I s y F a i n g o l d 2 0 1 7

How Legal guardians are held accountable: an exploration of truancy laws and legal

guardian contracts

This paper was commissioned by the Global Education Monitoring Report as background information to assist in drafting the 2017/8 GEM Report, Accountability in education: Meeting our commitments. It has not been edited by the team. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the Global Education Monitoring Report or to UNESCO. The papers can be cited with the following reference: “Paper commissioned for the 2017/8 Global Education Monitoring Report, Accountability in education: Meeting our commitments”. For further information, please contact gemreport@unesco.org.

ED/GEMR/MRT/2017/P1/5

Background paper prepared for the 2017/8 Global Education Monitoring Report

Accountability in education: Meeting our commitments

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Abstract Thispolicypaper analyses instruments that enhanceparents’ accountability regarding their children’seducationthathavebeenappliedindifferentcontexts.Amongthedifferentexistinginstrumentsatthestateandschoollevel,truancylawsandparentcontractsarethemainfocusofthisanalysis.Truancylawsarekeyindefiningthegeneralandlegalframeworkforschoolattendancebutthepenaltiesshouldbereconsideredfor lowerincomefamiliesandcomplementedwithotherstrategies,suchas incentivesintheformofconditionalcashtransferprograms,amongothers.Parentcontractsareusefulinstrumentsthatencouragetheinvolvementofparentsandmakethemaccountable.Toincreaseitseffectivity,itiscritical to reinforce the role of teachers as key stakeholders, providingmore teacher and communitytraining to develop and implement parental involvement strategies. This paper recommends acombinationofpreventiveandcorrectiveinstrumentsatthestateandtheschoolleveltomakeparentsmoreparticipativeandaccountableintheeducationprocess.

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Outline Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 2

Outline .......................................................................................................................................................... 3

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 Importance of Legal Guardians’ Participation in Education ..................................................... 4

Key definitions ...................................................................................................................................... 4

Characteristics of legal frameworks that include legal guardians’ responsibility: reducing absenteeism, improving participation and accountability ........................................................................ 5

3.1 At the State level .......................................................................................................................... 5

3.1.1 Reducing absenteeism by law. The case of Truancy Laws ................................................... 6

3.2 At the School level (Legal frameworks and mechanisms enforced/encouraged by the School to improve legal guardian’s participation and accountability) .............................................................. 9

3.2.1 Legal Guardian Contracts: Reducing absenteeism and enhancing parental involvement and accountability .................................................................................................................................. 10

3.2.2 Mechanisms encouraged by teachers/community to improve legal guardians’ accountability ......................................................................................................................................... 14

Challenges faced by legal guardians ................................................................................................ 16

4.1 “Education system - legal guardians” relationship challenges for legal guardians’ involvement ............................................................................................................................................ 18

4.2 “Students - Legal guardian” relationship challenges for legal guardians’ involvement ....... 19

Conclusions and Policy Recommendations ..................................................................................... 20

Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 23

Appendices ......................................................................................................................................... 32

Appendix A .................................................................................................................................................. 32

Appendix B .................................................................................................................................................. 34

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Introduction

1.1 ImportanceofLegalGuardians’ParticipationinEducationTheimportantroleofparentsorlegalguardians1intheirchildren’seducationisawidelyheldconsensuswithintheeducationliterature.Evaluations,analysisandstudiesregardinglegalguardians’participationand involvement in their children’s school activities commonly find that thishas apositive impactonstudents’performanceandothereducationindicators.Learningoutcomesandstudentachievementhavebeenthemoststudiedvariablestomeasuretheimpactoflegalguardians’involvement.Thestudiesfindthat the participation and involvement of legal guardians have a positive impact on their children’slearningandachievement(Bronfenbrenner,1974;Henderson,1987;Coleman,1987,1997;HendersonandBerla,1994;DesforgesandAbouchaar,2003;CottonandWikelund,2013;GubbinsandOtero,2016).Significant benefits are also found in improving attendance, student’s attitudes, enrollment in highereducation,school’sperformanceandonreducingtruancyanddisciplinaryactions(HendersonandBerla,1994;HendersonandMapp,2001;Avvisatietal,2013;IshakandSuetFin,2013).Intheeducationpolicyarena,countries,states,andschoolshavebeenutilizingdifferenttoolstoimprovetheinvolvementandparticipationoflegalguardiansintheirchildren’seducation,aswellasmakingthemaccountable.Someof these toolsare focusedonproviding incentives to legal guardians to send their children to school.ConditionalCashTransfersarethebestexampleoftheseinstrumentsandhavebeenusedinmostLatinAmericancountriesandotherregionsaseconomicincentivestoassurelegalguardiansmonitorthattheirchildrengotoschool.Othertools,liketruancylawsandlegalguardiancontracts,arefocusedonmakinglegal guardians accountable for their children’s school attendance and even for their behaviour andacademic results. Thepurposeof thispolicypaper is to review these instrumentsapplied indifferentcountries(withaspecialfocusontruancylawsandlegalguardiancontracts)and,basedonthefindings,make policy recommendations to improve accountability among parents or legal guardians. This isespeciallyimportantbecausemostcountries’legislationstatesthatbasiceducationismandatorybutinmostcases,therearenoconsequencesfornotabidingthelaw.Asoneofthemostimportantstakeholdersinchildren’seducation,thewaylegalguardiansareheldaccountableacrosscountriesandacrossschoolscouldprovidelessonsforeducationpolicymakers.

Key definitions Truancy and Truancy Laws: Truancy reflects any unexcused absence of students from school.Governmentsenacttheirownschoolattendancelawsanddefinetheagerangeinwhichitismandatorythatchildrenattendschool.Truancyisconsideredbymanygovernmentsastatusoffense.Asgovernmentssetmandatoryschoolingforchildrenwithinacertainagerange,truancyisacrimeduetothismandatoryage range, but is not considered illegal for those children that are above the stated age range(“TruancyPrevention”webpage).Truancylawsareacommonlegalinstrumentusedinsomecountriestoforcechildrentogotoschoolandtomakelegalguardiansaccountableforassuringthattheirkidsattendschools.Insomecountries,thistypeoflawsalsodefinesthelimitofunexcusedabsencesthatarelegal,fines, and other punishments for legal guardians and students who fail to abide by the laws(“TruancyPrevention”webpage).

1Inthispolicypaper,theterm“legalguardian”isusedinordertorefertoparentsorthepersonsthatarelegallyresponsibleforthechildren.Thepurposeforusingthistermisincludingchildrenwhodonotlivewiththeirparentsandthepersonslegallyinchargeofthem.Inthepolicyandacademicliteraturereviewedforthispaper,noevidencewasfoundregardinglegalloopholesthatcouldunderminelegalguardiansandtheirchildrenonthatsituation.

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Legalguardiancontracts:Legalguardiancontractsareinstrumentsvoluntarilysignedbyparentsorlegalguardians in order to involve them in their children education, though in some cases it might be aprerequisiteforlegalguardianswantingtoenrolltheirchildreninthatparticularschool.Legalguardiansare ‘contracted’ to complete different school-related activities (e.g.: ensure children’s attendance,monitorhomeworkcompletion,involveinextra-curricularactivities,volunteeratschool,etc.)andthesecontractsincludethepenaltiesandsanctionsfornon-compliance.ConditionalCashTransfer(CCT):AccordingtoaWorldBankdefinition,CCTsare“programsthattransfercash, generally to poor households, on the condition that those households make pre-specifiedinvestmentsinthehumancapitaloftheirchildren”(FiszbeinandSchady,2009).Forexample,regardinghealthandnutritionconditions,CCTsgenerallyrequireperiodiccheckups,growthmonitoring,andthevaccinationofchildrenbelowtheageoffive.Inthecaseofeducation,conditionsusuallyincludeschoolenrollment,ensuring80-85%ofschooldaysattendance,andsomemeasureofacademicperformance.Inmostcases,CCTprogramstransferthemoneytothemotherofthehousehold.Insomecases,themoneyistransferreddirectlytothestudent(FiszbeinandSchady,2009).

Characteristics of legal frameworks that include legal guardians’ responsibility: reducing absenteeism, improving participation and accountability

States, schools and even teacherswithin the classroomhave different responsibilities in ensuring -orenforcing- legal guardians’ accountability towards their children’s education. Students’ levels ofdisadvantage in learningandabsenteeismratesaredirectlyrelatedto legalguardians’participation intheir children’s education. Truancy remains a problem for both disadvantaged andmore advantagedstudents.InOECDcountriesandeconomies,18%ofchildrendidnotattendclassesatleastonceinatwoweekperiod,and15%skippedadayofschoolormoreoverthesameperiod(OECD,2014).Moreover,socio-economicfactorsaffectfamiliesandschoolsalikeindeterminingthelevelofparticipationoflegalguardians in theirchildren’seducation.Asdiscussed in thenextsection,economic, socialandculturalfactorscaninfluencethewayguardiansapproachchildren’seducation,andstatesandschoolsneedtobeawareof thespecificconditions toapproachparents.For this reason, in thissection, frameworksandmechanismstoimprovelegalguardians’accountabilitysetbythestate-includingtruancylaws-,andbytheschool-includingparentcontractsandteacher-parentrelations-aredescribedandanalyzed.

3.1 AttheStatelevelSome governments have included legislation to improve legal guardians’ accountability for takingresponsibilityfortheirchildren’seducation.ThispaperwillfocusontwoStatesponsoredapproachestoimprovingguardians’accountability.First,therearelawsandprogramsthatdirectlydealwiththeissue,suchastruancylaws-discussedinthenextsection.Theotherapproachiscenteredaroundactionstakenbygovernmentstoimproveguardians’accountabilityandparticipationthroughincreasedschoolfundingorprogramsfocusedonenhancingparentparticipationinschoollife.Forexample,thecurrentBritishStatehasaddressedbothinstancesbypromotingparentinvolvementthroughawiderangeofactivitiesincluding: (i) the improvement of parent governor roles, (ii) participation in inspection processes, (iii)preparation of annual reports, (iv) provision of increasing amounts of information about the schoolperformance,curriculum,andother related issues (Desforges,2003).Meanwhile,American legislationintroducesprogramsthatenvisionincreasedparticipation.The2001‘NoChildLeftBehindAct’states

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thatschoolsreceivingfederalfundingarerequiredtospendpartofthatmoneyonparentparticipationprograms(Desforges,2003).While there have been strong advances in governments proposing frameworks that increaseaccountability,authorslikeMcKennaandWilliamsstatedbackin1998that“movementtowardsgreaterparentalparticipationhasproceededwithoutstronglegislation,andcouldbedescribedashaphazard…”(Desforges, 2003). Some countries have focused selectively when legislating on legal guardians’involvement. InPeruandother LatinAmericancountries,education lawshavemainly focusedon theeconomic and labor force contribution of parents (infrastructure and materials), disregarding theimportantrolefamiliesplayinaccompanyingandsupportinglearningprocessesathome(Balarin,2007).ProgramsliketheCCTsfocusmainlyonkidsgoingtoschool,morethansupportingthelearningprocess.“Bolsa-EscolaVidaMelhor”(schoolstipend,better life) isaCCTprograminBrazil,wherefamilieswithmonthlypercapitahouseholdincomesbelowhalfoftheBrazilianlevelofminimumwagereceivemonthlymoney transfers,on the condition that their childrenattendat least85%of themonthly schooldays(Bursztyn,2012).CCTprogramsareagovernmentalresponsetoaneedformonitoringandincentivizingschool attendance, but when parents are reluctant to support their children’s education, other legalframeworks,suchastruancylaws,canhelpinenhancingtheaccountabilityofparentsandsupportthechildrenthemselves.

3.1.1 Reducingabsenteeismbylaw.ThecaseofTruancyLawsTruancy laws, and other legal provisions, focus on enforcing child attendance by law. Schooling iscompulsoryinmostcountriesforatleastnineyearsbuttruancyremainsasignificantproblembecausesomelegalguardiansareunableorunwillingtomaintaintheirchildrenforlongerperiodsoftimeatschool(Ishak,2013).Insomecases,studentsengageintruancybecausetheyhavelostinterestinschoolanddecidedtousetheirtimeforactivitiestheyconsidermoremeaningful(Dembo,2009).TheU.S.Office of Juvenile Justice andDelinquency Prevention (OJJDP) states that generally, the fourprimary factors correlatedwith inexcusable absenteeismare family pressures, school disengagement,economicissuesorthestudentsthemselves(Dembo,2009).Ishak(2013)addstothelistthatstudents’perceptionsoftheirownabilityandacademicperformance,theirattitudetowardschoolandclassroomenvironment, lackofparental, communityand familysupport, teachers’attitudesand factors residingoutsideofschool(e.g.community),havefurthermorecontributedsignificantlytotruantbehavior(Ishak,2013).Itis,therefore,relevantforresourcestobedispatchedwhenatruantingbehaviorisidentified,tohelpassessandprovideservicesfortruantyouthandtheirfamiliesattheearliestpoint(Dembo,2009).Thereis a synergistic andwelldiscussed relationshipbetween lowschoolperformanceanddelinquentpeerassociationwithtruancyamongyouth(HenryandHuizinga,2007).Therearealsoeconomiccostsrelatedtotruancy.TheAllianceforExcellentEducationsuggeststhatifhalfofdropoutsintheU.S.’Classof2010hadgraduated (650,000of the1.3million truants), thenationwouldhave seenanadditionalUS$7.6billioninearningscomingfromthenewgraduatesthatyear,US$713millionintaxrevenueinanaverageyear, andUS$9.6billion ineconomic growthby the time these same studentshit themiddleof theircareers (Tucci,2011).However, truancyhasbeen treatedasamanagementanddisciplinaryproblem,giving little attention to its underlying causes.While policymakers do channel efforts into providingservices to truant youth and their families, respondingwith sanctions rather than solving underlyingcausesgetsprioritizedasaresponsemechanism(Dembo,2009).Thisisthecaseforseveralcountries.Theapproachesofthefollowingcountrieswillbeanalyzedinthefollowingsection:theUnitedKingdom,Australia,SouthAfrica,Singapore,Barbados,Bahamas,MalaysiaandtheU.S..

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InthecomparativeTable1belowitisshownthatallthesecountrieshavecompulsoryeducationforatleast nine years. All of them share some burden in truancy levels. For example, in South Africa,absenteeism rates have been found to vary between 5% to 15% among the student population(Community Agency for Social Enquiry, 2007). In the UK, figures show that around 7% of the schoolpopulation missed school persistently between autumn 2010 and spring 2011 (15% of school days)(Vasagar,2011).AndinMalaysia,in2011,17%ofdisciplinaryproblemcasesreportedinvolvedtruancy(Ishak,2013).

Table1.ComparisononlegislationregardingTruancy

Country Compulsory Offense Alternatives Procedures Fine(USDollars) Jail

UK Yes Yes HomeSchool

Contactparents,parentingorder,parentingclasses,andeducation

supervisor.

a.$75,b.$150,3.$3122

Upto3months(after28daysofnotpayingfine)

Australia Yes Yes - Upto$500 -

SouthAfrica Yes(upto9thgrade) Yes - Finenot

specified Upto6months

Singapore Yes YesPresent

prescribedreasons

$3508 Upto12months

Barbados Yes Yes

Homeschooling,sickness,andothers

Stopchildrenwhoappearofcompulsoryschoolageto

questionthem$25 -

Bahamas Yes Yes YesIfparentsfailtoenrollchildrenatschool,theMinistryappointsaschoolforthepupilthemselves

a.Upto$50.b.Upto$75c.Upto$100

Upto1month

Malaysia Yes Yes -Threetypesofwarningletters:1)After10days,2)After20,3)After

40.Thenexpulsion$1132

Upto6months(onlyforprimary

education)

Texas(US) Yes Yes - - $500 -

Pennsylvania(US) Yes Yes - Reporttosuperintendent.Callfor

atruancyplan.

Upto$300.Childrenincluded

Communityservice,jailupto5years.Childrenincluded

California(US) Yes Yes - Reporttosupervisor,callfor

meetings $500max Upto12months

Allofthecountriesinoursampleclassifytruancyasanoffense;thereforeitistreatedasacriminalact.Manyofthesecountriesallowexceptionsfornotsendingchildrentoschool,suchashomeschooling,suchasSingapore(GovernmentofSingapore,2001),andtheBahamas(GovernmentofBahamas,2001),andalsointheU.K.(GovernmentoftheU.K.)andBarbados(ILO,1997)-aslongasithasbeenapprovedbytheMinistryofEducation.LikeintheBahamas,iflegalguardiansdonotenrolltheirchildreninaschool,thentheMinistryisinchargeofassigningoneandobligingtheparentstoenrollthechildintheassignedschool. If legal guardians fail to comply with this regulation then they become guilty of an offense,receivingsanctionsasdiscussedinthenextparagraphs(GovernmentofBahamas,2001).Whilehavingsomesimilarities,everycountryhasdifferentproceduresforholdingparents(orchildren)accountablefortruancy.Inmostcountries,parentsgetcontactedifchildrendonotattendschool.Forcasesofhomeschooling,intheU.K.parentsgetcontactediftheeducationofficerdoesnotbelievethechildisgettingapropereducationathome.Aninformalenquirycouldbemadeandlegalguardiansareobligedtowriteareport,providesamplesofthechild’sworkormeetingwiththeEducationAuthority.As

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a next step, education officers assign a parenting order (parental education classes) or an educationsupervisortohelptheparentsgettheirchildrentoattendschool(GovernmentofU.K.).InMalaysia,theschooladministrationisauthorizedbytheMinistryofEducationtoassignthreetypesofwarningletterstostudentswhoaretruant,thefirstbeingwhenthestudenthasnotattendedschoolfortendays,thesecondforthirtydaysandthethirdforfortydays(Ishak,2013).Afterwards,expulsiontakesplace.InthestateofPennsylvania,U.S.,aftergettinganotification,asupervisormayvisittheparentsorholdmeetingswiththemtounderstandtheirsituation(WBACTC).InthestateofCalifornia,theattendanceofficermaycalltheparentsandtheschooltocreatea“truancyplan”(StateofCalifornia,2013).Finally,inBarbados,educationofficersmaystopchildrenonthestreetwholookofcompulsoryagetoquestionthem.Iftheyfindanythingsuspicious,theymayreportthemtotheChiefofEducation,thencontacttheparentsandgivethemawarningnoticefornothavingtheirchildreninschool(ILO,1997).Oncewarnings have beenmade, normally a fine takes place. Fines differ from region to region, andcountrytocountry.Somehaveaonepaymentfine,suchasthestatesofPennsylvania-uptoUS$300-(WBACTC),Texas-uptoUS$500-(Hope,2014),California-uptoUS$500-(StateofCalifornia,2013)orMalaysia-uptoRM5000(approximatelyUS$1132)(GovernmentofMalaysia,2006).Others,likeBahamas,increasethefinewhentheoffensehasbeencommittedmorethanonce,penalizingthefirstoffensewithuptoUS$50,thenuptoUS$75andthethirdonewithUS$100(GovernmentofBahamas,2001).Finally,in the U.K. the fine is increased after a certain period, if the fine remains unpaid, up to £2500(approximately US$3122) after 28 days (Government of U.K.). Imprisonment usually is used as a lastresource.Amongthecountriesanalyzed,Bahamashas the lowest imprisonment time,withup toonemonth including a parenting order (Government of Bahamas, 2001), while Pennsylvania imposes themaximum time,with up to a five-year imprisonment (WBACTC). A particularly eye-catching case is inPennsylvania,wherenotonlycanadultscanbeprosecutedbutchildrenaswell.Ifparentsprovethattheytriedtheirbesttotaketheirchildrentoschoolbutfailed,thechildrenmaybefinedwithuptoUS$300,havetheirdriver’slicenseremovedfor90days(orbeforbiddentoacquireoneforthesameperiodiftheydonothaveone),forcedtodocommunityservice,orultimately,canbearrested(WBACTC).Regardingtheimplementationoftheselaws,intheUKin2010,nearly12,000parentswereprosecutedand25givenaprisonsentencefortheirchildren’struancy.Thelongestjailsentencewas90days,andaround6,000parentswerefined.ThehighestfinewasapproximatelyUS$1061(Vasagar,2011).However,inmanycases,legalactionfortruancyoffensesarenotintheshapeofsanctionsimposedonoffenders.Forexample,inthestateofNewSouthWalesinAustralia,of658mattersreferredforlegalactionin2009,108 received fines but another 205 caseswerewithdrawn. Inmany of these cases, the act of beingprosecutedbythe legalentityservedasawarningfor legalguardiansandto incentivizethemtostartcontributing to their children’s school attendance (Dickson andHutchinson, 2010). AsDickson (2010)states, someparentsneed tobeprosecuted tomakea credible threatof thepossible consequences.Regardingtheireffectiveness,inTexas,93.6%ofallstudentswhoappearintruancycourtseithergraduateorstayenrolledinschool.Theschooldropoutratefellfromalmost26%in2007to12%in2011(Hope,2014).AsforMalaysia,whilenotclearifitissolelytheeffectofhavingtruancylaws,theDeputyEducationMinisterreportedthattruancycases“hasseenquiteareductionfrom2012to2015”(from17,343casesto 14,496 cases) (Shah, 2016). Further, given that in many cases truancy is related to child labor(absenteeismisduetofamilychoresoractualpaidwork),Gunnarsson(2006)suggeststhattruancylawshaveaneffecton lowering the incidenceof thesecases.This, combinedwithpolicies that reduce theattractiveness of child labor, such as CCT programs, are good examples of reducing truancywithin aspecificgroup–childrenthatneedtowork-(Gunnarsson,2006).

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Whiletruancylawshavebeendesignedtoconfrontabsenteeism,somearenoteffectiveforpreventingit.TheColoradoFoundationforFamiliesandChildrennotedsomeelementsthattheyfoundnecessaryfor effective programming: (1) parent/guardian involvement, (2) a continuum of services, to includemeaningful incentives, consequences and support, (3) collaboration with community resources—including law enforcement, mental health services, mentoring and social services, (4) schooladministrativesupportandcommitmenttokeepingyouthintheeducationalmainstream,and(5)ongoingevaluation (Dembo, 2009).However,most programbarriers are often related to funding and staffinglimitations,andfailtocomplywiththeaforementionedelements.Acommonchallengewhentryingtomaintaincorrectcontactinformationonstudentsandparentsandengagethemintheprocess,isfamilymobility.Othersfaceproblemswithineffectivecommunicationand/orcooperationamongprogramstaff,parents, and school or community officials. Many programs use different definitions of truancy.Furthermore,manytruancyprogramslackcontinuity,providingonlyshort-termsolutionsandservices,failingtotrackyouthandtheirfamiliesovertime(Dembo,2009).Therefore, truancy laws,whileprovidinga legal framework,need tobeaccompaniedbya supportingstructureforprevention.Desforgesemphasizestheneedforlawstobecombinedwithanunderstandingof the contextual situation within each country and family situation (socio-economic status,neighborhoods,andlimitationsatschool,amongotherfactors)(Desforges,2003).Dembosuggeststhatcommunities,schools,courtsandlawenforcementagenciesneedtoworktogethertoaddressneedsandtherefore reduce truancy.He states that rather thanplacing a focusononlyone setting (i.e., school,community,court, lawenforcementagency),truancyeffortsshouldfocusonamoreholisticapproachanddemandcontinuitybeyondaspecificpointintime.Otherwise,programsbecomeincomplete,failingtoprovideafullrangeofservicesandsupportoftenneededbytruantyouthandtheirfamilies.Giventhattruancyishighlyrelatedtocontextualsituationssuchasacademicproblems,troubledfamilysituations,and other psychosocial difficulties, fostering interdisciplinary, interagency collaboration becomes anecessitytokeepyouthatschool(Dembo,2009).

3.2 At the school level (Legal frameworks andmechanisms enforced/encouraged by the school toimprovelegalguardians’participationandaccountability)Whilethestateprovidesthelegalframeworkforenforcingandenhancinglegalguardians’accountability,theclosestrelationshipstandsbetweentheschoolandlegalguardians.Schoolscangobeyondnationallegislation(especiallywhenitisexcessivelygeneral)establishingrulesandproceduresforlegalguardians’participationandaccountability.Someinstrumentsusedforthesepurposescanbeoptionalorcanbeimposedasrequisitesforchildrenenrollment.Mostauthorsagreethatimprovinglegalguardians’accountabilitystartsbyunderstandingandimprovingtheschool-legalguardians’relationship.Bothneedtounderstandthecomplementarityoftheirrespectiveroles,aseducationispresentbothatschoolandathome(Balarin,2007).Schoolmustproviderelevantinformation(e.g.informationongoodpractices,behaviorsandactionstoavoid),familyassistance(e.g.home support, skill training) and external support (e.g.withwork, health care, pre-school education,tutoring),whileparentsneedtoagreeoncooperatingforthebenefitoftheirchildren(Driessen,2003).Epstein(2001)hascategorizeddifferenttypesofparentalinvolvement.Thefollowingclassificationmayhelpunderstandwaysinwhichthecooperativerelationbetweenschoolsandparentscouldbefosteredand strengthened: (i) parenting (help parents create positive home conditions), (ii) communicating(informparentsaboutschoolprogramsandprogressofchildren), (iii)volunteering (parentshelping inschoolactivities), (iv) learningathome(supportwithhomework), (v)decisionmaking(parentsgettinginvolvedinthepolicyandmanagementoftheschool),and(vi)collaboratingwiththecommunity(both

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shouldintegratewiththecommunityresourcesandservices).Thecategorizationmightalsobehelpfultoassesdimensionsonwhichguardiansshouldcollaborateandbeaccountablefor.Interventions focusing purely on institutional changes or information campaigns fail to meet therequirementsofenhancingaschool-legalguardianrelationship.Meanwhile,interventionsattemptingtoimprovecollectiveactionresultinaviableandeffectivealternativeoradditiontoenhancingrelationships.Fromexperimentalstudiesofcooperativenessitisknownthat“(1)themajorityofpeopleareconditionalcooperators,i.e.,theycooperateiftheythinkotherswilldolikewise,and(2)that,thisbeingthecase,thedynamicsofcooperationaredrivenbyindividual'sexpectationsaboutwhatotherswilldo”(Barretal,2013).Intheeducationfield,differentprogramstoimprovecooperationandaccountabilityhavebeentested.InParis,usingalarge-scalerandomizedcontroltrialwithmiddleschools,asimpleandlow-costprogram of parent–school meetings increased the level and quality of school-related parental care,resultinginasignificantreductionofreportedtruancyandmisbehaviorintreatmentclassrooms.Whilethere were differences in socio-economic level, the authors of the experiment state that even thebehaviorofstudentswithintheclassroomwhoseparentsdidnotparticipatewasaffected(Avvisatietal.,2011).Whenparentsreceiveinvitationsandsupportfromtheschool,theirinvolvementincreases,andstudent’sbehavior-includingtruancylevel-improves(Avvisati,etal.,2011).Inspiteoftheinterestfromschoolstoinvolvelegalguardiansinchildren’seducation,thereisaknowledgegap(andsometimes,fearoftestingdifferentprograms)fromteachersandschooladministratorsalikeonhowtomodulateparents’participationandaccountabilityinorderforthemtohaveanimpactontheirchildren’sperformance(Balarin,2007).Teacherscanplayanimportantroleincorporatingmechanismstofoster parental participation and accountability. Further information on teachers and communitymechanismswillbeaddressedinthenextsection.Efficientandsuccessfulteacherstaketheinitiativeofidentifyingthe“teamofinfluencers”surroundingtheirstudents,toworkcloserwithabroadercommunitytoenhancethe learningprocess (Farr,2010).Furthermore,actively involvedparentsexpressdifferentdesiresandintereststhatschoolsshouldtakemoreintoconsiderationtocollaborateinmoresubstantialways.Inordertoinvolvethemorereticentparents,schoolscancontributewitheffortstotreatthemasseriouseducationalpartners,especially forthoseparentsbelongingtoethnicminoritiesorwith lowereducation. Their willingness to be involved depends on the invitations, demands, and opportunitiesgeneratedbytheschoolandbythechildren(Driessen,2003).Aclassicalapproachregardingcommonmechanismstoreachparentsandcommunicatewiththembyproviding information on their responsibilities, or notifying them about events and occurrences, areenabledthroughthestudents.Latesttrendsincludedirectcommunicationandtheuseoflegalguardiancontracts that are both legally binding and non-binding. However, enforcing legal guardians’responsibilitiesattheschoollevelmaybemetwithadversitybymanyfamiliesandreducethetimethatparentsinvestinfulfillingtheirbasicschool-relatedutiesgivenwiderfamilycircumstancesthatprohibitamoremeaningfulengagement(brokenfamily,workabroad,singleparenting,etc.)(KhongandNg,2005).

3.2.1 Legal Guardian Contracts: Reducing absenteeism and enhancing parental involvement andaccountabilityDifferent frameworks and mechanisms are used to enforce and encourage the accountability andparticipationof legalguardians.Thebestknownareparentcontracts,whichwillbeexplainedinmoredetail,includingspecificcasesfromtheU.S.andDubai.Legalguardiancontractsrefertoagreementsissuedbylocaleducationauthoritiesorschoolstoparentsorlegalguardians,designedtoinvolvethemandworktogethernotonlytopreventtruancybutalsoto

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setupbasicrulesregardingschoolnormsanddesiredbehavior,forbothlegalguardiansandstudents.Legalguardiancontractsseektoinformandengagefamilymembersintoagreeingtothesenormsandtobeheldaccountableincaseofnon-compliance.Thedocumentservesasaguideparentscanrefertoinordertofollow-upschoolguidelines.Normsandproceduresspecifiedinthedocumentmayvaryfromawiderangeof issues,suchasschoolattendanceandpunctuality,definedtasksandresponsibilities forparentsandstudents,behaviorpolicy,sanctionpolicy,healthandsafetypolicy,communicationforaneffective partnership, among the most common topics. Contracts can be voluntary or compulsory.Usually,theyarerequiredforstudent’senrollmentatschool.Thesecontractsclarifytherightsandresponsibilitiesofparentsandschoolsandensurethatbothpartiesareawareoftheirdutiesandresponsibilitiestowardseachotherandtowardstheirchildren/studentsby:(i) protecting the rights of students, parents and educational service providers, (ii) creatingcommunicationchannelsforstudentsandparents,(iii)raisingawarenessofparentsandstudentsrights,(iv)legalizingtherightsandresponsibilitiesofallstakeholdersthroughtheparent-schoolcontracts.Examples drawn from two countries illustrate the diversity on how legal guardian contracts work inpractice.CasesfromtheU.S.andDubaiareintroducedtoallowabetterunderstandingofthemechanism,implementation, content, and consequences in case of non-compliance. The Singapore case is alsoreviewedtounderstanditsapproachtoparentalengagement.OurfirstexamplereviewscontractsfromcharterschoolswithintheU.S.Charterschoolshaveabroaderleewaytoimplementinnovativemechanismsthanregularpublicschoolsdo.Topcharterschoolsfollowthetrendofhavingplacedtheroleofparents’participationasakeyelementcontributingtotheprogressof their children’s performance. The practices of three types of charter schoolswere examined: KIPPSchools,HaasHallAcademy,andBasisSchools.TheKIPPSchoolsexamplewillbeaddressed indetail,whereasforHaasHallAcademyandBasisSchoolscases,theemphasiswillbeparticularlyplacedontheirsimilarmechanismstoholdparentsaccountable.Operatingsince1995, theKnowledge isPowerProgram(KIPP)comprisesanetworkof200non-profitschools thatmainlywelcomes low-incomeand lessadvantaged students.Asbeing the largest chartermanagementorganizationintheU.S.,theydisplayastrongefforttostandardizetheschooluseofsimilarprocessesandprocedures,whichisreflectedintheircoresetofpoliciestermedthe“FivePillars”(Angristet al., 2011). The secondpillar, called “Choice andCommitment”, underscores the importanceof thecompliance to the rulesandnormsof the school, through fostering theparticipationof the teachers,parents,andstudentsbyrequestingallpartiestosignadocumentthatsealstheagreement.TheKIPP“CommitmenttoExcellence”documentactsasaproxytoalegalguardiancontract,notwithstandingthatitalsocontainsasetofcommitmentsforteachersandstudents(samplefoundonAppendixA).ThecommitmentsrequestedforlegalguardiansplaceaspecialfocusonschoolattendanceandschedulessinceKIPPcharter schoolsworkwithinextendedschoolhoursandextendedacademicyear, includingsummer school. Other obligations include parents’ availability formeetings and communicationwithteachers,engagingwith their childrenhomework, taking responsibility for their childrenbehaviorandactions.Theconsequencesofnon-adherencetothecommitmentsbyeitherparentsorstudentsmayvaryfromdemeritstosuspensionorevenexpulsion(Brown,2013;Mathews,2013;Waltersetal.,2008).EvidencefromtheMathematicaPolicyResearchReportonKIPP’simpactshowsdifferencesinparents’satisfactioninelementaryandmiddleschoolsvs.highschools.Intheformer,KIPPschoolshaveshownpositiveimpactsonsatisfactionwithschoolfacilities,academics,safety,anddiscipline.Theimpactson

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parents’satisfactiondonotextendtothehighschool level (ClarkTuttleetal.,2015).Withrespecttolearningoutcomes,“KIPP’selementaryschoolshavepositive,statisticallysignificant,andeducationallymeaningfulimpactsonthreeoffourmeasuresofstudents’readingandmathematicallyskills”(ClarkTuttleetal.,2015).Also,Angristetal(2011)findthatdisadvantagedstudentsbenefitthemostwiththeprogram(Angristetal,2011).TheothertwocasesofsuccessfulU.S.charterschoolscomefromHaasHallAcademy(HHA)andBasisSchools.Botharewidelyknownforbeingtopperformersinthecountry,accordingtoseveraleditionsofU.SNewsandWorldReport.Oneofthekeyelementsoftheirsuccessarethestrategiestheydeveloptoinvolve parents. They both provide useful resources for parents on their websites and materials tofacilitateparents’participation.InthecaseofHHA,amandatoryparentalinvolvementpolicyliesatthecoreofitsapproach.Theycreatedseveral tools to serve this purpose: i) an online dashboard, which allows parents to read schoolannouncementsandtrackvolunteerhoursperyear.Allparentsarerequestedaminimumofthreehoursofparentalinvolvement,whichareauditedonline;ii)aParentFacultyCouncil;iii)aParentalInvolvementPlan,whichbrieflyreviewstheparentpolicyandprovidesorientationsonmeetings,conferences,groups,and gives practical advice on participation promotion; iv) a comprehensive Parent Handbook, whichthoroughlyreviseseachschoolpolicyregardingallsortofaspectsofacademiclife,includingthepenaltiesandsanctionsfornon-compliance.ConsequencesonnotfollowingthenormsstatedintheHandbookareappliedtothestudents, rangingfromfilingreportsanddetention, tosuspensionandexpulsionof thestudent(seeHaasHallParentalInvolvementPlanandAcademyScholarParentHandbookintheselinkshttps://goo.gl/mgbQD4andhttps://goo.gl/3myeXJ).Consequencesforparentalnon-compliancearenotstatedintheirnormativedocuments.BASIS charter schoolswere firstestablished in1998,and later theorganizationexpanded to serve24schools. This topperformergroupof charter schoolshas alsodevelopeda strategy to fosterparents’participationinschoolthroughtheHandbookContractthatlegalguardianshavetosignasaconditionforenrollment.Studentshavetosignthiscontactaswell.TheHandbookContractincludesalistofactivities,responsibilities,andpenaltiesforbothparentsandstudents.Policiesstatedinthedocumentrangefromacademicissuestobehavioralnorms,homeworkandassignment,healthandsafety,andotherrelatedtopics. The Handbook includes two additional relevant sections for parents: communication andcommunity. Read more about the Basis Charter Schools Parent Student Handbook here:https://goo.gl/H6yAu1.Inthecommunicationsection,theuseoftheCommunicationJournalisexplainedandhighlightedastheprimarymethodofcommunicationamongteachers,staff,andparents.Thistoolisusedasadayplanner,allowingstudentstomanagetheirassignmentsandalsoadailyexchangeofnoticesbetweenteachersandparents ifneeded.Failuretobringthejournaltoaclass isconsideredadisciplineviolationbythestudent. Parents must acknowledge that they have reviewed the daily journal by signing it. In thecommunity section, Basis Boosters Clubs are introduced. They are non-profit site-specific parentvolunteerorganizationsthatareintendedtoactasthesocialgluebetweentheschoolfamiliesandhelpintegrateparentsintotheschoolcommunity.Theirobjectivesaretopromoteprojectsandfundraisingevents.The sectionon theattendancepolicy considers absencesas a violationof school rules. If the studentaccumulates excessive absences, parents will be required to attend a meeting with the Director ofStudentsAffairstodevelopanAbsenceRecoveryPlan.Failuretofollowtheplanmayleadtodeclarethe

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student as chronically absent, which could lead to the unfulfillment of the requirements for gradepromotion.AsecondregionalcaseisdrawnfromtheDubaiexperience.InDubai,wherecloseto90%ofallstudentsare in private schools, the Knowledge andHumanDevelopment Authority (KHDA) is the governmentauthoritythatoverseesprivateeducation.Thisbodygovernmenthasestablishedthatallparentsorlegalguardiansinthecountryarerequiredtosignacontract(seesampleinAppendixB)whichoutlinestheirrightsandresponsibilitiesregardingtheirchildren’seducation.Thecontractprotectsbothparentsandschoolsandincludesclausesonassessment,tuitionfees,anti-bullyingandotherschoolpolicies.Createdinpartnershipwithschoolsandparents,thecontracthasbeenintroducedinphases,allowingselectedschoolsandparents togivetheirsuggestions for improvements.Schoolswillonlybeableto finalizeastudent’senrollmentoncethecontracthasbeensignedbyparentsorlegalguardians,andalsorequiresthesignatureofstudentsaged15andabove.Thislegally-bindingdocumentisissuedinbothEnglishandArabic,andinsomecasestranslatedbyschoolsintoathirdlanguagetomakeiteasierforforeignparentsto understand (Luke Naismith, Director of Research at Dubai’s Knowledge and Human DevelopmentAuthority,KHDA,personalcommunication,October,2016).Themaintasksthatareundertheparents’responsibilitiesinclude:i)providingtheschoolwithcopiesofallmedical,psychologicalandeducationalreportsbeforeentry;ii)notifyingiftheirchildhasanylearningdifficultythattheyareawareoforsuspect;iii)paymentoftheschoolfeesaccordingtotheinstallmenttimetable;iv)supplyingschoolwithupdatedcontactinformation;v)attendingallmeetings,conferencesorreviewsrelatedtotheirchild’sprogress;vi)complyingwiththeattendanceandpunctualitypolicy.Theparents’levelofparticipation,involvementandresponsibilityaretakenveryseriously.Accordingtothecontract,failureindoingsowillaffectthechancesoftheirchild’sre-enrollmentforthefollowingyear.Attendancepolicyisveryexplicitwithpenaltiesforabsenteeismandtardiness.Dependingonanumberof incidents, sanctions can be anything fromwarnings, meetings with parents, to community hours,detention,suspensionorrefusingtore-enrollthenextacademicyear.Ifadisputeoccursbetweentheschoolandparents,KHDAplaysamediationrole,usingthecontractasalegal reference to handle these situations. The agency has established different channels ofcommunicationforparentstosendtheircommentsandsuggestions,andtheyarewelcometovisittheirofficesforanyrequiredsupport.Whiletheaboveexamplesfocusonhowschoolscreateandpromotemechanismstoholdparentsorlegalguardiansaccountabletotheirnormativerules,thefollowingexamplewillexposeadifferentapproach,concentratedmoreonsupportingparents’participationthanpunishingthemfornon-compliance.Thisthird case regionexampledepicts theexperienceof school-parentpartnerships in thecountry, and isillustrativeofthedifferentstrategiesthatcouldbeusedtofosterengagement.Aswidelyknown,Singapore’seducationsystemisoneofthemosthighlyrankedintheworld.Thethirdcasecountryexamplewilldepicttheexperienceofschool-parentpartnershipsinthecountry.Parents’participationrolehastakenanimportantplaceparticularlysincetheshift inthecountry’seducationalsystemfromanefficiency-drivenparadigmtoanability-drivenone.Theshiftstartedinthelate1990sandwas implemented to foster problem-solving skills, critical and creative thinking. The new paradigmunderstandsparentsandthecommunityaskeystakeholdersinthelearningprocess.In1998,theMinistry

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ofEducationsetupaNationalAdvisoryCounciltopromotestakeholders’participation,theCommunityandParentsinSupportofSchools(COMPASS)(MinistryofEducationofSingapore,2016).Withinthisparadigmshift,twotypesofassociationshavebeenestablishedacrossSingaporeanschoolstopromoteparentalinvolvement:Parent–TeacherAssociations(PTA)andParentSupportGroups(PSG).This case study shows how thoroughly the government has pushed a supporting agenda on legalguardians’roleotherthanestablishingmechanismstoholdthemaccountableorpunishtheiractions.Itssolutions offer parents channels to communicatewith teachers and staff and to raise their concerns.Moreover, they seek to promote activities to integrate families into the school community and giveparentsopportunitiestosupportschoolsthroughvolunteering,financialassistance,donatingresources,orformpartnershipswithothercommunitygroupslikecharities,communitycenters,orvoluntarywelfareorganizations. Nevertheless,theMinistryofEducationhaspointedouttwofactorsregardingparentalparticipationthatstillneedtobeovercome.First,thegreatestdifficultyintryingtoinvolveparentswhenthey cannot easily fulfill their primary responsibilities is due to divorce, single parenting, or workingabroad for longperiods. Second, thechallengeeducators face ismanaging theexpectationsofanewgenerationofactively-involvedparents,whowilldemandmoreaccountabilitytoschools(KhongandNg,2005).Althoughthereisnopolicysetupbynationalauthoritiesregardingthis,legalguardiancontractsarefoundinSingaporeasinitiativesfromsomeschools(seeanexamplefromaprivateschoolinAppendixC).Assessment, evaluations, andmonitoring practices have been included as part of this newmodel ineducation.EveryschoolinSingaporeisrequestedtoconductself-appraisalformsaccordingtotheNewSchoolExcellenceModel(SEM),whichmeasuresninecategories(KennedyandChi-kin,2008;Ng,2003).Oneofthem,“PartnershipandSocietyResults”,whichmeasureshowsuccessfulaschoolisinachievingtherelationshipbetweenparentsandthecommunity,andaccountsfor6%ofthetotalscore.

3.2.2 Mechanismsencouragedbyteachers/communitytoimprovelegalguardians’accountabilityState and school level policies are proved to be effective in encouraging parents or legal guardians’participation and improving their accountability. School staff, particularly teachers who are in directcontactwiththefamilies,serveasakeychanneltoreinforcethisfunction.Highlyeffectiveteachersimplementdiversemechanismstoholdparentsaccountablefortheirstudents’results.First,itisimportanttoacknowledgethatparentsorlegalguardiansarenottheonlystakeholderswhom teachers canworkwith to improve students’performance. Successful teachers seek tobuildanetworkof“teamsofinfluencers”thatincludenotonlyparents,butalsofamilymembersandothernon-familymembers of the community (e.g. training coaches, spiritual leaders) that are important to thestudent’slife,aspartofabroadercirclethatisinvestedincreatingafoundationthatenableseffectivecommunication(Farr,2010).Strategiesandmechanismsmaybedirectedtoafar-reachingaudienceforthatpurpose,anditisessentialtoidentifythesepartnersinordertodeliverwell-alignedmessages.Classicalstrategiesincluderequestingpapersignature,journalsorfolders;requestingparentstohelpinthepreparationofmaterialsneededforlessons;homevisits,phonecalls;andassigningsummerlearningtasks(JoyceandBecker,1982).However,classicmethodshaveslightlybeenmodifiedtoincorporatemoreinnovativemethods,suchashomevisitstounderstandparents’backgroundandexperiences.Itseemsthatitisbetterthatteachersassumethebestoftheirstudents’familieswhentheyhavethechancetomeet,inordertounderstandtheirexperiencesandhelpthemunderstandthevalueoftheschoollessonsinthehome.Thisunderscorestheimportanceofteachersdealingwithpotentialprejudicetowardsthe

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student’s family or parents (e.g. when presumably they are not taking enough care of their childrenhomeworkorresponsibilities).Otherfrequentstrategiesincludeorganizinggatheringsforparentstodiscussthetopicstheirchildrenarelearningduringthemonth;weeklynewsletters;biweeklyreports;celebratorycallstoinfluencerswhenstudents accomplish good grades; open invitation to classrooms; among others (Farr, 2010). All theaforementionedactivitiesappearfrequentlyasspontaneousstrategiescomingfromproactiveteachersoryearsofexperience.Someschoolsrecognizetheirinitiativesandmayturnthemintoschoolpolicies,grantingsystemconditionstofosterthoseinitiatives.However,thereisanoldexistingdebatearoundtheextratimeteachersdevotetopursuingthismorepersonalizedapproachtoparents,sinceusuallythattimedoesnotfallwithintheirworkinghours,andisusuallypoorlyrewarded(Farr,2010;JoyceandBecker,1982).Nevertheless,therelationshipbetweenteachersandparentsisnotasfluidaspolicymakerswouldhopefor,makinganytypeofcommunicationorstrategyinvolvingparentsdifficult.“Therewasnotsomuchmarked antipathy (between parents and teachers) as mutual fear”, found Cullingford and Morrison(1999).Crozier(1999)interviewedasampleofparentsontheexperienceofhome-schoolrelationsforastudyintheU.K.andfoundthat“(a)manyworkingclassparentshaveperceptionsofteachersassuperioranddistant(b)theseperceptionsarereinforcedbytheteachers’stance(c)teachersengagewithparentsonlyon theirown terms (d) thisdoesnotencourageparents tobeproactive inpartnership, rather itencouragesparentalfatalisminregardtotheirchildren’sschooling”(Desforges,2003).Epsteinstatesinhisstudythat,whilesometeachersarguethatlegalguardiansshouldnothelpwithschoollearning,mostagreethatthereisaneedforparentstobemoreinvolvedandworkwithteachers,andreinforceguidanceathomewhenpossible(Epstein,1982).Thereisaneedforunderstandinghowparentinvolvementcanbeorganizedsothattheresponsibilitiesofteachers,parentsandstudentsareclearer.AccordingtoCottonandReed(1988),parentswouldliketoplayamoreactiveroleinschoolgovernance,whereasmost school administrators and teachers show reluctance to encouraging them to getmoreinvolvedinthesubject.Therearecertainspaceswhereteachersandadministratorswantguardianstogetmore involved. In a study performed in Botswana, teachersmentioned that guardian-communityinvolvementwouldhelp them improve in theireffectivenessbecausetheywouldbe joiningresourcestogether for activities such as homework, resulting in a positive improvement in the learner’sperformance (Boaduo et al, 2009). Nevertheless, Cotton and Reed (1988) state that teacher andadministratorsdisapprovethelegalguardians’interventioninadministrativeareassuchasteacherandprincipalselectionandevaluation,orselectionofteachingmaterials.Areasonforthisreactionisbecausetheytendtofeelthatlegalguardiansdonothavethetrainingnecessarytomakeschooldecisions.Boaduoetal(2009)mentionintheBotswanastudythatmostmembersoftheParent-TeacherAssociationwereeitherilliterateorsemi-illiterate,andforthatmattertheywerenotexpectedbyschooladministratorstounderstandacademicandmanagementproceduresoftheschools.Communities around the school also need to play a role in monitoring students’ activities outsideclassrooms.Communitiesofferawidearrayofresourcesvaluabletoschoolsandfamilies.Ifschoolsandcommunitieswork together, both are strengthened andmake gains that neither of them could haveaccomplishedontheirown(Epstein,1982).Ishakmentionsthattruantstudentsrevealedthattheyhadnever been caught by thepolice and receivedneither advice norwarning from communitymembers(Ishak,2013),indicatingthedisinterestofthecommunityingettinginvolvedinchildren’sschooling.Whenworkingtogether,communitiescandeveloppartnershipswithlocalbusinesstoadvancestudentlearningand assist schools and families, foster student participation in community service or collaboratewith

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communityagencies toprovide family support services,enabling the legalguardians tobecomemoreparticipativeintheirchildren’seducation.Educators,parentsandallthestakeholdersintheschoolcommunitymustbearinmindthatthevariousformsofinvolvementdonotoccurbychance.Mechanismstofosterparticipationandaccountabilityareusuallypartofanexplicitstrategicinterventionorsetofpolicies.

Challenges faced by legal guardians Theenvironmentathomeisbecominganimportantaspecttounderstandandreducetruancy.Accordingto Ishak, familieswith legal guardianswho do not give great emphasis on academic achievement orneglect the importanceof educationwill cause them to skip school (Ishak, 2013).Nevertheless, legalguardians face certain challenges thatpose significantdifficultieswhen trying to get involved in theirchildren’s education, especially for the following reasons: guardians’ socioeconomic and culturalbackgrounds, guardians’ interaction with the education system, and guardians’ relationship with thechildrenthemselves.Previouslifeincidents,contextualsituation,cultureandlegalguardians’upbringingresultindifferencesintheirlevelofinvolvementwiththeirchildren’seducation.First,therearesocioeconomicfactorsthataffecttheirlevelofinvolvement.AccordingtoBalarin’sstudyinPeru,familieswithlowerresourcesarelesspreparedtosupporttheirchildrenandgetinvolvedinschool,andtoseizeopportunitiesofferedbytheschoolsuchasinformationregardingtheprogressoftheirchildorschools’socialservices.Moreover,she explains that less well-off families experience difficulties in communication with the school, andthereforeencountermorebarriersforcooperation(Balarin,2007).Ontheotherside,Gubbins’researchinChileanschoolsreportsthatparentswithahighereconomicstatusreport lower involvement inthedevelopmentprocessesandfinancialmanagementoftheschoolthanmiddle-classfamilies.Inherstudy,higher-class families are the ones that receive the lowest amount of information about schoolgovernance. Her finding suggests that paying more for a school does not guarantee more schoolaccountability(Gubbins,2016).ByanalyzingtheCCTprograminBrazil,Bursztyn,ontheotherhand,findsthatthecommonbeliefisthatparentsfromlowersocioeconomicstatuscannotaffordtohaveachildnotworking, and thus prefer to have their children drop out. But in his study, parents show a strongpreference to keep their children in school, preferring to receive conditional payments (meaning, onconditionthattheysendkidstoschool)overunconditional(Bursztyn,2012).Theeducationofthelegalguardiansalsoprovestohaveinfluenceintheleveloftheirinvolvementintheirchildren’seducation.Inastudyperformedwithkindergarten(nursery)andfirstgradestudentsfromhigh-riskneighborhoodsinfourdifferentplacesintheU.S.,Kohletal(2000)researchedfamilyfactorswhichpotentiallyputparentalinvolvementatrisk.Theystudiedtheeffectofparentaleducationlevel,maternaldepression,andsingleparentstatus.Inthepaper,theyarguedthatparents’viewsoftheirroleintheirchildren’seducationandtheirlevelofcomfortwhencommunicatingwithteachersmightbeareflectionoftheirowneducationexperience.Ifparentshadapoororlimitededucation,theymightseethemselvesaslackingvision,confidenceorcompetencetosupporttheirownchild(Kohletal,2000).InastudybyTaukeni (2016) that looked at legal guardians of Grade 7 school learners in primary schools in theOtjozondjuparegioninNamibia,shefoundthat68.2%oftheguardianssaidtheyhadproblemsinhelpingachildwithhomeworkduetotheirowneducationlimitations:“Iamwillingtohelpteachersbutmylittleeducationstandsintheway”.

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Kohl’sstudyintheU.S.alsoanalyzedparents’maritalstatus.Singleparentmightplacelimitsregardingtheir children’s education, especially because of time constraints, as these parents have less time tosupport theirchildreneducationally (Kohletal,2000). Wilcox (2005)explainsthattwo-legal-guardianfamiliestypicallyhaveaccesstomoreemployment,income,savings,andeconomicresourcesthansinglelegalguardianfamilies.Moreover,two-parentfamilieshavemoreopportunitiestodevotemoretimeto,andmonitoringof,theirchildren,aswellaseachother’sparentinglevel.Accordingtobothauthors,twoparents are typicallymore successful in providing social and emotional support to a child. However,researchperformedbySuet-LingPonginMalaysia(1996),aswellasHyunjoonPark(2007)throughoutAsia,indicatesthatinsomedevelopingcountriestheextendedfamilyissostrongthatitoffersa“safetynet”thatbuffersagainstanypotentialilleffectsofsingleparenthood.Thesestudiessuggestthatchildreninsingle-parentfamiliesdoaswellorbetterthanchildrenintwo-parentfamiliesbecauseextendedfamilymemberstendtoreachoutandprovideextrafinancialandsocialresources.Therearealsoculturalandethnicityfactorsthathavestronginfluenceinthelevelofinvolvementoflegalguardians in their children’s education. Ethnicity, probably due to historical disadvantage, has beenrevealed insomecasesasafactorfor lowinvolvementwiththeschool. InNewZealand, infiveSouthIsland secondary schools studied, during 2011–2013, total unjustified absences and frequent truancyweregenerallyhigheramongMāoriandPacific IslandstudentsthanforEuropeanandAsianstudents.(SIALLIANCE, 2014). There are cases of schools focusing special attention to students fromminorityethnicalbackgrounds.IntheNetherlands,Driessen(2003)usesdatagatheredfromDutchPRIMA-cohortstudytoindicatethatthoseschoolswithahighpercentageofethnicminoritypupilsdevotedconsiderableextra attention to parental involvement, as they considered it central for children’s development.However, the extra time dedicated gave little or no success in getting the guardiansmore involved.Parentswerefoundtoplaylittleornoroleatall.Oncontrary,school’swithlessethnicdiversityshowedparentswillingtoplaymoreofaconsiderablerole.Thereasonsbehind,accordingtoDriessen,isthatforethnicminorityparents,schooloftenconstitutesaforeignplacewheretheydonotfeelathome,resultinginthemremaining“onthesidelines”.Recognizingthesedifficultieshelpsusunderstandwhyparentsfrommanyethnicminoritygroupsfaceaddedhurdlesinbecomingmoreactiveorinvolvedintheschoolsoftheirchildren(Driessen,2003).WaWongandHughes(2014),findthatlanguagecomponentisanotherreasonforethnicminoritiestobelessinvolved.Intheirstudywith481parentsinaschooldistrictinTexas,U.S.,AfricanAmericanparentsreportedmorefrequentcommunicationwiththeschoolandmoreactiveparticipation in theirchildren’seducationthanHispanicparents,whereasHispanicparents tendtobemoredeferential,moretrusting,andlesscomfortablewithteachersandschools.AmongHispanicparents,those who spoke better English reported more shared responsibility than parents who spoke moreSpanish.Thislastgroupreportedsignificantlylowerlevelofinvolvement.Theauthorsindicatethatthefindingmightberelatedtoapossiblelackofrequisitelanguageandinstructionalskillsorfamiliaritywiththe English language curriculum, translating into a low efficacy for assisting with their children’shomeworkassignments.Itisestimatedthatasmuchas40%oftheglobalpopulationdoesnothaveaccesstoaneducationinalanguagetheyspeakathome(UNESCO,2016). Thismeansthatparentsmaylackknowledgeoftheofficiallanguageusedinschool,whichcanthenreinforcegapsinlearningopportunitiesbetweenminorityandmajoritylanguagegroups.Forexample,inPeru,thereisabigdiscrepancyintestscoresbetweenindigenousandnon-indigenouschildreningradetwo.Somecountrieshaverealizedthisissueandhavetakenmeasurestocreatemoreinclusion.InCameroon,between2007and2012,agroupof12schoolsusedacurriculuminthelocallanguage,Kom,showinganincreaseinachievementinreadingcomprehension compared with children taught only in English. UNESCO recommends, among otheractions,theprovisionofinclusiveteachingmaterials,havingacurriculathataddressesissuesofinclusion,theprovisionoftextbooks ina languagechildren(andparents)understand,andculturallyappropriateschool-readinessprograms(UNESCO,2016).

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Closelyrelatedtoethnicity,Desforges’(2003)studyinEnglandrevealedacomplexrelationshipbetweenachievement and parental involvement across cultures. He explains that in someAsian communities,students’ personal effort is a significant element, often attributed to success. Therefore, parentalinvolvementmaytendtoweakenthatself-effort,resultinginnegativeeffects.Inhisstudy,Asiangroupsshowedastrongerrelationshipbetweenhomeworkandachievement,whilewhitestudentsweremoreinfluenced by perceived parental expectation. For the author, this does not mean that parentalinvolvementisnotnecessaryinAsiangroups,butadifferentapproachtakesplace.Desforgesconcludesthatthegeneral impactofparental involvementworksinsupportofpupilattainmentacrossallethnicgroups,however, theseneed tobeplaced in the contextofhowvaluesare conceivedandexpressedwithintheethniccultureofthefamily.AnotherexampleisexplainedbyBarretal(2014)regardingtheirstudy in Albania. After comparing voter turnout to the level of parents’ participation in schools, theauthorsstatethatthewillingnessandabilitytoinvolvethemselvesforcooperativeactionareculturallydetermined. Themore proactive in cooperative action participation, such as turning out to vote, thehigherthechancesoftheirinvolvementintheirchildreneducation(Barretal,2014).

4.1 “Educationsystem-legalguardians”relationshipchallengesforlegalguardians’involvementThe aforementioned factors contribute to understanding legal guardians’ willingness (or capacity) ingettinginvolvedintheirchildren’seducation.Nevertheless,contextualsituationisjustonefactoramongothers,thereforetheneedfortheirunderstandingofhowtoproceedandwhichmechanismstheyfindavailabletomonitor/supporttheirchildren.IntheCCTexperimentalstudyinBrazil(Bursztyn,2012),itwasfoundthatthemajorityoflegalguardians(80%) preferred to have conditional payments rather than unconditional, when connecting the cashtransfertotheirchildren’sattendance.Familiesvaluethemechanismsofsocialinterventions(e.g.CCT)thatcanincreasetheircapacitytomonitortheirchildren’sschoolattendance.Nevertheless,theylackamechanism to help themmonitor their children’s attendance. A second related experiment providedinformationbytextmessagesregardingtruancyoftheirchildren,whichprovedhighlyvaluedbyparents.Accordingtothestudy,parentsarewillingtopayforinformationtofacilitatetheprocessofhavingtheirchildrenattendschool.Anykindofsupporttounderstandwheretheirchildrenareandtheirparticipationinschoolarevaluabletoinduceschooling,butperhapsnotsufficient(Bursztyn,2012).TheCCTandtextmessageexperimentsbothgaveparentsawayofmonitoring theirchildren’s schoolattendance.Balarin’spaper(2007)regardingparentalinvolvementinPerudiscusseshowparentsdonotfeelateaseorcapableenoughtosupporttheirchildren’slearningprocess-anideasometimessharedbyteachers themselves-, therefore limiting their involvement in children’s education. Parents do notunderstandwhattheirchildrenarelearningorhowtohelpthemathome.Thoughsometimesschoolsdoinformhowbesttoproceedinthesecases,parentsstill feelthattheyarenotwell-orientedinhowtoperformthesetasks(Balarin,2007).Onanotherhand,inDesforgesstudyinEngland(Desforges,2003),around9outof10adultsfoundtheschoolwelcomingorwillingtoinvolvethem,butnevertheless16%feltthatiftheytalkedtoomuch“theymightbeseenastroublemakers”(Desforges,2003).Bothaforementionedstudiesshoweitheralimitationforparentstogetinvolvedbecauseofnotfeelingcapableenough(Peru)orbecauseofnotwantingtobeseenastroublemakers(England).Balarin(2007)explains this as a limitation of educational policies in understanding the diverse realities that manyfamilies,schools,andcommunitiesface,whichimpactlegalguardians’abilitytogetinvolved.Educational

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policieshavenotstrategizedaplantoimprovecooperationandunderstandingoflegalguardians’roleineducation.Thesepoliciesfocusmainlyoneconomicormaterialcontribution,ratherthanoneducationalsupport in their children’s learningprocess. Further, theydonot recognize themany limitations legalguardiansfacethatimpedethemtodedicatemoretime(ormoney)toschoolactivities,failingtofocusattentiononmakingparentsunderstandtheir role ineducation. InBalarin’sstudy, familieswithmoreresources – higher parental education, time, access to supporting resources like computers or theinternet-areinabetterpositiontosupporttheirchildrenineducation,whilechildrenfromfamilieswithfewerresourcestendtofallbehind.Thesefamiliesareatadisadvantageinunderstandinghowtoproceedinsupportingtheirchildren’seducationgiventhelimitationstheyfaceregardingeconomicsituationortime,andmoreover,thereisalackofunderstandingofclearconsequencesregardingchildren’slowscoreresults.Asaresult,teachersandprincipalsmaycomplainaboutparentsnotwantingtogetmoreinvolvedintheeducationoftheirchildren,withoutunderstandingthattheexpectationssetbytheschoolsdifferfromthecapabilitiesorunderstandingsofthelegalguardians.Moreover,inthePeruviancontext,thereis a commonunderstandingbetween teachers and the school administration that parents should getinvolvedmainlyinschoolexpensesandorganizationofsocialandfundraisingevents,deprioritizingtheattentiontowardseducationalsupport(Balarin,2007).

4.2 “Students-Legalguardian”relationshipchallengesforlegalguardians’involvementWhilechildren’sattitudestowardsparentalinvolvementhavenotbeentakenmuchintoconsiderationinresearch, Edwards and Alldred study in the U.K. (2000) indicates that childrenwere just as active indiscouraging,evadingandobstructingtheirparents’involvement,astheywereinitspromotion.Intheirresearch, students saw themselves as autonomous andwith a right to some privacy,with their ownresponsibility todo their homework, thusnotneedingparental involvement. Therewere also genderdifferencesamongchildren,girlsbeingmoresupportiveofparentalinvolvementthanboys.Socialclassalsoplayedarole.Middle-classchildrenweremorepronetolettheideaofparentalinvolvementflowfromtheirparentstothemselves,whilethosefromtheworkingclasswereeithermoreactivelytakingastancetoinitiateinvolvement(mainlygirls)orblockingit(mainlyboys)(Desforges,2003).Parentsalsorespondeddifferentlyregardingtheirattentiontoparentalinvolvementdependingontheeducationalsituationoftheirchildren. InthesamestudyintheU.K.,whilechildrenatsecondarylevelwere less comfortablewithparental involvement, parents also respondedwithhaving amuchhigherincidenceofparental involvementatthepreschool levelandintheprimarygradesthanatthemiddleschoolorsecondarylevel(Desforges,2003,CottonandReed,1988).Researchersidentifiedvariousdifferencesintheincidenceandtypesofparentalinvolvementasstudentsmovethroughtheupperelementaryandsecondarygrades.Parentsgenerallybecomeless involvedastheirchildrengrowolder.Forexample,astudyperformedbyDesforgesintheU.K.showedthatparentsweremuchmoreinvolvedintheearlyyears.71%ofparentsclaimedtohavehelpedtheirchildrenwithevery piece of homework on their first year of school, a percentage that dropped to 5% by year 11(Desforges,2003).CottonandReedstatethefollowingreasonsforthisfallintheU.S.:schoolsarebiggerandfartherfromhome,thecurriculumismoresophisticated,eachstudenthasseveralteachers,parentsofolderstudentsaremorelikelytobeemployed,andstudentsarebeginningtoestablishsomesenseofseparationand independencefromtheirparents (CottonandReed,1988).Astheirchildrengotolder,parentslostconfidenceintheirabilitytohelp(Desforges,2003).Nevertheless,astudyshowninFergusonand Rodriguez (2004) and performed by Duffet and Johnson (2004) in the U.S., revealed that, whilebecomingmoreindependent,teenagersdostillwanttointeractwiththeirparents,aswellasotheradults,and have them involved in their lives (Ferguson and Rodriguez, 2004). Nevertheless, Deslandes and

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Bertrand(2005)indicatethatthelevelofguardians’participationismuchdependentontheirchildren’sinvitationalattitudetoparticipateintheirlives.Among770parentsofadolescentsinsecondaryschoolsinQuebec,theirstudyshowedthateitherathomeoratschool,parentsbecamemoreinvolvedintheiradolescents’educationiftheyperceivethatteachersandstudentsexpectedorwantedtheirinvolvement(DeslandesandBertrand,2005).Whileattheelementarylevelfamiliescommonlyassistedwithhomeworkorvolunteeredastutors,theirparticipationandinvolvementinthesecondarylevelisdifferent.FergusonandRodriguez(2004)indicatethatsuccessfulinvolvementatthehighschoollevelmayinclude“specialmeetingstocommunicatetestinformation or test preparation strategies; discussions on college planning; participation on a schoolimprovement team; or workshops designed to teach homework strategies or methods to addressadolescentissues”.Theyclaiminvolvementandparticipationatthesecondarylevel isoftenmuchlessvisible,thoughjustasvaluable.Inthisregard,familiesshouldtrytotalkasoftenaspossiblewiththeirteenagersaboutschool;help themmakeplans forpostsecondaryeducation;andkeepthemfocusontheireducation(FergusonandRodriguez,2004).Schoolsshouldencourageparentstomaintainthelevelofinvolvementthroughoutthemiddleschoolandsecondaryyears(CottonandReed,1988).

Conclusions and Policy Recommendations Afterreviewingstateandschoolinstrumentstoenhancelegalguardians’accountabilityandparticipation,implementedindifferentcontexts,thefirstpolicyrecommendationsisthatacombinationofpreventiveand corrective actions are needed to increase the probability of success.When the focus is only oncorrectiveactions,thereisariskofnottrulyinvolvinglegalguardians,whomightnothavetheknowledge,tools or thewider support to accompany their children in their education process. A combination oftruancylawswithmotivationorincentiveprograms(suchasCCT)mayencourageparentsinbringingtheirchildrentoschools.Truancylawsofferthelegalframeworkand“punishments”fornotengagingchildreninschool,whilemotivationprogramssatisfyotherneeds,suchastheneedforhavinganincomeotherwiselostwhenchildrenareatschool,whichisparticularlyimportantamonglow-incomefamilies. Mosttruancylawshavebeendesignedtoconfrontabsenteeism,butnottopreventit.Thepunishmentsincluded in truancy laws shouldbe the last resourceafter taking intoconsideration theotheroptionsavailable.Pennsylvania’scasemaysoundinterestingwhenparentshavetakeneverypossiblemeasuretotaketheirchildrentoschool,butgivingfinesandinsomecasesimprisonmentwillnotnecessarilybringtheirchildrenbacktoschool(especiallyiftheygotojailorcannotaffordfines,whichisprobablythecasefor low income families). Therefore, truancy laws should consider a more in-depth analysis of theeconomic,socialorpsychologicalsituationofthefamiliesinvolved,tounderstandwhichactionsaremoreadequatefordifferentcases.Inmanycases,highfinesorimprisonmenttimeseemtobecountereffectiveforlowincomefamilies.Providingservicestoinvolveandtrainparentsandcommunities(asmentoring,mentalhealthservicesand social services), and meaningful incentives are key to achieve better results, especially amongdisadvantagedareas and families,whomightbe severely andunfairly impactedbypunishments. It isimportant to state thatproviding short-termservices toaproblemthat requiresa longand thoroughanalysis will not solve the situation (Dembo, 2009). There is a need for a supporting structure forpreventionandforcontinuityandlong-termobjectivesandactions.From the literature reviewed for this paper, most authors agree that improving legal guardians’accountability starts by understanding and cultivating the relationship between schools and legal

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guardians. In fact, another importantpolicy recommendation is that instrumentsdevelopedat schoollevelcanbethemosteffectiveinmakingparentsaccountableandininvolvingtheminschoolactivities,becauseof theproximityofschools tocommunitiesand familiesandtheday-to-dayrelationshipwiththeirchildren.Whileschoolsandteachersmayhaveagenuineinterestinfosteringparents’involvement,theremightbealackofknowledgeonhowtoaddressparents’participation.Thedifferentauthorsstatethatteachersand school provide programs to involve parents,without really understanding their concerns, needs,desiresor backgrounds. Therefore, educational personnel should treatparents as serious educationalpartners,takingintoconsiderationtheirneeds.Itisalsocrucialforanypolicyorinstrumenttoconsidertheparticularitiesofparents’whentryingtogettheminvolvedintheirchildren’seducation.Socioeconomiclevelisanimportantconsideration,asinsomecaseschildrenareasourceof income,or inothers, lower incomeparentsusuallyhavelesseducation,meaninglessknowledgeonwhatactiontotake.Cultureisanotherconsideration,aswhatisgoodforonesocietymaynotbegoodforanother.Forinstance,understandingthatpersonaleffortisveryvaluedinEastAsianculturesshouldleadtoadifferentapproachinenhancingparentalinvolvement.Legalguardians’contractsareusefultoolstoimprovelegalguardians’participationandaccountability.Itisrecommendedforcountriesthathavenotdevelopedapolicyonthemyet,toconsidertheseusefulinstrumentstopromoteparentalinvolvementinschools.Also,schoolscantaketheinitiativetosetupthesetypesoftools.Examplesonthediverserangeoftopicsthatacontractmayincludecanbefoundinthispaper.Another relevant conclusion is that schools should reinforce the role of teachers as key stakeholdersidentifyingthe“teamofinfluencers”ofeachoftheirstudents.Teachersareusuallyinfrequentcontactwith the studentsand their familiesandmightgetabettergraspofwhatare thekeypeople in theircommunitiestoworkwithfortheirstudents’improvement.Thepaperalsoshowsthatmanyparentsare“afraid”ofeithernotbeingcapableenoughofsupportingintheirchildreneducation(Peru),orinsomecasestoparticipateinschoolaffairsbecauseofappearingtobe too annoying (England). For these types of cases, school should try to engage parents addressingdifferentneeds.Inthefirstone,schoolsneedtounderstandthecontextualsituationofparents,especiallyiftheybelongtoaminority,lowerincomecontextorhavenoeducation.Knowingthecontext,schoolsshouldexplorehowtheycouldbehelpfulfromtheirposition,andnotsimplyprovidinggeneralguidelinesthatmaynotbeadequatetotheirownsituation.Forthesecondtypeofcases,invitationstoparticipateinschoolaffairs,asDriessenandSleegersmentioned,arekeyopportunitiesgeneratedbytheschooltohaveasenseofbelongingtotheirchildren’seducation(DriessenandSleegers,2015)Another recommendation for policy is to explore the use of technology to enhance legal guardians’involvementandaccountability.E-mails,textmessagesandevenappscanbeusefultoshareinformationbetweenteachersandlegalguardiansandtomonitorstudents’attendanceandperformanceandalsolegalguardians’involvement.Further research is recommended on children’s perceptions about their parents’ involvement in theschool. This would be useful to understand their opinion on the issue and draw better conclusions.Anotherresearchgapidentified isonparents’ involvementandaccountability insecondaryeducation.Mostofthestudieshavefocusedonpreschoolandprimaryeducation.Secondaryeducationrequiresa

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differentstrategyofinvolvement,sinceadolescentsaregoingthroughadifferentlifestageandsupportmechanismsshouldbedesigneddifferently.Finally, to address the challenges of parental involvement and accountability an overall and explicitstrategywithasetofpoliciesatdifferentlevelsisrequired.Policymakers,educators,parentsandallthestakeholdersintheschoolcommunitymustbearinmindthatthevariousformsofinvolvementdonotoccurbychance.

23

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Wa Wong, S. and Hughes, J. 2014. Ethnicity and Language Contributions to Dimensions of ParentInvolvement. School Psych Rev. Author manuscript. [Retrieved from:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2139999/]

Walters,S.,Peterson,B.,Miner,B.,Dingerson,L.2008.KeepingthePromise?Thedebateovercharterschools.US:RethinkingSchoolsPublications

Weideman,M.,Goga,S.,López,D.,Mayet,M.,Macun, I.,Barry,D.2007. LearnerAbsenteeism in the

South African Schooling System. [Retrieved fromhttp://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/learner_absenteeism_0.pdf]

Wilcox,B.etal.2005.WhyMarriageMatters:26conclusionsfromtheSocialSciences.NewYork:Institutefor American Values. New York. [Retrieved from http://www.healthymarriageinfo.org/research-and-

policy/other-resources/download.aspx?id=1259]

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Wilkes-BarreAreaCareerandTechnicalCenter(WBACTC).(n.d.)WhataretherulesforschoolattendanceandtruancyinPennsylvania?[Retrievedfromhttp://www.wbactc.org/Docs/PA%20truancy%20laws.pdf]

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Appendices

Appendix A SampleofKIPP’s“CommitmenttoExcellence”

COMMITMENTTOEXCELLENCEAllteachers,studentsandparentsarerequiredtosignthe“CommitmenttoExcellence”contractsbelowaspartoftheiragreementtojoinKIPPBayAreaSchoolsandtheKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyTeamandFamily.Teachers’CommitmentWefullycommittoKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyinthefollowingways:• WewillarriveatKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyeverydayby7:00AM(Monday–Friday)• WewillremainatKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyuntil5:15PMeveryday(Monday–Friday)• WewillcometoKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyonappropriateSaturdaysat8:50AMandremain

until12:15PM• WewillteachatKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyduringthesummer.• Wewillalwaysteachinthebestwayweknowhowandwewilldowhateverittakesforourstudents

tolearn.• Wewillalwaysmakeourselvesavailabletostudents,parents/guardians,andattendtoanyconcerns

theyhave.• Wewillalwaysprotectthesafety,interests,andrightsofallindividualsintheclassroom.FailuretoadheretothesecommitmentscanleadtoourdismissalfromKIPPBayAreaSchools.X_________________________________________________Student’sCommitmentIfullycommittoKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyinthefollowingways:• IwillarriveatKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyeverydayby7:30AM(Monday-Friday).• IwillremainatKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyuntil5:00PM(Mondays,TuesdaysandThursday)and

3:00PMonWednesdaysandFridays.• IwillcometoKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyonappropriateSaturdaysat9:00AMandremainuntil

1:00PM• IwillattendKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyduringsummerschool.• Iwillalwayswork,think,andbehaveinthebestwayIknowhow,andIwilldowhateverittakesfor

myfellowteammatesandmetolearn.ThisalsomeansthatIwillcompleteallmyhomeworkeverynight,IwillcallmyteachersifIhaveaproblemwiththehomeworkandIwillraisemyhandandask

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questionsinclassifIdonotunderstandsomething.• Iwillalwaysmakemyselfavailabletomyparents,teachers,andwilldiscussanyconcernstheymay

have.IfImakeamistake,Iwilltellthetruthtomyteachersandacceptresponsibilityformyactions.• Iwillalwaysbehavesoastoprotectthesafety,interests,andrightsofallindividualsintheclassroom.

ThismeansthatIwillalwayslistentomyteammatesandgiveeveryonemyrespect.• Iwillfollowthedresscode.• Iamresponsibleformyownbehavior,andIwillfollowtheteachers’directionsandschoolrules.FailuretoadheretothesecommitmentscancausemetolosevariousKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyprivileges,spendtimeinIn-SchoolSuspension,orleadtomyexpulsionfromtheschool.X_________________________________________________Parents’/Guardians’CommitmentWefullycommittoKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyinthefollowingways:• WewillmakesureourchildarrivesatKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyeverydayby7:30AM(Monday

–Friday).• WewillmakearrangementssoourchildcanremainatKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyuntil5:00PM

(Monday,Tuesday,andThursday)anduntil3:00PMonWednesdaysandFridays.• WewillmakearrangementsforourchildtocometoKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademyonappropriate

Saturdaysat9:00AMandremainuntil12:00PM.• WewillensurethatourchildattendsKIPPSanFranciscoBayAcademysummerschool.• Wegivepermissionforourchildtoparticipateinsupplementalinstructionasneeded1.• We give permission for our child to participate in the Saturday enrichment or supplemental

instructionprogramonappropriateSaturdays2.• Wewillalwayshelpourchild in thebestwayweknowhowandwewilldowhatever it takes for

him/hertolearn.Thismeansthatwewillcheckourchild'shomeworkeverynight,lethim/hercalltheteacherifthereisaproblemwithhomework,andreadwithhim/hereverynight.

• Wewillalwaysmakeourselvesavailabletoourchildren,theschool,andaddressanyconcernstheymayhave.Thismeansthatifourchildisgoingtomissschool,wewillnotifytheschoolassoonaspossible,andwewillreadcarefullyallthepapersthattheschoolsendshometous.

• Wewillallowourchildtogoonfieldlessons.• Wewillmakesureourchildfollowsthedresscode.• Weunderstandthatourchildmustfollowtheschool’srulessoastoprotectthesafety,interests,and

rightsofall individuals intheclassroom.We,nottheschool,areresponsible forthebehaviorandactionsofourchild.

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1Participationinsupplementalinstructionisnotcompulsory,butisanimportantpartofKIPP’sCommitmenttoExcellence.Ifyoudonotwishforyourstudenttoparticipate,pleaseinformtheschoolPrincipal.2 If your child is unable to attend a Saturday school program for religious reasons, pleasenotify the Principal so that otheraccommodationscanbemade

Appendix B Dubai’sParent-SchoolContractsample

Introduction:Aconstructiverelationshipbetweentheschoolandfamilies iskeytoensuringthatthestudents’well-beingisatthecoreofaneffectiveeducationalexperience.Itisbeneficialforbothparties,theschoolsandthefamilies,iftheseconstructiverelationshipsarebasedonagreedtermsandconditionssetoutclearlyinacontractform.Inadditiontothiscontract,schoolsshouldhaveeffectiveprocedurestoaddressandmitigateparentalconcernsandcomplaints;whileatthesametimeparentsshouldalsoberecognizedandusedasavaluableresourceintheeducationalexperienceoftheirchildren.Toensurethatallpartiesinthisrelationshipareawareoftheirdutiesandresponsibilities,familiesareencouragedtoreadthisdocumentcarefullyandtoratifyitonlyafterallquerieshavebeenaddressedbytheschool.The termsandconditions stipulated in this contractarea reference fordispute resolution.KHDAwillupholdtheagreementstipulatedinthiscontractwhenapartyrefersamattertoKHDAfordeliberationandendorsement.Definitions:AuthorityorKHDA:theKnowledgeandHumanDevelopmentAuthorityChild:thechildorchildren(atanyage)admittedbytheschooltobeeducatedandwhosenameappearsinthisdocument.Contract:refersthisdocument.Educationalservices:itisalltheservicesthattheschoolsprovidedinordertosupportthelearninganddevelopmentofthestudents.Parent:bothparentsofthechildwhenbothhavethelegalstandingofguardiansorthelegalguardianbycourtorder.

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Policies:theprinciples,guidelinesand/orrulesadoptedbyaschoolandsharedwithallstakeholdersforthepurposeofachievingspecificobjectives.Theseobjectivescouldberelatedtoanyissuepertainingtotheoperationoftheschool,suchasacademics,healthandsafetyorstudents’behaviour.School:meansthe__________Schooltuitionfees:anyamountsowingtotheschoolforastudent’senrolment,educationandrelatedactivitiesattheschool.Thesefeesareclearlycommunicatedandarestipulatedinthiscontract.Student(s):all thosewhoareadmittedandregisteredattheschooltobeeducatedatanygrade/yearlevel.Thirdparty:theprovider,otherthantheschool,ofaspecificserviceforthestudentsviatheschool.1.Admission:

Themanagementof_____________ispleasedtooffer (nameofstudent) aholderofEmiratesIDno._______________enrolmentinGrade/Year------------------------- fortheacademicyear2015/2016 (Fortheschooltoaddifstudentisinneedofanytemporaryorlongtermsupport)Parentsareexpectedto: - Providetheschoolwithcopiesofallmedical,psychologicaloreducationalassessmentsorreports

beforeentrytotheschool.Suchmaterialsareaprerequisiteinenablingustoprovidethebesteducation for your child. Failure to disclose any such information, including the deliberatewithholdingofinformation,mayresultinyourchildnotmakingtheexpectedprogressinschool.

- Notifytheprincipalinwritingiftheyareawareorsuspectthattheirchild(oranyoneinhisorherimmediatefamily)hasalearningdifficulty,andtheparentsmustprovidetheschoolwithcopiesofallwrittenreportsandotherrelevant information.Parentswillbeaskedtowithdrawtheirchild if, in the professional judgment of the principal and the child’s teachers, and afterconsultationwiththeparentsandwiththestudent(whereappropriate),theschoolsuspectsthatsuchvitalinformationaboutspecialneedshasbeendeliberatelywithheld.

- Refertotheschool’spolicyon“specialeducationalneeds”forfulldetails.

2.CurriculumandEducationalprogrammes:Pleaserefertotablebelowfordetailedinformationregardingtheschool’scurriculumandprogrammes.The table also indicates boards and organisations which have accredited or authorised the school.Websitesareincludedifparentswishtoseekfurtherinformation.

Phase/Cycle Curriculum/Programme Accreditation/Authorisation(addthewebsite)

a. Mandatorysubjects:AspertherulesandregulationsintheUAE,itismandatoryfor:

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1. AllMuslimstudentstostudyIslamicEducationfromGrade/Year1toGrade12/Year12inclusive.

2. All Arab students (registered at the school with an Arab passport) to study Arabic as a firstlanguagefromGrade/Year1toGrade/Year12inclusive.

3. Allstudentsregisteredattheschoolwithanon-ArabpassporttostudyArabicasanadditionallanguagefromGrade/Year1toGrade/Year9inclusive.

b. Subjectsoffering:

(fortheschooltofillaccordingtophase/cycleofthechild-elementary,middleschoolorhighschool.Thiswillincludemandatoryandoptionallanguages,math,science,socialstudiesandothersubjectsonoffer

c. Choiceofeducationalstreams:

(fortheschooltofillforolderstudents.Choicesofsubjectsandstreamsmustbeclearlyindicated)

d. Assessmentpolicy:

(fortheschooltofilltheirassessmentpolicybrieflyandrefertopolicydetails)

e. Promotionandretentionpolicies:

(fortheschooltofill thepromotionpolicyaspereachgradeandtheretentionpolicyaspereachgradethenrefertopolicydetails)

f. Extra-curricularactivitiesandcelebrations:

(fortheschooltofillandrefertoyearlycalendar.Itisimperativethattheschoolsharewithparentstheprogrammesandcontentsoftheseeventsandcelebrationsfortheirinformeddecisionmaking).Pleasecreatetableandindicate

g.Graduationrequirements:

(fortheschooltofillorrefertopolicy)

h. Graduatecertificate:

(fortheschooltofillwithclearexplanationabouttheequivalencystatusofthiscertificateandtheprivilegesassociatedwithit)

3. Fees:It is importanttonotethatfees includedinthiscontractandany increasesnotedare in linewiththeSchoolsFeesFrameworkpublishedontheKHDAwebsite.a. Responsible/authorisedpartyforpaymentoffees(parents,company,institution,etc.)-------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------b. TheXXXXXXSchool,vouchesthatnoadditionalmandatory feeswillberequired fromparents

duringtheacademicyear2015/2016exceptforfeesclearlyindicatedinthiscontract.

c. ThefeestructureatXXXXXXXfortheacademicyear2015/2016isasfollows:

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Grade Yearlevel Agerange Schoolfees Reception Upto3 Pre-KG FSI 3-4

KGI FSII 4-5 KGII Year1 5-6

Grade1 Year2 6-7 Grade2 Year3 7-8

Grade3 Year4 8-9 Grade4 Year5 9-10

Grade5 Year6 10-11 Grade6 Year7 11-12

Grade7 Year8 12-13

Grade8 Year9 13-14

Grade9 Year10 14-15

Grade10 Year11 15-16

Grade11 Year12 16-17

Grade12 Year13 17-18

d. Payment of approved fees (……..) is expected in -------- (number of) instalments according to thefollowingtable:

Status Percentage Amount Duedate

Firstinstalment Secondinstalment

Thirdinstalment

Re-registrationfees

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Newadmission

Privateagreementsto“facilitate”paymentsforsomefamiliesaretohavepermanentstanding,andnottobealteredfromyeartoyear.

e. Thefollowingareadditionalmandatoryfeesrequiredfortheacademicyear2015/2016

Item

Fee

Duedate

f. Thefollowingareadditionaloptionalfeesrequiredfortheacademicyear2015/2016

Item

Fee

Duedate

g. ThefollowingadditionalfeesapplyformandatoryexternalexaminationsinthefollowingGrade/Yearlevels:

Grade/Year

Examination

Fee

Duedate

Returningstudents:

- Forreturningstudents,andaccordingtotheSchoolsFeesFramework,theschoolwillchargeupto10%ofthetotalfeeamounttobepaidwithinthetimeframespecifiedbytheschool:

o Thisamountisnon-refundableunlessthefamilyhastomoveoutsidetheEmirateofDubai

beforethestartoftheacademicyear.

o TheschoolreservestherighttoaskforproofthatthefamilyismovingoutsidetheEmirateofDubaisuchasanacceptanceofferfromanotherschoolsituatedoutsideDubai.

o Thisamountisdeductiblefromthefirsttermoftheacademicyear.

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Newstudents:- Fornewstudents,andaccordingtotheSchoolsFeesFramework,theschoolwillchargeparents

upto30%ofthetotalfeeamounttobepaidwithinten(10)daysoftheissuingoftheacceptanceletter.

- Thisamountisnon-refundableunlessthefamilyhastomoveoutsidetheEmirateofDubaibeforethestartoftheacademicyear.

- Thisamountisdeductiblefromthefirsttermoftheacademicyear.Refunds:

- Forstudentswhoarewithdrawnfromtheschoolduringtheacademicyear,feedeductionwillbe

appliedaspertheSchoolsFeesFrameworkquotedbelow:

o Ifthestudentattendsschoolfortwoweeksorless,onemonth’sfeewillbededucted.

o Ifthestudentattendsschoolforaperiodrangingbetweentwoweeksandonemonth,twomonths’feeswillbededucted.

o Ifthestudentattendsformorethanamonth,threemonths’feeswillbededucted.

Theschool reserves theright tonot re-enroll students for the followingacademicyearwhen feesarerepeatedlynotpaidontime.Thiswillbedocumentedbytheschoolthroughtheissuanceofdatedwarningletters.TheschoolalsoreservestherighttonotissuetheconcernedstudenthisorherprogressreportandtorefertheissuetotheKHDA.Siblingpolicy:Itisthepolicyoftheschoolthatsiblingsshallreceivediscountedfees.Thedeductionsapplytoschoolfeesonlyanddonotincludeotherfeesstipulatedinthiscontract.Thisisabindingpromiseforthe2015/2016academicyearanduntilotherwisespecifiedinanotherbindingschool-parentcontract.Deductionsaretobecalculatedasfollows:

Sibling

Deductionrating

Sibling1 Sibling2 - % Sibling3 - % Sibling4 - %

4. Communicationforeffectivepartnership:Effectivecommunication isessential tobuildingaschool-parentpartnershipwhichwill strengthenthestudent’slearningexperience.Communicationcanandshouldhappenthroughdifferentmeans,suchas

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theschool’swebsite,pamphletsand/ornewsletters,totargetallparents.Thelanguageofcommunicationforallschoolsshouldbeavailableinthelanguageofinstructionattheschoolandanadditionallanguagemostsuitabletotheschoolcommunity.Theresponsibilitiesoftheschoolinclude:

- Communicatingtoparentsallpolicies,possiblechangesandimmediateannouncements.- Usingallcontactdetailsprovidedbyparentstocommunicatekeymessages.- Updatingtheinformationaboutschoolpolicies,expectations,programmes,staffandanyother

informationdeemednecessarybytheschool.- Informingparentsoftheirchild’sprogressthroughregularassessmentreports(atleast(number)

peryear)andmeetings.Theschoolwillexercisefairness,objectivity,transparencyandcredibilityintheassessmentreportssharedwithparents.

- Providingparentstheopportunitytoseeandreviewalloftheirchild’sworkandassessments.Theresponsibilitiesoftheparentsinclude:

- Supplyingtheschoolwithvalidandupdatedcontactdetails,includinghomeandmobilenumbers,e-mailaddressesandhomelocations.

- Updatingtheschoolaboutanychangesinthecontactinformation.- Referringregularlytoestablishedmeansofcommunicationsforanyupdatesabouttheschool.- Beingcourteousintheirapproachtostaffwhenenquiringabouttheirchild.- Attending all meetings, conferences and reviews related to their child’s progress and

performance. Failure to do somay jeopardise their child’s progress and learning experience.Parents’levelofparticipation,involvementandresponsibilityintheirchild’slearningwillaffecthisorherchancesforre-enrolmentthefollowingyear.

5. Attendanceandpunctuality:Thedailyroutine:Timingoftheday:Students’absenteeismandtardinessaffecttheschool’sabilitytoprovideeffectiveeducationalservices,theachievementsofconsistentlyabsentorlatestudentsanddisruptthelearningexperiencesofotherstudentsintheschool.

Likewise, the attendance of teachers is imperative to securing continuous and progressive learningexperiencesforallstudentsattheschool.Theschoolwillsecureandimproveteachers’attendanceatalltimes and ensure that students are not left without a qualified teacher for long durations of timeexceedingaweek.Parents,thestudentsandtheschoolmustworktogethertoimproveandmaintainhighattendancerates.Theresponsibilitiesoftheschoolinclude:

- Sharing and implementing a school policy on attendance and punctualitywhich stresses thatattendanceforallstudentsismandatoryonallthedaystheschoolisdeclaredopen.

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- Clarifyingtoparentsandstudentsthedefinitionofaschoolday,thestartofregistrationprocessinthemorning,theschool’sexpectationsinrelationstopunctualityallthroughtheschoolday,the definition of absenteeism and a list of what is considered excused and unexcusedabsenteeism.

Theresponsibilitiesoftheparentsinclude:

- Reading,ratifyingandimplementingtheschool’spolicyonattendanceandpunctuality.- Promotingtheirchild’sattendanceandpunctualityandabidingbythetimingssetbytheschool

forthestartandtheendoftheschoolday.- Understanding and upholding the school’s policy which states that continued tardiness and

absenteeismwillresultindisciplinarymeasuresandwillaffectthestudents’chancesofenrolmentfortheupcomingacademicyear.

Incaseofrepeatedtardinessandabsenteeismthefollowingapplies:

Offence Frequency Implications

Tardiness–thisreferstobeinglate

incomingtoschoolatthestartoftheschooldayandtoinstancesof

beinglatetolessonswithinthe

schoolday.

The first five (5) incidents oftardiness in a short period oftime such as a month or anacademicterm

Written warning to student and notifyparents.Tardiness will be noted in the students’progressreport.

Up to an additional three (3)instancesoftardinessinashortperiodoftime,suchasamonth

Parents and student to be called to ameetingwith the principal or a designatedpersonbytheprincipal.Parentsandstudenttosignawrittenpledgenottorepeattheoffence.Tardinesstobenoted instudents’progressreport.

Anyadditional incidents to theabove

At the discretion of the school, decisionmightinclude:• Communityhoursattheschoolorbeyond.

• Detentionduringschoolbreakorafterschoolhours

• Temporarysuspensionforuptothreedayswherethestudentwillreceivea“zero”onanytestadministeredduringsuspensiondays.

• Awrittennoticeannouncingrefusaltore-enrollthestudentintheschoolforthefollowingacademicyear.

Offence Frequency ImplicationsAbsenteeism – thisreferstofrequentor

The four (4) incidents ofabsenteeisminashortperiodof

Written warning to student and notifyparents.

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habitual absencefromschoolorfromlessons without avalid medical orfamily relatedexcuse.

time such as a month or anacademicterm

Absent days will be noted in the students’progressreport.

Up to an additional three (3)instances of absenteeism in ashortperiodoftime

Parentsandstudenttobecalledtoameetingwiththeprincipaloradesignatedpersonbytheprincipal.Parentsandstudenttosignawrittenpledgenottorepeattheoffence.Absent days to be noted in students’progressreport.

Any additional incidents to theabove

At the discretion of the school, decisionmightinclude:• Communityhoursattheschoolorbeyond.• Detention.• Temporarysuspensionforuptothreedayswherethestudentwillreceivea“zero”onanytestadministeredduringsuspensiondays.

• Awrittennoticeannouncingrefusaltore-enrollthestudentintheschoolforthefollowingacademicyear.

These decisions are endorsed by KHDA and consequences resulting from continued tardiness andabsenteeismwillbeupheldbytheAuthority.6.Attitudesandbehaviour:Schoolsstrivetoofferalltheirstudentsahazardfreeandemotionallysafeenvironmentinwhichtheycanachieve their full academic and personal potential. In order for schools to achieve this objective, theresponsibilitiesofstudentsandparentsinclude:

- Abidingbytheschool’sbehaviourpolicywhichisattachedwiththiscontract.Thispolicywillcoverexpectedcodeofbehaviourduringtheschooltimings,duringextra-curricularactivities,onschoolbuses,duringschooltripsandstudents’participationinsocial-mediaforums.

- Ensuringthestudentunderstandstheschool’sexpectationsandpossibleconsequencesthatmayariseduetobreachofthebehaviourcode.

Theschoolhasazero-tolerancepolicyforbullyinginallitsforms.Bullyingistheintentionalanddeliberateintimidationofanotherpersonthroughemotional,physical,psychologicaland/orcybermeans.Instancesofprovenandintentionalbullyingmayresultinimmediatesuspensionoftheaggressorfromtheschool.ThematterwillbereferredtoKHDAforratification.Alignedwiththeabove,theschoolwillnottolerateanyformofdefamationorintentionalharmpracticedthroughsocialmediaforums.Theschoolmustsetaclearpolicyforparentsandstudentsabouttheuseofandparticipationinsocialmediaoutletsand/orforums.Thispolicymustinclude,butnotberestrictedto,thefollowing:

43

- Parents and students in all grade levels using any social media forum must, at all times,demonstrate respect for the members of the school community (including all students andpersonnel);

- Parentsandstudentsmustnotbreachconfidentiality,defameormakethreatstoanypersonintheschoolcommunity;

Instances of proven and intentional breach of the above will result in sanctions that may includeSuspensionfromtheschool.

7. Healthandsafety:It is theresponsibilityoftheschoolandtheparentstosecureasafeandhealthyenvironmentforthestudents.Inthisregard,theschoolshallissueandimplementvarioushealthandsafetyguidelinesthatparentsareexpectedtoabidebyandensuretheirchildrendosoaswell.Theresponsibilitiesoftheschoolinclude:

- Providingstudentswithappropriatemedicalcareaspertheregulationsset.- Providingstudentswithmedicalconditionsthecareandattentiontheydeservewhiletreating

caseswithconfidentiality.- Promotingandreinforcingawarenessabouthealthylifestylehabits,includingchoiceoffoodand

practiceofexercise.

Theresponsibilitiesoftheparentsinclude:

- Sharingwiththeschoolallinformationrelatedtotheirchild’smedicalconditionandhistory.- Ensuringthatmealsandsnacksprovidedtostudentsadheretotheschool’spoliciesandguidelines

inthisregard.- Upholding the school’s decision to confiscate food and drink items which do not fit the

expectationssetbytheschool.

8. Transportation:Theschoolisresponsibleforensuringthestudents’safetywhileonschoolbuses,whethermanagedbytheschooloroutsourcedtoathirdparty.Inadditiontoimplementingrigoroussafetyproceduresoutlinedinaschoolpolicy,theschoolwillalsoensurethefullimplementationoftheguidelinesoutlinedbyRTAonthematter.Thefollowingareexpectationssetbytheschoolforparentsattheschool.

a)Privatevehicles:- Toensurethesafetyofallstudents,parentsdrivingtoschoolwillreceivearoutemap

detailingentryandexitpointstotheschool.- Parentsmustabidebythedesignatedentryandexitroutessetbytheschool.- Schoolpersonnelandstaffhelpingintheorganisationofstudents’arrivalanddispersal

timesrepresenttheschoolandtheirinstructionsmustbeobeyed.

b)Buses:

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- Forallintentsandpurposes,schoolbuses,whethermanagedbytheschooloroutsourcedtoathirdparty,areconsideredpartoftheschoolpremiseswhenbeingusedbystudents.

- Allsafetyrulesandbehaviourexpectationssetbytheschoolandenforcedbypersonnelmustbe

adheredtobystudentsandparents.Failuretocomplywithalltransportationrulessetbytheschoolwillresultindisciplinaryactionandwillaffectthestudents’registrationchancesforthefollowingacademicyear.9.Appealprocess:Everyschoolmustsetupanappealsprocesstoensureparentsandstudentstherighttofairandimpartialdecisionsaffectingtheireducationalexperienceattheschool.Itisbesttosolveissuesinformallythroughmeetings and discussions; however, at times, there are concerns and complaints that need furtherdeliberations.Itisexpectedthatparentsrefertothisprocessforanyconflictresolutionwithintheschool:

a. Ifa student/parentwants toquestionadecisionmadeby theschoolatany level, then theparentshouldmeetthepersondirectlyinvolvedinthedecisionsuchasateacherorsupervisor;b. Iftheparentisstillnotsatisfied,thenhe/sheshouldmeetwiththeheadofsectionsuchasheadofelementaryorseniorschoolifapplicable;c. Iftheissueisstillnotresolved,thentheparentmustmeettheprincipaloftheschooltotrytoresolvetheissue;d. Iftheissueisstillnotresolvedafterthisstage,thentheparentshallwriteanofficiallettertotheboardofgovernors.Theboardofgovernorswillberequiredtosetupacommitteecomprisedofateacher,aparent,aschoolleaderandamemberoftheboardofgovernors.Noneofthemembersofthecommitteeshallhaveanyconnectiontotheoriginalconcernorcomplaint.Thecommitteeshallstudythematterandwithin10workingdaysissueawrittenreporttoboththeprincipaloftheschoolandtotheparent;e. Eachprocessfrom(AtoC)shouldnotexceedmorethan(5)workingdays.Iftheparentisstillnotsatisfied,thentheparenthastherightthereaftertoreferthemattertoKHDAbycontactingtheComplianceandResolutionCommissiononCRC@khda.gov.ae.KHDAhastherighttoupholdorrepealanyandalldecisions.Itsfinaldecisionsarebindingtoboththeschoolandparents.ThiscontractisthesolereferencefortheKnowledgeandHumanDevelopmentAuthoritytoresolveanydispute between the school and the parents. It supersedes all prior or subsequent agreements, andunderstandingsbetweenbothpartiesincludingschoolpoliceswhichmayconflictwithitsclauses.

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DeclarationI/We parent/ alternate responsible (if not a parent, then please specify with documents authorisingresponsibility)of (nameof student)_______________________________________________________herebycertify that I/wehavereadtheabovetermsandconditionsandall relatedschoolpoliciesandagreetoabidebythem.I/weagreetosupporttheschoolinallaspectsofourchild’seducationandanysanctionsthatmaybedeemedappropriateconcerningmychild.Pleasenotethatsigningandreturningthiscontract impliesfullacceptanceofall theabovetermsandconditions.Father’snameFather’ssignatureMother’snameMother’ssignature______________________________________________________________________________I,(thestudent’sfullname_____________________________),acknowledgereadingthecontract.Student’sSignature______________________________________________________________________________Forstudents15yearsoldonDecember31st,2016Alternateresponsible(specifynameandrelation)SignatureDateTheschoolstampandinsigniaKHDAhasratifiedaregisteredcopyofthiscontract.Example of Singapore’s School-Student Contract

46

STUDENT CONTRACT

BETWEEN

NEXUS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL AND «Student_Formatted_Name» ______________________________________________________

«Student_Formatted_Name» Passport No:«Passport_Number» Student Contract version 3.0@ April 2014 Page 1 of 16

47

Nexus International School, Singapore www.nexus.edu.sg This Contract binds both the Private Education Institution (PEI) and the Student once both parties sign this Contract. If the Student is under eighteen (18) years of age, the Student will be represented by the Parent/Legal Guardian.

This Contract is made between:

(1) Registered Name of PEI : Nexus International School

Registration Number : 201009668C

(hereinafter known as “the School”)

(2) Full Name of Student :

(as in NRIC for Singapore Citizen (SC) and Permanent Resident (PR) / as in passport for international student)*

(hereinafter known as “the Student”)

NRIC Number (for SC/PR)* :

Student’s Pass Number (if available)/

Passport Number (for international student)* :

1. Full Name of Parent/Legal Guardian*

(if Student is under eighteen (18) years of age) :

NRIC/Passport Number* : (hereinafter known as “the Parent”)

1. COURSE INFORMATION AND FEES The School will deliver the Course as set out in Schedule A to the Student, towards conferment of

the stated qualification upon successful Course completion. The School confirms that the Course has been permitted by the Council for Private Education

(CPE) and no amendments have been made to the Course as set out in Schedule A, unless otherwise permitted by CPE.

The Course Fees payable are set out in Schedule B and the optional Miscellaneous Fees in Schedule C.

1.2 Delete as appropriate by striking through. Where non-applicable, put “N.A.”. Leave no fields blank. State all dates in the format of DD/MM/YYYY.

«Student_Formatted_Name» Passport No:«Passport_Number» Student Contract version 3.0@ April 2014 Page 2 of 16

48

Nexus International School, Singapore www.nexus.edu.sg 2. REFUND POLICY 2.1 Refund for Withdrawal Due to Non-Delivery of Course:

The School will notify the Student within three (3) working days upon knowledge of any of the following: (i) It does not commence the Course on the Course Commencement Date; (ii) It terminates the Course before the Course Commencement Date; (iii) It does not complete the Course by the Course Completion Date; (iv) It terminates the Course before the Course Completion Date; (v) It has not ensured that the Student meets the course entry or matriculation requirement

as set by the organisation stated in Schedule A within any stipulated timeline set by CPE; or

(vi) The Student’s Pass application is rejected by the Immigration and Checkpoints Authority of Singapore (ICA).

The Student should be informed in writing of alternative study arrangements (if any). Upon receiving the School’s notification, the Student may withdraw from the Course by submitting a written notice of withdrawal, in which case the Student will be entitled to a refund of all Course Fees and Application Fees (set out in Schedule B) and Miscellaneous Fees (set out in Schedule C) already paid. However, in the case of a withdrawal arising from (vi) the Student’s Pass application being rejected by the Immigration and Checkpoints Authority of Singapore (ICA), the Course Fees and the Miscellaneous Fees already paid shall be refunded but the Application Fee shall not be refunded.

Such refund will be made within seven (7) working days of the School receiving the Student’s notice of withdrawal.

2.2 Refund for Withdrawal Due to Other Reasons:

In order to withdraw from the Course for any reason other than those stated in Clause 2.1, the Student must submit a written notice of withdrawal specifying the effective date that the Student intends to withdraw from the school roll. The school roll refers to the School’s database of attending students. Once a Student has been removed from the school roll, he/she will no longer be entitled to attend the Course.

The School will, as soon as reasonably practicable upon receipt of such written notice, arrange for the Student’s removal from the school roll, and refund to the Student an amount of the Course Fees apportioned based on the table set forth in Schedule D. For clarity, the refund of Course Fees will be calculated based on the date of the Student’s removal from the school roll, and not the date that the Student submits his/her written notice of withdrawal. The following fees shall not be refunded to the Student:

(a) Development Levy, as set out in Schedule B; and (b) Miscellaneous Fees, as set out in Schedule C.

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Any refund of Course Fees will be made within seven (7) working days from the Student’s removal from the school roll.

Refund During Cooling-Off Period:

The School will provide the Student with a cooling-off period of seven (7) working days after the date that the Contract has been signed by both parties.

Notwithstanding Clause 2.2, the Student will be refunded all of the Course Fees and Miscellaneous Fees already paid, but not the Application Fee, if the School receives the Student’s written notice of withdrawal within the cooling-off period, even when the notice of withdrawal is received less than fourteen (14) days before the Semester Commencement Date.

Such refund will be made within seven (7) working days of the School receiving the Student’s notice of withdrawal.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

3.1 Where the Student makes any payments under this Agreement in a form other than cash, the payment will be deemed to have been made when the School receives the payment to its account free and clear of all charges, provided that the School will deposit any payment by cheque without undue delay.

3.2 This Agreement may be subject to amendment by mutual agreement between the School and the Student. Without detracting from the generality of the foregoing and specifically in relation to the revision of Course Fees, the School may from time to time propose the revision of the amount or payment structure of the Course Fees by way of a letter to the Student with prior notice. The signing and return of the letter or an affirmative email by the Student to the School shall constitute consent to the revision of the Course Fee or alternatively, payment of the revised Course Fees shall constitute implied consent to the same even if the Student has not communicated their consent in any other form. In the event that there is any dispute in relation to the revised Course Fees, Parties may resolve the matter through the dispute resolution process set out in Clause 3.5 below.

3.3 The laws of Singapore will apply to how this Contract will be read and to the rights the parties have under this Contract.

3.4 If any part of this Contract is not valid for any reason under the laws of Singapore, this will not affect any other part of this Contract.

3.5 If the Student and the School cannot settle a dispute using the way arranged by the School, the Student and the School may refer the dispute to the CPE Mediation-Arbitration Scheme (www.cpe.gov.sg).

3.6 All information given by the Student to the School will not be given by the School to anyone else, unless the Student signs in writing that he agrees or unless the School is allowed to give the information by law or under Schedule E.

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Nexus International School, Singapore www.nexus.edu.sg 3.7 Any agreement other than this Contract is invalid if it is administered without the written

permission of CPE. If there is any other agreement between the School and the Student that is different from the terms in this Contract, then the terms in this Contract will apply.

3.8 If the Student or the School does not exercise or delay exercising any right granted by this Contract, the Student and the School will still be able to exercise the same type of right under this Contract during the rest of the time the Contract continues.

3.9 If this Contract is also signed or translated in any language other than English and there is a difference from the English language copy of this Contract, the English language copy will apply.

· SCHEDULES OF INFORMATION ATTACHED § The following schedules which are attached shall form part of this Contract:

Schedule A – Course Details

Schedule B – Course Fees

Schedule C – Miscellaneous Fees

Schedule D – Refund Table

Schedule E – Confidential Personal Information

Schedule F – Expulsion of Student

Schedule G – Age Recommendations

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SCHEDULE A COURSE DETAILS

Course Title <Course>

Course Duration 10 months

(in months)

Full-time or Part-time Full-time

Course

Course 12th August 2014

Commencement Date

Course Completion xxxx or such earlier date when the Student is withdrawn from the

Date - course.

Date of <Date>

Commencement of

Studies A student may enrol at the School on an agreed course at any time

(Date on which Student

after the Course Commencement date. If the date of enrolment is

starts attending Course, if after the Course Commencement Date shown in this Schedule, then

different from Course

the course will have already commenced, and the parties hereto

Commencement Date)

acknowledge this by signing this document.

Scheduled holidays Public Holidays

(public and school) Gazetted public holidays will be observed during each academic year.

and/or semester/term If a public holiday falls on a Sunday, the following Monday will be a

break for course public holiday. For a list of gazetted public holidays in Singapore,

please refer to the Ministry of Manpow er’s website at

www.mom.gov.sg

Term Breaks

There are four term breaks in an academic year and the duration and

approximate months of the breaks:

Term 1: two weeks in October

Term 2: two weeks from mid December to early January

Term 3: two weeks from mid March to early April

Term 4: eight weeks from mid June to mid August

For a detailed timetable showing all scheduled holidays and term

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Nexus International School, Singapore www.nexus.edu.sg breaks, please refer to the Academic Calendar in the school website

(available for viewing or downloading at www.nexus.edu.sg)

Qualification Report Cards will be issued to each Student setting out the results of

(Name of award to be

the Student’s performance on assessments and / or examinations conducted during the academic year. Students will upon request be provided with a transcript of all grades attained during their attendance at the School

conferred on the Student upon successful Course completion)

Organisation which <organisation>

develops the Course

Organisation which <organisation>

awards/ confers the

qualification

Course entry requirement(s)

- Refer to Schedule G for the recommended age groups at the start of the academic year

- Passing of relevant entrance tests as shall be determined by the School in its sole discretion; or in August; or

- Such other assessments as the School, in its sole discretion, shall consider appropriate having regard to the background and prior education of the Student and the School’s suitability for the Student; or

- Completion of the previous Year level (or equivalent) and sufficient English language skills to undertake the course, as determined by the School, will influence advancement from one Year level to the next.

Course schedule with Such subjects as shall be offered to meet with the requirements of the

modules and/or School, International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO) or Cambridge

subjects International Examinations (CIE), where applicable, and in accordance

with the course delineated in this Schedule.

Examination and/or Based on internal ongoing assessments and / or examinations as

other assessment shall be prescribed by the School, IBO or CIE, as applicable.

period

Expected examination Results of ongoing assessment for all Year groups save for Years 11

results release date & 13 are issued in accordance with the School’s reporting schedule.

Years 11 & 13 receive their examination results directly from IBO or

CIE.

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SCHEDULE B COURSE FEES

Please note that the fees set out hereunder are for Academic Year 2014 – 2015 (which are inclusive of 7% GST) and are subject to revision from time to time in accordance with Clause 3.2. Student is advised to check the School website at www.nexus.edu.sg (under “Admissions” page) for the latest Fee Schedule.

Fees Breakdown Year X

[shows the full breakdown of total payable Total Payable

course fees] (S$)

Course Fee for academic year 25,840.50

Development Levy* 1,605.00

Less (where applicable):

Sibling Discount XX

Staff Discount XX

Pro-Rated Course Fee Discount XX

Loyalty Discount XX

Scholarship XX

Total Course Fees Payable: XX

Total Course Fees Payable

XX

No of Instalments:

* The Development Levy is payable in full during the first semester of attendance each academic year. Where a Student withdraws from the Course pursuant to Clause 2.2, this Development Levy is non-refundable and will not be pro-rated regardless of enrolment date.

APPLICATION FEE PAID

Total Paid (include 7% GST where

Fees Breakdown applicable) (S$) Application Fee**

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Nexus International School, Singapore www.nexus.edu.sg **Where withdrawal is in accordance with Clauses 2.1(i) to (v), the Application Fee will be refunded in full. Where withdrawal is for any other reason, the Application Fee is non-refundable for withdrawals and will not be pro-rated regardless of enrolment date.

INSTALMENT SCHEDULE Amount

Instalment Schedule* (include 7% GST where applicable) Date Due** (S$) 1st instalment

2nd instalment

Etc. Total Course Fees Payable:

* Each instalment amount shall not exceed 12 months’ worth of fees. In very exceptional cases, the School may in its discretion, based on the personal circumstances of a Student, allow the Course Fees for one academic year to be paid in more than two instalments. In such exceptional cases, at the start of each academic year (or upon enrolment with the School, if that is later), the Student shall pay all the instalments for that academic year by cheques dated on the due date of each instalment, as set out in the table above. Should the Student withdraw pursuant to Clause 2.2 before the end of a semester, the Student shall nevertheless be obliged to pay the sum of the Course Fee consumed for that semester, less any refund of Course Fees in accordance with Clause 2.2.

** The Student must pay each instalment at least one week before the due date of the next instalment.

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SCHEDULE C MISCELLANEOUS FEES1

(See Note 1 – These fees are non-refundable for withdrawals under Clause 2.2) Purpose of Fee Amount (S$) and When Payable

(including 7% GST)

Re-enrolment fee S$3,210.00

(for returning students, off-settable against first instalment of

tuition fee) Payable by end of 1st week of Term 4

Registration fee S$2,140.00

(payable only on initial enrolment and is thus a one off fee)

Reimbursement of credit card charges where payment of

fees is made via credit card 2.5% of the fee amount payable

Reimbursement of bank charges where payment of fees

is made via bank transfer S$20.00 – S$30.00 - dependent on bank charges

5% of outstanding fees, calculated based on due

date set out in the Instalment Schedule

Payable at time of payment of Course Fees

Late payment fee The parties agree and acknowledge that this sum

represents a genuine pre-estimate of the costs

that the School is likely to incur in the event of late

payment.

Textbooks (depending on Year level) Up to S$500.00 per Year level

Replacement of lost Student ID S$20.00 upon submission of replacement form

Lost or damaged Library books / course books Price will depend on book value

Photocopying / Printing S$10.00 per 100 prints above school allocation

House T-Shirts S$20.00 per piece

Examination fees for IGCSE candidates S$150.00 – S$2,500.00

Upon registration for IGCSE examinations

Examination fee for IB Diploma candidates S$1,400.00 – S$2,500.00

Upon registration for IB Diploma examinations

Managebac Account for CAS (IB Diploma candidates)* S$50.00 payable at Year 12

1 Miscellaneous Fees refer to any optional fees which the students pay only when applicable. Such fees are normally collected by the School when the need arises and these fees are non-refundable if the Student withdraws from the Course for any reason pursuant to Clause 2.2 above.

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Nexus International School, Singapore www.nexus.edu.sg Yearbook S$20.00 per copy

Field Trips (local and overseas) Up to $2,000.00 per trip payable prior to trip

Co-curricular Activities (CCAs) Up to S$300.00 per term

Payable upon confirmation of participation

Student’s Pass processing fee – new application and S$30.00 per application (payable to Immigration

and Checkpoint Authority)

renewal application

S$60.00 – S$90.00 depending on region (payable

Visa fee

to Immigration and Checkpoint Authority)

Additional English Support Fee S$2,140.00 per semester

* These figures are estimates only and students will be advised of the actual amount applicable to them when invoiced.

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SCHEDULE D REFUND TABLE

% of the amount of fees paid under If Student’s written notice of withdrawal is received:

Schedule B

(with the exception of Development Levy

and Application Fee)

100% 90 calendar days or more before the Semester

Commencement Date

50% Less than 90 calendar days but more than 14 calendar days

before the Semester Commencement Date

14 calendar days or less before the Semester

0% Commencement Date or after the Semester Commencement Date

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SCHEDULE E CONFIDENTIAL PERSONAL INFORMATION

The Student and/or the Parent (as applicable) agree that their personal data may be collected, used and disclosed by the School, its officers and staff for the purposes of delivering and administering the Course. Furthermore, notwithstanding that such personal data (including but not limited to contact details, Student’s health condition and/or family circumstances) may constitute confidential information, the School, its officers and staff shall be entitled to collect, use and disclose such personal data where reasonably necessary to ensure the safety and promote the welfare of the Student or to avert a perceived risk of harm to the Student or to another person at the School. The Student and/or the Parent (as applicable) agree that the School may disclose their personal data to its affiliated entities, parent class representative, third party service providers and agents for the above purposes. For the avoidance of doubt, the School may disclose the personal data of the Student and/or the Parent (as applicable) where required by any governmental authorities. The School reserves the right to monitor the Student’s e- mail communications and internet usage on the School’s IT network at all times. The School is committed to be in compliance with the Personal Data Protection Act 2012. Details on how the School handles personal data are available upon request.

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SCHEDULE F EXPULSION OF STUDENT

A Student may be formally expelled from the School if the Student has committed a serious breach or a series of breaches of School discipline or expectation and/or a criminal offence. The Principal shall act in accordance with the School’s policy on discipline and expulsion in all such cases. Should the Student be formally expelled before the end of a semester, the Student shall nevertheless be obliged to pay the sum of the Course Fee consumed for that semester, less any refund of Course Fees in accordance with Clause 2.2.

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SCHEDULE G AGE RECOMMENDATIONS

As students join the School from countries and educational systems around the world, the exact age requirements for each Year group varies. The final decision on the Year level the Student is to join will be dependent upon the assessment and/or interview at the time of application and previous school records. As a general rule, students at the School fall in the following age groups at the start of the academic year in August: No child may start before their 3rd birthday. Year Level Age (as of August) Year Level Age (as of August) Nursery 3 - 4 7 11 - 12 Kindergarten 4 - 5 8 12 - 13 1 5 - 6 9 13 - 14 2 6 - 7 10 14 - 15 3 7 - 8 11 15 - 16 4 8 - 9 12 16 - 17 5 9 - 10 13 17 - 18 6 10 - 11

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Nexus International School, Singapore www.nexus.edu.sg No parts of the Contract are to be altered by means of addition or deletion by any one party. The parties hereby acknowledge and agree to the terms stated in this Contract. SIGNED by the SCHOOL ____________________________ Authorised Signatory of the School Seal of the School Name: Dr. Stuart Martin Date:

SIGNED by the Student SIGNED by the Student’s parent or legal guardian (if the student is under eighteen (18) years of age)

____________________________ ____________________________ Name of Student: Name of Parent or Legal Guardian:

Date: Date:

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