il ciclo del fosforo - dipartimento agraria · il ciclo del fosforo total phosphorus levels in the...

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Il ciclo del fosforo Total phosphorus levels in the upper 50 cm of the world’s soils range from less than 500 kg/ha in highly weathered soils in the humid tropics as high as 10,000 kg/ha in some young little-weathered soils mainly in mountainous or desert regions. The model used to make this map estimates the global total soil P to 50 cm depth as 40.6 Pg P. Modified from Yang et al. (2013). (da Weil & Brady, 2017)

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Page 1: Il ciclo del fosforo - Dipartimento Agraria · Il ciclo del fosforo Total phosphorus levels in the upper 50 cm of the world’ssoils range from less than 500 kg/ha in highly weathered

Il ciclo del fosforo

Total phosphorus levels in the upper 50 cm of the world’s soils range from less than500 kg/ha in highly weathered soils in the humid tropics as high as 10,000 kg/ha insome young little-weathered soils mainly in mountainous or desert regions. The modelused to make this map estimates the global total soil P to 50 cm depth as 40.6 Pg P.Modified from Yang et al. (2013).

(da Weil & Brady, 2017)

Page 2: Il ciclo del fosforo - Dipartimento Agraria · Il ciclo del fosforo Total phosphorus levels in the upper 50 cm of the world’ssoils range from less than 500 kg/ha in highly weathered

Il contenuto di fosforo totale nel suolo è variabile dallo 0.005 allo 0.15% e dipende da

Il P non subisce variazioni nello stato redox ed è presentecome fosfato. I fosfati presenti nel suolo si accertano informa sia inorganica sia organica, comunemente comeanioni dell’acido ortofosforico

• il tipo di matrice litologica che ha originato il suolo

• il grado di alterazione

• le condizioni climatiche

• l’erosione

• il ruscellamento

• la concimazione fosfatica

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Il ciclo del fosforo nel suolo

Il P-fosfato ha un ciclo biogeochimico sedimentario(da Weil & Brady, 2017)

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Forms of soil P

Inorganic Soil P

– Phosphate rock and aluminium phosphate

– As organic P is mineralized to inorganic P or as P isadded to soil, inorganic P in solution (H2PO4

-/HPO42-)

not absorbed by roots or immobilized bymicroorganisms can be adsorbed to mineral surfacesor precipitated as secondary P compounds.

• Surface adsorption and precipitation reactionsare collectively called P fixation or retention.

• The extent of inorganic P fixation depends onmany factors, most importantly soil pH.

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(da Weil & Brady, 2017)

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Forms of soil P

Organic Soil P

– Organic P represents about 50% of total soil P and typically varies between 15 and 80%.

– Most soil organic P compounds are esters of orthophosphate (H2PO4

-) including inositolphosphates (10-50%), phospholipids (1-5%), and nucleic acids (0.2-2.5%).

– The quantity of P mineralized in soils increaseswith increasing organic P content.

– Continued cultivation increases organic P mineralization thus decreasing soil organic P.

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Organic soil P

Types of organic phosphorus compounds commonly found in soils, where “R” stands for therest of a larger organic molecule. Most organic soil phosphorus occurs as some form ofphosphate ester. The inorganic orthophosphate ion is also represented (far left, upper).Phytic acid (far right), a plant storage molecule and example of a phosphate mono-ester,is one of the most plentiful organic phosphorus compounds in soils. The nucleic acids thatcomprise the genetic coding molecule, DNA, are examples of a phosphate di-esterscommon in small amounts in soils. (Diagram courtesy of Ray R. Weil).

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(da Weil & Brady, 2017)

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P contents of representative soil profilesfrom three soil orders

(da Weil & Brady, 2017)

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Continued cultivation increases organic P mineralization

Bilancio del P nel suolo in un bacino forestale rimastoindisturbato per > 45 anni adiacente ad un sistema agrariocoltivato da più di 100 anni. Flussi in kg P-fosfato ha-1 anno-1.

(da Weil & Brady, 2017)

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Forms of soil P

Inorganic Soil P

– The amount of H2PO4- and HPO4

2- present insolution depends on soil pH

pKa1 = 2.15 pKa2 = 7.20 pKa3 = 12.32

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Concentrazione del fosfato nella fase liquida del suolo

Nei suoli fortemente concimati, ed in condizionipedochimicamente favorevoli, la concentrazione difosfati nella fase liquida del suolo può arrivare a 1 mg L-1.

µM

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Without help from mycorrhizal fungi, most crop plants require aconcentration of about 0.2 mg L-1 in the soil solution for optimumgrowth.

Concentrazione del fosfato nella fase liquida del suolo

(da Weil & Brady, 2017)

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For example, maximum corn yields may be obtained with 0.01 ppm Pif yield potential is low, but > 0.05 ppm P is needed with high yieldpotential.

Solution P required by plants depends on crop speciesand level of production

(da

Wei

l &

Bra

dy, 2

017

)

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Average conditions are represented and any particular soil would have a somewhat differentdistribution. The actual proportion of the phosphorus remaining in an available form will dependupon contact with the soil, time for reaction, and other factors. It should be kept in mind thatsome of the added phosphorus may be changed to organic forms in which it would be temporarilyunavailable but subject to mineralization. (Diagram courtesy of N. Brady and Ray R. Weil).

Inorganic fixation of added phosphates at various soil pH values

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Nei suoli alcalini (pH ~8.0) e con un alto grado di saturazione in calciogli ioni solubili H2PO4

-, somministrati con la concimazione fosfatica,reagiscono con gli ioni Ca2+ per generare una sequenza di prodotti adecrescente solubilità. La dinamica di immobilizzazione del fosfato ècontrollata dal pH, dal contenuto in ioni calcio e dal contenuto idricodel suolo.

Disponibilità del fosforo inorganico nei suoli caratterizzati da pH alcalino

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Il fosfato solubile subisce dinamiche chimiche di superficie che ne riduconoprogressivamente la disponibilità per la nutrizione minerale della pianta.

Disponibilità del fosforo inorganico nei suoli caratterizzati da pH acido

The phosphate is reversibly adsorbed by anion exchange with hydrous oxides.

Chemical fixation by soluble Al, Fe, Mn

A phosphate ion replaces an —OH2 or an —OH group in the surface structure of Al or Fe hydrous oxide minerals

The phosphate further penetrates the mineral surface by forming a stable binuclear bridge.

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Ossidi di Fe e Al diminuiscono la disponibilità per la piantadel fosforo inorganico

(a) The situation just after application of a soluble phosphate. The root hair and the hydrousiron oxide particle are surrounded by soluble phosphate ions (small dots). (b) Within a very shorttime most of the soluble phosphate has reacted with the surface of the iron oxide crystal. Thephosphorus is still somewhat available to the plant roots, since most of it is located at thesurface of the particle where exudates from the plant can encourage exchange. (c) In time thephosphorus penetrates the crystal, and only a small portion is found near the surface. Underthese conditions its availability is very low.

(da Weil & Brady, 2017)

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I suoli hanno capacità differenziate di fissare il fosfato

The relationship between phosphorus fixed and phosphorus remaining dissolved when two different soils (A andB) are shaken in solutions of various initial phosphorus concentrations. Each soil removes nearly all of thephosphorus from low concentration solutions. However, when solutions are used that contain so much phosphorusthat most of the phosphorus fixation sites become occupied, a larger portion of the phosphorus remains insolution. The amount fixed by the soil levels off as the maximum phosphorus-fixing capacity of the soil isreached (see horizontal dashed lines: for soil A, 200 mg P/kg soil; for soil B, 1200 mg P/kg soil). If the initialphosphorus concentration of a solution is equal to the equilibrium phosphorus concentration (EPC) for a particularsoil, that soil will neither remove phosphorus from nor release phosphorus to the solution (i.e., phosphorusfixation = 0 and EPC = EPC0). If the solution phosphorus concentration is less than the EPC0, the soil will releasesome phosphorus (i.e., the fixation will be negative). In this example, soil B has a much higher phosphorus-fixingcapacity and a much lower EPC than does soil A. It can also be said that soil B is highly buffered because muchphosphorus must be added to this soil to achieve a small increase in the equilibrium solution phosphorusconcentration. (Diagram courtesy of Ray R. Weil)

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I suoli hanno capacità differenziate di fissare il fosfato

I suoli che fissano quantità di P-fosfato comprese tra 500 e 1000mg kg-1, corrispondenti a 1 e 2 t P ha-1, sono caratterizzati da unaelevata capacità di immobilizzare il nutriente. Si dice che hannoanche una elevata capacità tampone per il nutriente, limitandone siala disponibilità ma anche le perdite per dilavamento.

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I suoli hanno capacità differenziate di fissare il fosfato

(da Weil & Brady, 2017)

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I suoli hanno capacità differenziate di fissare il fosfato

Typical soil solution levels of phosphorus when increasing amounts of fertilizer phosphorus are added torepresentative soils from several different orders. Without help from mycorrhizal fungi, most crop plantsrequire a concentration of about 0.2 mg/L in the soil solution for optimum growth (see Table 14.7). The graphsuggests very low phosphorus-fixing capacities of Histosols and Vertisols, making it possible for soils in theseorders when initially cultivated to require little if any fertilizer to support good plant growth. In contrast,because of their high phosphorus-fixing capacities, unfertilized Ultisols and Oxisols would require a minimum of200–300 kg P/ha for good plant growth, and Andisols would require many times this amount. Curves arerepresentative of data from many sources and would not necessarily apply for a given soil in each order. Pfixation could be increased if the soil has been long cultivated fertilizer or decreased if the soil has been soheavily fertilized with phosphorus that much of the soil’s P-fixing capacity may already be satisfied. (Diagramcourtesy of Ray R. Weil)

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La sostanza organica può ridurre la fissazione del fosfatosulla superficie reattiva di un idrossido di ferro (o di Al)

In part (a) the sites are shown as + symbols, indicating positive charges or hydrous metal oxidesites, each capable of fixing a phosphate ion. In part (b) the fixation sites are all occupied byphosphate ions (the soil’s fixation capacity is satisfied). Part (c) illustrates how organic anions,larger organic molecules, and certain strongly fixed inorganic anions can reduce the number ofsites available for fixing phosphorus. Such mechanisms partially account for the reducedphosphorus fixation and greater phosphorus availability brought about when mulches and otherorganic materials are added to a soil. (Diagram courtesy of Ray R. Weil)

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Il processo di immobilizzazione definisce la conversione del fosfatodalla forma inorganica alla forma organica come componente dellestrutture cellulari dei microrganismi del suolo. Si verifica quandopervengono al suolo necromasse animali e vegetali con un elevatorapporto C:P. In carenza di fosforo, per soddisfare le proprieesigenze metaboliche, i microrganismi utilizzano il fosfatodisponibile nella fase liquida immobilizzandolo in composti fosfaticiorganicati.Il processo opposto di mineralizzazione è controllato, oltre che dalrapporto C:P, dalla T, umidità, disturbo meccanico, etc. Nei climitemperati rilascia 5-20 kg P ha-1 y-1.

Immobilizzazione/mineralizzazione del fosfato

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Apporti e perdite di fosforo dal suolo negli agroecosistemi

Per assicurare un corretto bilancio del P in suoli carenti ènecessario gestire la concimazione fosfatica per saturare lacapacità di adsorbimento fosfatico del suolo.

Asportazioni colturali:5-50 kg P ha-1 y-1

Erosione: 0.1-10 kg P ha-1 y-1

Ruscellamento:0.01-3.0 kg P ha-1 y-1

Lisciviazione:0.0001-0.5 kg P ha-1 y-1

Apporti atmosferici:0.05-0.5 kg P ha-1 y-1

Mineralizzazione:5-20 kg P ha-1 y-1

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I pool del fosforo nel suolo

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I pool del fosforo nel suolo

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Strategie di nutrizione fosfatica

Six basic strategies that plant roots may employ to enhance their uptake of various forms ofphosphorus from soils. (1) Increased root absorptive surface area. (2) Chelate iron or aluminumto release P. (3) Dissolve Ca–P compounds with acid exudates (4) Exude phosphatase enzymes torelease P from organic compounds. (5) Exude substances to stimulate P-solubilizingrhizobacteria. (6) Encourage colonization by mycorrhizal fungi that help plants take up P.(Diagram courtesy of Ray R. Weil)

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Strategie di nutrizione fosfatica

La simbiosi con funghi micorrizici espande il volume di suoloesplorato dalle radici della pianta e permette l’accesso a forme difosforo altrimenti non disponibili.

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Strategie di nutrizione fosfatica

Even on a soil with relatively high amounts of plant-available phosphorus,increased colonization by mycorrhizal fungi is associated with increased levels ofP in young corn crop seedlings. Graph based on data from White and Weil (2009).

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Strategie di ottimizzazione della nutrizione fosfatica

– Correggere valori di pH estremi (range ottimale 6-7)

– Esaltare la simbiosi con le micorrize mediante• consociazioni o avvicendamento con specie ospiti• inoculazione• riduzione del disturbo meccanico

– Introdurre varietà P-efficienti

– Introdurre cover crops P-efficienti

– Dosare accuratamente la quantità di P distribuito

– Effettuare la distribuzione localizzata

– Combinare la distribuzione di P con NH4+ per

sfruttare l’acidificazione della rizosfera

– Addizionare matrici organiche