of India” Office, Church Gate Street
Bombay: Victoria Docks 1888
Modernization
Victoria Railroad Terminus, Completed Bombay 1888
India: Mutiny 1857As in China: efforts to balance commercial imperialism, cultural ‘co‐operation’, class tensions stumbled
‐ irony is, happened in 1857 [just after outbreak Crimean War, middle of TaipingRebellion, lead‐up to American Civil War…]:
a ‘difficult’ historical decade!
‐ known as ‘Mutiny of 1857’, ‘Rebellion of 1857’
India: Mutiny 1857“Indian Military”:
‐ initially, EIC paid for private military
‐ base: Bengal, so some ethnic, religious (Muslim) coherence – ‘sepoy’ (Text)
‐ 1850s, only 38,000 British troops – more than 200,000 sepoys
‐ troops also expanded by recruitment Sikhs, Gurkhas, high‐classed Hindu
Expansion of British Territory “Possessions” 1805-1914
India: Mutiny 1857
Sikh Officers, British Infantry Unit, Punjab c.1858
India: Mutiny 1857
Indian Gurkhas, 1857
India: Mutiny 1857Cultural, Religious mix: sensitive to changing terms of employment
‐ key issue: modern rifles with packaged cartridges – had to be opened by ‘tearing with teeth
‐ cartridges ‘greased’ with unknown product
Was sure to contain some animal product:
‐ ‘bovine’? Insult to Hindus
‐ ‘pork’? Insult to Muslims
India: Mutiny 1857Initial Rebellion: Meerut [see ‘Opening of Indian Rebellion’, in Resources – first hand account]
‐ sparked rebellions throughout central region
‐military: resentment at lack of promotion of Indian officers, orders that clashed with Hindu culture of ‘travel abroad’
‐ then spread to peasants, other ‘elites’ who felt discrimination in administration, ‘social’life
1857 Mutiny
1857 Mutiny
Fort Lucknow, after Mutiny 1857
1857 Mutiny: Lucknow
India: Mutiny 1857“Cultural Discrimination”:
‐military rebellion (‘Mutiny – refusal to obey orders to load guns) touched deeper level resentments growing over first half 19th C.‐ growing power of EIC, and British Government itself: seen as threatening overall autonomy of sub‐continent ‐ power of ‘Maharaja’ princes no longer respected, Muslim Mughal power gone
[shows many similarities with Qing Dynasty situation c. 1830s‐50s]
India: Mutiny 1857Consequences of 1857‐58:
‐ although rebellion relatively short, geographically contained, consequences significant
‐ provoked British Government to take full political control from EIC, remaining local Mughal rulers
‐ India to be ruled from London,withGovernor General in Delhi
India: Mutiny 1857Princes retained local ruling powers:
‐ had to remain ‘loyal’ to Queen
‐ raised issue of legitimacy: how to ‘rule’with traditional power when dependent on foreign authority? (same question raised in Africa)
‐ use of pageantry, ritual: elaborate, some ‘invented’– means to tie British and Indian rule together in eyes of people
India: Mutiny 18571877 Queen Victoria
proclaimed
‘Empress of India’:
India: Mutiny 1857New ‘British Educated’ Elite:
‐ created bureaucracy Indian Civil Service
‐ widespread local powers
‐ entry: by exam written in London
‐ therefore: Indians effectively excluded
‐ comprised rapidly expanding ‘sub‐civil service’ under authority British administration
‐ assured large, literate ‘British’ culture with growing aspirations
India: ‘Colonial Culture’“Colonial Culture”: reflected 19th century racism
‐ ‘white man’ considered most civilized
‐ questioned as to whether ‘others’ could ever do more then imitate, ‘improve’
“It is this consciousness of the inherent superiority of the European which had won for us India. However well educated and clever a native maybe, and however brave he ma have proved himself, I believe that no rank we can bestow on him would cause him to be considered an equal of the British Officer”[Text p.668]
India: ‘Colonial Culture’“Political Modernisation”
‐ (like Ottomans) movements in early part of century tried to reconcile ‘traditional’(religion, culture) with ‘West’
‐ ‘Divine Society’: addressed caste system, child marriage, widow burning (sati), later slavery and female infanticide
India: ‘Colonial Culture’Nationalism:
‐ Post‐Mutiny: realization of what British rule meant
‐ education, exposure to Western ideas created expectations, demands: more control, more civil service opportunities (like Young Ottomans, like ‘modern Africans of early 20th C)
India: ‘Colonial Culture’Intellectual Modernisation:
‐ by 1850s: Indian intellectuals exploring Western secular values, nationalist/democratic ideals (much like Young Ottomans)
‐Western education available, even for women
‐ by 1870: 25,000 students of elementary and secondary levels “the new generation”
India: ‘Colonial Culture’1885 : former Indian National Congress
‐ Goals: larger role for Indians in the ‘Imperial Project’
‐ little attention to millions of poor and ‘untouchables’
‐ an ‘elite’ group created by the process of British Imperialism (education, culture)
‐ still too small to have impact: that would take another generation in a much larger colonial world: one that would include Africa