Ulster History Park reconstruction of a typical motte-and-bailey castle.

bailey entrance through wooden palisade with typical outbuilding inside;

wooden bridge and stairway to motte with lord's entrance or watchtower/guardhouse on summit.

 

Dromore Castle, Co. Down. A typical motte and bailey castle dating back to the Anglo-Norman invasion of the 12th century.

Looking across the outer, northern embankment towards the inner motte.

The eastern ditch with the outer embankment to the left, the motte to the right and the bailey beyond.

The outer bailey seen from the top of the motte.

The western embankment and ditch.

 

Clough Castle, Co. Down. Another Anglo-Norman motte and bailey castle dating back to their original incursion in the 12th century. However, Clough received a later 13th century stone tower and 15th century stone addition. Excavations at the summit of the motte revealed post holes for what may have been a wooden hall. The summit of the motte would have been encircled with a palisade of sharpened stakes and surmounted by a two or three storey wooden look-out tower.

The main site at Clough viewed from the west.

Dundrum Castle, Co. Down. One of the series of motte-and-bailey castles established by the Anglo-Normans across Ulster during their 12th century invasion. It was subsequently developed with stone towers, curtain walls and a keep by John de Courcy (or Curcy) but fell into Magennis hands during the later period of the expansion of power of the local Gaelic lords. The stone buildings date to this later Magennis period.

The name Dundrum derives from the Irish for castle of the rock. The fortifications were built up on a natural rocky prominence giving excellent views across Dundrum and Newcastle bays and far out to sea.

The natural stone outcrop on which the castle was built can be seen below these fragments of the medieval curtain wall.

The rearmost curtain wall, much reduced by subsequent use, stone robbing and general dereliction.

The inner keep, its round shape indicates its late design for the period. It is currently undergoing stabilisation renovation (2002).

The gateway linking the motte (later inner bailey) with the outer bailey.

All that remains of the south-eastern curtain wall.

Trim Castle, Co Meath. A classic Anglo-Norman castle of the 12th and 13th century. The square keep was the original structure (although perhaps itself superceding a shortlived wooden motte-and-bailey castle) but developments in seige warfare, both engines and techniques, as well as the increasing sophistication of crossbows led to the transfer of the defensive structure to the encircling walls, strengthened by enfilading mural towers (see essay). Trim also exhibits the first stages of the development of gateways into, elsewhere, massive gateway-keeps which combined the living quarters which the earlier keeps provided together with strong defence at the walls' weakest point, the entrance. Most of the eastern wall is completely demolished, courtesy of Cromwell's artillery in the 1650s. Some remains of the town wall are also visible. The castle has been extensively restored since these photos were taken and public access is now available to all parts of the site..

An overall view of the curtain wall, the main (south-eastern) gateway and the original keep beyond.

The north-western gateway entrance, perhaps a later addition to the curtain wall.

The keep undergoing stabilisation and restoration work. It's square shape and that of the tower indicates it was built during the first stage of the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland in the late 12th/early 13th centuries.

The rounded inner face of the south-eastern gateway. The circular mural towers are indicative of a slightly later period than the keep, when castle technology was responding to the greater firepower and accuracy of seige engines and crossbows.

 

 

Trim castle

Anglo-Norman castle in Ireland, was constructed over a thirty-year period by Hugh de Lacy and his son Walter. Hugh de Lacy was granted the Liberty of Meath by King Henry II in 1172 in an attempt to curb the expansionist policies of Richard de Clare, (Strongbow).  Construction of the massive three storied Keep, the central stronghold of the castle, was begun c. 1176 on the site of an earlier wooden fortress. This massive twenty-sided tower, which is cruciform in shape, was protected by a ditch, curtain wall and moat. http://www.heritageireland.ie/en/midlandseastcoast/TrimCastle/

Trim castle is an Anglo-Norman castle, possibly the first stone castle in Ireland.  It is located about 28 miles northwest of Dublin in County Meath, along the banks of the River Boyne.  Trim is, in Tom McNeill’s words, “the finest and largest castle in Ireland” (McNeill 244), and it has a reputation as the king of Irish castles.  Early Anglo-Norman castles were often built in prominent locations, and their purpose was to display the great wealth and dominance of their owners.  Trim Castle is even mentioned in the heroic Norman poem “The Song of Dermot and the Earl.”  It first began as a ringwork castle, and the remains of a large trench, bracing posts, and postholes of a wooden structure are evidence of this.  Historical records say that this original ringwork castle built by Hugh de Lacy in 1173 was captured and burnt down that same year by Roderic O’Connor (Ruadhri Ua Conchabair), a native Irishman threatened by its presence.  Hugh de Lacy was so powerful in his time that the King of England was afraid that de Lacy would deny allegiance to him and declare himself the King of Ireland.  This shows the great power and intimidation that Trim Castle was meant to display, especially over the native Irish people.

Construction         Reconstruction of Trim Castle was undertaken by Hugh de Lacy in 1175.  Hugh died in 1186 but his son, Walter de Lacy continued construction and the great castle was completed by 1204.  The second stage of the castle’s construction took place in the second half of the 13th century, by Geoffrey de Geneville.  He is thought to have added wooden towers, built the Great Hall, and improved the North Tower, the fosse and drawbridge. In the late 13th century, Joanna de Geneville married Roger Mortimer and thus castle was passed to the Mortimer family.  When the last of the Mortimers died in 1425, Trim was abandoned until the early 15th century, when King Richard II of England allowed for two of his wards to live there, one of them the future Henry V.  Repairs were made on the castle in the 1530s, and during the 15th century parliaments were held in Trim seven times.  It fell into decline in the 16th century and was abandoned to Cromwell’s army in 1649.  More recently, it was used in the filming of the movie Braveheart.

Keep         Trim castle is located above the banks of the River Boyne, and covers more than three acres.  Its main, large square keep, which is relatively isolated from the rest of the structures, is twenty-five meters tall and has walls eleven feet thick.  This keep, also called a donjon, has four smaller square towers on each of its sides (only three of which remain).  The towers have thin walls (which were not good defensively) and were added for either extra rooms or simply for the sake of appearance.  Inside the main keep there are three levels.  The first and second levels were split in half by a central wall, while the third was left open and was probably used as the lord’s chamber.  The keep also contained a public hall, great chambers, a chapel, and quarters for a chaplain, officials, and a small garrison.  It also contained cellars full of food so that the keep could withstand a long siege.  The keep was most likely surrounded by a stone enclosure with stables and stores.  Three defensive towers were later

built around this area.  The one entrance is on the main floor of the east tower, below the chapel.  In the southwest and northeast corners of the keep are winding staircases that lead to the three levels.  The thin walls of the towers and the weakly guarded east tower entrance left the castle weakly defended.  This weakness was recognized and remedied late in the 13th century with the construction of a towered screen wall in front of the entrance for added protection.

Outer Wall         The great outer curtain wall, two-thirds of which still stand today, is 500 meters long and forms a triangle-shape around the keep.  It contains eight towers and two main gatehouses.  It is said to “provide the front and real strength of the castle” (McNeill 24).  The wall is studded with towers, and it contains two levels of arrow loops (holes through which weapons could be fired).  The wall has two large gate towers: the west gate facing the town is also known as Trim Gate, and serves as the main entrance.  Chambers connecting to this gate contained accommodations for guards and a prison.  The south gate facing the countryside and Dublin is known as the Barbican gate or Dublin gate (so named because it connects to a road that leads to Dublin).  The gatehouses were each protected by a barbican, drawbridge, portcullis (a type of wooden gate), and murder hole.  The best remaining part of the wall stretches from the River Boyne through Dublin Gate to Castle Street.  On the edge along the riverfront, the wall contains rectangular towers, but along the south wall to the part facing Dublin, the towers are D-shaped.  This had led some to conclude that these towers were constructed at different times.  Along the riverfront stands the River Gate, which was built to allow for deliveries from boats, which could be moored in the harbor this created.  This gate connected to the Great hall and to the Solar.  The Solar, also called Magdalen tower, is the northern-most tower on the curtain wall and also the strongest.  It defended the ford on the Boyne River.  It had four floors, latrines, was heated, and contained lodgings.

Other Structures         It is thought that the Great Hall of this castle once stood near the north tower, and they may have been connected.  The Hall had a good view of the harbor and of the Abbey of St. Mary’s across the river, of which the Yellow Tower still survives today.  In the north corner of the enclosed area, next to the Great Hall, there is a church, and facing the river is the Royal Mint, which produced Patricks and Irelands, types of coins, up until sometime in the 15th century.  Many other structures would have been found within the curtain walls, including three limestone kilns, 14th century houses, a well, and even public toilets.

Excavations         Excavations were done here from 1971 to 1974 under the management of David Sweetman.  They covered most of the area directly surrounding the keep, and the area along the northeast wall.  This excavation revealed the remains of ten headless men.  These were probably criminals, there as victims of King Edward’s 1465 order for any thieves or future thieves to be beheaded and their heads mounted on spikes outside as a public warning.  Excavations (as well as renovations) at Trim Castle were completed recently.  The remains of a stone plinth, or wall, closely surrounding the keep were found, as were the remains of additional buildings, and evidence of a ditch dug around the keep.  Iron arrowheads, silver coins, an iron axe, pottery from Bristol, and French wine jugs, all from the 13th century, were also found there, mainly in the ditch around the keep.  Excavations also revealed a slipway and storage facilities on the east end of the Great Hall, along the edge of the River Boyne.  This is most likely because Trim castle was used as a fortress along the river which, along with a few other structures that he owned, allowed de Lacy to control the port town.  Along with these excavations, Tom McNeill has more recently studied the basic outline of the castle’s structure, and its surrounding components.  Trim Castle is now managed and cared for by Duchas, the Heritage Service of Ireland.  

Layout of Trim Castle

 

 

Time PeriodThe Invaders

c.1100 - 900 years ago

 

Carrickfergus Castle tells us that the influence of the Normans in this part of the island was far greater than the Vikings - of which there is little lasting evidence.

The structure's size and solidity demonstrates the determination of the newcomers, led by the new Earl of Ulster, to impose and establish themselves in the area.

In reality, the Normans managed to secure no more than a quarter of Ulster, mainly in the east, and even that part was not transformed.

The towns they established in the south were of a much higher calibre than those created in Ulster.

So in fact, this castle may speak as much about a feeling of encirclement, of needing protection, as of dominance.

For vast tracts of the north, this was a declaration, rather than a reality, of power.

 

There are few buildings in Ireland with such long, well chronicled and fascinating histories

as Carrickfergus Castle. 

John de Courcy started building the castle in the twelfth century after arriving from

Dublin determined to establish for himself the earldom of Ulster. De Courcy was a central

figure in the English invasion of Ulster from 1177 to 1204. Although his foray had the seal

of approval from the English king, Henry II, it was primarily a private enterprise. De

Courcy reaped rich financial and political reward for over 20 years until his downfall was

engineered by Hugh de Lacy. 

Carrickfergus Castle first appears in the official English records in 1210 when the

notorious King John laid siege to and took control of Ulster’s premier strategic garrison.

De Lacy fled the castle before the arrival of John, and the castle came under the control

of a constable. In 1245 a royal mandate was issued insisting that the castle and its

buildings were to be maintained and protected from falling into ruin. 

Volatile History

Lord Edward Bruce, brother of King Robert the Bruce of Scotland, invaded Ulster in 1315,

but Carrickfergus castle was to remain the one sure bastion of the English in the late

Middle Ages. In the sixteenth century, the castle was attacked on several occasions and,

in 1602, Conn O’Neill, the chief of Clandeboye, was imprisoned there.

In 1745 almost 15m of the curtain wall on the south side of the castle collapsed and was

left unrepaired. In 1760 the French forces of Commodore Thurot’s took advantage of the

structural weakness during three overwhelming assaults. Many lives were lost, and when

the garrison’s ammunition ran out, buttons were torn from military uniforms for use as

musket balls. When that too failed to repel the Gallic invaders, the soldiers on the

ramparts resorted to bayonets and stones, but eventually the French prevailed and the

castle surrendered. 

Changing Times

In the late 1790s the castle was employed as a state and county prison and many United

Irishmen were to know the grimness of incarceration there. A century later it was used as

an armoury and magazine, with anti-submarine guns mounted in the early twentieth

century to protect Belfast Lough during the first world war. 

In 1928, 700 years of continuous military occupation ended when the war department

transferred the castle to the Ministry of Finance for preservation as an ancient

monument. However, ten years later it was once again in strategic use as the basements

became air raid shelters during the second world war. 

In August 1961 Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip landed at Carrickfergus from the

Royal Yacht Britannia to begin a short visit to Northern Ireland, maintaining the regal

connections of both the town and castle. The couple’s inspection of the castle was the

first to have been conducted by a reigning monarch since the days of William of Orange

in the 1690s. 

Reproduced with kind permission of Carrickfergus Borough Council 2004

In 1177 John, the youngest son of a Somerset knight, led an army of 22knights and 300 foot soldiers from Dublin into Ulster. While de Courcyclaimed this invasion was supported by Henry II of England, it appears tohave been entirely an independent operation on John de Courcy’s part.The site was chosen by de Courcy as his principal residence and strongholdin Ireland as it provided him with the opportunity to communicate withhis allies in Northern England and the Isle of Man. (He was later to marryAffreca, daughter of the King of Man). John de Courcy started construction ofCarrickfergus Castle soon after his arrival. This was essential due to continualattacks from the native Irish wishing to prevent this Norman interlopergaining control in their domain.The lower courses of the Inner Ward’s defensive wall and the Keep werebuilt between 1177 and 1181. In the years that followed de Courcy appearsto have reached an agreement with the local Irish and he was referred to as‘Princeps Ulidiae’ (‘Prince of Ulster’) in contemporary documents.(This title was a local courtesy only and was never officially granted by thecrown.) Thereafter Carrickfergus Castle was completed in more peacefulcircumstances.At this time the area controlled by the Anglo-Normans included the coastalareas of south Antrim and north Down. Between the late 1170s and hisdownfall in 1205, de Courcy and his wife Affreca founded several monastichouses in Ulster. These included Inch Abbey and Grey Abbey both inCounty Down as well as the construction of another formidable castle atDundrum, (built to guard the southern portion of the area under Anglo-Norman control). John de Courcy’s luck was not to hold. The King, angeredby de Courcy’s increasing power, sent another Norman knight to remove deCourcy. Hugh de Lacy, Lord of County Meath, defeated de Courcy in 1205.

When Hugh de Lacy took over as resident lord he too antagonized the Crownto the extent that King John came to Ireland to curtail his growing power.He successfully besieged the castle in 1210, though Hugh de Lacy escaped.The captured castle remained a Crown possession (under the direct controlof a Constable) until 1228. It was during this period of royal control that theMiddle Ward was built.In 1228 Hugh de Lacy was able to win back the Anglo-Norman Earldom ofUlster including the castle at Carrickfergus. His lordship, from 1228 until hisdeath in 1242, was probably the period when the Outer Ward, including theGatehouse, was added and the castle finally occupied the whole ofthe ‘Rock of Fergus’.

When Edward Bruce and Scottishforces invaded Ireland in 1315,the army sent to oppose him wasdefeated at the Battle of Connor inCounty Antrim. It retreated back toCarrickfergus, pursued by Bruce andhis Irish allies. Carrickfergus town

was quickly taken and the castle putunder siege. The garrison and otheroccupants of the castle held outfor a full year. It is said that a lack ofsupplies eventually forced them toeat some of their Scottish prisoners,before surrendering in September1316. Carrickfergus remainedEdward Bruce’s base in Ireland untilhis death in October 1318, in battleat Faughart near Dundalk,County Louth.

The later medieval period saw resurgence in the power of the Irish Lordsin Ulster. This, coupled with the murder of Richard de Burgh, the lastEarl of Ulster, in 1333 meant that Carrickfergus Castle was often the onlyfortification of any significance held by the crown in Ulster. Its garrisonwas surprisingly small. In 1549-50 the castle is listed as having only fourhorsemen. In the 16th century, alterations were made to the castle to make itsuitable to mount artillery. These alterations included gun ports for cannonsquared off with red brick (the first example of its kind in Ireland) insertedinto the east and west walls. In addition the Gatehouse towers were loweredand the shape of the towers themselves radically altered.Despite this, in 1575 Somhairle Buidhe (Sorley Boy) Mac Donnell capturedthe town and castle in revenge for the massacre of 600 people, mostlywomen and children, by the Earl of Essex on Rathlin Island. The town ofCarrickfergus was attacked by the Irish and Scots several times duringthe later 16th century. Between 1608 and 1615, Sir Arthur Chichester,Governor of Carrickfergus, had a defensive town wall constructed to encloseCarrickfergus. These defences were connected to the outwork defences ofthe castle. In 1689 the Jacobite garrison in the castle surrendered to theWilliamite general, Frederick Schomberg, after his army stormed the town.

The basic stone used in the fabric of the castle buildings was local basalt.Red sandstone and limestone, The Keep (or Great Tower) is thestrongest and safest place withinthe castle, and is located in thenorth-west corner of the Inner Ward.Constructed probably between 1177and 1181 it stands over 20 metreshigh with walls between 3 and 4metres thick. The Keep was obviouslya defensive stronghold, used todefend this Norman outcrop inIreland by land or sea. However whileit was a fortress it was also a homefor the lord and his family and anyoneallowed inside would also have beenimpressed by the grandeur of theirsurroundings.The Keep has four storeys; each floorreached by a single spiral staircase.The ground floor was only accessiblefrom within the Keep and consists ofa vaulted storage cellar which also contained the fresh-water well. To protectthe upper floors against possible fire and attacks, the ground floor has no

windows. The Keep is entered by an external stone staircase, rising up fromthe courtyard of the Inner Ward to a first floor entrance in the east wall. Thisstone staircase was unusual in a time when temporary wooden staircaseswould have been the norm. However, since excavations in 1993 found theremains of original Cultra sandstone steps, there can be no doubt that thesesteps were part of the original keep construction.Northern Ireland Environment Agency www.ni-environment.gov.uk14quarried from across the lough atCultra, were also used for decorativedetails, especially in the Keep andInner Ward. Red brick seems tohave been used for new work andalterations from the 16th centuryonwards. Large, dressed graniteblocks were also used along theeast wall and for gun platforms inthe 19th century, when the castle’sdefences were again strengthened.

The Outer WardThe Outer Ward was added in the second quarter of the 13th century, afterHugh de Lacy returned to Ireland. This extension of the defensive featuresincluded curtain walls with substantial gate towers on either side of thegate. The new fortifications meant that the whole of the promontory wasoccupied by the castle and that potential attackers would have to fighttheir way through three heavily-defended gates before they even reachedthe Keep. The extra space allowed a larger garrison to be housed within thecastle as well as a wider range of buildings

The Middle WardThe castle was enlarged between 1217 and 1222 when it was a Crownpossession and there was no resident lord. The new wall was primarilycreated as a defensive feature but it also provided more room for activity atthe castle. Although this wall has now been reduced to the foundations thereare enough masonry remains left to show that 4 towers were incorporatedinto the middle of the northern side of the new wall to provide extraprotection to the gate into the castle (point A). A latrine tower is located inthe wall, close to the junction with the west wall of the Keep (point B). Thegate through the wall of the Middle Ward dates to the 19th century (point C).The Postern GateThe Postern Gate (point D) could have been used as an escape route fromthe castle and perhaps to allow supplies to be unloaded from the sea. Gateslike this are also known as Sally Ports, because they allowed soldiers from thegarrison to rush out and suddenly attack enemies who were laying siege tothe castle.The Sea TowerThe Sea Tower (point E) was part of the new defences constructed whenthe Middle Ward was created. The sea tower is one of 4 towers built toprovide greater defence to this new outer wall. It helped protect the castlefrom attack from the sea and the surviving arrow slits, of very high qualityconstruction, seem to have been designed for crossbow fire. The Castle’sprison was located on the floor above. This prison was known as the‘Oubliette’ or “the forgotten”. It was from here that the lord of Clandeboye,Con Ó Néill, made a dramatic escape in 1602.

The GatehouseThe Gatehouse originally consisted of two circular towers with linkingmasonry above the gate. Both of the towers were three storeys high withspiral staircases between the floors. The Gatehouse had to be particularlystrong as it was the only part of the castle not protected by the sea. Althoughthe original Gatehouse was built as part of the Outer Ward extension to thecastle, it was later improved by Richard de Burgh in the early 14th century. Inthe eastern tower (on the left as you enter the castle), the ground floor wasused for storage, including weapons. The first floor was accommodation forthe Gatehouse guards and the upper floor, with its fine window, probablyserved as a private chapel for the resident lord. In the western tower (to theright of the gate) the ground floor may have been used to house prisoners.The second and third floors were for use by the Constable, the militarymanager of the castle. Amongst the improved defences for the gate werearrow-slits, a machicolation, a portcullis for trapping enemies within the gatepassage and a ‘murder hole’ for dropping objects on the enemy.The original circular Gatehouse towers were cut back during the Elizabethanperiod in order to strengthen them and to allow cannons to be mountedon top.The Grand BatteryThe castle armaments were improved during the Napoleonic period in theearly 19th century, when there was a real fear of French invasion. Six gunson the eastern battery date from this period. Three of the cannon are 24-pounders and three are 32-pounders, though they all rest on 24-poundergun carriages. There is further evidence of remodelling in the mid-Victorianperiod; on the south east defences here we can see the area has beenchanged to accommodate 4, 68 pound cannons(these canons are rare in the British Isles).

Pembroke Castle has a long and fascinating history, for it was around 1093 that Arnulf de Montgomery built the small inner bailey standing at the end of the promontory. Only a few years later the castle withstood a long siege by the Welsh, although its defenders were near starvation. The late 12th century keep is both an outstanding feature and architectural novelty, for it has a massive cylindrical tower with an unusual stone dome. Views from the top are tremendous and the castle's natural defensive position on a rocky promontory overlooking Milford Haven is immediately apparent.

The main room on the second floor of the Keep has two windows embellished externally by dog tooth moulding and a carved head. All the rooms are circular and the keep is nearly 80 ft high. It was the work of William Marshall, son in law of Strongbow, conqueror of Ireland and the man responsible for the wholesale reconstruction of the castle in stone in the late 12th/early 13th centuries. Another absorbing feature of the castle is the gatehouse, which had a complex barbican and no fewer than three portcullises.

A battlemented flying arch inside the gatehouse is something of a puzzle, for it would appear to be of little use in repelling invaders who had actually forced entry into the castle. Still, the gatehouse is, overall, a mighty defence which proves the skill and the sophistication of military architects in medieval times. Pembroke is also noteworthy as the only castle in Britain to be built over a natural cavern, a large cave known as the Wogan.

Historically, Pembroke is important not only for its masonry but for the fact the Harri Tudur, who became Henry VII and inaugurated the Tudor line of monarchs, was born there in 1457 reputedly in the tower now known as the Henry VII Tower.

During the troubled reign of King Charles 1, the castle was attacked in turn by both Royalist and by Roundheads as the sympathies of its occupants altered. In the latter stages of the struggle an attacking force was led by Cromwell himself.

Today, Pembroke Castle is owned and managed by a Private Charitable Trust. Over the past 10 years much effort has been made to bring the history of the castle to life. In this respect the visitor will find an exhibition room telling the fascinating history of the castle from the arrival of Arnulf de Montgomery to the present day, in addition there are a number of exciting tableaux depicting various moments in the castle's history such as the birth of Henry VII.

The castle and a well stocked gift shop are open all year. There is a Snack Bar open from February to the end of November and a Brass Rubbing Centre open during the summer months and at other times by arrangement.

Conwy, constructed by the English monarch Edward I between 1283 and 1289 as one of the key fortresses in his 'iron ring' of castles to contain the Welsh, was built to prompt such a humbling reaction.

A distinguished historian wrote of Conwy, 'Taken as a whole, Conwy's incomparably the most magnificent of Edward I's Welsh fortresses'. In comparison to other great Edwardian castles it is also relatively straightforward in design, a reflection of the inherent strength of its siting.

There are no concentric 'walls within walls' here, because they were not needed. Conwy's massive military strength springs from the rock on which it stands and seems to grow naturally. Soaring curtain walls and eight huge round towers give the castle (a World Heritage Inscribed site) an intimidating presence undimmed by the passage of time.

The views from the battlements are breathtaking looking out across mountains and sea and down to the roofless shell of the castles 125ft Great Hall. It is from these battlements that visitors can best appreciate Conwy's other great glory, its ring of town

walls.

Conwy is the classic walled town. Its circuit of walls, over three quarters of a mile long and guarded by no less than 22 towers, is one of the finest in the World. Unlike Harlech however, Conwy Castle and town are surrounded by a well-preserved wall lending an additional sense of strength to the site. A similar town wall exists at Caernarfon Castle, but is far less complete and gets lost in the modern

town. By contrast, Conwy's well-preserved wall helps the town maintain a medieval character lost by other Welsh castle-towns over the years. Construction of Conwy began in 1283. The castle was an important part of King Edward I's plan of surrounding Wales in "an iron ring of castles" to subdue the rebellious population. The highly defensible wall Edward built around the town was intended to protect the English colony planted at Conwy. The native Welsh population were violently opposed to English occupation of their homeland.

Today, Conwy is approached from the east via the A55 through North Wales. The beauty of this section of the country rivals anything in Britain. Approaching Conwy, the castle seems to suddenly rise out of the hills. The majestic old suspension bridge connecting the castle with the main peninsula, depicted in many representations of the castle over the years, still guards the main approach to the castle.

The castle dominates the entrance to Conwy, immediately conveying its sense of strength and compactness to the observer. The eight great towers and connecting walls are all intact, forming a rectangle as opposed to the concentric layouts of Edward's other castles in Wales. Almost all of the castle is accessible and well preserved. Journeying to the top of any of the towers offers the visitor spectacular views of the town, surrounding coastline and countryside. Sailboats and other pleasure-craft dot the picturesque harbor and quay next to the castle, while flocks of sheep roam the nearby hills.

We arrived in Conwy late Saturday afternoon following a quick visit to Rhuddlan Castle. We drove through the town several times trying to find our hotel, without success. We finally stopped and asked a local man if he knew of the hotel, and were promptly given friendly, accurate directions to our destination. We checked in to the Park Hall Hotel, which is about a half mile outside town, changed and rested a bit following our long drive from York. We then returned to town and immediately assaulted the castle. In quoting from the castle guidebook:

"Anyone looking at Conwy Castle for the first time will be impressed first and foremost by the unity and compactness of so great a mass of building, with its eight almost identical towers, four on the north and four on the south, pinning it to the rock on which it stands. Especially striking is the long northern front, where the tower's equidistant spacing divides the wall surface into three exactly similar sections, each pierced by a similar pair of arrowloops, and each rising to a common battlement line."

Like Edward's other well-preserved castles, Conwy gives visitors the opportunity to walk top portions of the curtain wall, and ascend higher to the tops of the towers. From these vantage points you can begin to appreciate the layout of the castle interior - the Inner Ward, Great Hall and Cellars, King's Hall, and other associated buildings. To quote further:

"The Inner Ward is the heart of the castle, containing, as it does, the suite of apartments which Master James of St. George contracted to build for King Edward and Queen Eleanor in 1283. In each range of buildings the principal rooms were on the first floor, with heated but somewhat dark basements below them. All the floors are now missing."

Although the interior of the castle is not nearly as complete as Caernarfon, the rectangular shaped interior is unique among Edward's castles. The different sections rise to three distinct heights in a terraced fashion, reminding one a little of the Inner Ward structure at Chepstow Castle in southeast Wales. After our assault on the castle was complete, we decided to explore the town. Conwy is a small town with narrow one way streets. In the town square stands a statue of Llywelyn ap Iowerth, or Llywelyn the Great (d.1240) the founder of Conwy and one of Wales' most heroic and popular medieval leaders. The statue is painted according to Llywelyn's supposed heraldic colors, and forms part of a small fountain that serves as the centerpiece for the town square.

Conwy is a town that time has simply chosen to pass by. Despite a few modern shops, Conwy still looks very similar to the town Edward envisioned some 700 years ago. The ancient town walls, castle and simple streets offer very little to remind the visitor of the modern world. Conwy is something of a paradox. Originally a symbol of English domination of Wales, in time the Welsh managed to reclaim the town, replacing English oppression with its own medieval character. Only at Conwy and St. Davids did we get the feeling of being transported back to ancient Wales.

After having dinner at a local fish & chips shop we decided to take on the town walls. The walls are remarkable for their state of preservation, forming almost a complete circuit around the town. Only a small section near the quay is inaccessible, and even here, the ruins of the wall have been incorporated into the existing buildings. The walls are 1400 yards in length and are flanked by twenty-one towers and three double tower gateways, a constant reminder of the mighty castle looming in the distance. Conwy Castle dominates the skyline from literally all points along the wall. The spur wall projecting 60 yards from the end of the quay offer some of the best views of the castle, including incredible floodlit nighttime views.

Our last night in Conwy was special for a couple of reasons. After spending the day visiting Beaumaris and Caernarfon castles, we decided to try some local Welsh cuisine back in Conwy. We chose the Erskin Hotel, where we dined on grilled lamb steak, potatoes and vegetables. Finishing dinner at 10:30, we made our way back to the town wall to view floodlit Conwy Castle at night, and were rewarded with a spectacular sight. I had seen photographs of the floodlit castle, although they failed to prepare me for the real thing. All eight of the castle's towers were individually lit with spotlights, along with sections of the curtain wall and the old suspension bridge. During our vacation there were several locations at which we could have easily lingered for hours; stately Raby Castle, the Pembrokeshire coast at St. Davids, the parks at Raglan and Carew castles, Hadrian's Wall, and perhaps most of all, the town walls at Conwy. Standing on the wall viewing the castle, I felt as though I finally understood Conwy's meaning and place in medieval Welsh history. Llywelyn the Great, King Edward and his castle builder, James of St. George, and all the Welshmen who died fighting against what the castle stood for, still make their presence felt in this ancient medieval town. It had taken almost two days, be we had finally arrived in Wales.

Conwy is by any standards one of the great fortresses of medieval Europe. First impressions are of tremendous military strength, a dominating position and a unity and compactness of design. The eight mighty towers seem to spring from the very rock which dictated the castle's eventual layout. As with Edward I's other great castles in north Wales, the design and building operations were in the hands of James of St. George, who eventually held the title of Master of the Kings Works in Wales. At Conwy, however, he somehow created a building which, more than any other, demonstrates his brilliant understanding of military architecture.

It was during his second campaign in Wales that King Edward gained control of the Conwy valley in March 1283. He began work on the new fortress almost immediately, the natural advantages of the site being so far superior to those of the older castle at Deganwy on the opposite side of the estuary. Moreover, plans were laid for an accompanying garrison town, itself to be defended by a complete circuit of walls and towers. Castle and town walls were all built in a frenzied period of activity between 1283-87, a tremendous achievement in which up to 1,500 craftsmen and labourers were involved during peak periods.

In like most of the king's other new castles in Wales, Conwy was not built to a "concentric" plan. The nature of the rock outcrop dictated a linear outline, with a lower barbican outwork at each end. The interior was sharply divided by a cross wall into two quite separate wards, so that either could hold out independently if the other should fall. When completed, the walls would have been covered with a white plaster rendering, which must have had a stunning effect, quite different from the gray stonework visible today. Traces of this can be seen clinging to the outer walls.

The original entrance to the outer ward was by way of a long stepped ramp up to the west barbican, which was defended by drawbridge and portcullis. Inside the ward, the four towers provided some accommodation for the garrison, and in the base of the Prison Tower is the gloomy dungeon. On the left the foundations mark the site of the kitchens and stables. To the right, the unusual bowed plan of the Great Hall was made necessary by the rocky foundations. Some 125 ft long, it dominates the outer ward, and with its fine windows and original bright decoration it must have appeared a glorious sight during royal feasts.

At the far end of the ward is the castle wall, and beyond this a further drawbridge protected the entrance to the inner ward. This was the heart of the castle, the area occupied by the private apartments of the king and queen. They included a hall and a sumptuous presence chamber, though only the shells of the once magnificent windows remain to give some indication of their former splendor. A beautiful little chapel gives one of the towers its name, and the King's Tower provided further private rooms.

King Edward was actually besieged at Conwy during the rebellion of Madog ap Llywelyn in 1295. Though food ran low, the walls stood firm. Some alterations were carried out under Edward, the Black Prince in the 14th century. (Jeff's note: In 1403 the castle fell by trickery to the forces of Owain Glyndwr, was held by his men and later ransomed back to the English for some much-needed funds.) Conwy saw some action in the Civil War, but afterwards was left to the elements.

If there is a castle that comes close to matching Harlech in historical importance, that castle is surely Chepstow. Chepstow is a Norman castle perched high above the banks of the river Wye in southeast Wales. Construction began at Chepstow in 1067, less than a year after William the Conqueror was crowned King of England. While Edward had his master castle builder in the person of James of St. George, the Conqueror, some 200 years earlier, had his equal in the person of his loyal Norman lord William FitzOsbern. FitzOsbern's fortresses were the vehicles from which the new king consolidated control of his newly conquered lands. Chepstow Castle became the key launching point for expeditions into Wales, expeditions that eventually subdued the rebellious population.

We arrived at Chepstow after visiting nearby Tintern abbey on our last full day in Britain. We enjoyed bright, sunny weather the day before, and our final day proved to be equally spectacular. Chepstow's massive twin tower gatehouse set against a cloudless blue sky, provided excellent photo opportunities. Our previous visit was in October of 1992 on a cold cloudy day, so the change in weather was welcomed. Like Caernarfon, Chepstow has excellent on-site exhibits, better than those found at most other castles. Printed placards explaining the castle's history are supplemented by videos, wax figures and reproductions of medieval weaponry and siege machines. Having seen the exhibits in 1992, we chose to skip this portion of the tour and get straight to the castle.

Chepstow's Great Hall (Shown left), begun in 1067, is the oldest surviving stone fortification in Britain. Because of this, the site has a special significance to British history. At other castles built during the Conqueror's reign, original Norman structures have long since disappeared, but at Chepstow it's still possible to see and touch the remains of FitzOsbern's first great building project in Wales. The Normans weren't the first to recognize the strategic position of Chepstow. The arch above the main doorway to the hall is made from brick brought from a Roman fort that once stood nearby. The hall was always the heart of the castle, and originally stood alone. Over the years, the castle was enlarged by a series of builders. Today, the castle takes the shape of a long rectangle perched high above the river Wye. Inside the hall, powerful men mapped out strategy with other Welsh "Marcher Lords," planning invasions to wrest control of Wales from groups of powerful princes still holding most of the country. Besides William FitzOsbern, earl of Hereford, Chepstow's other famous lords include William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, and Roger Bigod, earl of Norfolk. Depending on your perspective, these are some of the most important (or hated) men of Norman-Welsh history.

The Great Hall and dramatic cliff-side at Chepstow are the castle's two most interesting features. The rest of the castle is a typical Norman structure - a large gatehouse with high curtain walls connecting a series of tall towers. Because Chepstow was built in stages along the river Wye, the castle is constructed in a long, terraced fashion as opposed to a concentric layout. This unique construction is another reason the castle is so memorable.

Chepstow's strategic position allowed defenders to supply the castle via the river during times of battle and siege, while defending it against attack. Because of its history, the Great Hall evokes a kind of respect not shared by other Welsh castles. Though I had already seen the hall less than two years earlier, the impact on this occasion was no less dramatic. It's a feeling that is difficult to describe. While it's a treat to visit any Welsh castle, only a handful retain the ability to stir emotions hundreds of years following

their demise. To stand in Chepstow's Great Hall, a symbol of the Norman victory over the Saxons and the conquest of England - a turning point in world history - is a special kind of thrill.

Superbly set high upon its river cliff above the Wye, Chepstow still guards one of the main river crossings from southern England into Wales. Few castles in Britain tell the story of medieval fortification, from beginning to end, as does this mighty stronghold. It was probably the very first stone castle in the entire country, and was to see successive developments right through to the Civil War of the 17th century. Throughout the Middle Ages, Chepstow was the center of military and administrative power in the Marcher lordship of Strigoil.

Within a few months of the Battle of Hastings William fitz Osbern, lord of Breteuil in Normandy, was created earl of Hereford by William the Conqueror, and was given the task of subduing the southern Welsh borderlands. Before his death in 1071 he had built the rectangular keep, which still forms the core of the castle today. It is the earliest dateable secular stone building in Britain, but is very similar to other 11th-century hall-keeps in Normandy. Notice that the builders used several bands of red Roman tile in the construction, probably robbed from the ruins of Caerwent. The small round-headed windows in the ground floor are also original features.

At the end of the 12th century, Chepstow passed by marriage to William Marshal, a formidable soldier of fortune, and earl of Pembroke. With considerable experience in military architecture in France, he set about bringing fitz Osbern's castle up to date. He rebuilt the east curtain wall, with two round towers projecting outwards, in order to protect this vulnerable side. Arrow-slits in the towers were designed to give covering fire to the ground in front of the curtain, and this was one of the earliest examples of the new defensive mode which was to become characteristic of the medieval castle.

Before 1245, the sons of William Marshal greatly enlarged Chepstow's defences and improved the internal accommodation. They added a new lower bailey, with an impressive twin-towered gatehouse. At the upper end of the castle, a strongly defended barbican was constructed at this time. Marshal's sons also made additions to the Great Tower, or keep.

Between 1270-1300 Roger Bigod III, one of the greatest magnates of his day, built a splendid new hall block on the north side of the lower bailey. The range included a large, vaulted cellar, elaborate service rooms, a kitchen, domestic accommodation and, of course, the hall itself. There is also a latrine set spectacularly high over the river cliff, across the bailey, away from the noise of the hall and the kitchen smells. Bigod built a huge new tower on the south-east corner. This was to provide a suite of accommodation worthy of a nobleman of high rank. As well as the domestic apartments, Marten's Tower also included a private chapel, with richly carved decoration and a seat at either side for the priest. Unusually, when raised, the portcullis closing off the wall-walk below would have stood in front of the altar. Roger Bigod was also responsible for the construction of the splendid 'Port' or town wall which still survives along much of its length.

 

 

Greencastle, County Down

A popular mid-19th-century travel handbook exclaimed of Greencastle, "You would go into ecstacies if you saw such ruins on the Rhine, and quote 'Childe Harold' by the canto". The fortress is impressive, though its dramatic setting at the mouth of Carlingford Lough adds much to its appeal, with views over a sweeping landscape and towering mountains beyond.

The castle was built by Hugh de Lacy almost certainly during the 1230s to protect the southern approaches to the Earldom of Ulster. It was escheated to the Crown after 1243, wrecked by the Irish in 1260 and from 1280 to 1326 was a favoured residence of the most powerful man in Ireland, Richard de Burgh, the "Red Earl" of Ulster. His daughters were raised here, including Elizabeth, who married Robert Bruce, King of Scotland, in 1302 although this did not dissuade Edward Bruce from sacking it in 1316. After an unsuccessful siege in 1333-34, the Irish captured and destroyed the castle in 1343 and 1375. The royal garrison was reduced in number c. 1400 as an economy measure and amalgamated with Carlingford under one con stable.

In 1505 it was granted to the Earls of Kildare, but after their downfall in 1534 quickly deteriorated into a "wret ched condition". The place was later granted to the Bagnals who lived here until 1635. It was bombarded and destroyed by Parliamentary forces in 1652.

The design of Hugh de Lacy's castle consisted of a quadrilateral curtain wall with a D-shaped tower at each corner - all now in a very fragmentary state. Excavation of the north-east tower revealed that it had a residential use, perhaps as de Lacy's private chambers, while the rather complex south-west tower seems to have had a series of non-interconnecting rooms, suggesting its use as the private chambers of the de Lacy household. A massive sur rounding rock-cut ditch was also revealed by excavation; this served as a quarry for the walls, and judging by the presence of a dam in the east ditch, may have been intended as a wet moat, though if so, the builders would have been disappointed for the rock is porous.

The castle's main feature is a large rectangular block, originally a great hall, raised upon a basement. This was lit by windows on three sides and probably had a dais at the east end for the high table, as indicated by the presence here of a high window, a small latrine and a fireplace. At the west end there was evidently a screen passage with two opposed doors, one giving access to the hall and the other the kitchens to the north. Steps led down to the dark base ment store, which was later given crosswalls, vaults, gun loops and a new entrance. Remodelling of the hall in the late fifteenth and mid sixteenth centuries gave it much of its present keep-like appearance; the walls were raised at the east and west ends, turrets added at the angles, and a spiral stair, mural passages and wall-walks included.

For centuries the green below the castle played host to a great fair every August. It was often called "Ram Fair" as a great ram was customarily enthroned on top of the castle's walls.