how languages are learned: great expectafions in 2016
TRANSCRIPT
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How Languages Are Learned:
Great Expecta+ons in 2016
Patsy M. Lightbown
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• How can research on second language acquisiCon (SLA) help teachers?
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• 1976 Tarone, Swain, & Fathman: Some limita+ons to the classroom applica+ons of current SLA research
• 1978 Hatch: Apply with cau+on
• 1980 Long: Inside the "black box” …classroom research on language learning
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• 1982 Krashen: Principles and prac+ce in second language acquisi+on
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1985 Lightbown: Great Expecta+ons
• “Ten generalizaCons” based on SLA research to that date.
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1985 Lightbown: Great Expecta+ons
• SLA research – cannot tell teachers what to teach • The research doesn’t cover enough language features or systems
– cannot tell teachers how to teach • Too liZle research in classrooms
– can help set expecta+ons
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2000 Lightbown: Classroom SLA Research & Second Language Teaching
• Big changes in teaching methods
– CommunicaCve language teaching (CLT)
– Content-‐based language teaching (CBLT)
– The need for both language-‐focused and meaning-‐focused learning
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• Was SLA research in 2000 telling teachers what “everybody knows”?
– Perhaps not.
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2016 SLA Research Update
• Far more classroom-‐based research
• More teachers are aware of findings
• Teacher educaCon programs include SLA
• Some textbooks wriZen by SLA experts
• And yet….
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In 2016
• Are the ten generalizaCons… – SCll representaCve of SLA research
findings? – Relevant to classroom teaching? – Accessible to teachers?
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1. Adults and adolescents can acquire a second language.
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2. The learner creates a systemaCc interlanguage…
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3. There are predictable sequences in acquisiCon…
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4. PracCce does not make perfect.
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• DeKeyser (2007) defines pracCce as “specific acCviCes in the second language engaged in
systemaCcally, deliberately, with the goal of
developing knowledge of and skills in the
second language.”
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We get beZer at what we pracCce.
• PracCce
…taking tests to get beZer at taking tests
…mechanical drills to get beZer at drills
…reading to get beZer at reading
…conversaCon to improve interacCon skills
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PracCce does not make perfect. But it helps if we – pracCce the right things – pracCce enough – vary contexts & processes for pracCce
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PracCce the right things…
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PracCce enough…
• Child L1 = 10,000 – 20,000 hours • School years = 15,000 more hours
• Canadian early immersion = 5,000 hours
• Foreign language instrucCon = 100s of hours, stretched over years
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Vary the contexts & processes of pracCce
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The importance of variety
• Pedagogical reasons – Keep it interesCng – Respond to different backgrounds, learning preferences, and abiliCes
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The importance of variety
• CogniCve psychology explanaCons – The specificity of pracCce (we get beZer at what we pracCce) – Transfer appropriate processing
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Transfer appropriate processing
• It is easier to remember something that we know when “retrieval” condiCons are similar to learning condiCons. – More varied learning condiCons lead to more varied retrieval condiCons.
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5. Knowing a language rule does not mean
one will be able to use it in communicaCve
interacCon.
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MetalinguisCc knowledge
• An end in itself?
• As a monitor?
• DeclaraCve knowledge, to be proceduralized through pracCce?
• As an aid to “noCcing”?
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6. Isolated explicit error correcCon is usually ineffecCve in changing language behavior.
…but sustained, targeted, clear feedback on error is an essenCal part of second language acquisiCon.
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7. For most adult learners, acquisiCon
stops before… naCve-‐like mastery.
8. One cannot achieve … command of a
second language in one hour a day.
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Drip Feed and Full Flow
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“Full Flow” approaches to L2 learning
• Intensive ESL • “Canadian” Immersion
• Content & Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
• Content-‐Based Language Teaching
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9. The learner’s task is enormous because
language is enormously complex.
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10. A learner’s ability to understand language in a meaningful context exceeds his/her ability to comprehend decontextualized language and to produce language of comparable complexity and accuracy.
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Language
Content Information
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Content Information
Language
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Language
Content Information
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What to do?
• What is a pracCcal way of using
knowledge from SLA research to guide
teaching?
• One answer: Paul NaCon’s “Four Strands in Language Teaching”
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NaCon’s Four Strands
• A framework for designing lessons,
curricula, courses
• Based on vocabulary learning
• CompaCble with SLA research
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Paul NaCon’s Four Strands in Language Teaching
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Meaning-‐focused input
• Mostly known language
– “comprehensible input with i + 1”
• Listening and reading
• Individual and interacCve
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Meaning-‐focused input
• Varied genres – ConversaCon, narraCon, informaCon, “sheltered” content instrucCon
• Different voices – Not just teacher and textbook – Films, broadcasts, newspapers, notes…
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Meaning-‐focused output
• Mostly known language
– “stretching” and “noCcing the gap”
• Speaking and wriCng
• Individual and interacCve
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Language-‐focused learning
• Always coordinated with meaning-‐
focused acCviCes.
• ONE of FOUR elements of language
learning.
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• MetalinguisCc explanaCon • Structured input • Intensive reading • Feedback • Exercises & paZern pracCce • DicConary work • Strategy training (learning to learn)
Language-‐focused learning
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Four Strands in Language Teaching
Meaning-‐focused input
Fluency development
Meaning-‐focused output
Language-‐focused learning
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What is fluency?
• Rapid, automaCc performance that
requires liZle (or no?) cogniCve effort
• Not just speaking. Fluency is also
important for listening, reading, and
wriCng
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How is fluency acquired?
• By repeCCve use of known language for expressing or understanding meaning
– Not through decontextualized drill.
– Not through “difficult” communicaCon
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Fluency development acCviCes
• Skits, plays, quesConnaires, songs • Reading or listening to material with
predictable, repe++ve content • Reading or listening to easy stories, books,
newscasts, weather reports • Repeated reading or listening • Games, math quesCons & formulas • 4-‐3-‐2 reports
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Why is fluency development important?
• For effecCve communicaCon
– But it is not only a goal of learning. • It also mo+vates learning.
– Using “easy” language contributes to a sense of success leading to…
√ COMMUNICATIVE CONFIDENCE
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• More important…
– Fluency promotes new learning by conserving cogniCve resources.
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Four Strands in Language Teaching
Meaning-‐focused input
Fluency development
Meaning-‐focused output
Language-‐focused learning
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Four Strands in Language Teaching
• Equal aZenCon to all four
• From the beginning
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My “great expectaCons”
• Dialogue between researchers & teachers • More research in the classroom
• RecogniCon of “local” knowledge • Open minded policy-‐makers, educators, parents
• Making research findings accessible for teachers and teacher educators
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