ict report web

8/7/2019 Ict Report Web

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Time inGraphicStorytelling

Benjamin Vaughan


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Time in Graphic Storytelling

Comics are a medium for telling storiesusing static images and text. This meansthat everything that exists in a story that isnot still and not visual has to be translatedinto the language of pictures in order tobe understood. Words, sounds, smells,heat, movement, speed, duration andcountless other factors are communicatedvisually by using sequence, symbols, textand familiar events in the images.

Information gained from senses otherthan sight often rely on graphic elementssuch as text and symbols, whether theseare understood as part of an establishedvisual language that both the artist andaudience share, or through a naturaltendency for people to associate thesecharacteristics because of some commonheritage (McCloud 2005) between theway we interpret our different senses.

Something that smells bad may have wavystink-lines and ies around it and may becoloured in browns, greens and yellows. Acreak or a bang can be written in textthat reects the nature and texture ofthe sound, be it sharp or smooth, bigor small, thick or thin, and so on. Thesesorts visual metaphors can be adapted toexplain sensory information as the storyrequires.

A key element present in every storyhowever, is time. Stories are chains ofevents and changes in circumstance thathappen over a set period and in a denedorder, so to communicate any story it isessential to clearly communicate time,otherwise there is just a collection ofideas and events which have no relationto each other and no narrative.

Fundamentally, the comic is not a time-basedmedium but a static one, so things likespeed, duration and movement are notinherently present and have to be translated,similar to sensory information. Unlikesmells however, our understanding oftime is not simply the product of a differentsense that can be directly compared to

vision but rather the result of countlessobservations and processes madeby the human brain. This means thatcommunicating it is perhaps a little morecomplex, relying on interaction betweendifferent images, the layout of the pageitself, spacial representation of time andthe balance between what you are shownand what you are left to imagine, as wellas the use of recognisable imagery andsymbols.

Scott McCloud, Scott McCloud on comics TED Talk Feb 2005http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/scott_mccloud_on_comics.html

- Scott McCloud

Understanding Comics p.94


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The purpose of this report is to analysethe visual tools used in comics tocommunicate a story set over a period oftime and to distinguish how much they arepart of an established form in westerncomics and how much they are innate,interpreted by the reader. I also aim tolook at the ways in which a modern comicaudiences familiarity with the visuallanguages of other forms of media, suchas lm and television, may be taken intoconsideration in this sort of visualstorytelling.

To do this, my secondary research focuseson both the history of the comic formatand on human perception of time.

Analysing examples of western comicsboth contemporary and from past decades,I will aim to describe a set of key factorsthat inuence the readers perception oftime in comics. I will then test readers withpages from comics which strongly displayeach of these indicators of timing andsee if there is a link between how theyrespond to the different types of pageand whether they read comics or watch a

lot of lm and television.

Perception of time

We typically think of time as a streammoving in one direction. With few culturalexceptions, we think of the past as behindus and known to us and the future aheadof us and concealed. It is typical to thinkof this as something independent of us,over which we have no control.

In reading a comic, unlike lm or television,the audience has to take an active rolein progressing the story. This puts thereader in control of the pace at which

they experience it. As with the writtenword, they may choose to jump about inthe timeline rather than reading straightfrom the beginning to the end, they maygo back to re-read and analyse previouspages for details they may have overlookedor skip ahead to get a glimpse of what isto come. Unlike a conventional bookhowever, comics are image-based sorather than just skipping to a different

piece of text, out of context, a glimpseinto the future is literally that, a glimpse,a snapshot in time. Stefan Klein (2008, p.xxi)wrote of the way in which we interprettime from our environment that The lmof our lives originates in our heads, andwe are the directors. This idea baresa strong connection to the way we reada comic; everyone will imagine a slightlydifferent story, every reader directing

slightly differently in their own minds.

S. Klein, Time: A Users Guide, p xxi

When you sit with a nice girl fortwo hours, it feels like two min-utes; when you sit on a hot stovefor two minutes, it seems like

two hours. Thats relativity.

- Albert Einstein

- Watchmen Issue 12 Cover


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Our conscious perception of time isbased on outside stimuli. *In 1962 FrenchGeologist Michel Siffre descended aloneinto a cave with no means of measuringtime and stayed there for weeks (Klein, 2008).He quickly discovered that with no accessto anything that he could rely on to indicatetime to him, he could not tell the differencebetween minutes, hours or even days.This pioneering test showed that ourconscious mind does not have access to abiological clock or timer in our bodies andwithout any information to base it on, ourestimate of the passage of time is wildlyunreliable.

What this means is that our understanding of

time is based almost entirely on memory.*In Comics and Sequential Art, Will Eisner(2008, p.7) wrote that Comprehensionof an image requires a commonality ofexperience. and that the artist is evokingimages stored in the minds of both parties.In order to effectively communicate tothe reader, the comic creator must knowthat the audience will interpret an imagethe same way as they intend. This is especially

true in giving a sense of timing as it is anattribute which must be inferred by theaudience most heavily from visual clues.

How long time feels to us differs fromone experience to another; everyone isfamiliar with the way that time ies whenyoure having fun. Things we enjoy seemto pass by very quickly, the time goingunnoticed, while dull, boring or unpleasantexperiences can seem to drag by, secondby painful second, and moments of sudden,extreme stress or danger can make timeseem to pass in slow motion.

This variation is caused by how much orhow little we notice the indicators of timein our surroundings and is dependent onhow much our thoughts are occupied byother tasks (Klein, 2008). When weare engaged in a task which we find

interesting and which requires a lot ofthought, or when we are bombardedwith stimuli which we find exciting, ourbrain focuses less on the changes in ourenvironment which make us aware ofthe passage of time and we become lessconscious of its passage. Conversely,when we have nothing taxing or interestingto occupy our thoughts, our awarenessof those recognisable indications of

duration becomes heightened and wenotice every little detail, making us feelthe passage of time much more intensely.This relationship between attention todetail in our surroundings and perceptionof time is also used by our brains as athreat response, making time seem toslow down in moments of danger as wesuddenly become more alert and have agreater awareness of our surroundings,searching every detail for something thatwill save us from disaster.

S. Klein, Time: A Users Guide, p 2W. Eisner, Comics and Sequential Art, p 7

S. Klein, Time: A Users Guide p 66

the artist is evoking imagesstored in the minds of bothparties.

- Will Eisner

- Michel Siffre leaving the cave in 1962,from Time: A Users Guide p.3


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For many cultures throughout history,sequential art has been a way to documentthe passage of time and save the storiesof their people for the future.

History of the Format

Comics are built on sequence with differentimages working together to tell a story.This method of communication is atradition that dates far back into humanhistory.

Some of the oldest examples of pictorialstorytelling that are still intact today arefrom ancient Egypt. The main purposesof art in ancient Egypt were to document

the history of their leaders and gods in asmuch detail and accuracy as possible andto ensure a comfortable transition to theafterlife. Painted images and inscribedpictographs on stone walls, these workswere not realistic representations of thesubjects so much as they were diagrammaticrecords. There was no desire to draw ascene as it would appear in reality, differentobjects within a scene would be shown

from different angles and in unrealisticproportions in the pursuit of clarity ofmeaning. Everything is portrayed in themanner that will make that specic objectmost easily recognisable.

What mattered most was not prettinessbut completeness. It was the artists taskto preserve everything as clearly and

permanently as possible.Their method, in fact, resembled that ofthe map-maker rather than that of thepainter.- E.H. Gombrich, The Story of Art, p 60

In their depiction of human beings, thismanifests itself in the well known gureswith heads in prole but with an eye onthe side of the face in the shape it wouldbe if seen from the front, shouldersturned to face us straight on but legs inprole and with both feet the same wayaround. This might seem to be a childlikeapproach to drawing a gure but it is astandard which is utterly in keeping withthe purpose of communicating with absoluteclarity and ease of recognition everycomponent of the subject, particularlyas the images often held a religioussignicance that meant that they wouldbe relied upon in the afterlife.

E.H. Gombrich, The Story of Art, p 60

- Ancient Egyptian Wall Painting


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Like the perspective, scale is somethingwhich is not consistent throughout differentelements of a scene. Instead, objects orcharacters are sized according to importance,with the most powerful or revered guresbeing shown many times the size of lesser

mortals alongside them. Layout is typicallyquite rigidly geometric with gures placedaround each other in space as if on agrid but there are no borders or boxesdividing the space. Rather, differentsections of the story are separated byobjects like buildings, furniture, columnsand walls. The drawn images are typicallyaccompanied by an inscription written inpictographs, often detailing the titles ofthose depicted, descriptions of the stories

in the images and details of religiousofferings and prayers.

For the ancient Egyptians, the imagesused to tell their stories had to t into theestablished style of the past and deviationfrom the strict set of rules was undesired,so the style remained fairly consistentthroughout the thousands of years underthe reign of the Pharaohs.

Meanwhile other nearby civilisations, inwhat is today the middle east, developedtheir own styles of graphic storytellingwith many similarities to the Egyptians,although the purpose of the workslargely leant more towards the political,documenting victories and militarycampaigns. The early stone reliefs ofMesopotamia are very similar to the Egyptian

style wall paintings. The figures areportrayed in the same sort of abstractedmanner, prioritising clarity of meaningrather than realism and with the scale offigures varying depending on theirimportance. *While not quite so rigid intheir layout (Gombrich, 1978) and beginningto incorporate inscriptions slightly moreinto the images themselves, the earlyMesopotamian reliefs are also on a verytwo dimensional plane and are similar inthat the layouts are still quite ordered.

Later reliefs of this sort, such as thosefrom the Assyria region of Mesopotamia,stray slightly further from the morediagrammatic layouts and begin to showscenes where various people and buildingsoverlap and in which the figures areshown with a wider array of poses and

more emotive gestures.


- Assyrian Relief


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In Greece in roughly the 5th Century BC,new ideas about art prompted a periodof great change from past conventions.Rather than rigidly sticking to pre-setrules to determine how things should beportrayed in images, artists began trying

to develop their own techniques by learningfrom observation. The advances madeduring this period in composition, therealistic depiction of anatomy and draperyand the use of gesture and expressionto tell stories have inuenced artists forthousands of years. Most well knownare probably the marble sculptures andreliefs rather than the paintings, possiblybecause less Greek painting survived tothe present day. In general, the characters

and objects themselves are treated muchmore as three dimensional, depictedrealistically and in detail, though they stilltypically exist on a two dimensional plane.There is also greater continuity in thescale of characters and the angle fromwhich objects are viewed. The Parthenonmarbles are an excellent example ofthese characteristics. The marble reliefsform long narratives with anatomicallyrealistic, three dimensional characterswith expressive gestures and faces. Theimages tell the story on their own, with noaccompanying text.

The techniques and skills of the Greekartists would later be highly valued inthe Roman empire and their power usedas a tool to speak to the masses (Gombrich,1978). Stories of far off victories andconquests would be crafted with thesame grandeur as the Greek myths of oldbut with greater focus on the accuracyof events, to remind or to convince thepopulation that they were part of something

great and mighty.

Dr Ian Jenkins, Senior Curator of Ancient Greece at the British MuseumBritish Museum: Objects in focus: The Parthenon Sculptures [video]http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_greece_and_rome/room_18_greece_parthenon_scu.aspx

Well its the ultimate in alchemyisnt it? You take cold hard marbleand you turn it into warm feshand fowing drapery.

- Ian Jenkins

- Parthenon Frieze


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Trajans Column, 114 AD, is covered by

a frieze showing scenes of a singlecontinuous narrative, with borders dividingthe different levels as they wind frombottom to top. Each of the scenes, fromtwo victorious campaigns by the emperorTrajan in Dacia, is densely packed withlayer upon layer of troops and scenerycaptured in great detail. Characters aredepicted realistically and while the sceneryin the background does not follow strictlyaccurate rules of perspective, there

is at least an awareness of depth anda distinction between foreground andbackground. The Greek inspired use ofgesture and expression helps to tell thestory and gives the frieze a sense ofdrama and of passion. This is not a workintended to merely communicate eventsbut also to stir the feelings of the audience.Similar to the earlier Parthenon friezes,the images tell the story alone; without

text.


- Timeline of selected examples

Egypt 1900BCWall paintingfrom Tomb of

Hhnumhotep

Assyria Approx870BC

Alabaster relieffrom the palace ofKing Asurnasirpalat Nimrud

Greece Approx440BCParthenon, Athens,Marble relief

Rome 114ADTrajans Column,Stone relief

- Trajans Column


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With the breaking of the Roman empire,the western world was no longer uniedunder the artistic influence of a singleculture and could fracture into differentdirections with some basing their work onthe Greek and Roman masters and others

not.

The Bayeux Tapestry, created in

approximately 1080AD to commemoratethe Norman victory over the English,stands out as bearing little resemblanceto the earlier Greek and Roman picturechronicles which so meticulously portrayedrealistic characters and grand drama.The characters have a childlike simplicityto them and the narrative has such afocus on the clarity of the story (Gombrich,1978) that it is reminiscent in some waysof the more diagrammatic Egyptian wall

paintings thousands of years earlier.That is not to say that the narrative iswithout emotion. This is just as much anepic tale as that told on Trajans column,however the Bayeux tapestry has a certainfreedom from past artistic conventionsthat makes it seem almost naive. It alsomarks an example of image and textbeing used together once again to tellthe story, with descriptions of the events

and speech above the pictures.


- Bayeux Tapestry

Norman England 1080ADBayeux Tapestry

Vatican, Rome 16th CenturyCeiling of the Sistine Chapel

Geneva, 1830s/40sRodolfe Toeppfer


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The following centuries saw paintersmake great strides in the elds of form,perspective, colour and composition butit was not until the rise of print from the15th Century onwards that great leapswere made towards establishing the

comic as we know it today.

whats interesting is when you hit print,and this is from 1450 by the way, all theartefacts of modern comics start topresent themselves; rectilinear panelarrangements, simple line drawingswithout tone, and a left to right readingsequence. And within a hundred years,you already start to see word balloonsand captions and its really just a hop skipand a jump from here to here (moderncomics)- Scott McCloud

Engravings and prints by the likes ofWilliam Hogarth and later and perhapsmost significantly Rodolphe Tpffer,began to use sequential images for thepurpose of humour. This came at a timewhen technological advancements in

printing meant that line drawings withoutcolours or tone could be reproducedwith reasonable ease and widely circulated.Created to fit books, newspapers ormagazines, the modern formats of theprinted word, these cartoons quicklydeveloped into something we mightrecognise as a comic today and by thelate 19th Century were fairly commonplace.

Scott McCloud, Scott McCloud on comics TED Talk Feb 2005http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/scott_mccloud_on_comics.htmlPaul Gravett, Rude Britannia: British Comic Art, 2010, Frames of Reference: The Progressof Comics, p 44

by this time, Victorian comicsfor the newly literate masseswere fourishing and artistswere experimenting with awider range of styles.

- Paul Gravett

- Rodolphe Tpffer

- Punch Magazine


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One key difference that separates printcomics from all of the sequential art tohave gone before is that they are notlinear in their layout. Examples fromthroughout history consistently displayeach image in the sequence directly next

to the one before and after it with nobreaks. Print breaks this convention tot comics on the page, jumping from theright end of one row down to the left endof the row below and from the bottomright of one page to the top left of thenext. These jumps require the readerto already have an understanding ofthe structure or be able to infer itthemselves based on the content andpast experience of reading. In this waycomics rely on the literacy of the audience,both in the written word and in the visuallanguage of pictures.

Scott McCloud, Scott McCloud on comics TED Talk Feb 2005http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/scott_mccloud_on_comics.html

each of them (pre-print com-ics) has a single unbrokenreading line... the basic ideathat as you move throughspace you move through timeis being carried out withoutany compromise but therewere compromises when printhit. Adjacent spaces were nolonger adjacent moments

- Scott McCloud

- Rodolphe Tpffer

- Scott McCloud on comics TED Talk slides

- Scott McCloud on comics TED Talk slide


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Key FactorsBased on examples of modern comics and background reading on the subject, the followingis a set of key factors which inuence the understanding of time and duration in a comic.

DialogueSound can only exist in time, so as soon as it isintroduced to a scene it means that the imagecannot be considered an instant snapshot. Ifa panel contains characters speaking then weassume that the panel lasts at least as long as it

would take to say aloud everything that is written.If there are multiple speech bubbles then this cancreate a narrative within a single panel with aninternal beginning and end of its own.

NarrationSimilar to Dialogue, Narration givesthe audience a sense of how longa panel is meant to represent;however unlike speech within thestory, narration is not necessarilyin time with the images. Because itis given from outside of events, a

piece of narrative text or a captioncould accompany both an imagethat represents the transition ofa long period or of an instant heldfrozen in time.

Dialogue image: Spiderman: The Death of Captain Stacy p.114Narration image: The Chronicles of Solomon Kane p.29


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GestureThe movement of characters incomics is communicated by usingpostures which the audiencerecognises as part of a longerstring of motions. A static imagehas to give the audience cluesabout the movements before andafter it, so the artist must knowhow to carefully choose the rightpose.

Sound EffectsSound created by anything otherthan speech is typically portrayedin a special effect type of text thatillustrates the nature of the sounditself. As mentioned previously,sound only exists in time and anyintroduction of it brings with it anidea of duration.

Familiar ActionsPanels which feature actionsor events which are easilyrecognisable and which theaudience is familiar with in reallife can help to communicatethe passage of time. This couldbe anything from a drippingtap, to the time it takes to carryout a familiar task like brushingyour teeth or how long it takesfor an object to fall to theground or smash. These maybe a main part of the story andthe focus of the image, or more ofa background element.

Gesture image: Wolverine p.94Familiar Actions image: Will Eisner, Comics and Sequential Art p.32Sound Effects image: The Dark Knight Returns p.35


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Survey

These key factors for understanding time formed the basis of a survey, with each factorbeing represented by two comic pages, one contemporary and one from twenty to forty

years ago. These pages represent examples where the time-indicating factor in questionis the main inuence on the duration of the page and where there are as few other indicatorspresent as there can be. Where possible, the two images for each factor also have similarcontent, with some pages coming from issues of the same title created decades apart. Ofthe full list of seven key factors however, two are not included in the survey; GraphicElements and Layout. This is because of the difficulty in finding examples where theseparticular factors stand out as the main timing device in an entire page and where severalother factors are not also present. Two additional pages are included in the survey wherevery few of the indicators are present at all, making time particularly difcult to assess.

Graphic EffectsPart of the language of comics usedmainly to visually explain motion,graphic effects like lines and streaks

showing the path of a moving objectcan help to overcome problems witheffectively communicating complexmovements in a static image.

LayoutThe importance of the layout of the page andof the individual panels themselves cannot beunderestimated in communicating the timingand rhythm of a narrative. Lots of short panelsin quick succession can create a hurriedstaccato while a single large frame can seemto freeze frame the action, images which overlapcan seem to be concurrent or interrupt eachother. In comics, space is time and the layout

of the page is our map.

Graphic Effects image: Spiderman: The Death of Captain Stacy p.17Layout image: Will Eisner, Comics and Sequential Art p.27


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A set of initial background questions establish the respondents date of birth, whether theyregularly read comics, whether they have ever regularly read comics and how frequentlythey watch lms of television. There then follow the 12 sample pages, with the same threequestions for each page; How much time would you estimate passes in the story on thispage? , How easy was it to understand the sequence and estimate the timing? (1 beingvery difficult, 10 being very easy) , and an optional What factors did you base your

estimate on?

Results

So few of the respondents watched lmor television less than once a week thata comparison between the responses ofthose who do and do not watch regularlycannot reliably be made. We can howeveranalyse the differences between those

who have experience in reading comicsand those who do not.

On the whole, those who have regularlyread comics tended to give answers thatwere less spread out than those who havenot. Non comic readers also tended towardslonger estimates, with their averageanswers being signicantly longer than thecomic readers in seven out of the twelve

pages, roughly the same duration in threeand shorter in only two.

There were also several examples wherenon comic readers gauged the difficultyof estimating the timing higher than comicreaders. The pages, Narration Old, FewIndicators 2, Sound Effects New andSound Effects Old were all found moredifcult by non comic readers, with NarrationOld and Sound Effects New displaying the

most drastic divide.

One clear distinction between the comicreaders and the non comic readers wastheir willingness to give a specic estimateof duration. Regardless of the accuracy orconsistency of the answers, comic readerswould almost always attempt to pick anactual gure, even if there was very littleevidence on which to base it. The non

comic readers on the other hand oftenanswered that they did not know or couldnot guess, or gave answers that were toovague and unspecic to be comparable.On three of the questions, (Familiar Actionsnew and both of the Few Indicatorspages) these unspecied answers were infact the most common response from nonreaders, outnumbering every specificduration. This suggests that, whether

or not regularly reading comics actuallymakes the reader better at understandingtime in them, it certainly seems to makethem more condent.

Overall, the pages using mainly dialogueand gesture seemed to be the ones withthe most consistent estimates and lowestdifculty for both readers and non readersof comics. 86.4% of respondents watchedlm or television at least once a week, with

49.3% watching every day.

Survey http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/TL323H6Justin El Coro Kaufman, art director of Massive Black concept art studioCinematic Storyboarding part one video downloadhttp://media.massiveblack.com/downloads.html#coro2

Weve all learned the art of storytelling, at least a lot of us have,through watching movies and television and so you know I think its... itsactually really easy, the language is almost innate, you know, you donteven realise you know it until you start trying to think about it like that

- Justin El Coro Kaufman


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Page from Ultimate Wolverine vs HulkSound Effects New Survey page


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Page from The Chronicles of Solomon KaneNarration Old Survey page


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Nearly all of us in the Western world aretoday raised with film and television andare from a young age very familiar withthe language of storytelling in those media.The relationship between comics and thescreen is nothing new, but modern comics

seem to more and more frequently displaycertain visual traits we might associatewith film; consistent widescreen panelscascading down the page, a xed viewpointon the scene across multiple panels whichslightly zooms or pans in the same wayas a camera, pacing, continuity and shotcomposition that would all be at home in acinematic storyboard. These can be identiedin many of the modern comic examples in

the survey, and while it may be a coincidence,it is interesting to note that the pages thatthe non comic readers found the mostchallenging in comparison to the comicreaders (Narration Old and Sound EffectsNew) do not display these cinematic leanings.

The last ten years has seen a dramaticsurge in film adaptations of comics bothold and new, with some Hollywood blockbustersalready in development before the comicsthey are based on are even released.*Many peoples rst impressions of comics

are gained through adaptations of theircharacters and stories in other media likefilms or cartoons and these shape theirimpressions of what comics are about. Fora newcomer to comics, experiencing somethingfamiliar and comfortable may provide amore accessible starting point from whichto explore the medium and using thesetypes of cinematic traits within comics mayhelp in this regard.

It is important to remember however thatcomics are not merely lesser, static imitationsof time-based media, but a powerful mediumin their own right; one that is woventhroughout human history, that asks theaudience to take an active role in decipheringthe story and that can challenge and rewardthe reader in ways that other media cannot.

Gravett, P., 2010. Interview on Alternative Press Hour Interviewed by... Gareth Brookes [radio]Resonance 104.4fm, 24 June 2010http://www.alternativepress.org.uk/radioshow10.html

While more and more are being adapted successfully to the big andsmall screen and attracting fresh audiences, from Scott Pilgrim toThe Walking Dead, graphic novels are so much more than movies onpaper or thinly-disguised, storyboard-style pitches for stereotypicalblockbusters.

- Paul Gravett


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Page from Ultimate Spider-man Issue 15, 2010Dialogue New Survey page


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Bibiography

Books

Gombrich, E., 1978. The Story of Art. Oxford Oxfordshire: Phaidon.

Levine, R., 1997. A Geography of Time. New York: BasicBooks.

Klein, S., 2008. Time: A Users Guide. Penguin.

Myrone, M., Batchelor, T., & Lewisohn, C. 2010. Rude Britannia. London: Tate Publishing.

Eisner, W., 2008. Comics and Sequential Art. New York: Harper Perennial.

Eisner, W., 2008. Graphic Storytelling and Visual Narrative. New York: Harper Perennial.

Mccloud, S., 2006. Making Comics. New York: Harper Perennial.

Mccloud, S., 1994. Understanding Comics. New York: Harper Perennial

Digital Video

McCloud, S., 2005 TED Talks: Scott McCloud on Comics. [video online]Available at:

Jenkins, I., British Museum: Objects in focus: The Parthenon Sculptures. [video online]Available at

Kaufman, J., 2008 Cinematic Storyboarding with El Coro.http://media.massiveblack.com/downloads.html#coro2

Radio InterviewGravett, P., 2010. Interview on Alternative Press Hour Interviewed by... Gareth Brookes

[radio] Resonance 104.4fm, 24 June 2010http://www.alternativepress.org.uk/radioshow10.html


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Comics & Graphic Novels

Lee, S., & Romita, J. 2007. The Death of Captain Stacey. City: Panini Books.

Thomas, R., Macchio, R., Chaykin, H., Carr, S., Blevins, B., & Mignola, M. 2009. The Chroniclesof Solomon Kane. City: Dark Horse.

Allie, S., Guevara, M., Ferreyra, J., Mignola, M. 2010. Solomon Kane Volume 2: Deaths BlackRiders. City: Dark Horse.

Claremont, C., Miller, F., Smith, P. 2007. Wolverine by Claremont & Miller Premiere Hc. NewYork: Marvel Comics.

Moore, A., 2008. Watchmen. City: Random House Inc.

Ellis, W., & Robertson, D. 1998. Transmetropolitan: Back on the Street - Book 1. New York: DCComics.

Miller, F., Janson, K., & Varley, L. 1997. Batman: the Dark Knight Returns. New York: DC Com-ics.

Lindelof, D., & Francis, L. 2009. Ultimate Wolverine Vs. Hulk Premiere Hc. New York:

Marvel Comics.

Bendis, B., Pichelli, S., Ponsor, P. 2010. Ultimate Spider-man Issue 15. New York: Marvel Comics.

Aaron, J. 2010., Wolverine Issue 1. New York: Marvel Comics.

Wagner, D. 2010., Red, Joe. Wildstorm

ExhibitsRude Britannia: British Comic ArtTate Britain, 9 June 5 September 2010

Thats Novel... Lifting comics from the pageLondon Print Studio, 22 October 18 December 2010

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