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Vol 1. No. 2African Culture and International Understanding 1

Regional themes 2 Re ec on on Mapping the Diversity of Cultural Expressions in Africa

Akin L. Mabogunje

2 Harnessing Culture to Promote Interna onal Understanding in Africa Bola Akinterinwa

8 Promo ng Interna onal Understanding in the USA through Culture:

Lessons for Africa Richard K. Gordon

Focus on East Africa

12 Diversity and Dynamics of African Cultural Expressions in Eastern Africa Silverse Lisamula Anami

Focus on Southern Africa

18 Cultural Issues in Science Educa on in South Africa Gilbert Onwu

24 Obstacles to Achieving Diversity of Cultural Expressions in South Africa Sipho Seepe

Focus on West Africa

27 Emerging issues in African Literature and Culture: Perspec ves fromCameroon Marius Yannick Binyou-Bi-Homb

About the Institute

African Culture andInterna onal Understandingis a quarterly publica on of theIns tute for African Culture andInterna onal Understanding,a UNESCO Category 2 Ins tuteat the Olusegun ObasanjoPresiden al Library, Abeokuta,

Nigeria.The journal aims to provideinsigh ul commentariesand posi on statements onall ma ers rela ng to thepromo on of diverse Africancultures and how these impacton interna onal understanding.

Volume 1 No. 2, October-December, 2012


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African Culture and International UnderstandingVol 1. No. 22

Re ec on on Mapping theDiversity of Cultural Expressionsin AfricaAkin L. Mabogunje

Professor Akin L. Mabogunje is Chairman, Governing Board,Centre for Human Security of the Olusegun Obasanjo Presiden alLibrary, Oke Mosan, Abeokuta, Nigeria. Email: [email protected]

During the early 20th century when most of Africa

was under one form of colonial rule or the other,the con nent was clearly an anthropologists delight.Tribes and ethnic na onali es of di erent sizes andlevels of development were being discovered here andthere. Indeed, in Nigeria alone, it is claimed there areclose to 250 tribes and ethnic na onali es, although

besides the major ones that we know the iden ca onof the smaller ones becomes very fuzzy. Nonetheless,the number of these tribes and ethnic na onali es forthe whole con nent can thus be be er imagined. Eachof them also tended to be linguis c en es althoughmany of them show close rela onship throughinterac on through the ages. George Peter Murdockin his 1959 publica on on Africa: Its Peoples andTheir Culture History a empted a mapping of theseethnic en es on the basis of linguis c characteris csand went on to categorise them into fourteen major

stocks or families including the Khoisan, the Nigri c,the Bantu, the Hami c, the Sudanic and so on. Eachof these stocks is then further sub-divided into manygroups. I am not up-to-date with current ethnographicresearch in Africa but I am sure work in this eld helpsto provide the se ng for much of the programmesand challenges of the Ins tute for African Culture andInterna onal Understanding.

It has become a ma er ofconsiderable concern andchallenge as to which of thesechanges need to be promotedand which to be campaignedagainst with a view to protec onand limi ng the impact ofmodernisa on on them.

What is perhaps of greater concern for the present,apart from the acknowledged ethnic diversity of the Africancon nent, is encapsulated in four words in the tle of the

African Regional Colloquium organised by the Ins tuteon March 1, 2012. These are: cultural expressions, theirdynamics, their protec on and their promo on. Culturalexpression in popular concep on is o en limited to thear s c manifesta on of a people and perhaps to their cra sand pris ne technology. In truth, however, the term mustbe extended to embrace their laws, socialisa on strategies,food producing ac vi es, division of labour by sex, housingand se lement pa erns, kinship and marriage forms aswell as their tradi onal social and poli cal organisa on.

Over the long period of contacts with othercultures, especially since colonial mes, many Africancultural expressions have been undergoing intensiveand remarkable changes of one form or the other. It hasbecome a ma er of considerable concern and challenge asto which of these changes need to be promoted and whichto be campaigned against with a view to protec on andlimi ng the impact of modernisa on on them. It may alsobe necessary to take a compara ve look at some of thecultural expressions undergoing changes in di erent ethnicse ngs to evaluate and perhaps learn how other peoplesin the same circumstances are coping. There is, however,no way that we can prevent the cascade of technologicalinnova ons and organisa onal advances from impac ngon forms of African cultural expressions whether intheir crea on, produc on, dissemina on, access andenjoyment. What is perhaps going to be important is togradually evolve protocols of cri cal evalua on which willassist the discerning or relevant public in determiningwhat is to be promoted and what is to be preserved in thecurrent outpourings of cultural expressions in di erentregions of the con nent. Such protocols will do for otherareas of cultural innova ons what literary cri cism doesfor literature generally. It is clear, therefore, that wecannot dispute the cri cal relevance of the topic of theAfrica Regional Colloquium of the Ins tute to our currentsitua on in Africa as we confront the challenges of aglobalising world.


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Harnessing Culture to PromoteInterna onal Understanding inAfricaBola Akinterinwa

Bola A. Akinterinwa, PhD Sorbonne, is Professor of Interna onalRela ons and Director General, Nigerian Ins tute of Interna onal

A airs, Lagos, Nigeria. Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

Culture is an important subject in interna onal rela ons,especially in terms of the increasing importance of

cultural diplomacy. A body of scholars categorised it intotwo: material and non-material. While material cultureencompasses products of technology and science orartefacts, the non-material culture comprises the valuesystem, linguis c ac vi es, literary and ar s c produc ons,

religious beliefs, morals and history. Another body ofscholars has categorised culture into three layers: culturaltradi on by which a speci c society is iden ed, for instance,a peculiar language; sub-culture, a situa on in which onemaintains his or her original culture within a larger culturearising when people leave their normal habitat to liveelsewhere, especially in cosmopolitan areas; and culturaluniversals, which are about universally-shared values, forinstance, the use of age and gender for categorisa on ofpeople, concept of privacy, and classi ca on of people bymarriage and descent.

Consequently, seeking to promoteunderstanding is also synonymouswith seeking knowledge about thevarious cultures of the peoples ofthe world.

Culture is precisely the main determinant for thecategorisa on of the world into First, Second and ThirdWorld. Put di erently, it is the basis for dis nguishingbetween developed and under-developed countries,as well as developing countries. In this regard, culture isconsidered as the totality of thought and tradi on by whicha given group of people relates within the framework ofglobal rela ons. Also in this vein, when someone gives uphis or her culture in order to adopt another, one talks aboutcultural assimila on. The French people had this policyof assimila on during the colonial era. The Portugueseonce considered that when anyone is pro cient in theknowledge of the Portuguese language and abandonsthe African way of life, such a person is civilised. Thus,culture is also poli cs. Addi onally, when the traits of one

culture are replaced with those of another, we talk aboutaccultura on.

Grosso modo , culture is considered as civilisa onbut we consider it here as a synonym for understanding.The reason cannot be far-fetched. The real essence of anycivilisa on such as knowledge, belief, law, morals, customs,habits, and music, is understanding. The nality of cultureor civilisa on is about understanding. In other words,understanding is one important pillar on which civilisa onis predicated. It is within this frame of mind that one cantalk about a cultured man or a man of culture, that is, aman who has knowledge, who has a civilised backgroundand who shows understanding of the ways of life of otherpeople.

Consequently, seeking to promote understandingis also synonymous with seeking knowledge about thevarious cultures of the peoples of the world. When a personhas the capacity and capability to understand, and showsunderstanding of happenings in his or her environment,threats to interna onal peace and security cannot butbe easier to remove. It is also again in this context thatculture is necessarily about peace and development.Thus, Harnessing Culture to Promote Interna onalUnderstanding in Africa, as the topic of this ar cle, isnot only about the use of culture as an instrument ofinterna onal understanding, but also about the use ofculture to promote greater knowledge, sustain peace anddevelopment, foster inter-state coopera on, and by sodoing, prevent the threats of scourge of World War.

Since culture varies from people to people, sincethe level of educa on or knowledge is also not the same,but every group of people is desirous of peace, security,knowledge, progress and development, these mutualfactors of interest require that the various cultures of theworld be harmonised. Without a jot of doubt, culture, inall its rami ca ons, is well harnessed in virtually all thedeveloped countries. Most of them have signed variousagreements on cultural coopera on, involving educa onaland scien c exchanges, art exhibi ons, musical concerts,knowledge preserva on, exchange of art and pain ngworks, and promo on of literary works.

From the foregoing, the challenge of this ar clecannot but be daun ng. If we admit that culture is aboutvalues that are jointly held by the people, if it is about norms,about dos and donts, accepted by the people as principlesto be followed, and if it is also about their crea vi es, theques ons to be addressed are the following: how shouldthese values, norms, ar s c endowments, pa ern ormanner of living be harnessed, especially in Africa? Whatshould be the purpose of the harnessing? Perhaps more


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interes ngly, what should be the scope of the harnessing?Most signi cantly, which of the components of cultureshould be harnessed? Or should it be assumed that all thecultures of the world are compa ble? In Africa, even if it isgenerally posited that African states shared many culturalvalues, there is no dispu ng the fact that the behaviouralpa ern s ll varies from one country to another, especiallyas a result of colonial factors.

For instance, colonial languages, apart from themany African languages, divide African people. This situa ondoes not allow Africa to have a common culture that can beprojected interna onally. Africa is a terra cognita of severalcultures, begging for harmonisa on. Besides, the way ofthe Anglophones, who are generally more aggressive,is quite di erent from those of the Francophones, whoare more quiet and less aggressive. Francophones arenot known to quickly revolt against their government or

ins tu on. The Anglophones, par cularly Nigeria, hardlywaste any me in condemning perceived wrong doings ofthe former colonial master. In this case, how do we harnessthe con ic ng a tudinal disposi ons of the Anglophones,on the one hand, and the Francophones, Arabophones andLusophones, on the other?

There is also the fact that African cultures,especially in terms of lifestyles, have been, to a great extent,westernised and arabicised. African tradi onal religionshave also been given foreign contents. Should theseArabic-Islamic and European-Chris an slants be included in

the harnessing processes? In other words, to what extentcan there be an authen c African way of life, an Africanlifestyle that will re ect originality and the peculiari esof the peoples of Africa? There are about 2000 spokenlanguages in Africa. Can there be one African language thatcan replace French or English, or Portuguese or Spanish orArabic which are the foreign languages adopted as o ciallanguages of the 54 countries in Africa? Even within eachcountry of Africa, to what extent have their various culturesand civilisa ons been coordinated?

The importance of culture cannot be emphasised

enough due to the e ects it has had of human socie es.Cultural prac ces crucial to development include tradi onallivelihoods related to cultural forms and local prac ceswhose skills and knowledge are passed on from genera onto genera on; dis nc ve cultural forms and ar s cexpressions including buildings and architecture, literature,art, dance, music, cra s, storytelling, and lms; and globalethics that celebrate cultural pluralism and dialogue whilepromo ng human rights, equality for all individuals andgroups including gender equality, and democracy. Theseare all general variant of cultural heritage, but one can

see the scope it covers to truly understand its signi cancein development. The challenges Africa faces today placemore emphasis on the search for alterna ve ways to solveits problems.

Culture as Basis for InternationalUnderstanding

The importance of culture stems further to provideavenues for dialogue and understanding. Following the UNSecretary-General, Ban Ki-moons remarks, acknowledgingthe special event to mark the Interna onal Year onthe Rapprochement of Culture, in New York, 2010, hehighlighted the importance of dialogue and understandingamong people and faiths. The world we live in today israpidly changing and growing more connected and likenever before, global challenges have local impacts. In ane ort to replace barriers of distrust Ban Ki-Moon, urges

the importance of strengthening coopera on by expandingthe space for dialogue, which would build bridges ofunderstanding amongst states.

Dialogue among cultures and religions iscrucial to ful lling the central objec ves of the UnitedNa ons Charter, upholding human rights and advancingdevelopment. As a result, global leaders gathered in NewYork in September 2010 for the high-level plenary summitmee ng on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).This mee ng further cemented the need for countries,party to the Millennium Development Goals, to further

commit themselves and focus their e orts to ensuremore coopera on. Far too o en, distrust and ignoranceamong cultures and faiths have been obstacles to peaceand progress. The UN Secretary-General strongly believesgreater cultural understanding, par cularly promo ngthe rapprochement of cultures, would help promote thea ainment of the MDGs.

Further e orts made by the United Na ons to useculture as a tool for building interna onal coopera oncan be seen through its commitment to the promo on ofcultural diversity and knowledge. UNESCO has championed

this e ort, of which the Ins tute for African Culture andInterna onal Understanding (IACIU) is under. The IACIU wascreated as a non-pro t organisa on with its headquarterslocated in the Olusegun Obasanjo Presiden al Library inAbeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. IACIU is an ins tu on atthe service of Member States and Associate Members ofUNESCO from Africa. The IACIU was admi ed as a category2 Ins tute, according to an agreement signed on 8 April,2009, between UNESCO and the Government of theFederal Republic of Nigeria. The IACIU aims at promo ngreciprocal knowledge and understanding in Africa and


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beyond, paying considerable a en on to the AfricanDiaspora. Its objec ves range from raising awareness aboutthe important role played by cultural diversity, to studyingtangible and intangible heritage, as well as contemporarycultural expressions in the African region and the Diaspora.

Likewise, the Centre for Black Culture andInterna onal Understanding, also in Nigeria, as thename itself implies, works to elevate Black culture byfocusing on its recovery, preserva on, promo on, andu lisa on of its enduring ways of being for the purposesof holis c development, apprecia on, and interna onalunderstanding. The Centre which is located in Osogbo hasbene ted from the collec ons of Ulli Beier, then living inOsogbo, who became a good friend of Oba Moses Oyinlola,who reigned as the Olokuku of Okuku from 1934 1960.Both Osogbo township itself, renowned for its Osun fes val,the shrine of which has been listed as a world heritage site

by UNESCO and its surrounding towns, are rich in fes valsand other cultural prac ces. Despite the fact that a lotof the materials in the Centre are about Yoruba religiousprac ces from the 1950s to the early 1970s, the Centrealso reaches out to centres of Yoruba religious prac ces inBrazil, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Venezuela, the US, and the WestIndies.

Regionally speaking, mutual apprecia on ofdiversity among cultures creates posi ve and construc veengagement. In essence, techniques of buildinginterna onal understanding such as dialogue, is known to

promote mutual understanding, knowledge, reconcilia on,and peace, which are essen al to social stability. In addi onto the United Na ons Alliance of Civilisa ons (UNAOC)sunique coali on, with major worldwide corpora ons andcivil society partners to advocate for cultural diversity andinclusion through the Do One Thing for Diversity andInclusion campaign , other ini a ves aimed at dialogueand integra on have been promoted in Africa. Mostimportant is the World Fes val of Black Art and Culture(FESTAC). FESTAC was rst held in 1966 in Dakar, Senegal.The fes val was conceived by the then president of

Senegal, Leopold Sdar Senghor. Senghor was a founda onmember of the Negritude movement that sought to a rmand elevate the achievements of Black people and Africanculture throughout the world. It sought to imbibe regionalunderstanding within Africa, primarily showcasing andcelebra ng Africa.

A perfect expression of this mission, the rst Fes valMondial des Arts Ngres was a ended by people from 37countries, and hosted many of the greatest Black culturalemissaries of the day, including Duke Ellington, AimCsaire, and Josephine Baker. By the second FESTAC event,

most African countries had gained independence, freeingthemselves from degrading colonial control and ever eagerto send their best cultural ambassadors to the fes val.FESTAC 77 was a ended by thousands of people fromAfrica and the Diaspora. Ar sts included Stevie Wonder,The Sun Ra Arkestra, and Donald Byrd from the US, TabuLey and Franco from the Congo, Gilberto Gil from Brazil,Bembeya Jazz Na onal from Guinea, and Louis Maholo,Dudu Pukwana, and Miriam Makeba from South Africa.The core of the fes val from the organisers perspec vewas a two-week long colloquium where more than 200leading Black scholars presented papers and discussedtopics related to everything from arts and languages,philosophy and religion, to science and technology. By thethird fes val, the African Union had assumed leadership ofthe fes val demonstra ng the importance of celebra ngcultural diversity for the poli cal integra on.

Culture as a Desideratum for InternationalUnderstanding

Convinced that any human society is necessarily governedby rules and principles based on tradi ons, languages,ways of life and thought, in other words, on a set ofcultural values, which re ect its dis nc ve character andpersonality, African governments established variousins tu onal frameworks to harness these diverse culturesto promote interna onal understanding. These includethe Cultural Charter for Africa; the African Character for

Cultural Renaissance (Nairobi, 2005); Plan of Ac on for theCultural and Crea ve Industries in Africa (Algiers, 2008).

As regards the Cultural Charter for Africa, itwas adopted by Heads of State and Government of theOrganisa on of African Unity mee ng in its ThirteenthOrdinary Session, in Port Louis, Mauri us, from 2nd to 5thJuly, 1976, to provide Africa with sound cultural policies forthe development of the con nent. It is a comprehensivedocument that primarily explores measures to strengthenthe African economy through arts and culture and especiallyto create wealth and employment. Ar cle 1 of this Charter

states that its aims and objec ves are as follows:- to liberate the African peoples from

socio-cultural condi ons which impede theirdevelopment in order to recreate and maintainthe sense and will for progress, the sense andwill for development;

the rehabilita on, restora on, preserva on andpromo on of the African cultural heritage;

the asser on of the dignity of the African andof the popular founda ons of his culture;


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comba ng and elimina ng all forms of aliena onand cultural suppression and oppressioneverywhere in Africa, especially in countries s llunder colonial and racist domina on includingapartheid;

the encouragement of cultural co-opera onamong the States with a view to strengtheningAfrican unity;

the encouragement of interna onal culturalco-opera on for a be er understanding amongpeoples within which Africa will make its originaland appropriate contribu on to human culture;

promo on in each country of popular knowledgeof science and technology; a necessary condi onfor the control of nature; and

development of all dynamic values in the Africancultural heritage and rejec on of any elementwhich is an impediment to progress.

On the African Charter for Cultural Renaissance(Nairobi, 2005), it replaces the 1976 Cultural Charter forAfrica and deals with objec ves and principals, Africancultural diversity, iden ty and renaissance, culturaldevelopment, the use of African languages, the use of themass media, the role of states in cultural development,intra-and inter-African cultural co-opera on and Africa andthe Africa Diaspora.

The Plan of Ac on for the Cultural and Crea veIndustries in Africa (Algiers, 2008) was signed by all cultureministers at an African Union mee ng in 2008 and its aim isto support the growth and development of the cultural andcrea ve industries in Africa. Its economic objec ves are togenerate new resources; open new markets; strengthenthe compe veness of African cultural and crea ve goodsand services and private and community ini a ves, aswell as establish an African cultural common market. Itssocial objec ves are to foster cultural iden ty and new andpluralis c forums of cultural expression, and to broadenpeoples par cipa on. Its poli cal objec ves are to

ensure regional integra on, reduce external dependence,foster new ins tu onal partnerships between the privateand public sectors, south-south and new south-northcoopera on. It addresses eleven areas for interven on:reinforcing African ownership; addressing the need forsta s cal, ins tu onal and legisla ve capacity-building;facilita ng access to markets and audience; improvinginfrastructure; improving working condi ons; targe ngand empowering women, vulnerable groups and refugees;protec ng African intellectual property rights and labels;preserving African tangible and intangible cultural heritage;

and mobilising resources for sustainable implementa on.

Harnessing Culture to Promote InternationalUnderstanding in Africa

In using culture to promote interna onalunderstanding in Africa, it is important to understandwhat interna onal rela ons or foreign a airs is all about.Nicholson de ned interna onal rela on as the study of

social interac ons in context where there is no higherauthority to intrude or mediate and which is outsideany single governmental jurisdic on. In other words,interna onal rela ons simply mean rela ons amongna ons with each implemen ng aspects of its foreignpolicy which is in uenced by the nature of its culture. It isalso de ned as interac ons among cultural systems since ana on is a cultural system.

It is important to interact withinthe realms of other states culture,with their people, ins tu onsand ideas in order to have agood understanding about thatother culture because the lack ofunderstanding of other peoplescultural a tudes and valuescontribute to poli cal, social,economic, ideological and otherforms of con ict.

Therefore, the way a country behaves in theinterna onal system is linked to that countrys culturalsystem. According to Senator Fulbright, how well wecommunicate the values of our socie es to others wouldgreatly in uence the shape of the world. This simplyimplies that we can understand how cultural rela ons canincrease interna onal understanding which will, in turn,result to the reduc on of con ict among states, especiallyin Africa which is bedevilled with crisis of one form or theother. Cultural rela ons can therefore act as a signi cant

vehicle for establishing understanding between di erentpeople and would e ec vely lessen the feelings of anxietyand hopelessness that are very common in con icts. Thus,cultural rela ons is one of the most e ec ve ways forna ons to a ain an ac ve and coopera ve understandingof one another by o ering poten al for reducing andmanaging the worlds ills.

There is a connec on between ones belief systemand foreign rela onship in the interna onal system, insuch a way that the decisions of poli cal actors or leadersrepresent the decisions of their respec ve states as well

as the individuals within that state. In order to understand


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why someone does something, we must understand theimages that others have about us. A na onal image has agreat impact on the rela ons between states. If a na onalimage which is perceived as na onal values, is deemedincompa ble, the poten al for con ict at the interna onallevel becomes very high. Just as suggested by EdwardHall that one of the main crises in the world today ishumankinds rela onship to its extensions, ins tu ons,ideas as well as the rela onships among the manyindividuals and groups that inhabit the globe, increasinginterna onal understanding through cultural awarenesswill help to promote interna onal understanding in Africa.It is important to interact within the realms of other statesculture, with their people, ins tu ons and ideas in orderto have a good understanding about that other culturebecause the lack of understanding of other peoplescultural a tudes and values contribute to poli cal, social,economic, ideological and other forms of con ict. Forexample, the na onal image of the United States mayhave also played a signi cant role in the United States lackof seeing beyond their own ide xe . In 1949, PresidentTrumans Secretary of State, Dean Acheson, actually fearedthat democra c America would not take the Communistthreat seriously enough. Thus from 1949, the plan was toexaggerate the danger posed for America by the USSR andChina. In order to protect and rmly establish its na onaldemocra c image, American state leaders con nued toemphasise its democra c ideals in much of the languageof American policy.

In the face of globalisa on, the industrialisedna ons are entering the world market as blocs, such as theEuropean Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Area(NAFTA) and the emerging economies such as the Brazil,Russia, India, China and South Africa (BRICS). Harnessingthe diverse cultures in African countries will enhancetheir coopera ve strength by consolida ng their regionalcoopera ve e ort and mul lateral arrangements . DiverseAfrican cultures can also be harnessed toward the strugglefor economic emancipa on and a ainment of socialprosperity for the people of Africa. This could be achievedthrough con nental ini a ves aimed at ameliora ng thestringent economic condi ons exis ng in most Africancountries.

In the 21st century, with the development of thesupersonic means of communica on and transporta on,all the countries of the world have come closer to eachother. Consequently, no country can successfully isolateitself from other countries, because whatever happensin one country, will inevitably impact on others, eitherdirectly or indirectly. The current global economic crisis is

an ample example of how a crisis in America and Europe

can spiral to a ect the banking sector in Nigeria. Historyhas shown the existence of mistrust and misunderstandingamong countries which shaped interna onal poli cs andrela ons for years. However, there are several problemsof global concern like pollu on, poverty, unemployment,terrorism and prolifera on of nuclear armaments to betackled through mutual understanding and co-opera on.The symbolic force of cultural heritage cannot beunderes mated as a powerful interna onal force. Cultureacts as a spring of hope, enabling a deep sense of belongingand empowerment. By preven ng con ict, building peaceand protec ng rights of marginalised groups, interculturalexchange can help create condi ons for achievinginterna onal goals such as the MDGs.

Although certain aspects of Africanculture may be lost to Western/

American culture, it does notremove from the pressing needto revive crucial prac ces as away of improving interna onalunderstanding of educa on,integra on, development and ofother cultures.

Indeed, interna onal peace and mutualunderstanding is the need of the hour. E orts and themere existence of interna onal organisa ons like the UNO,UNESCO and the AU give even more reason to promotegood neighbourliness and peaceful co-existence amongthe people of the world. On the other hand, there arenumerous ways that cultural system aid con ict and reducecoopera on. One of the simplest problems has been thatof cultural imperialism whereby a dominant poli cal oreconomic power can impose its power on others, or createcondi ons whereby its culture has preference. This was thecase with most European empires (including the Spanish,French, English and Dutch). In the contemporary period,

the United States is o en seen as directly and indirectlyaiding Americanisa on , largely through companiesspreading cultural commodi es, as well as having strongeduca onal, research, media and publishing industries.

The debate which leads many scholars to arguethat there is a crisis in African culture is primarily due tothe overwhelming in uence of Western culture whichaccompanied adopted democra c prac ses. The fear isthat the in ltra on of Western culture into African societyis not only reason for Africas stagnated developmentlevels, but also a concern for its cultural heritage. Although

certain aspects of African culture may be lost to Western/


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American culture, it does not remove from the pressingneed to revive crucial prac ces as a way of improvinginterna onal understanding of educa on, integra on,development and of other cultures. There is s ll hope thatby reviving culture as a key cornerstone of many AfricanStates foreign policy, posi ve steps in development willmaterialise into society.

Conclusion

In this paper, we highlighted the contribu ons of cultureto development and to the promo on of interna onalunderstanding in Africa and the rest of the world. It isworthy of remark that modern society is bringing togethermore people who speak di erent languages, prac sedi erent religions, hold di erent poli cal views, havevastly di erent amounts of wealth or poverty, and more.To increase understanding amongst these di erent peoples

within this interna onal system, more a en on must bepaid to our similari es. Na onal di erences could lead tocon ict at mes, but we can avoid many of the disputesby understanding each others culture. Improving culturalrela ons are not going to solve the worlds problems, butthey can certainly aid in be er rela ons between Africancountries in the interna onal system.

Promo ng Interna onal

Understanding in the USAthrough Culture:Lessons for AfricaRichard K. Gordon

Professor Richard Gordon of California State University,Dominguez Hills, Carson, California, USA, specialises inmul cultural educa on. Email: [email protected]

The United States is a mel ng-pot na on, bringing inmillions of people and incorpora ng them into an

Anglo-American civilisa on based on broadly sharedliberal idealslife, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Aborderless American dream remains the a rac on for tensof millions of do cumented and undocumented immigrants.The pluralis c nature of the US society begs for consistentre ec on on ones cultural understanding. In the USA,whether you are discussing which restaurant, which movie,which neighbourhood, which television channel or whichradio sta on you enjoy, there will generally be referencesto the na on represented in that restaurant, movie,

neighbourhood, television, or radio sta on. In almost anycity, large or small, you will nd a restaurant featuring anethnic theme the most popular being Chinese. Many ci eshold interna onal lm fes vals. They have small cinemasregularly showing foreign lms. In the USA, satellite, cableand local television sta ons cater to the viewing tastes ofthe many immigrant and non-immigrant popula ons. Inlarge metropolitan areas television programming exists inmore than 15 di erent languages. In large metro areasradio sta ons broadcast programmes in a mul tude oflanguages.

Achieving cultural integra on hasnot been easy. There are certainlybigoted individuals and segregatedenclaves in the USA whereideas of cultural acceptance andinterna onalism are rejected in bi erand o en violent ways.

In the USA there are 89 na onal historic sitesopen to the public and nancially-supported by the federalgovernment. The Na onal Park Service (NPS) manages78 of these. Groups a liated with the US Na onal ParkService manage eleven others. These sites are usually largeand small edi ces related to the cultural history of the USAand its ci zens. For example there is the Boston AfricanAmerican Na onal Historic Site. Here one can nd 15

pre-civil war structures rela ng to the history of Bostons19th century African-American community, includingthe museum of Afro-American historys African Mee ngHouse, the oldest standing African-American church inthe United States. The home of Frederick Douglass, thefamous aboli onist is also designated as a historical siteand open to visitors. The NPS historical site at Manzanar,California marks the displacement of Japanese-Americansfrom their homes during World War II. This embraceof the history of its people by the federal governmentthrough the preserva on of culturally-signi cant areas is

an example of how the poli cal requirements of living ina mul cultural society demand recogni on of the plurality the people. Through exhibits, seminars, and mul -media presenta ons these historical sites are portrayedas signi cant components of USA life. This educa on onUS history includes the history of the cultural group whosestory is being shared, and preserved.

US racial pluralism also brings together manydisparate social values under the umbrella of culture. Inter-racial marriages in the USA and subsequent inter-racialbirths have risen 5% since the 1980s. In the USA in 2010


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15% of all marriages were interracial. O spring of inter-cultural marriages speak of visi ng paternal rela ves inone of the worlds regions while also visi ng their maternalrela ves in another of the worlds regions. Individualsin these blended marriages nd themselves serving ascultural ambassadors among their same-race friends andrela ves. These ambassadors diploma cally explain thevalues of their spouse, and their spouses family cultureto others. These conversa ons act as mini-traveloguesand history lessons where the listener begins to considertravelling abroad a er hearing about their friends closeexperiences with individuals from di erent culture.

Achieving cultural integra on has not been easy.There are certainly bigoted individuals and segregatedenclaves in the USA where ideas of cultural acceptance andinterna onalism are rejected in bi er and o en violentways. But the underlying idea of USAs mel ng-pot culturerepresents a consistent challenge for each of its ci zensto confront. In this dialogue with family, neighbours,strangers, and foreigners, the cultural impulse more o enthan not is to accept di erences. Do all Americans acceptthis challenge? Of course not. Are there virulent opponentsof interna onalism? Most certainly so.

Up to this point I did not discuss the role ofbusiness in promo ng interna onal understanding. Myreason for doing so is that doing business is more o ena conversa on about monetary rela onships and notthe personal rela onships forming the rich and profoundideas conjured when thinking of an interna onal andcultural rela onship. Business rela onships occur mosto en in nancial sectors of major ci es. They are not inthe small towns, villages, and hamlets visited by peoplewishing to have a profound understanding of otherinterna onal ci zens. Business rela onships are typicallyshort-term they do not end up in marriages. The typeof interna onalism promoted through the uniqueness ofAmerican culture can be found in the historical support byins tu ons to educate and be educated in the knowledge ofother people and their cultures. I do not see how businessrela ons address mul ple facets of human understandingby promo ng products and services only. The formalopera ons of business hegemony should neither be asubs tute for the promo on of interna onalism norshould business hegemony be considered a response tothe demands of pluralis c US demographics.

The culture of educa on in a pluralis c societyis the incubator for reinforcing interna onal understandingamong a popula on. A societal commitment to educa onis very crucial in laying the founda on in developing acurious and willing ci zenry embracing interna onalism.

Numerous federal, state, local, and private ins tu onssupport and maintain an infrastructure ed to the needsfor having an educated ci zenry. These ins tu onalsupports directly and indirectly promote intercultural andinterna onal understanding. A higher educa on cultureprovides a fer le array of intercultural courses contribu ngto interna onal understanding. S ll further evidence ofthe promo on of interna onal understanding in highereduca on is found in the number of interna onal studentsand faculty studying and collabora ng on numerouscampuses. In higher educa on we also nd statesidefaculty collabora ng with interna onal faculty on mul pleacademic-related projects. The higher educa on webextends to students, faculty, and community members andcontributes to a culture of interna onal understanding.The structure of this web carries both visible and invisiblevibra ons of interna onalism.

A network of museums and libraries havingcollec ons and exhibits represen ng interna onal andna onal cultures exposes individuals to common ancestraland historical cultural roots. It is very easy to see howmuseum and library a endance can excite a curiosity thatcontributes to ones cultural understanding and serveas a mo vator for gathering greater understanding thatperhaps leads to an interna onal experience. Visitorsto historical sites receive opportuni es to par cipate incultural histories having na onal and interna onal bases.Given the educa onal nature of these sites, it seems veryeasy for one to acquire a broad perspec ve of the culturesbeing celebrated and remembered.

Couple the culture of educa on with themul plicity of arenas where cultural opportuni es, culturalhistories, and social awareness interact and you witness thechemistry involved in the development of the promo onof interna onal understanding in the USA. This complexinterac on has as its nexus the universally desired culturalvalue educa on. Educa on in a racially and culturallypluralis c society is of cri cal importance in promo nginterna onal understanding.

Examples of the Fulbright and Peace CorpsProgrammes in Fostering InternationalUnderstanding

The Fulbright Scholar Programme is a very importantcultural vehicle for promo ng interna onal understanding.The programme is the USA governments premieracademic and cultural exchange e ort. The Council forthe Interna onal Exchange of Scholars (CIES) administersthe Fulbright Scholars Programme. CIES is a privateorganisa on within the Ins tute of Interna onal Educa on


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(IIE). Two of IIEs regional o ces are in Africa. IIE in Cairo,Egypt represents the Middle East and Northern Africa(MENA). IIE in Addis Ababa represents IIEs presence insub-Saharan Africa. These regional o ces provide servicesin leadership development, higher educa on servicesincluding scholarship and exchange programmes, and highquality study tours.

The federal focus on interna onalism can also befound in the Peace Corps programme. The Peace Corpstraces its roots and mission to 1960, when former presidentJohn F. Kennedy challenged students at the Universityof Michigan to serve their country in the cause of peaceby living and working in developing countries. From thatinspira on grew an agency of the federal governmentdevoted to world peace and friendship. Since that me,more than 200,000 Peace Corps Volunteers served in 139host countries. The Peace Corps has three goals: (a) helpingthe people of interested countries in mee ng their need fortrained men and women; (b) helping to promote a be erunderstanding of Americans on the part of the peoplesserved; and (c) helping to promote a be er understandingof other peoples on the part of Americans (Peace Corps).

The federal commitment to interna onalisa onpromo ng the exchange of cultures in collabora onwith government and non-pro t agencies expresses thecultural power of educa on. Educa on in uencescultural understanding. CIES, IIE, and the Peace Corpsare three agencies heavily in uenced by federal policyand a commitment to educa on that foster interna onalunderstanding. Underlying that commitment tointerna onal understanding is a dedica on to the highly-prized cultural value of educa on. This recogni on of thecultural value of educa on is evident at the federal leveland also in ins tu ons of higher educa on.

Interna onalisa on of university and collegeprogrammes is drawing renewed interest among highereduca on leaders. Universi es that place a value oneduca ng students for interna onal experiences recognisethe dynamic value of culture. In higher educa on cultureis a dynamic construct not easily understood but highlyworthy of con nual discussion. An O ce of Interna onalA airs would have the responsibility of housing severalindividual programmes. Two student-centred programmeshoused in the O ce of Interna onal A airs would includeStudent Study Abroad Programme and the Interna onalStudent O ce. The la er o ce would advise interna onalstudents on campus. The o ce would also monitor studentacademic and social progress from arrival to departure.Students visi ng this o ce would receive informa on onvisa requirements, housing (dormitory or o -campus) and

health resources, cultural ac vi es, and managing scalresponsibili es. They would also receive informa on ontransporta on to school, and if possible, a speci c countrycoordinator. The o ce would also no fy appropriateadministrators and faculty of the interna onal studentsarrival and major study area. There would also be anadministra ve emergency contact number available. Ifinterna onal students and faculty arrive with their familiesthis o ce would locate appropriate elementary or secondaryschools for children of the interna onal couple. The o cewould also seek administrators and teachers in schools whowould foster a posi ve experience for the family.

The Interna onal O ce of Interna onal A airs inconjunc on with individual academic departments wouldhave the responsibility for recrui ng interna onal faculty.University deans in considering the hiring of new faculty couldimpress the idea that interna onal research is a signi cantcomponent of the promo on process. Deans would alsolook for prospec ve hires having an interna onal agenda ontheir list of goals. Department o cials would also encourageinterna onal opportuni es for faculty, such as CIES and IIE. Thiso ce would also help faculty discover funding opportuni esfor interna onal opportuni es when necessary.

In interna onalising the campus, an O ceof Faculty Development would sponsor interna onalscholars on campus. There could be forums whereinterna onal faculty would speak on topics of interest.These talks would expose students to the interna onallearning community. The O ce of Faculty Developmentwould provide opportuni es for social ac vi es involvinginterna onal scholars, students and others. Within theFaculty Development o ce there would be policies inplace suppor ng interna onalism as part of the promo onprocess. Of course we see curriculum o erings in collegesand universi es as another way in which the cultureof educa on promotes interna onal understanding.Compara ve literature courses, courses in interna onalbusiness culture, compara ve history courses, and worldlanguage studies represent a very small sampling ofcourses o ered in college and university curricula in theUSA. Students in the USA can study Swahili and Sanskrit,Hausa and Hindi languages.

There are many professional organisa ons suchas the Japan and US Teacher Educa on Consor umwhose membership seeks to involve them in cross-cultural collabora ons on interna onal research projects.These interna onal conferences and mee ngs wouldbe an excellent resource for promo ng interna onalunderstanding. The addi onal bene t, besides promo nginterna onal understanding is of course, the professional


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exchange of knowledge. The culture of educa on isreinforced in the shared concern for improving onesdiscipline. Faculty exchanges could be ini ated andfacilitated during an interna onal conference. My six-month visi ng scholar experience in Japan at Tokyo GakugeiUniversity resulted from my a endance at an interna onalconference.

Museums are part of it

While the university is one area where a commitmentto a culture of educa on, can generate interna onalunderstanding, there are other venues outside the universityor college promo ng interna onal understanding. TheUSA has an array of museums having interna onal themes.The soon to be opened (2015) Na onal Museum of AfricanAmerican History and Culture, the Schoenberg Museumand the Du Sable Museum all have collec ons devoted to

sharing the cultural heritage of Africans and Africans inthe USA. These museums are supported by federal, state,local and private funds. This governmental and privatesupport is an indica on of how once again the culture ofeduca on, nds ways in which to promote interna onalunderstanding. The African diaspora can also be found atthe Afro-Peruvian museum in Zaa, Peru. Zaa is a smallcity of 39,000 inhabitants in the Lambayeque region ofnorthwest Peru. I visited the Afro-Peruvian museum inZaa on two separate occasions. The museums missionis to protect valued cultural artefacts, and educate youth

and others concerning the African in uences in Peru and toteach dance and music of the Africans of Peru.

It would be unreasonable to compare the resourcesof the Afro-Peruvian museum contrasted with that of theNa onal Museum of African American History and Culture.Yet the former museums educa on is similar to that ofthe la er. That mission is educa on focused. A na onsbelief in the cultural value of educa on, channelledthrough its museums and other cultural repositories hasan enormously valuable e ect on promo ng interna onalunderstanding. The educa onal value of museums cannot

be overlooked in this discussion concerning ways in whichculture promotes interna onal understanding.

Lessons for Africa

In Africas mul ple regions, one can certainly nd racialand cultural pluralism. Within these regions the culturalpluralism among ci zens of the various countries isevident. In these regions in terms of promo ng a cultureof interna onalism, the educa onal resources of highereduca on can be highlighted, strengthened, and shaped to

address the rise of an interna onal consciousness. Highereduca on partnerships and the role of higher educa ondevelopment in Africa have been sorely neglected in thepast few decades, said David Hansen, a senior fellow at theAssocia on of Public and Land Grant Universi es (APLU).

The African diaspora hasremarkable reach. Formalisingthat reach through meaningfulengagement with other worldcultures is the context withinwhich we speak of promo nginterna onal understanding.

The APLU, is a non-pro t associa on of publicresearch universi es, spearheading the African-USHigher Educa on Ini a ve. One aim of the Ini a ve isto increase awareness of the vital role universi es playin the con nents social and economic development.APLU sponsored partnerships exist between Addis AbabaUniversity and the University of Connec cut, the Universityof Malawi and Michigan State University, and the Universityof Cape Town and the University of Cincinna . Establishing,shepherding, and sharing protocols and results similarto the APLU ini a ve throughout African universi es canassist in promo ng interna onal understanding.

Each year many African scholars commencescholarly ac vi es in the USA under the auspices ofthe Fulbright Programme for Foreign Students. Forexample, 12 students from Botswana travelled to USuniversi es between 2008 and 2011. There were 50Fulbright grantees from Nigeria, and 25 from Senegalduring the same period. Fulbright scholars from otherAfrican na ons are represented on facul es of highereduca on throughout the con nent. These scholarsare ambassadors for promo ng interna onal experi -ence. Upon return to their home country they couldengage in scholarly ac vi es to disseminate informa -

on about their experience. They could encourageothers to apply for the Fulbright award. With appro -priate administra ve support they could begin thetype of collabora ons o ered in the APLU African-USHigher Educa on Ini a ve.

The ins nct to travel beyond geographical bordersmay be as profound a marker of our humanity as is theins nct to educate. Trust your spirit. Listen to your spirit.Interna onalism is a state of mind sparked by imagina onand wonder. Yes, there is a comfort in home. And yet as


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humans our home is the en re planet. The African diasporahas remarkable reach. Formalising that reach throughmeaningful engagement with other world cultures is thecontext within which we speak of promo ng interna onalunderstanding.

If there is a lesson for Africa that I can humbly shareit is this. Harness the splendour of your educa onal systemsprimarily through the university. Use your educa onalsystems to promote mul cultural understanding. U liseyour universi es to plough the minds of your studentswith a message tou ng the advantages of an interna onalexperience. Press into the hearts of your poli cal leadersthe need to honour cultures, ideas, and tradi ons throughsupport of museums, libraries, and historical sites havingbroad signi cance to your popula on and at the same mebe invi ng for others to visit as well.

African musicians and ar sts receive interna onalacclaim. Support more of this talent by entering intoreciprocal arrangements with ar sts from other na ons.What are the service arenas similar to the Peace Corpsthat Africans can export? Surely an African governmentcan recruit specialists, to share with other na ons, ideas,thoughts, and values unique to the con nent and lacking inother of the worlds regions.

Diversity and Dynamics of African

Cultural Expressions in EasternAfricaSilverse Lisamula Anami

Silverse Anami is a culture and development Consultantin Kenya. Email: [email protected]

The east African sub-region provides numerousarchaeological ac vi es in our search for answersto fundamental concerns of the human race. Indeed,the `cradle of humanity has con nued to a ract an

in ow of community immigrants from all parts of theworld. Movements from the southern, central andnorthern Africa converged in eastern Africa whilesailors, traders, missionaries, explorers, touristsand cultural prac oners from the middle east,far east, Europe and other parts of the world madehistorical stop-over and/or se lements along theeast African coast and its mainland. It is believed bymany communi es in east Africa that all migratorymovements headed eastwards. This trend ofmigra on informs the magne c pull that impacted

on the movements and eventual se lement of many

communi es in eastern Africa and con nues toin uence the cultural disposi ons of the east Africancommuni es.

The conspicuous landscapes of eastern Africahighlighted by the expansive and ever cavernous GreatRi Valley, the east African coast, the Great Lakes andthe highlands, which, coupled with the towering Mt.Kilimanjaro, Mt. Kenya, Nyandarua ranges, Mt. Elgon,Mt. Ruwenzori, Mau Ranges, Serenge and Ngorongorocraters, appear to host the greatest secrets of the eastAfrican region. The vast range of ora and fauna providethe communi es with greater prospects in uencing theforma on of new trends of crea vity and a broad spectacleof cultural diversity amongst the peoples of eastern Africa.

The tropical, the arid and semi-arid seasons of eastAfrica and indeed the changing clima c pa erns of theuniverse, form the consor um of factors that determinethe essence and crea ve trends of cultural prac cesadopted by communi es and individual prac oners thatinteract with these physical features of eastern Africa. Thispaper endeavours therefore, to highlight the fundamentalimportance of cultural prac ces formulated on the basis ofthe above men oned historical, environmental and naturalfeatures of eastern Africa. The paper proposes someprac cal interven ons that could be deployed to ascertainviability and the ul mate promo on of the diverse culturalexpressions of the communi es. The host of innova vecultural expressions adopted by the human society are,by all means, the by-products of coping mechanisms thatform the fabric of society. This paper takes cognisance ofthe migratory trends and the overall e ects created in thecultural lives of the communi es.

Ethnic Diversity in East Africa

It makes a lot of sense to discuss culture in terms ofspeci c communi es, whether founded on ethnicityor otherwise. Ethnic communi es in east Africa areviewed in three major classi ca ons, namely; Bantu,Nilotes and Cushites. While Bantu-speaking commu -ni es are the majority, contemporary distribu onshows a remarkable evidence of socio-economic in -tegra on amongst them, producing a mosaic of eth -nici es and cultural prac oners. These forms ofintegra on have tended to infuse cultural a ributesamongst the communi es without necessarily makingthem wholesomely homogeneous. The ethnic com-muni es of eastern Africa have con nued to adhereto their ancestral origins as their source of inspira on,social iden ty as well as their economic and poli cal

empowerment.


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Some communi es have common origins while othershave come from diverse backgrounds with a range of sharedopportuni es. The pastoralist Nilo c communi es migratedsouthwards from Sudan and se led in parts of Uganda andaround Lake Victoria in Kenya and Tanzania. A large part of theNilotes has since se led in the highlands of Kenya and Ugandaand has con nued to prac se their pastoralist lives up to date.

The Nilo c groups that travelled south through thewestern route were forced to change their pastoralist lives astheir livestock were o en a acked and killed by tsetse ies.The Luo Nilotes adopted the unfamiliar agricultural lifestylewhich reverberates well with the lake region condi ons. Thisis only but an example of many occupa onal adjustmentswhich impact greatly on the diversity of cultural expressionsassociated with the migra ng communi es. Essen ally, thecommuni es crea vely developed their cultural diversityon the basis of their long-term interac on with nature andthe environment. The communi es socio-economic andpoli cal aspira ons are mostly inspired and propelled by themo va on to strengthen their iden ty through the economicand poli cal empowerment of their ci zens.

The di erent communi es have contributed greatlytowards human crea vity, cultural diversity leading toinnova ons that de ne their iden ty, governance systems andlife aspira ons. The mainstream ethnic communi es of EasternAfrica to men on just a few include the Luhya, Luo, Kalenjin,Kikuyu, Mijikenda, Taita, Akamba, Maasai, Pokot, Turkana,Ateso, Sukuma, Saboat, Karamojong, Nyamwezi, Chagaa, Hehe,Ngoni, Abagusi, Dorobo, Ogiek, Hutu, Tutsi, Twa, Baganda,Banyankole, Somali, Orma, Mbeya, Tabora, Kuria, Samia, Digo,Banyoro, Suba, Swahili and Borana. Some of these communi esare found in more than one country owing to the pre-colonialharmonious coexistence amongst them.

It is worthwhile to note that most of the ethniccommuni es of East Africa have lived together harmoniouslycelebra ng the richness of their cultural heritage throughintermarriages, social integra on and assimila on enhancedby shared opportuni es. However, in other instances, somecommuni es have been engulfed in endless inter-ethnic

con icts arising from perceived di erences between them,mostly caused by poli cal rivalry and compe on for powerand/or resources. The example of such instances can betraced to the 1994 genocide in Rwanda involving the Hutuand the Tutsi communi es and the 2007/2008 post elec onviolence that involved the Kikuyu, Kalenjin, Luo, Luhya andother communi es of Kenya that fervently competed in thedisputed general elec ons of 2007. The double decade longstrives and restlessness that characterises life in Somalia isthe sad example of inter-clan con icts that have constantly

tormented the human society in Eastern Africa.

Human Creativity

The communi es naturally endeavour to invent proceduresand techniques that could facilitate their con nued survivalwithin the context of the environment and the mes of

the moment. In this regard, the gi of crea vity bestowedupon humankind becomes extremely handy. Of coursethere would always be occasions when some individualprac oners would prove to be more crea ve under thesame circumstances. It is in this respect that the UnitedNa ons fraternity recognises the signi cance of humancrea vity as the fundamental source for the developmentof Cultural Diversity.

In this regard, it is appreciated that within theframework of the 2003 UNESCO Conven on for Safeguardingof the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, the

Basoga communi es of Uganda have embarked on thelucra ve programme of revitalising their old tradi on ofbark cloth making. This ini a ve is geared to enhance theprotec on of the tradi onal skills of making bark clotheswhile safeguarding the intangible cultural heritage of thecommuni es. In the process, the communi es concernedwill endeavour to promote cultural diversity in the regionwhile leveraging on human crea vity as a strategy for thedevelopment of cultural industries in Uganda and beyond.

In this way, it is worthwhile to note that EastAfrican communi es and indeed the individual cultural

prac oners bear the sovereign responsibility to propagatethe protec on, sustenance and the ul mate safeguardingof their cultural heritage as they posses, not only the skillsof inven ng the cultural expressions, but also the capacityto host and transmit them to the younger genera ons astheir symbol of iden ty and con nuity. Human crea vityamongst the communi es of Eastern Africa has given riseto the development of spectacular innova ons includingbasketry, po ery, hand cra s, sculpture, arts and design,architecture, weaving, embroidery, performing arts, music,dance and theatre, storytelling, poetry, drama, puppetry,

rock art, singing games, ritual arts and masqueradesamongst others. This undertaking, no doubt, promisesto inspire vast indulgence in the promo on of culturalindustries around the world.

Some Creative Masterpieces of East Africa

The typical innova ons created by the peoples of EasternAfrica cover the wider spectrum of manifesta onsthat represent the iden ty and aspira ons of the localcommuni es and which are actualised through a variety of


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cultural expressions including electronic produc on, oraldissemina on, tradi onal and technological publica onsand distribu on of the expressions. Some of the signi cantexpressions include: the performing arts, oral tradi ons,indigenous knowledge, cultural ceremonies, fes vals,rites of passage, handcra s, architectural designs,tradi onal medicine, indigenous games, lm, theatre, bookpublica ons, culinary arts, tradi onal farming, food ways,con ict resolu on, storytelling, music and dress codes. InEastern Africa, like most of the other African communi es,cultural performances re ect the aesthe c principles andethical values of the society. Some of the performancesserve the purpose of communica ng and educa ng theyoung thus passing on language values, literary tradi ons,historical occurrences and styles. It could be used toar culate peoples tradi ons and aspira ons. Due to theroles that music and other performing arts play, greaterfocus has been directed at the art form to enhance theeconomic output that is a ributed to it. In Kenya, musicindustry accounts for about 5% of the na onal economythus crea ng opportuni es for enhanced employmentand wealth crea on. Most of these a ributes are readilypassed on to the younger genera ons and are recognisedas the communitys source of iden ty and con nuity, Tosample just a few, we examine the following cultural formsof eastern Africa:

Music tradi ons: A greater part of the East Africanpopulace, like other cultural organiza ons, recognise musicmaking as an essen al and viable means of enhancing thesocietys commitment to safeguarding music culture ofthe communi es while crea ng appropriate avenues fordissemina on of the artworks. Tradi onal Benga music isno doubt a masterpiece of the east African great composerslike Daudi Kabaka, John Nzenze, Daniel Mwai Kamau,Owino Misiani and Susan Owiyo. Benga music genre formsthe character and benchmark for music development ineastern Africa da ng back from the 50s and the 60s andspreading to the contemporary moments. Along with thissingular genre are the diversity of tradi onal sounds andrhythms enshrined in in ec ons of the ceremonies andrituals of the diverse communi es.

Handcra s: The handcra s of eastern Africa areboth func onal and ar s c in nature. They are u lised inall spheres of life including rites of passage, for example,the walking s ck of the Maasai people, which is awarded tothe moran following the Enkipaata age set ceremony. It isthe peoples symbol of iden ty and serves to recognise theage set of the individual moran in Tanzania and Kenya. Theother East African communi es that prac ce this heritageinclude the Kalenjin of Kenya, the Karamojong in Kenya

and Uganda, the Pokot of Kenya and Uganda, the Somali,Borana and Orma of Northern Kenya, Somali and Ethiopia,plus other pastoralist communi es of Eastern Africa.

Sculpture: The carvings and sculpture of theAkamba and Makonde communi es of Kenya and Tanzaniarespec vely, are household commodi es in the culturalindustries of eastern Africa. They have admirable pro lesat the east African and the interna onal pla orm. Thesculptures make a fundamental appeal to the tourism andcultural industries in east Africa. There is no doubt thatthe sculptures, most of which illustrate the interac onbetween the sculptors and the wildlife of east Africa, arean important a ribute to the repertoire of the easternAfrica cultural expressions for which special market outletsare designated around many tourist des na ons. Thesculptures form the bulk of the regions cultural goods andindeed the leading product amongst the cultural industriesof the east African region.

Dress code, hair plaits and body marks of the Maasaicommuni es of Kenya and Tanzania are a par cularlysigni cant trade mark of the east African people. Theseexpressions are also used to authen cate the social statusof the individuals and are especially useful for age setini a on in many communi es. The Maasai, the Turkana,the Samburu, the Pokot, the Rendille, the Karamojong, theSomali, the Swahili and the Saboat communi es amongothers have their indigenous dress codes which form thebasis of their iden ty. These cultural art forms have latelybeen incorporated in the silhoue e of cultural industriesof east Africa. They form the tradi onal costume of therespec ve communi es and the showbiz of the relevantcultural prac oners.

Tradi onal necklaces are associated with theindigenous Turkana, the Pokot, the Karamojong, the Saboat,the Kalenjin, the Samburu, the Rendille and the Maasaicommuni es of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. The artefactssymbolise the marital and family status of the individualprac oners and the community. They are mainly used tode ne the social and cultural standings of individuals andprac oners in society thus providing a systema c approachto interpersonal rela ons. This cultural resource is essen allyuseful for promo on of value systems and social integra on.In contemporary mes, the artefacts have widely been usedfor aesthe c embellishments and enhancement of art anddesign. The necklaces are currently an essen al and indeedpopular commodity that is visible in almost all spheres ofcultural industries in east Africa. It is worth men oning thatthe diverse shades of necklaces have a racted a wide rangeof entrepreneurship across the con nent, mostly popularwith the youth and the female gender.


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The Sengenya, Isuku , Atenusu drums andassociated dance movements of the Digo, Giriama,Duruma (Mijikenda), Isukha, Idakho (Luhya) and theAteso communi es of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda,respec vely, are renowned musical drum sets popular fortheir aesthe c appeal to the bearers, the communi esand respec ve prac oners. The drum sets are widelyused during ceremonial occasions as they are readilyadaptable amongst many other communi es of easternAfrica. These drum sets are renowned for their vibrantand sen mental percussive beats and the rhythmic throbsthat characterise the climax of performances of these artforms. The Sengenya, Isuku and Atenusu art forms, whichincorporate the art of construc ng the instruments andthen the execu on of the concerted drum beats plus theassociated songs and dance ac vi es, remain to be themost insigh ul cultural performances in the east Africanregion. At the moment the art forms have been iden edby the communi es concerned and the respec vegovernment authori es for nomina on to UNESCO forinscrip on on the Representa ve List of the Conven onfor the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage ofHumanity. The associated art forms con nue to ourishwithin the tourist, social and cultural pla orms.

The spectacular corona on drums, songs anddances of the Baganda Community in Uganda arerenowned for their dynamism, addic on and inspira on.The aesthe c capital of the Baganda dance exploits isalways tremendous and a sight to behold, enabling the artform to travel widely within east Africa and beyond. Withinthe context of the tradi ons of the Baganda community, alldrums belong to the Kabaka (king of the Baganda). Whenthe Kabaka presents a chief with any o ce, he confersupon him a drum. A person so promoted is said to have`eaten a drum ( alidde Engoma ) or if a son takes his fathersplace, it is said that he has `eaten his fathers drum ( aliddeengoma ya kitaawe ). In 2011, the reigning Kabaka RonaldMuwenda Mutebi II inaugurated a new set of six Bagandadrums which he named Buganda Bummu .

The newly established Buganda Bummu drumswere commissioned as a symbol of unity among theBaganda, a campaign, Kabaka Mutebi II, has spearheadedsince his corona on as King of Buganda in 1993. Heappointed the Nkusu clan to manage the func ons of theBuganda Bummu as the main drummers of these symbolicand culturally func onal drums set. In essence, the BugandaBummu drums have joined a long list of other drums thatwere similarly established by past Kings of Buganda forvarious thema c func ons. For a long me, court func onsof the Baganda were elaborate with the deployment of a

large number of drum ensembles belonging to the Kabaka.Each group of drums was named and men were speci callydesignated to take up residence at the Lubiri (palace) forthe exclusive duty of pas ng the drums. In contemporary

mes, there are fewer drums u lised as a huge score ofthe tradi onal drums were lost during Kabaka Mutesa Isreign due to the many civil wars, ba les and res whicharose out of the perennial inter-ethnic power strugglesand con icts. Besides, modern lifestyles seem to be moredemanding than the tradi onal past when ci zens werecontented with voluntary services to the royalty.

In recent mes, the nancial capabili es of theKabaka appear to be constrained as his in uence is limited topromo on of cultural func ons of the communi es. Thereare, no doubt, prac cal di cul es in the royalty maintainingan army of drum-beaters without commensurate revenuesand/or returns that can be ploughed back into the trade.The drummers prefer more pro table occupa ons hencethey have ventured into business concerns created by thetrend of cultural industries and tourism. A large number oftradi onal drums have fallen into disuse either for reasonsof economy or for lack of drummers with knowledge ofspecialised or classical drum beats. In most cases, thewhereabouts of the designated ceremonial drums isunknown to the prac oners. Many researchers havelaunched inves ga ons into the essence and signi canceof the Baganda drums with the view of strengtheningtheir viability, culture and ul mate contribu on to thepromo on of community life.

Other spectacles of the cultural diversity of eastAfrica include, the dodo dance movements of the Luocommuni es in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, a ributedto female gender as an entertainment and recrea onalmasterpiece capable of driving through the intrinsicdomains of the prac oners and spectators. The Taarabmusic of the Zanzibari communi es in the United Republicof Tanzania is a prominently cherished heritage of theeast African communi es. The spread of Taarab musicaround eastern African con nues to espouse the interestof the bearers and prac oners especially in the tradi ons,beliefs, procedures, rituals, skills, knowledge and culturalprac ces associated with the Kaya sacred forests of theMijikenda communi es on the East African Coast as well asother indigenous communi es of East Africa.

Linguistic Diversity in East Africa

The communi es of East Africa can best be classi edas language groups on account of the vast diversity oflanguages and language dialects used to disseminate theircultures. The ethnic communi es are mostly referred to by


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their language dialects. In most cases, the languages of thecommuni es coupled with the na onal language policiesand medium of communica on tend to act as the bo leneck or barrier to their integra on process and indeedtheir source of strive and general indi erence.

The Bantu speaking communi es may havecommon intona on but they nevertheless remainstrangers to each other as they would, more o en thannot, need an interpreter between them. The linguis cdiversity, therefore, could prove to be an impediment tothe process of integra on, cohesiveness and interculturalcoopera on amongst the communi es. But the needto revitalise and safeguard the indigenous languagescannot be underes mated as it is the languages of thecommuni es that are the custodian and the vehicle oftransmission for their diverse cultural a ributes. Indeed,it has scien cally been accepted that the protec on andenrichment of the linguis c diversity of the na ons couldguarantee the communi es of sustained stability in theirhistory and indigenous knowledge as well as promote the

exibility of crea ve management of their oral tradi ons.On the other hand, the people of eastern Africa,

par cularly Tanzania, have developed policies for thepromo on of Kiswahili as the common language forthe diversity of communi es and people of The UnitedRepublic of Tanzania. The use of a singular language,Kiswahili, throughout the country tends to unite theci zens beyond their ethnic boundaries. It is apparent thatthe chances of con ict arising amongst ethnic communi esthat share the same language were largely remote. Thepromo on of Kiswahili as the lingua franca of Tanzania, bythe founding father of the Republic of Tanzania, MwalimuJulius Kambarage Nyerere, played a signi cant role in thesustenance of peace and tranquillity amongst the peoplesof Tanzania.

A renowned writer, Samuel Hun ngton, in hispublica on, The Clash of Civilisa ons and the remarkingof World Order (1996:59-67), observes that `the centralelements of any culture and civilisa on are language andreligion....people de ne their iden ty by what they arenot. He con rms that Kiswahili language does form animportant aspect of the iden ty of the people of Tanzania.Whiteley traced the origin of Kiswahili to the long terminterac on of the Arab immigrants with the Bantu dialectsof the East African Coast. The evolu on of the Kiswahililanguage and its ul mate growth made it to be recognisedas a medium of communica on for traders along the traderoutes. As a result, Kiswahili has ourished among the EastAfrican communi es becoming an integral part of the EastAfrican society.

Despite the fact that each ethnic group has its

own language, however, the majority of them are Bantulanguages, and large propor ons of Kiswahili language ismade up of Bantu words and expressions. It belongs tono one ethnic group and is spoken all over the country.It is used in schools as a language of communica on, inadministra on and in commerce. People speak it freely andeloquently and, although there are di erent dialects, it istruly a `lingua franca of the East African region. Whiteleyfor instance, suggest that: `if Swahili was the languageof the country in Tanganyika, in Kenya, it was the languageof towns, especially Nairobi, where people from all partsof the country found it as convenient bulwark against theloneliness of a city life as well as a reality tool to exploita rac ons which the city o ered.

National Cultural Policies

At the dawn of the millennium, governments and

government agencies around the world were hard pressedby local and interna onal public watch-dogs to demonstratepurposeful strategies of propelling the society into a moremeaningful future with clear performance targets. Thiswas well outlined in the much publicised MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs) geared towards reduc onof poverty and a ainment of sustainable developmentwhile guaranteeing equitable distribu on of resources andopportuni es. Indeed, the involvement of communi es inthe planning and overall implementa on of developmentini a ves has ignited new enthusiasm in the development

process. The countries of eastern Africa, in reviewing theirna onal development agenda, embraced the approachof strategic planning which informed all state agencies intheir policy development and overall implementa on ofthe Millennium Development Goals.

The culture sector, which was perennially le out ofthe mainstream government management strategies foundsolace and inspira on in the UNESCO Universal Declara onon Cultural Diversity adopted by the UNESCO GeneralConference in November, 2001 and the euphoric cravingfor change and inclusiveness in the management of public

a airs as a trend for the new millennium. Indeed, na onalcultural policies in east Africa were greatly in uenced bythe universal declara on on recogni on and promo on ofcultural diversity on one side and the development of theEast African Commission for Culture and Sports and overallrevitalisa on of the East African Community on the other.This development has provided a pla orm for consistentconsulta ons at the East African Community level where a joint commi ee was established to review na onal policieswith the grand objec ve of harmonising them to developa regional culture and sports policy framework. This would


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lead to the establishment of an East African Commissionfor Culture and Sports. Although the momentum forestablishment of the regional commission has sloweddown, the opportuni es that the East African CommunityCommon Market and the public-private partnership havecreated have greatly enhanced cultural coopera on andthe development and promo on of cultural industries atall levels.

Cultural programmes, such as the renowned TuskerProject Fame the `Spotlight on Kenyan Music, the `LamuCultural Fes val, the `Sawa Sawa Fes val, the `KikwetuFes val, the Busara Music Fes val; the `Kenya MusicWeek; the `Sakata I and II Dance Fes vals; all sponsoredby the corporate community, have greatly revitalised theperforming arts and music industry in East Africa.

The na onal cultural policies of the Republic ofKenya and the Republic of Uganda as well as the draCulture and Sports Policy of the East African Communityrecognise and acknowledge the role and signi cance ofthe UNESCO standard-se ng instruments, par cularlythe conven ons on the Protec on and Promo on of theDiversity of Cultural Expressions and the Safeguardingof the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity amongstothers. In this respect, the States Par es of the East AfricanCommunity, in collabora on with other State Par es of theconven ons are ac vely par cipa ng in the implementa onof the above-men oned conven ons. This providesimmense bene ts in terms of visibility for the conven onsand their objec ves, with utmost focus on the protec on

and promo on of culture as a tool for social integra on ofthe communi es and sustainable development.

The promo on of cultural industries is perhapsthe most strategic ini a ve to guarantee the developmentof cultural diversity in eastern Africa. In this regard, non-governmental organisa ons in Kenya are involved inthe Interna onal Fund for Cultural Diversity project on`Mapping for Cultural Industries in Kenya and organisa onof a `Consulta ve Forum for Cultural Prac oners. Theindulgence of cultural prac oners in the development andimplementa on of the UNESCO Conven ons provides thenecessary visibility and inspira on to promote the diversityof cultural expressions and the wider spectrum of culturalindustries.

The role of non-governmental organisa ons(NGO) in the development of crea ve cultural industriesin Africa has been a challenge as many such organisa onslack the necessary resources to spearhead sustainedimplementa on of the ini a ves. In Eastern Africa, somesuccess stories can be said of the partnerships betweenthree NGOs namely: AcaoCommunitaria of BRASIL (Rio

de Janeiro) with 40 years experience, the Lake VictoriaNetwork of Culture and Arts (LAVINCA) of Kisumu (Kenya)and Mansion des Jeunes de Kimisagara of Kigali (Rwanda),have con nued to undertake useful ac vi es aimed atpromo ng the crea ve cultural industries across the regionwhile underlining the south-south coopera on as a viablestrategy for coopera on, collabora on and sustainabledevelopment. The above men oned NGOs network hascon nued to conduct useful joint programmes supportedby the United Na ons Development Programme (UNDP),especially strengthening capacity in the promo on ofcrea ve cultural industries amongst cultural prac onersin development countries within the context of the south-south coopera on.

Conclusion

It is certainly not feasible to document the en re spectrum

of the gems that represent the diversity of cultural heritageof communi es in a short paper. Considering that theul mate aim of this paper is to shed light on trends thatimpact upon the protec on and indeed promo on ofcultural diversity in the east Africa region, we could nowproceed to consider some prac cal conclusions that wouldguarantee con nuous protec on of cultural diversityin eastern Africa, as a strategy for the a ainment ofsustainable development for communi es. Speci cally, Iwould propose that the following measures be undertaken,within the prospects and aspira ons of the relevant

communi es to embrace the poten al of their culturalinnova ons as a tool for sustained development:

Government as well as non-governmentalins tu ons should undertake to, con nuously,work in collabora on with relevant communi eson the iden ca on of cultural elements that areacceptable a ributes for sustenance of humandevelopment;

development of elaborate thema c inventories

of cultural expressions that could be enlistedto inform society on the essence and prospectsof the expressions, thus providing an essen alreference for the younger genera ons;

develop the necessary policy framework thatwould inspire the promo on of the culturalelements inscribed in the inventories;

undertake a comprehensive baseline survey thatcould inform the trends of acceptance of thecultural elements that support the aspira ons ofthe society;


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ini ate a mutual corporate approach to facilitateconsistent interven on in the protec on andpromo on of cultural diversity while upholdingthe principles of integra on and cohesiveness;

create opportuni es for promo on of awarenessand mutual respect for the gems in the vastrepertoire of cultural diversity within theprospects of interculturaliza on and dialogueamongst cultures; and

develop mechanisms of interfacing cultureand educa on as a strategy to incorporate andmi gate upon the e ects of globalisa on whilepromo ng sustainable development amongstcommuni es.

The communi es of eastern Africa are duty boundto protect their heritage but the same cannot be le to non-skilled prac oners. The need to build capaci es amongst

the creators and prac oners of the foreseen culturalelements is paramount. To achieve this, there would beneed to create opportunity for partnerships and synergy asa strategy to mobilise interna onal assistance to supportthe speci c na onal concerns.

Cultural Issues in ScienceEduca on in South Africa

Gilbert OnwuProfessor Gilbert O. M. Onwu is Emeritus Professor, Faculty ofEduca on, Research Directorate, University of Pretoria, South

Africa. Email: [email protected]

Introduc on

Our world is in crisis. Our con nent (Africa) in par cular,is facing daun ng challenges with respect to access to

educa on and health care; aver ng deepening poverty andworsening environmental degrada on such as erosion andloss of biodiversity; access to clean water and improved

sanita on; access to energy; enhancing food produc onto meet the needs of growing popula ons; addressingincome inequity; enhancing women empowerment andemancipa on especially rural women; lack of democracyand good governance; poor infrastructural developmentand so on. How should we best address this litany of issuesof human development, equity and sustainability? Whatshould a relevant science educa on look like within thatcontext? Our ability to provide lifes essen als of water,food, shelter, energy and good governance will require notonly major advances in science and technology but also a

cri cal mass of scien cally literate ci zenry. We need tomobilise our intellectual resources to save our planet Earth.

Formal science educa on (informal as well)has much to o er in helping to develop and strengthenknowledge and skills required to take ac on to counteractthose debilita ng human condi ons that persist for asigni cant percentage of the African popula on. Ourcurrent approaches to educa on in science s ll perpetuatea way of thinking that is not in alignment with preparingour (African) youth to develop the knowledge and skillsrequired for ac ve par cipa on in todays complexworld. The applica on of knowledge has become oneof the key sources of growth in the global economy, andprecisely for this reason the term Knowledge Economy(KE) has been coined to re ect this increased importanceof knowledge. This emphasis on knowledge economy,or the knowledge revolu on as it is some mes called, ismanifest in di erent ways: there are closer links betweenscience and technology ; there is increased importanceof science and culture and so greater a en on is given tothe complementary frameworks of modern science andindigenous knowledge systems (IKS); there is increasedadvocacy for socio-scien c issues (social issues that havea scien c basis and are of signi cant importance to thesociety/community) to be considered in the course ofstudents formal educa on as a way of connec ng scienceeduca on to the goals of sustainable development

The central issue in this ar cle is about someaspects of culture and how they impact on scienceeduca on in contemporary South Africa. Culture is givenits widest interpreta on here, as a way of life of a par cularcountry, to include the language, the constella on ofbelief systems including religion, values, social prac cesand so on. More speci cally, this ar cle discusses somecri cal ques ons arising from much contesta on aboutapproaches to educa on in science which have failed toprovide contemporary students with the opportunity to seethe relevance of studying science. Young peoples interestin the study of science-related courses is on the decline inSouth Africa and indeed worldwide. The argument here, isthat natural and social worlds have co-evolved in cultures,and that focusing on cultural issues on how we teachscience is one way of ul mately seeking to increase thesocio-cultural relevance of science and science educa onfor improved access and mo va on.

Calling for a Shift

In this ar cle, I advance a ra onale for a shi in emphasisof science educa on from one that is characterised by aview of science that is disconnected from social issues to


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one that emphasizes science as a human enterprise thatis embedded in socio-cultural or environmental issues.The shi is especially necessary in the South Africancontext for mee ng the requirements of mul culturalscience in the na onal science curriculum statement, asopposed to a monoculture science that tends to serve theinterest of a privileged few. It seems that the claim thatscience is important has not always been accompaniedby the knowledge of what kind of science and curriculumis responsive to students in the context in which theylive, or what kind of science translates into wealth andimproved quality of life in Africa. School science mustseek to do more than just enabling students to succeedin higher levels of school science. The subject is only oneamong many other intellectual resources or subjects thatstudents can draw from in order to succeed at that level. InSouth Africa, mul cultural science educa on as envisaged,should aim at providing equitable

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