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CONTENTS

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CONTENTS HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

History and Philosophy of Science and Technology - Volume 1 No of Pages 402 ISBN 978-1-84826-323-9 (eBook) ISBN 978-1-84826-773-2 (Print Volume) History and Philosophy of Science and Technology - Volume 2 No of Pages 416 ISBN 978-1-84826-324-6 (eBook) ISBN 978-1-84826-774-9 (Print Volume) History and Philosophy of Science and Technology - Volume 3 No of Pages 394 ISBN 978-1-84826-325-3 (eBook) ISBN 978-1-84826-775-6 (Print Volume) History and Philosophy of Science and Technology - Volume 4 No of Pages 412 ISBN 978-1-84826-326-0 (eBook) ISBN 978-1-84826-776-3 (Print Volume) For more information on e-book(s) and Print Volume(s) order please click here Or contact eolssunescogmailcom

HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

CONTENTS

VOLUME I Logic and Methodology of Science An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science 1 P Lorenzano National University of Quilmes (UNQ) Argentina National Council of Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET) Argentina 1 Introduction Nature and function of the Philosophy of Science

11 The Metascientific Studies 12 The Philosophical Theorization about Science or Philosophy of Science

121 Its Nature and Relationship with Other Metascientific Disciplines 122 The Distinction between General and Special Philosophy of Science 123 The Distinction between Synchronic and Diachronic Philosophy of Science 124 A Brief History of the Philosophy of Science

2 Scientific Concepts and Hypotheses 21 The Language of Science 22 Scientific Concepts

221 Kinds of Concepts 2211 Classificatory (or Qualitative) Concepts 2212 Comparative (or Topological) Concepts 2213 Metric (or Quantitative) Concepts

23 Scientific Statements Hypotheses and Their Testing 231 The Testing of Hypotheses 232 The Elements of a Test 233 Conditions for a Good Test

2331 First Condition The Prediction is Logically Implied 2332 Second Condition The Prediction is Improbable

234 The Structure of a Test Arguments in Favor of or Against the Hypothesis 2341 Negative Evidence (Refutation) 2342 Positive Evidence (Corroboration or Confirmation)

235 Crucial Tests 236 Final Remarks on Hypotheses Evaluation

3 Scientific Laws and Explanation 31 The Concept of Scientific Law

311 Condition of Truth 312 Condition of Universality 313 Condition of Unrestriction

32 Scientific Explanation 321 Explanation and Covering-Law Model

3211 Particular Deductive-Nomological Explanation (P D-N) 3212 General Deductive-Nomological Explanation (G D-N) 3213 Deductive-Statistical Explanation (D-S) 3214 Inductive-Statistical Explanation (I-S)

322 The Pragmatics of Explanation 323 The Causal Approach 324 The Unificacion Approach 325 Teleological and Functional Explanation

4 Scientific Theories 41 The Classical Conception of Theories

411 Calculi and Axiom Systems 412 Interpretation and Rules of Correspondence

42 The Historicist Conceptions of Theories 421 Theories as Research Projects

43 The Semantic Conceptions of Theories 431 Theories as Model-Theoretical Entities



The Nature and Structure of Scientific Theories 51 C U Moulines Seminar fur Philosophie Logik und Wissenschaftstheorie University of Munich 1 Introduction 2 The Problem of the Meaning of Scientific Concepts

21 The Semantic Specificity of Scientific Concepts 22 The Definition of Scientific Concepts Its Possibilities and Limits

3 The Axiomatic Construction of a Scientific Theory 31 The General Idea 32 A Simple Example of Axiomatization

4 The Formalist Conception of Theories 5 Theories as Interpreted Calculi 6 The Radical Empiricist View of Scientific Theories 7 The Two-Levels View of Empirical Theories

71 Theoretical Concepts 72 Correspondence Rules and the Two Conceptual Levels of a Scientific Theory 73 The lsquoEliminabilityrsquo of Theoretical Concepts 74 Some Difficulties with the Classical View of Scientific Theories

8 Model Building as a Bridge Between Theory and Experience 9 The Modelistic Determination of Empirical Theories

91 A General Characterization of Modelistic Approaches 92 The Set-Theoretical View of Scientific Theories

921 Intended Interpretations 922 Assigning Data Models to Theoretical Models

93 The Nature of Scientific Theories According to Constructive Empiricism 94 Metatheoretical Structuralism

10 Are Successful Scientific Theories True 11 Conclusion Natural Science 99 G E Allen Department of Biology Washington University in St Louis USA 1 Introduction 2 Characteristics of Science As A Rational Way of Knowing

21 Observation Fact and Conceptualization 22 Types of Conceptualizations Generalizations and Explanations

221 Generalizations 222 Explanations

3 Testing Hypotheses by Observation and Experiment 31 Testing Hypotheses by Observation 32 Testing Hypotheses by Experimentation

4 The Philosophical Bases of Modern Science Terminology 41 Materialism and Idealism 42 Forms of Materialism

421 Mechanistic Materialism 422 Holistic and Dialectical Materialism

5 Philosophies of Science Historical Development 51 Empiricism and Inductivism 52 Auguste Comte and Positivism 53 Marxism and the Natural Sciences 54 Karl Popper and Falsifiability in Natural Science 55 Thomas Kuhn and Paradigm Shifts in Natural Science

551 The Nature of Paradigms and Normal Science 552 Anomalies 553 Paradigm Shifts and Scientific Revolutions 554 The Pursuit of Normal Science Puzzle-solving Articulation 555 Kuhn and His Critics



56 The Social Construction of Science Movement 6 Laws in the Natural Sciences

61 Overview 62 Laws in the Physical and Biological Sciences

7 Science and Technology 8 Conclusion

Incommensurability of Knowledge Theories and Values 134 Paul Hoyningen-Huene University of Hannover Germany Peter Schaber University of Zurich Switzerland 1 Introduction 2 Incommensurability of Theories

21 What Does the Incommensurability of Theories Concern 22 Semantic Incommensurability 23 Methodological Incommensurability

3 Incommensurability of Values 31 Incommensurability of Values the Different Meanings 32 Arguments in Favor of Rough Equality and Incomparability 33 Objections 34 Theoretical and Practical Incomparability 35 Practical Consequences

Science and Religion 149 E Agazzi Department of Philosophy University of Genoa Italy 1 Introduction 2 What Do We Mean by Science 3 What Do We Mean by Religion 4 Relations Between Science and Religion in History 5 The Scientific Revolution of the Renaissance

51 The Fundamental Traits of the Galilean Revolution 52 Galileorsquos Trial and Sentence

6 The Partition between Matter and Spirit and the Cartesian Compromise 7 From the Ontological to the Epistemological Dualism Kant 8 Evolutionism and Religion 9 Knowledge Belief Faith and Rationality 10 The Point of View of the Whole 11 The Point of View of the Whole and the Problem of Life 12 Science and the Question of the Whole 13 Conclusions Scientific Knowledge And Religious Knowledge - Significant Epistemological Reference Points 185 Adrian Lemeni University of Bucharest Romania 1 The Constitutive Principles of Modernity

11 The Premises of Modernity 12 The Relationship between the Reformation and Modernity 13 Scientific knowledge in the Traditional and Modern Paradigm

2 The Enlightenment - The Religious Consciousness as Illusion 3 Epistemological Mutations in the Paradigm of Contemporary Science

31 The Epistemological Implications of Quantum Physics 311 The Uncertainty Principle and its Consequences

32 Discontinuity as the Principle of Quantum Physics



33 Methodological Limits of Science Evidenced by Quantum Physics Episodes of XX Century Cosmology A Historical Approach 201 V R Rodriacuteguez Faculty of Philosophy and Humanities National University of Cordoba Argentina 1 Introduction 2 Cosmological Lessons from Earlier Centuries 3 From Nebulae to Galaxies 4 The Emergence of the Idea of Expansion 5 The Principal Cosmological Models of the First Half of the Century 6 The Discovery of Cosmic Background Radiation and Some Implications 7 The COBE Results and the Analysis of the Fluctuations 8 Changes in the Epistemological Status of Cosmological Research Programmes 9 A Brief Panorama of Contemporary Cosmology A Concise History of Biotechnology - Some Key Determinants 228 John E Smith Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences University of Strathclyde Glasgow Scotland 1 Introduction

11 Biotechnology - Whats in a Name 12 Biotechnology - A Three Component Central Core

2 Biotechnology of Traditional Fermented Foods and Beverages 21 Food Fermentations

211 People and Environment 212 Substrate 213 Microorganisms 214 Cultured Dairy Products

22 Beverage Fermentations 3 Biotechnological Production of Biomass Organic Acids Solvents and Waste Treatment Processes

under Non-Sterile Conditions 31 Biomass Inocula 32 Organic acids 33 Waste Treatments and Water Purification

4 Biotechnological Processes Produced Under Conditions of Sterility 41 Introduction 42 The Penicillin Story 43 Microbial Enzyme Production 44 The Bioreactor

5 Downstream Processing 6 Applied Genetics and Genetic Engineering ndash Their Influence on Biotechnology

61 Improvement of Industrial Microorganisms 62 The Impact of Genetic Engineering on Biotechnology

621 Cutting and Forming DNA Molecules 622 Joining DNA Molecules

63 Polymerase Chain Reactions (PCR) 64 Genomic Library 65 Gene Cloning in Plant Cells 66 Gene Cloning in Animal Cells 67 Monoclonal Antibodies 68 The Potential Biohazards of Biotechnology ndash the Asilomar Conferences

7 Public Perceptions of Biotechnology 71 What are the Main Areas of GM Technology that Appear to Create the Greatest Level of Public

Concern 711 Antibiotic-Resistance Genes 712 Transfer of Allergens



713 Release of Genetically-Manipulated Organisms into the Environment 714 Safety of Genetical Engineered Foods 715 Applications of Human Genetic Research

8 Conclusions History and Philosophy of the Systems Sciences The Road Toward Uncertainty 270 Charles Oscar Francois GESI Grupo de Estudio de Sistemas Argentina 1 Introduction 2 Medieval Universals 3 The Snake of Rational Curiosity alive in Medieval Garden 4 The Slow Dawn of Technology in Medieval Europe 5 Descartes the not very Systemic Systemist 6 The Expansion of the Universe of Knowledge 7 The Twilight of Scientific Simplicity A Can of Conceptual Worms in 20th Century Science 8 In Search of a New Coherence

81 Overview 82 Bertalanffy the Stitcher 83 Energy Rules 84 Cybernetics in its Prime 85 New Views on Organization 86 Cybernetics Observed 87 The Nature of Autonomy 88 New Views on Order and Disorder 89 Structure and Function in a New Light 810 Models for Autogenesis Self Construction and Autopoiesis 811 Thermodynamics Reconsidered 812 Networks and Networkers Natural and Artificial 813 Societies as Systems 814 New Concepts Models and Methodologies 815 Practical Systemists

9 Conclusion The Structure Of The Darwinian Argument In The Origin Of Species 302 Anna Carolina K P Regner Graduate Program in Philosophy Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos Brazil 1 Introduction The Hypothetical-Deductive Reconstruction 2 Analyzing The Hypothetical-Deductive Reconstructions

21 A Referential Case 22 The Logical Structure 23 The Empirical Support 24 The Tautology Problem

3 The Historical Reconstructions 4 Bringing Together History and Philosophy of Science 5 Towards a New Analysis Index 329 About EOLSS 335



VOLUME II A Short History Of Molecular Biology 1 Hans-Joumlrg Rheinberger Max Planck Institute for the History of Science Berlin 1 Methodological Introduction 2 Some Important Lines of Development between 1930 and 1950

21 From Colloid Chemistry to the Macromolecule Ultracentrifugation 22 X-Ray Structure Analysis 23 UV Spectroscopy 24 Biochemical Genetics Neurospora 25 Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) 26 Electron Microscopy 27 Bacteriophages 28 The Transformation of Pneumococci 29 The Genetics of Bacteria 210 Nucleic Acid-Paper Chromatography 211 The Construction of Protein Models 212 Radioactive Tracing and Protein Synthesis 213 Summary A New Technological Landscape

3 The Structure of DNA and the Establishment of a New Paradigm (1950-1965) 31 The DNA Double Helix X-Ray Structure Analysis and the Building of Models 32 The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology 33 In vitro Protein Synthesis and Transfer RNA 34 From Enzymatic Adaptation to Gene Regulation Messenger RNA 35 An in vitro System for Deciphering the Genetic Code 36 Summary The New Keywords

4 Molecular Biology and the Origins of Gene Technology 41 Recombinant DNA 42 Genome Analysis

5 Molecular Biology and Evolution

A History of Conservation 32 Martin Holdgate Cambridge UK 1 The Origins of Conservation

11 Conservation and Development 12 The Roots of Conservation 13 The Roots of Conservation

2 The Rise of Conservation 21 The Creation of National Parks and Nature Reserves 22 The Foundation of National Societies 23 American Conservation under Roosevelt

3 International Action for Conservation 31 The Beginnings of International Action 32 The First Steps Towards a Global Organization 33 The Creation of the International Union for the Protection of Nature 34 The Early Years of International Conservation 35 Science and Conservation 36 The World Wildlife Fundmdashthe First Global Campaigner

4 The Environmental Revolution 41 The Rise of the New Environmentalism 42 The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment

5 Strategies for Conservation and Sustainable Development 6 The New Conservation Scene

61 Expanding Action



62 Conservation with a Human Face 63 The 1992 Earth Summit 64 A Regionalized Conservation Network

7 Perspective History of Biodiversity Conservation Protected Areas and The Conservation Movement 55 Naill E Doran Department of Primary Industries Water and Environment Tasmania Australia Alastair MM Richardson University of Tasmania Australia 1 Global Overview 2 History of Biodiversity Conservation and Protected Areas

21 Biodiversity Conservation 211 Biodiversity 212 Biodiversity Problems 213 Biodiversity Conservation

22 Protected Areas 221 Origins of Protected Areas 222 Time Scales

23 Priorities 231 Biodiversity 232 Geodiversity 233 Marine Protected Areas

3 A Global Approach 31 Preservation versus Collaborative Management

4 Putting a Financial Value on Conservation 5 History of the Conservation Movement

51 Early History 52 Wise Use versus Protectionism 53 Postwar Developments 54 Animal Welfare 55 Zero Population Growth 56 Green Political Parties 57 Professional Scientists and Environmentalism 58 Tactics 59 Nongovernment Organizations

6 The Future Biogeography 89 Michael E Meadows University of Cape Town South Africa 1 Introduction defining the indefinable 2 History of biogeography

21 Development of the spatial tradition 22 Ecological biogeography

3 The major approaches to biogeography 31 The spatial tradition phytogeography and zoogeography 32 The spatial tradition historical biogeography 33 The spatial tradition vicariance and dispersal 34 The ecological tradition ecosystems 35 The ecological tradition palaeoecology 36 The ecological tradition island biogeography

4 Towards an applied biogeography 41 Conservation biology 42 Global change studies 43 Ecosystem management



Theory and Methods in Geography 120 Maria Sala University of Barcelona Spain 1 Theories

11 Introduction 12 The Basic Scientific Principles 13 The Main Conceptions in Human Geography 14 The Regional Approach 15 Systematic Studies 16 The Coexistence of Naturalism and Historicism

2 Methods 21 Methods Related to Scale 22 About Fieldwork 23 The structure of field research 24 Field Sampling 25 Examples of Geographical Field Research 26 Teaching Based on Direct Observation 27 Display and Analysis of Data

The History of Archaeology 139 Stephen E Nash Department of Anthropology The Field Museum USA 1 The Nature of Archaeology

11 Distinctions Between Old World and New World Archaeology 12 The Multidisciplinary Nature (and Strength) of Modern Archaeology

2 Writing the History of Archaeology 21 Chronicle Scholars and Their Discoveries 22 Chronicle Development of Archaeological Method and Theory 23 Biography 24 Autobiography 25 Issues of Professionalization Confirmation And Verification

3 The Fragmentary Nature of the Archaeological Record 31 Differential Preservation 32 Breakage 33 Changes in Archaeological Fieldwork and Collecting Criteria 34 Improvements in Analytical Techniques

4 Foundations of Archaeological Inquiry 41 The Enlightenment

411 The Scientific Revolution 412 The Industrial Revolution

42 The Age Of The Earth 421 Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism 422 Stratigraphy and The Law Of Superposition

43 The Antiquity of Man 431 Fossil Human Ancestors 432 The Three-Age System

44 Evolution by Natural Selection 45 The Concept of Culture 46 Evolutionism

5 Foundations of Archaeology in The New World 51 The Myth of the Mound Builders 52 Historical Particularism and Cultural Relativism 53 Archaeology Museums and the Reason for Collections 54 Culture Areas and Culture History

6 Archaeological Dating 61 Seriation 62 Dendrochronology



63 The Implications of Paleoindian Occupation of the New World 64 Radiocarbon Dating

641 Calibration Of The Radiocarbon Timescale 65 Other dating techniques

7 The New Archaeology 8 Post-Processual Archaeology 9 Conclusion A Brief History of Soil Science 160 Eric C Brevik Departments of Natural Sciences and Agriculture and Technical Studies Dickinson State University Dickinson ND USA 1 Introduction 2 Soil ScienceAgriculture In Ancient Times And Early History (Up To 4th Century AD)

21 Mesopotamia 22 Greeks And Romans 23 Other Mediterranean Civilizations 24 Northern Europe 25 Asia 26 Americas 27 Ancient Times And Early History Summary

3 Soil Science In The Middle Ages (5th To 14th Centuries AD) 31 Byzantium And Europe 32 Arabia And The Middle East 33 Southeast Asia

4 Soil Science In The Renaissance Period (15th To 17th Centuries) 41 Studies In Soils And Plant Nutrition 42 Soils And Government 43 Soils Recognized By Geologists 44 Drainage Of Wet Soils

5 Soil Science In The Age Of Enlightenment (18th Century) 51 The Humus Theory 52 Soil As An Evolutionary Body 53 Beginnings Of Soil Mapping

6 Soil Science Becomes A True Science (19th Century) 61 Lewis And Clark 62 The Mineral Theory 63 Agrogeology 64 Soil Mapping 65 Darwin And Soil Biology 66 The Profile Concept 67 Dokuchaiev And The Birth Of Genetic Soil Science

7 Modern Soil Science (20th Century) 71 Genetic Soil Science Spreads 72 National Detailed Mapping Programs 73 Soil Erosion 74 The Internationalization Of Soil Science 75 Soil Science Moves Beyond Agriculture

8 Concluding Remarks A History of Astronomy Astrophysics and Cosmology 185 Malcolm Longair Cavendish Laboratory University Of Cambridge JJ Thomson Avenue Cambridge CB3 0HE 1 Introduction 2 Prehistoric Ancient and Mediaeval Astronomy up to the Time of Copernicus



3 The Copernican Galilean and Newtonian Revolutions 4 From Astronomy to Astrophysics ndash the Development of Astronomical Techniques in the 19th

Century 5 The Classification of the Stars ndash the Harvard Spectral Sequence 6 Stellar Structure and Evolution to 1939 7 The Galaxy and the Nature of the Spiral Nebulae 8 The Origins of Astrophysical Cosmology ndash Einstein Friedman Hubble Lemaicirctre Eddington 9 The Opening Up of the Electromagnetic Spectrum and the New Astronomies 10 Stars and Stellar Evolution from 1945 11 The Interstellar Medium 12 Galaxies Clusters Of Galaxies and the Large Scale Structure of the Universe 13 Active Galaxies General Relativity and Black Holes 14 Classical Cosmology since 1945 15 The Evolution of Galaxies and Active Galaxies with Cosmic Epoch 16 The Origin of Galaxies and the Large-Scale Structure of The Universe 17 The Very Early Universe Foundations of Geophysics and Geochemistry 311 Jan Lastovicka Institute of Atmospheric Physics Prague Czech Republic Oldrich Novotny Charles University Prague Czech Republic Emil Jelinek Charles University Prague Czech Republic 1 Introduction 2 History of Geophysics and Geochemistry 3 Branches of Geophysics and Geochemistry

31 Gravimetry 311 Gravity Field 312 Fundamental Parameters and Relations 313 Gravity Measurements and their Applications 314 Earth Tides

32 Seismology and the Structure of the Earth 321 Basic Data on Earthquakes 322 Strength of Earthquakes 323 Seismic Waves 324 Seismic Model of the Earth

33 Geothermics 34 Geodynamics 35 Geomagnetism

351 Internal (Main) Magnetic Field 352 External Magnetic Field 353 Magnetic Properties of Rocks and Paleomagnetism

36 Geoelectricity 37 Aeronomy 38 Magnetospheric Physics and Solar Wind

381 Magnetosphere 382 Solar Wind

39 Planetology 310 Branches of Geochemistry

3101 Applied Geochemistry Index 345 About EOLSS 349



VOLUME III History Of Measurement Theory 1 J A Diacuteez Department of Logic History and Philosophy of Science University of Barcelona 1 Measurement and Measurement Theory

11 Measurement as Numerical Representation 12 Derived and Fundamental Measurement

2 The Formation Period 21 Helmholtz on Alikeness and Additivity 22 Holder on Axiomatics and Real Morphisms 23 Campbell on Order and Additivity 24 Stevens on Scale Types

3 Suppes on Representation and Uniqueness 31 Suppes on Representation and Uniqueness for Extensive Systems 32 Suppes Foundational Role

4 The Mature Theory 41 Non-extensive Systems 42 Other Issues

Historical Review of Elementary Concepts in Physics 33 Peter Otto Hess Instituto de Ciencias NuclearesUniversidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM) Meacutexico 1 Introduction 2 Newtonian Physics 3 Electricity Magnetism and Optics 4 Thermodynamics 5 Quantum Mechanics 6 Theory of Relativity 7 Final Remarks Mathematics through Millenia 51 Vagn Lundsgaard Hansen Department of Mathematics Technical University of Denmark Denmark

1 Introduction 2 The dawn of mathematics

21 Egyptian Mathematics 22 Mesopotamian Mathematics 23 Mayan Mathematics

3 The Greek heritage in mathematics 31 Geometry 32 Number Theory

4 The golden period of the Hindus and the Arabs in mathematics 41 Hindu Mathematics 42 Islamic Mathematics 43 Mathematics in Europe in the Middle Ages

5 Mathematics in China 51 Ancient Chinese Mathematics 52 The ldquoNine Chapters on the Mathematical Artrdquo 53 In the Shadows of the Great Masters 54 A Golden Century for Mathematics in China

6 European mathematics in the Renaissance 61 The Solution of Cubic Equations 62 Mathematics inspired by Applications



7 Mathematics and the scientific revolution 71 Analytic Geometry 72 Calculus gets off the Ground 73 Other Mathematical Discoveries from the Seventeenth Century

8 The tools of calculus are developed and consolidated 81 The Birth of Mathematical Analysis 82 Further Remarks on Mathematics in the Eighteenth Century

9 Abstract mathematical structures emerges 91 New Algebraic Structures 92 Groundbreaking New Discoveries in Geometry 93 Rigor in Analysis 94 Further Developments in the Nineteenth Century

10 Mathematics in the twentieth century 101 Problems in the Foundations of Set Theory 102 Tendencies in Twentieth Century Mathematics 103 Highlights from Twentieth Century Mathematics

11 Mathematics forever History of Continuum Mechanics 77 Robert W Soutas-Little Department of Mechanical Engineering Michigan State University 1 History of the General Theories and Fundamental Equations 2 History of Constitutive Equations Rheology 3 Development of the Mathematical Methods of Solution of the Equations History of Rheology 90 Kenneth Walters Institute of Mathematical and Physical Sciences Aberystwyth University Aberystwyth UK 1 Introduction 2 Early Departures from the Classical Extremes 3 1890 minus 1940 4 1940 minus 1950 5 1950 minus 1960 6 1960 minus 1970 7 1970 minus 1980 8 What of the Future Philosophy Of Economics 106 Adolfo Garcia de la Sienra Faculty of Economics Institute of Philosophy Universidad Veracruzana Xalapa Mexico 1 Introduction 2 The Point of View of ldquoPure Economicsrdquo 3 Economically Qualified Entities 4 Abstraction and Idealization 5 Ideal Objects 6 Epistemological Views 7 Fundamental Measurement 8 Economics and Philosophy The Socio-Economic Aspects of Technology 135 Antonio Loacutepez PelaacuteezDepartment of Sociology Universidad Nacional de Educacioacuten a Distancia Madrid Spain



1 Introduction 2 Technology Economy and Society 3 The Organization of Technological Development 4 The Technological System

41 Characteristics of the Technological System 42 The Institutions of Technological Research 43 The Technological Resources 44 The Impact of Technological Innovation

5 Technology and Globalization 6 Technological Policy Patterns of Management and Financing

61 RampD Programmes (Research and Development) 62 Patterns of Financing Organization and Scientific-Technological Development 63 Technocracy and Social Participation 64 Looking at the Future

Philosophies of the Social Sciences 156 Piet Strydom Department of Sociology University College Cork Ireland 1 Introduction

11 Sources and directions 111 Hermeneutics 112 Science 113 Critique

12 Phases and controversies 2 Vicissitudes of the Philosophy of Social Science

21 First phase 1840-1914 22 Second phase 1920s-early 1950s 23 Third phase mid-1950s-1970s 24 Fourth phase late 1970s-2000s

3 Basic Cognitive Paradigms 4 Contemporary Philosophies of Social Science

41 Post-empiricism 42 Critical Realism 43 Constructivism or constructionism 44 Deconstructionism 45 Functionalism 46 Feminism 47 Pragmatism 48 Critical theory 49 Rational choice 410 Cognitivism

5 Conclusion Social Sciences Historical And Philosophical Overview Of Methods And Goals 186 M H Salmon History and Philosophy of Science University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh PA USA 1 Early History 2 The Nineteenth-Century Scientific Study of Society

21 August Comte (1798-1857) 22 John Stuart Mill (1806-73)

3 Responses to Positivists Proposals for a Genuine Social Science 31 Individualism and Holism Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) 32 Laws of Social Science Interpetivists Response 33 Max Weber (1864-1920) 34 Value Neutrality of Science

4 Developments in the Twentieth Century



41 RG Collingwood (1889-1943) 42 C G Hempel Models of Scientific Explanation 43 Strong Interpretivism and Davidsons Response 44 Critical Theory 45 T Kuhn (1922-1996) and the Sociology Of Science

5 Prospects for the Twenty-First Century Introduction To Ethics Of Science And Technology 210 Leoacuten Oliveacute Philosophical Research Institute National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) 1 Science Techniques Technology and Technoscience

11 Science 12 Technology 13 Technoscience

2 Ethics and Morality 3 Ethical Questions Regarding Science and Technology 4 Values in Science and Technology 5 Instrumental Rationality Rationality of Means to Ends and Rationality of Ends

51 Ends Means and Values in Science and Technology 6 The Ethical Responsibility of Scientists and Technologists

61 Knowing May Entail an Ethical Responsibility 62 The Precautionary Principle

7 Evaluation of Technological Systems and Ethical Problems 71 Evaluation of Technical Systems Two Dimensions 72 Internal Evaluation 73 External Evaluation 74 Who Should Participate in the Evaluation of Technological and Technoscientific Systems From

an Ethical Standpoint 75 The Principle of Responsibility

8 Justifiable Damage 81 Conditions for the Acceptability of Damage 82 Indetermination of the Consequences of Technological Innovations

9 Technology Technoscience and Risk 91 Risk Uncertainty and Ignorance

10 Duties of Scientists Technologists Techno-Scientists and the Institutions 11 Experiments on Animals and Animal Rights

111 Experiments on Animals 112 Animal Rights

12 Conclusion The Ethics Of Science And Technology 258 Hugh Lacey Philosophy Department Swarthmore College Swarthmore PA 19081 USA Departamento de Filosofia Universidade de Satildeo Paulo Satildeo Paulo Brazil 1 Introduction

11 Science as Value Free ndash Free From Deep and Permanent Entanglement with Ethics 111 Technology as Value Free 112 lsquoScience as Value Freersquo as Part of the Ethics of the Conduct of Scientific Practices

12 Ethics and Science lsquoTouchrsquo But Do Not lsquoInterpenetratersquo 2 The lsquoTouchrsquo of Ethics and Science

21 Experimental Methods Open to Ethical Appraisal 22 The lsquoScientific Ethosrsquo

221 The Scientific Ethos and the Public Discourse of Scientific Spokespersons 23 Ethically Based Motivations for Research and Criticisms of Scientific Practices 24 Ethics and the Application of Scientific Knowledge

241 Ethics-As-Reactive



242 Precautionary Principle 243 Efficacy and Legitimacy 244 Ethical Responsibility of Scientists 245 Questioning lsquoAutonomyrsquo

3 The lsquoPenetrationrsquo of Ethics into Science Questions about Impartiality 31 The Centrality of Impartiality

311 Criteria of Appraisal Vs Ethical Values Conducive To Making Impartial Judgments 312 Justification of a Knowledge Claim Vs Explanation of the Fact that is known 313 Soundly Accepted Vs Ethically Significant Knowledge Claims 314 Claims Authorized by the Scientific Community do not always Accord with

Impartiality 315 Impartiality and Neutrality

32 Scientific Appraisal at Times when Accord with Impartiality cannot be reached 321 Context of Application Endorsing Hypotheses Vs Accepting them in Accord with

Impartiality 322 Efficacy Sufficient for Legitimacy 323 Endorsements about Risks Interplay of Empirical Evidence and Ethical Judgments

4 The lsquoPenetrationrsquo of Ethics into Science Relations between Research Methodologies and Holding Ethical Values 41 Adopting Strategies in Research

411 Strategies of the Decontextualized Approach 42 Can the Ideal of Applied Neutrality be approached

421 Accord with Cognitive Neutrality but not with Applied Neutrality 422 Applied Neutrality and Methodological Pluralism

43 Adopting the Decontextualized Approach and Holding the Values of Technological Progress 431 Values of Technological Progress 432 Explaining and lsquoJustifyingrsquo the Virtual Exclusiveness of the Decontextualized

Approach 44 Ethical Values and Scientific Methodology

441 The Ways for Ethics to lsquoPenetratersquo Into Methodology 5 Conclusion

The Philosophy of Professional Ethics 292 Timo Airaksinen University of Helsinki Finland 1 Three Types of Professional Ethics 2 Sociological Foundations 3 Goals of Professional Work and Their Problems 4 Normative and Evaluative Elements in Professional Work

41 Duty and Obligation 42 Professional Rights 43 Virtues in Professional Life

5 Engineering Ethics 51 The Service Ideal of Engineering 52 The Principle of Double Loyalties

6 Progress and Rationality in Engineering Ethics 61 The Technological System and Its Main Characteristics 62 The Future of Engineering Ethics

Ethics and Science 308 Koichiro Matsuura Director-General of UNESCO 1 Ethics and Science

11 From Harmony to Progress 12 The Twentieth Century Jolt 13 Science at the Moral Crossroads



14 The Threat to our Planet 15 Tinkering with the Alphabet-Blocks of Life 16 The Widening Gap Between Rich and Poor

2 UNESCO as the Worldrsquos Forum for Ethics 21 The International Bioethics Committee 22 The Human Genome and Human Rights 23 A World Commission for Ethics COMEST 24 Water for All The Source of Life 25 Sources of Energy for Today and Tomorrow 26 Principle to Practice An Education in Ethics 27 For an Age of Wisdom

Index 321 About EOLSS 327

VOLUME IV

The Control Of Nature And The Origins Of The Dichotomy Between Fact And Value 1 P R Mariconda Department of Philosophy - University of Satildeo Paulo ndash Brazil 1 Introduction 2 First Idea Sufficiency and Impartiality of the Natural Method 3 Second Idea The Distinction between Natural and Moral Disciplines 4 Third Idea Scientific Method and the theological Backdrop 5 Fourth Idea The Difference between Descritpion and Norm and Cognitive Neutrality 6 Fifth Idea Scientific Understandign and the Descontextualized Strategies 7 Modern Science and the Control of Nature 8 Conclusion Science And Empire The Geo-Epistemic Location Of Knowledge 20 C Canaparo University of Exeter Exeter UK 1 A Historiographical Construction 2 Empire and Geo-epistemology 3 The Evolution of the Ideas

31 The Historiographical Foundation of Empires 32 Science as Knowledge 33 The Material and the Imaginary Dimensions 34 The Levels of Engagement

4 The Translation Effect 5 From Building the Empire to Constructing Science 6 Modernity Science Knowledge 7 Towards a Scientific Imaginary and an Invisible Empire From Historiography to Visual Culture What Is That Thing Called Philosophy Of Technology 47 R J Gomez Department of Philosophy California State University (LA) USA 1 Introduction 2 Locating technology with respect to science

21 Structure and Content 22 Method 23 Aim



24 Pattern of Change 3 Locating philosophy of technology 4 Early philosophies of technology

41 Aristotelianism 42 Technological Pessimism 43 Technological Optimism 44 Heideggerrsquos Existentialism and the Essence of Technology 45 Mumfordrsquos Megamachinism 46 Neomarxism

461 Adorno-Horkheimer 462 Marcuse 463 Habermas

5 Recent Philosophies of technology 51 L Winner 52 A Feenberg 53 Ecosophy

6 Technology and values 61 Shrader-Frechette Claims 62 H Jonas

7 Conclusions Transitions From Function-Oriented To Effect-Oriented Technologies - Some Thoughts On The Nature Of Modern Technology 82 C J Tully Deutsches Jugendinstitut Munich Germany 1 Introduction

11 Function-oriented vs Unspecified Effects 12 Appropriating Technology by Means of Contextualization 13 Socialization in Different Technical Worlds

2 The Technology of Machines T I ndash Instrumental and Efficient 21 Establishing Rules and Creating a Scientific World 22 Predictable Conditions ndash the Industrialization and Standardization of Labor

221 Standardization ndash Work Organization According to Technological Models 222 Implementing Planned Work Processes in Production Some Important Concepts

3 Instrumental Rationality as the Rationality of Actions 4 Unspecified Technology and its Consequences

41 Computers as Universal Machines ndash an Example of Technology II 42 From the Service Society to the Self-Service Society 43 From Playful to Sanctioned Use 44 Work versus Non-Work 45 Highly Specialized Production and Product Technologies Just in Time 46 Effect Rather Than Purpose ndash an Invitation to Self-Contextualization

Technical Agency And Sources Of Technological Pessimism 113 Fernando Broncano Universidad Carlos III de Madrid Spain 1 Contemporary experiences with technology

11 Modernization 12 The Age of Machines

2 Mechanisation and the origins of technological pessimism 21 Criticisms of Technical Civilization 22 Critical tradition and criticism of technology

3 The idea of technical agency and power



Non-Western Science - Mining Civilizational Knowledge 132 Susantha Goonatilake Center for the Study of Social Change New School for Social Research New York and at Vidyartha Colombo Sri Lanka 1 Civilizational Knowledge 2 The European Classical Period 3 Arab and Other Transmissions 4 Independent Modern Discoveries 5 Mining Illustrative Examples

51 Medicine 52 Psychology 53 Cognitive Sciences and Artificial Intelligence 54 Mathematics and Physics

6 Some Speculative Possibilities 7 Social Theory for New Technologies 8 Using Metaphors 9 Some Potentials 10 Some Estimates 11 Conclusion Social Sciences Science Policy Studies Science Policy-making 158 Jean-Jacgues Salomon Conservatoire National des Arts et Meacutetiers Centre Science Technologie et SocieacuteteacuteParis France

1 Introduction 2 The Field of Science Policy Studies and its uses

21 Why Should Science be Supported In What Proportions 22 The Measurement of Innovation and its Systemic Conditions 23 Science Technology and Development Economics

3 A Research Agenda Science and Technology Policy Professionals Jobs Work Knowledge and Values 176 Susan E Cozzens Georgia Institute of Technology USA 1 Introduction 2 Careers in SampT Policy 3 The Work of SampT Policy Professionals 4 The Knowledge Base 5 The Value of and Values of SampT Professionals The New Knowledge Economy and Science and Technology Policy 189 Geoffrey C Bowker Department of Communication University of California San Diego USA 1 Introduction 2 The New Technoscientific Information Infrastructure

21 What is Infrastructure 22 Building an Infrastructure 23 Ownership of Scientific and Technological Ideas and Data 24 Sharing Data

3 Working Collaboratively 31 International Technoscience 32 Distributed Collective Work

4 Conclusion



Science and Technology Policy in UNESCO A Historical Overview 208 Vladislav P Kotchetkov UNESCO consultant Russia

1 Genesis of science and technology policy in UNESCO 2 Science policy consultancy services 3 Science policy publications 4 Regional Ministerial Conferences 5 Information Exchange and Normativendashmaking Activities 6 Training in science and technology policy 7 Termination of UNESCO Science and Technology Policy Programme Technology 233 Steve Matthewman Department of Sociology University of Auckland 1 What is Technology 2 What Does Technology Do 3 How has Technology been Theorised 4 Technology Systems and Social Interests 5 Our Times Technology Complexity and Risk 6 Conclusion Science Governance Complexity and Knowledge Assessment 253 Silvio Funtowicz European Commission Joint Research Centre (EC-JRC) Italy Martin OConnor Universite de Versailles Saint-Quentin en Yvelines France Iain Shepherd European Commission Joint Research Centre (EC-JRC) Italy 1 Introduction 2 Science and Governance 3 Scientific Challenges

31 Health 311 Establishing a Dose-Response Relationship 312 Facing New Threats

32 The Environment 321 Objectives and Challenges 322 Understanding Processes 323 Measuring the State of the Environment-Reference Measurements 324 Forecasting Outcomes

33 Risk and Uncertainty 34 Acceptable Risk 35 The Precautionary Principle

351 Triggering of Precautionary Principle 352 Application of Precautionary Principle 353 The Burden of Proof 354 Other Interpretations

4 Knowledge Quality in Policy-Related Science 41 Purposes 42 People 43 Problems 44 Procedures 45 Products 46 Extended Peer Assessment 47 Access to Background Information 48 The Delivery of Scientific Advice to policy

5 Knowledge Management and Knowledge Assessment



Need for Environmental Research 282 Bhaskar Nath European Centre for Pollution Research London UK 1 Introduction 2 How did we get here Evolution of the consumption culture

21 Evolution of the Western throw-away consumption culture 22 The main consequences

3 Cause-Effect Relationship 4 Criteria for Research

41 Focus of research 42 Reactive and proactive research 43 A clear understanding of what science and technology can and cannot do

5 Suggested Areas of Environmental Research 51 Reactive (end-of-the-pipe) areas of research

511 Water resources and waste water treatment 512 Solid waste management 513 Efficacy of environmental standards

52 Proactive (before-the-pipe) strategies 521 Non-technical 522 Technical -- example of atmospheric pollution

53 Affordable technology 54 Transboundary pollution

541 Transboundary air pollution 542 Transboundary water pollution 543 Import-Export of Waste

6 Conclusion Urban Wastewater Treatment Past Present And Future 308 C Davis S Vigneswaran J Kandasamy Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Technology Sydney Australia A Chanan State Water Corporation Sydney Australia 1 Water Management Systems A Brief History

11 Greco-Roman Influence on Water Management 12 Water Supply and the Industrial Revolution 13 Water Engineering in the 20th Century

2 Conventional Sewage Treatment Techniques 3 Third Generation Wastewater Treatment Systems

31 Facultative Ponds 32 Constructed Wetlands

321 Limiting Factors of Wetland Processes 4 Reassessing the Conventional Systems

41 A Soft Path for the Future 411 Decentralised Wastewater Management Systems

5 Water amp Wastewater Management In Future A Preview 51 Climate Change and Wastewater Treatment

511 Estimation amp Reduction of GHG Emissions 5111 Liquid Process Modifications 5112 Energy Reduction

6 Advanced Treatment Technologies for the Fourth Generation Water Management 61 Flocculation 62 Adsorption 63 Ion Exchange 64 Advanced Oxidation Process (AOP) 65 Membrane Technology 66 Membrane Hybrid System

661 Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs)



662 Coagulation ndash Membrane hybrid system 663 Adsorption ndash Membrane hybrid system

67 Nanotechnology for Wastewater Treatment 7 Conclusion Index 339 About EOLSS 345



CONTENTS

VOLUME I Logic and Methodology of Science An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science 1 P Lorenzano National University of Quilmes (UNQ) Argentina National Council of Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET) Argentina 1 Introduction Nature and function of the Philosophy of Science

11 The Metascientific Studies 12 The Philosophical Theorization about Science or Philosophy of Science

121 Its Nature and Relationship with Other Metascientific Disciplines 122 The Distinction between General and Special Philosophy of Science 123 The Distinction between Synchronic and Diachronic Philosophy of Science 124 A Brief History of the Philosophy of Science

2 Scientific Concepts and Hypotheses 21 The Language of Science 22 Scientific Concepts

221 Kinds of Concepts 2211 Classificatory (or Qualitative) Concepts 2212 Comparative (or Topological) Concepts 2213 Metric (or Quantitative) Concepts

23 Scientific Statements Hypotheses and Their Testing 231 The Testing of Hypotheses 232 The Elements of a Test 233 Conditions for a Good Test

2331 First Condition The Prediction is Logically Implied 2332 Second Condition The Prediction is Improbable

234 The Structure of a Test Arguments in Favor of or Against the Hypothesis 2341 Negative Evidence (Refutation) 2342 Positive Evidence (Corroboration or Confirmation)

235 Crucial Tests 236 Final Remarks on Hypotheses Evaluation

3 Scientific Laws and Explanation 31 The Concept of Scientific Law

311 Condition of Truth 312 Condition of Universality 313 Condition of Unrestriction

32 Scientific Explanation 321 Explanation and Covering-Law Model

3211 Particular Deductive-Nomological Explanation (P D-N) 3212 General Deductive-Nomological Explanation (G D-N) 3213 Deductive-Statistical Explanation (D-S) 3214 Inductive-Statistical Explanation (I-S)

322 The Pragmatics of Explanation 323 The Causal Approach 324 The Unificacion Approach 325 Teleological and Functional Explanation

4 Scientific Theories 41 The Classical Conception of Theories

411 Calculi and Axiom Systems 412 Interpretation and Rules of Correspondence

42 The Historicist Conceptions of Theories 421 Theories as Research Projects

43 The Semantic Conceptions of Theories 431 Theories as Model-Theoretical Entities







































































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