Bushmeat Consumption and Preferencesof Two Ethnic Groups in Bioko Island, West Africa

John E. Fa,1, 5 Javier Juste,2, 3 Robert W. Burn,4 and Genevieve Broad1

We studied consumption and preference of meats of wild species (bushmeat) by inhabitants of Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. The aim of the study was to quantify frequency of consumption and stated preferences of the two main ethnic groups (Bubi and Fang) in the island. Although members of both eth- nic groups lived on the island, the Fang originated from the continent and maintained strong links with this area. Thus, preference and consumption of the Fang reflected exposure to animals found in the continent as well as on Bioko. A sample of 196 subjects (115 Bubi and 81 Fang) was interviewed using semistructured questionnaires. A total of 55 different bushmeat species was identified as preferred or consumed by interviewees. Principal component analyses of stated consumption and preference indicated differences between ethnic groups in their general responses. Further analyses of the effects of preference and other factors on consumption of the three main species men- tioned (blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola), Emin’s rat (Cricetomys emini), and brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus africanus) were undertaken. Propor- tional odds logistic regression models for ordered categorical response data were employed. Results indicated that age and sex of the respondent did not affect consumption, but ethnic group was statistically significant for the three- study species. Consumption and preference of the different meats ( N = 11 species) in relation to their availability in the market and price was studied

1 Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, Les Augre` s Manor, Trinity, Jersey JE3 5BP, ChannelIslands, United Kingdom.

2 Estacio´ n Biolo´ gica de Don˜ ana, C.S.I.C., Pabellon del Pe´ ru, Apartado Postal 1056, 41080Sevilla, Spain.

3 Dpto. Bioqu´ımica y Biol. Mol. IV. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense deMadrid, Madrid 28040, Spain.

4 Statistical Services Centre, The University of Reading, Whiteknights Road, Reading RG66FN, United Kingdom.

5 To whom correspondence should be addressed; e-mail: jfa@durrell.or g .

using multiple linear regressions. Consumption is driven predominantly by availability but there is some influence of preference; price of the meat did not have a significant influence.KEY WORDS: bushmeat; Bioko; Africa; diet; preferences; conservation.

INTRODUCTION

In Central and West Africa, nontimber forest products (NTFP) are vital resources for food production, health care systems, shelter, clothing, home crafts, and other needs (Sunderland et al., 1999). In particular, wild animal meat or “bushmeat” is a widely commercialized and economically significant NTFP. Bushmeat is available in town and city markets in many countries in the region. The market place is a specific site where buyers and sellers meet, and within which prices are determined by forces of supply and demand (Bohannon and Dalton, 1968). For producers, species sold will depend on their ease of transport, their value-to-weight ratio, and ultimately their availability. In contrast, consumers’ buying potential and taste prefer- ences for different meats may influence, and even in some cases, drive the demand for species to markets.

There have been few studies on linkages between bushmeat consump- tion and preference. Most have focused on calculating volumes of meat con- sumed (Fa and Peres, 2001; Juste et al., 1995; Wilkie and Carpenter, 1999) or on analyzing declared preferences for the available meats. The latter have either employed questionnaires (Langmia Njiforti, 1996; Martin, 1985) or have tested sensory traits of wild and domestic meats through elaborate hedonic ratings (Ladele et al., 1996). Although preference and consump- tion of different bushmeat species (e.g., Langmia Njiforti, 1996) have been reported simultaneously, no attempt has been made to establish linkages between these two variables. An examination of factors affecting consump- tion, namely consumer characteristics (ethnic group, age, sex, socioeconomic background) and preference for each meat type can be useful in understand- ing what drives the bushmeat trade.

Bushmeat is widely available in Bioko Island. Bioko (2017 km2 ), in theGulf of Guinea and 32 km from the Cameroon coast, is part of the insular sector of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea. Equatorial Guinea is an inde- pendent republic in west Africa, consisting of a mainland section (Rio Muni), coastal islets and the islands of Bioko, and Annobo´ n (former Pagalu). Previ- ous studies have shown that the volume of bushmeat extracted in Bioko, over100,000 kg per annum, is disproportionately greater than figures obtained for other areas of west and central Africa (Fa, 2000). Most meat comes to the island’s main city and the country’s capital, Malabo, and is sold here. Fa et al.

(1995, 2000) and Fa (2000) indicate that the level of bushmeat extraction in Bioko will lead to the extinction of duikers and primates if current trends continue. Who consumes and how much is consumed are influenced by the complex politico-ethnic situation of Bioko. Two main ethnic groups (Fang and Bubi) inhabit Bioko. The indigenous group, the Bubi, makes up the ma- jority of the population and is found throughout the rural areas, as well as in Malabo (Martin del Molino, 1989). The Fang originate in Rio Muni in the mainland, and are politically the most influential. They reside principally in Malabo and in coastal cacao plantations. The number of Fang on the island is still increasing. The two groups are of Bantu origin and consider themselves ethnically distinct. This ethnic division can be interpreted using linguistic and ethnographic evidence (Vansina, 1990).

In this paper, we present consumption and preference patterns of wild meats of a sample of Bubi and Fang residents in Bioko Island derived from interviews. We also examined whether consumption and preferences of bush- meat species obtainable on the island were related to their availability and prices in the market, based on information gathered during the same time period. We also ascertained whether ethnic background affected species consumed and preferred.

STUDY AREA

Bioko’s landscape is characterized by deep valleys and dominated by two main volcanic massifs, the Caldera de Luba (2261 m) in the southwest and Pico Basile´ (3011 m) in the north. Vegetation is structured along altitu- dinal belts that include formations dominated by Guineo-Congolian rain- forest species with Afromontane elements appearing at higher altitudes (FED/DHV, 1989; Juste, 1992; Juste and del Val, 1995). Climate is typically tropical equatorial with a clear rainy season (March–July). The southern part of the island may receive over 10,000 mm of rain annually whereas the north averages just 2000 mm (Juste and Fa, 1994; Nosti, 1947). Temperatures near sea level vary from 17 to 34◦ C.

The human population on the island is around 62,000 (1990 census),50,000 of whom reside in Malabo and in the four largest towns. Most peo- ple live in the northern half of the island. There are few villages in the midlands or highlands, and about one-half of Bioko has no permanent set- tlements. Population density is about 93 inhabitants per square kilometer in the north, but between 8–10 inhabitants per square kilometer along the southwest and southeast. Socioeconomic conditions are among the lowest of any West African country; life expectancy is 50 (Juste and Cantero, 1991) and per capita GNP earnings around US$800 per year (1995 estimates; FAO,2001).

SURVEY DESIGN

We interviewed 115 Bubi (45 women and 70 men) and 81 Fang (19 women and 62 men) between October 1990 and October 1991. About half of Bubi respondents (n = 59) were rural inhabitants in Belebu´ Belacha, Eoco, Moca, and Ureca, while the remaining respondents lived in urban pop- ulation centers (Malabo, Luba, Riaba) (Fig. 1). Fang interviewees originated

Fig. 1. Map of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea showing island and continental localities mentioned in the text.

from Bata, Niefang, Micomeseng, Evinayong, and Nsorc in Rio Muni (Fig. 1), but had been resident in Bioko for more than 10 years. Typically for this group in Bioko, Fang respondents lived in urban surroundings within Malabo, Basapu´ , Baney, and Bantabare´ . Adult persons were chosen for interview according to their availability (Kinnear and Taylor, 1995). No prior notifica- tion of the interview process was given to the subjects. However, the purpose of the study was explained and approval sought from village chiefs or from the head of the family in the case of urban dwellers. No monetary gratuity was offered to any respondent.

We asked interviewees to name which bushmeat species were most con- sumed as first, second, and third place and which were preferred (first, sec- ond, and third choice) out of all taxonomic groups (mammals, birds, reptiles) encountered by them. We sought the actual preferences and consumption patterns of each individual person interviewed rather than their opinion of what they thought the general public patterns were. Respondents were also asked to rank consumed and preferred species of primates, ungulates, birds, and reptiles separately. Basic information on the interviewee (name, age, marital status, profession, tribe, district, and town in which the interview was conducted) was also collected.

Respondents consisted mainly of young to middle-aged persons; around60% were below 50 years. Average age class of interviewees was not signifi- cantly different (χ 2 = 20.3, P < 0.001) between sexes (men: mean ± SD =36.5 ± 12.3, median-35.5 years; women: mean ± SD = 38.9 ± 10.7 years, median-35.5 years). Around 30 different suprafamilial entities within the Bubi ( N = 114) and Fang ( N = 81) were represented in the study sample. Most Bubi were Molosove (22.7%), whereas the predominant Fang groups were Esaguong (16.3%) or Nzomo (16.3%). Interviewees’ occupations in- cluded professional as well as manual work, with 40% of these being farm workers. Most interviewed persons were married (65%), 33% were never married, and the remaining 2% were widowed.

Preference and consumption patterns of the different meats were ex- plored separately, looking in particular for differences between the two eth- nic groups (Bubi and Fang). A preference score was calculated for each species: 0 if not mentioned, 1 if third choice, 2 for second choice, and3 for first choice. Consumption scores were calculated in the same way. Cross-tabulations between first choice preferred species and most consumed species were then derived to achieve a simple view of the broad picture. Second and third ranked species were ignored.

We also undertook an in-depth analysis of effects of preference and other factors on consumption of the main species recorded. The analysis was restricted to the most mentioned species: the African brush-tailed porcupine

(Atherurus africanus), Emin’s rat (Cricetomys emini) and the blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola). For each, the response variable was the consump- tion rank, an ordered categorical response. Proportional odds logistic re- gression models (POLR) for ordered categorical response data were used (Agresti, 1984). The purpose of this analysis was to identify which variables were significantly associated with the consumption of each species. Variables attempted were ethnic group, age and sex of the respondent, and their pref- erence scores for all species mentioned. Preference scores were treated as simple numerical scores when used as explanatory variables in this analysis (i.e., not as ordered categories). Statistical significance of explanatory vari- ables in POLR models in assessed by a likelihood ratio test (LRT), which has approximately a chi-square distribution on one degree of freedom for each variable. Further analysis of consumption and preference with respect to availability of the species in markets (data taken for the Malabo market by Juste et al., 1995) and price (from Fa, 2000) was possible for 11 species. We used a multiple linear regression of mean consumption scores on availability, price, and preference scores.

RESULTS

General Patterns of Consumption and Preference

Respondents named a total of 55 animal species (37 mammals, 14 birds, and 4 reptiles). Only one species recalled by the respondents was only found in Bioko, 29 species were exclusive to the continental region, and 24 were found in both regions. All species mentioned by the Bubi were indigenous to the island but only 7 out of the 44 species mentioned by the Fang (birds = 9, mammals = 32, reptiles = 3) were found in Bioko as well as in the continen- tal region (Fig. 2). The Bubi named a total of 13 species (8 mammals, 4 birds, and 1 reptile), but the Fang mentioned significantly more (21 species—20 mammals and 1 bird). The distribution of weighted values (see earlier) for consumption and preference of each bushmeat species indicate a ge- ometric sequence where only a few species (1–3) are the most prominent (Fig. 2).

For both ethnic groups, the three most consumed species were the Cephalophus monticola, Cricetomys emini, and Atherurus africanus. How- ever, A. africanus, followed by the three-toed pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis), and C. monticola are the most preferred by the Bubi. For the Fang, the giant pangolin (Smutsia gigantea), A. africanus, and P. tricuspis were the most preferred.

Fig. 2. Scores (expressed as a percentage) for all species mentioned by Fang and Bubi as (a)preferred and (b) consumed. Species abbreviations are shown in Appendix.

By taxonomic group, the bird most consumed by the Bubi was the blue plantain-eater (Corythaela cristata), the russet-eared guenon (Cercopithecus erythrotis) among the primates, C. monticola among the ungulates, and the forest tortoise (Kinixys erosa) among the reptiles mentioned (Fig. 3). Preferred species by the Bubi were C. cristata, C. erythrotis and the drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus), C. monticola and K. erosa. In contrast, the Fang consumed most the back-casqued hornbill (Ceratogymna atrata), moustached guenon (Cercopithecus cephus) and greater spot-nosed monkey (Cercopithecus nictitans), C. monticola and the dwarf crocodile (Osteolae- mus tetraspis), and monitor lizard (Varanus niloticus). Cercopithecus cephus, S. gigantea, and O. tetraspis, mentioned by the Fang, are species not found on the island.

404Fa, Juste, B

urn, and Broad

Fig. 3. Consumption and preference scores for (a) birds, (b) primates, (c) ungulates, and (d) reptiles for Fang and Bubi in Bioko Island.

Bushmeat Use and Preference in Bioko Island 405

Descriptive Analysis of Preference and Consumption Patterns

Species with very low scores were not included in the analysis. PCA results of preference scores (43% of the variance accounted for by the first two components) showed that there was a degree of separation between Bubi and Fang, as displayed in the biplot (Krzanowski, 1988) in Fig. 4(a). The corresponding analysis for consumption (Fig. 4(b)) indicated a similar

Fig. 4. Biplots of principal component scores for (a) consumption and (b) preference of bush- meat species. The Bubi are denoted by the letter b and Fang by the letter f . The length of an arrow is a measure of the amount of variation explained by the corresponding variable; the cosine of the angle between two arrows is the correlation between them; the association between an individual data point (b or f ) and a variable is measured by the perpendicular projection of the point on the arrow representing the variable.

406 Fa, Juste, Burn, and Broad

Fig. 4. (Continued )

partition by ethnic group. In this case, the first two components accounted for 57% of the total variance.

Cross-tabulations of species most preferred by species most consumed for each ethnic group show that there is a clustering of responses around the C. emini-A. africanus pair (23%) for the Bubi, and around the S. gigantea-C. monticola pair (11%) for the Fang. Four species nominated as preferred did not appear at all among species consumed in the Bubi dataset, but 11 species were not consumed but stated as highly preferred among the Fang (Table I). For the Fang, two species, C. emini and C. nictitans, did not appear among the

Bushmeat Use and Preference in Bioko Island 407

Table I. Cross-Tabulation of Preferred Species by Species Consumed Most

Species consumed most

Preferred Cem Cmo Aaf Sq. Cer Cog Ddo Mle Ppe Total

BubiAaf 26 9 8 1 1 1 46PPtr 10 3 4 17Cmo 5 9 14Cem 3 1 1 5Mle 2 2 1 5NP 4 1 5Sq. 1 2 1 4Cer 2 2 4Cog 1 1 1 1 4Ppe 3 3Vni 2 1 3Ddo 1 1 2Str 1 1 2Ccri 1 1Total 56 33 15 3 3 2 1 1 1 115

Cmo Cem Aaf Cdo Cce Tsw Cni Msp PPtr Total

FangSgi 9 3 4 2 3 1 1 23Aaf 9 5 2 16PPtr 4 4 3 1 1 13Ppo 6 1 1 8Msp 1 1 1 3Tsw 3 3Cmo 2 2NP 1 1 2Cce 1 1Cdo 1 1Cpo 1 1Ggo 1 1Haq 1 1Laf 1 1Lma 1 1Pse 1 1Tsp 1 1Vci 1 1Vni 1 1Total 36 18 13 5 4 2 1 1 1 81

Note. NP means no preferences expressed. Species abbreviations are given in Appendix.

most consumed but were not mentioned in the most preferred categories. In most cases, these species were the preferred choice for small numbers of respondents; an exception is S. gigantea, which was the first choice for 23 of the 196 respondents.

408 Fa, Juste, Burn, and Broad

Table II. Patterns of Consumption and Preference for the Four Main Species Mentioned byBubi (n = 114) and Fang (n = 82) Interviewees in Bioko

Bubi Fang

None 3rd 2nd 1st None 3rd 2nd 1st

Consumption of Atherurus africanus 31.3 24.3 31.3 13.0 24.3 13.9 20.9 11.3Consumption of Cricetomys emini 26.1 13.0 12.2 48.7 35.7 13.9 5.2 15.7Consumption of Cephalophus monticola 18.3 27.0 26.1 28.7 17.4 5.2 16.5 31.3Preference for Cephalophus monticola 66.1 11.3 10.4 12.2 65.2 2.6 0.9 1.7Preference for Varanus niloticus 88.7 1.7 7.0 2.6 69.6 0.0 0.0 0.9

Note. Figures represent the percentage number of respondents who mentioned the species as3rd, 2nd and 1st order of consumption or preference. None refers to no respondents mentioning the species.

Regression Models for Consumption of the Main Species

Atherurus africanus

The significant terms were preference for P. tricuspis (LRT = 9.644, P = 0.0019) and preference for A. africanus (LRT = 7.1015, P = 0.0077). The interaction between ethnic group and A. africanus preference was also significant (LRT = 8.1610, P = 0.0043). The fact that the ethnic group main effect is not significant means that the overall consumption profile (ignoring preference scores) is about the same for both ethnic groups (Table II). The interaction plot in Fig. 5, which shows the mean preference score for each ethnic group, explains the significant interaction between ethnic group and A. africanus preference. The effect of preference for A. africanus among the Fang is effectively zero; the significant association of preference for A. africanus with its consumption is almost entirely due to the Bubi. A gen- eral preference for P. tricuspis (among both ethnic groups) seems to be quite strongly associated with consumption of A. africanus ( P = 0.0019). Although both ethnic groups consume A. africanus, a preference for it is noted among the Bubi only and this preference is significantly associated with consumption ( P = 0.0077). Age and sex of respondent were not signif- icantly related to consumption.

Cricetomys emini

The clearly significant terms were ethnic group (LRT = 10.9473, P =0.0009), preference for C. emini (LRT = 3.9694, P = 0.0463) and preference for P. tricuspis (LRT = 4.4769, P = 0.0344). In this case, the overall con- sumption profiles (ignoring preference scores) are very different between

Bushmeat Use and Preference in Bioko Island 409

Fig. 5. Interaction plot between mean preference score and mean consumption score for each ethnic group for A. africanus.

ethnic groups (Table II), which explains the highly significant main effect for ethnic group. Bubi tend to consume C. emini significantly more than the Fang.

The association between consumption and preference for C. emini is just significant (LRT = 3.9694, P = 0.0463), with no significant interaction with ethnic group. Preference for P. tricuspis is somewhat more strongly associated with consumption of C. emini (LRT = 4.4769, P = 0.0344). Pref- erence for V. niloticus was also found to be associated (LRT = 5.7703, P =0.0163). However, the numbers expressing preference for V. niloticus are small (Table II), and this result is probably unreliable. What preference was expressed was almost entirely among the Bubi. The age and sex of respon- dent were not significant.

Cephalophus monticola

The only significant effects found were ethnic group (LRT = 7.5294,P = 0.0061) and preference for C. monticola itself (LRT = 17.6554, P <0.0001). Although both ethnic groups consume C. monticola, the patterns are clearly different (Table III). Among the Bubi, 82% say they consume C. monticola at some time or other, while the corresponding figure is 75%

410 Fa, Juste, Burn, and Broad

Table III. Consumption, Preference, Availability and Price of the Main Species Mentioned in by Bubi and Fang Respondents in Bioko Island

Mean Mean Availability Price Price perBody consumption preference (mean per kg carcass

Species mass (kg) score score carcasses/mth.)a (US$)b (US$)b

HyraxDendrohyrax 3 0.0357 0.0663 1 0.7 2.10

dorsalisPangolinPhataginus 2.3 0.0561 0.8316 1 4.64 10.67

tricuspisPrimatesCercopithecus 3.44 0.1888 0.1735 78 0.58 2.00

erythrotisCercopithecus 5.3 0.0765 0.0204 28 0.32 1.70

nictitansCercopithecus 2.2 0.0051 0.0561 6 1.86 4.09

pogoniasMandrillus 15 0.0408 0.2602 54 0.49 7.35

leucophaeusPiliocolobus 7.75 0.0204 0.0816 38 0.5 3.88

pennantiRodentsAtherurus 2.88 1.2653 1.5408 164 0.69 1.99

africanusCricetomys 1.95 1.4949 0.2245 237 0.42 0.82

eminiUngulatesCephalophus 3.9 1.7449 0.4592 321 0.43 1.68

monticolaCephalophus 17 0.1684 0.1735 70 0.32 5.44

ogilbyia Data from Juste et al. (1995) and Fa (unpublished data).bData from Fa (2000).

for the Fang. A greater proportion of Fang, however, eat it “most often” (44%), compared with 29% of the Bubi. Neither ethnic group expressed any great preference for C. monticola, the Fang showing greater dislike. The highly significant LRT for preference for C. monticola simply reflects the increase in consumption with increasing preference score, even though these preference scores are quite low. The fact that there was no significant interaction with ethnic group means that the rate of increase is about the same for each group.

Both ethnic groups eat C. monticola, but the preference scores are low, especially among the Fang (Table II). Unsurprisingly, consumption increases as preference score increases ( P < 0.0001). Age and sex of respondent were not found to be significant.

Bushmeat Use and Preference in Bioko Island 411

Analysis of Consumption and Preference With Respect to Availability and Price

Complete data were available only for 11 species. Results of a mul- tiple linear regression of mean consumption scores on availability, price, and preference scores showed that the regression of consumption score on availability accounted for most of the variation ( R2 = 0.93, P < 0.0001). Preference score, adjusting for availability, is also significant, but much less so ( P = 0.039). There was no significant price effect for either price per kilogram or price per carcass. However, although there was no significant relationship between price per carcass and consumption score ( R2 = 0.25; df = 10, ns), the three most consumed species (A. africanus. C. emini, and C. monticola) were also the cheapest.

DISCUSSION

From the viewpoint of changing peoples’ attitudes to a variety of foods, such surveys can quantify what emphasis is placed on different species, and determine, at least from the consumers’ point of view, how difficult it would be to modify their preferences. Quantitative food consumption sur- veys are important in determining differences between consumer behavior, range of dishes or products people prefer and those considered prestigious (de Garine, 1993). These differences are indicative of the cultural adaptation of a given population to its food system and the feeling of well-being derived from it, which in turn may have an important influence on the biological status of the food species consumed. Food consumption surveys, where the nutritional value of food consumed is determined directly by weighing foods eaten, may offer a more accurate picture of the diet consumed by people in an area. This method, however, is costly and if used, has to be applied to a sufficiently large sample and be repeated to take account of seasonal vari- ations and individual household differences. Alternatively, questionnaires, although more general, can be applied to a large number of consumers. Questionnaires can help ascertain which foods consumers say they eat and contrast these answers with foods they would rather eat. By comparing food preferences with food consumption it is possible to estimate “prestige” value of each of these foods.

We analyzed the importance of bushmeat species within Bioko Island. In particular, we studied contrasts in consumption and preference for the two main ethnic groups on the island. Both groups live in juxtaposition but have different backgrounds and therefore expectations of their environment.

412 Fa, Juste, Burn, and Broad

Although colonization may have resulted in a certain amount of homoge- nization of some aspects of both societies, there are still clear interethnic differences. The relationship between Fang and Bubi, sometimes volatile and antagonistic, is expressed not only by different social values but also by the highly asymmetrical relations regarding access to political power and economic wealth. The pluralistic colonial society under Spanish administra- tion was followed by domination of the Fang, especially a single clan subset (the Esangui). Each ethnic group occupies a distinctive social, political, and economic niche on Bioko, which has had implications for the consumption of bushmeat and by extension for the preference of meats. There is no doubt that bushmeat production, sale, and purchasing potential are affected by eth- nic identity. The Fang come from the complex and highly diverse rainforest in mainland Africa and this is reflected in the diversity of animals consumed (Juste et al., 1995). In contrast, the Bubi are traditionally devoted to agri- culture and dedicate less time to trapping and hunting (Fernandez Moreno,1999). On the other hand, the Fang are skilled hunters who inhabited forests of much richer variety of quarry than Bioko. This, together with easier ac- cess to guns and cartridges, may explain the fact that selling and producing bushmeat in Bioko are predominantly carried out by the Fang (Colell et al.,1994; Fa, 2000).

Our study has demonstrated clear differences in what members of each ethnic group consumed or preferred. The variety of meats eaten by the Fang was significantly greater than that declared by the Bubi. Many of the species mentioned by the Fang as consumed are not available in Bioko’s forests. The prevalent and significant preference for mainland species (such as the giant pangolin or some monkeys) by the Fang may indicate their traditional link to eating these species. The Bubi never mentioned these meats. This is not surprising given that the Bubi have been exposed to a significantly smaller number of species than the continental Fang. The Fang are not only bringing with them a memory of foods consumed in their home areas on the continent, but also these patterns are continually reinforced because the Fang resident on the island travel regularly to Rio Muni. Meat from the continent is also regularly imported (mainly smoked) to the island.

Emin’s rat and the porcupine are very common not only in the forest but also in cacao plantations and around cities and villages. Because these species do not require special techniques or skills for their capture, they are highly available all year around. These species are especially consumed and appreciated by the Bubi and may have been always important part of their diet. The third key species, the blue duiker, is appreciated and also commonly eaten in the island. The lower preference score among Fang is again due to the relatively larger choice of bushmeat of this tribe. The low preference score among the Bubi of the other larger duiker of the island, the endemic

Bushmeat Use and Preference in Bioko Island 413

Ogilbyi’s duiker, is notable. This is probably due to its lower availability and traditional restriction to high-class families. Also in contrast to the Fang, the Bubi consume more of the cheaper meats than the Fang, namely C. emini and A. africanus. This may be either cultural or a reflection of the Bubi’s socioeconomic status on the island, which does not enable them to purchase the more expensive meats (e.g., primates). Interestingly, gender and age did not influence consumption and preference of the different meats in either ethnic group. The Fang in particular keep their rich and varied traditional meat prohibitions alive, associated with age and/or gender, so that it is not reflected in our results. This it is probably due to the fact that the Fang are relative newcomers to Bioko and their diet on the island is simplified with respect to the diversity of species available in their original habitat, with which these traditional prohibitions are associated. This would also explain the lack of correspondence between preferred and consumed meats. Only a small proportion of the population can afford the average meat prices in the markets of Equatorial Guinea, one of the poorest countries in sub- Saharan Africa. Therefore, most of the population has to rely for their daily consumption on the cheapest meats (Emin’s rat and porcupine), which are also the most available year around (Juste et al., 1995). This is probably the cause of the small proportion of consumption explained by the “price factor,” whereas “availability” accounts for most of the variation in the multiple regression (with a less significant contribution of the “preference factor”).

No attempt was made in this study to establish a link between socioeco- nomic background and use and preferences for the different meats. Studies from other parts of the world show clearly that people of different socioe- conomic groups vary in what they purchase and consume (Marmot et al.,1991; Patterson and Block, 1988; Turrell, 1998). The long-term outcomes of this dietary profile may not just reflect different weight attainment and mortality rates for diet-related disease, but in the context of conservation of the prey species, varying impacts on their viability. Studies to date in bush- meat countries have not attempted to investigate the connection between socioeconomic status and impact on animals consumed.

The assumption is made here that when asked to answer questions about food likes or dislikes, people provide responses which tap their sensory evaluation of the food, such as flavor, texture, and appearance (Axelson and Brinberg, 1989). This evaluation may be based on direct experience with the food (i.e., having tasted it at some previous point), or it may be based exclusively on one’s perception (i.e., reporting a preference for a food that has never actually been tasted). In the latter, a complex interaction of social, psychological, and cultural factors may be involved. These include attitudes and beliefs about certain foods, the meaning and symbolism of food, dietary norms and past food associations (Turrell, 1998).

414 Fa, Juste, Burn, and Broad

APPENDIX

List of Species Mentioned by Respondents in Bioko Island

Locality

Group Abbreviation English name Scientific name Bioko Rio Muni

Reptiles

Birds

Bga Ker Ote PNa Pse Vni Aci Bha Bsu

Cat

Ccr Fr Gan Ngu Per Pha Sco

Gaboon Viper Forest Tortoise Dwarf Crocodile CobrasPythonMonitor Lizard Grey Heron IbisCasqued Hornbill

Black CasquedHornbill

Great Blue TuracoFrancolinePalm-nut VultureGuinea fowl Grey Parrot Tree Duck Crowned Eagle

Bitis gabonica Kinixys erosa Osteolaemus tetrapis Pseudohaje sp. Naja sp. Python sebaeVaranus niloticus Ardea cinerea Botrhychia hagedash Bycanistes

subcylindricusCeratogymna atrata

Corythaeola cristata Francolinus spp. Gypohierax angolensis Numidu maleagris Psittacus erithacus Pteroneta haurtlaubi Stephanaoetus

coronatus

X X

X X X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X X X X X X X X

X

XXX X X X X

Str. Turtle Doves Streptopelia sp X XTur. Turacos Turaco sp. X X

Carnivores CHe Mongooses Herspestinae XGsp Genets Genetta spp. XLma Otter Lutra maculicollis XVci African Civet Viverra civetta X

Hyrax Ddo Tree Hyrax Dendrohyrax dorsalis X XPangolins PPtr Tree Pangolin Phataginus tricuspis

Sgi Giant Pangolin Smutsia giganteaPrimates Cal Mangabey Cercocebus albigena X

Cce Moustached Cercopithecus cephusMonkey

Cer Russet-eared Cercopithecus erythrotis XGuenon

Cmn Mona Monkey Cercopithecus mona XCne DeBrazza’s Monkey Cercopithecus neglectus XCni Spot-nosed Monkey Cercopithecus nictitans XCpo Crowned Guenon Cercopithecus pogonias X XCpr Preussi’s Guenon Cercopithecus preussi XCsa Black Colobus Colobus satanas X XCto Collared Mangabey Cerocebus torquatus XGgo Lowland Gorilla Gorilla gorilla XMle Drill Mandrillus leucophaeus XMsp Mandrill Mandrillus sphinx XMta Talapoin Miopithecus onguensis XPpe Pennant’s Red Piliocolobus pennanti X

Colobus

Appendix (Continued )

Locality

Group Abbreviation English name Scientific name Bioko Rio Muni

Rodents

Ppt Ptr Aaf

Potto Chimpanzee Brush-tailed

porcupine

Perodictus potto Pan troglodytes Atherurus africanus

X

X

X X X

Cem Emin’s Rat Cricetomys emini X XSq. Squirrels Scuirids X XTsw Grasscutter Thryonomys X

Ungulates Cca Peter’s Duikerswinderianus

Cephalophus callypigus XCdo Bay Duiker Cephalophus dorsalisCmo Blue Duiker Cephalophus monticola X XCng Black-fronted Duiker Cephalophus nigrifrons XCog Ogilbyi’s Duiker Cepahlophus ogilbyi XHaq Water Chevrotain Hymoschus aquaticus XNba Dwarf Antelope Neotragus batesi XPpo Bushpig Potamochoerus porcus XSca Forest Buffalo Syncerus caffer XTsp Sitatunga Tragelaphus spekei X

Elephant Laf Forest Elephant Loxodonta africana Xcyclotis

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Jaime Perez del Val, Ramo´ n Castelo, and Anton Ayong for help in collecting the interviews. We are most grateful to the Minister of Culture of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea, Excmo. Leandro, Mbio local authorities of Bioko, and Javier Castroviejo for their help and support. This study was funded by the O.C.G.E., at present the Instituto de Cooperacio´ n para el Desarrollo (I.C.D.) of the Spanish Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores.

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