History and Approaches of

Psychology

ROOTS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Let’s break down the definition:• Behavior: Anything that you do that can be observed• Mental Processes: Internal experiences such as thoughts,

feelings, sensations, and perceptions

PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

Psychology was not considered an area of scientific study until the 1870’s

when the ideas philosophy and physiology were combined

IS PSYCHOLOGY SCIENTIFIC?• In some areas of psychology

(sensation, perception, aspects of learning and memory) there are reliable statistical laws that allow one to make accurate predictions about behaviour

• In other areas of psychology (interpersonal behaviour, psychoanalytic theory, personality theory, emotion, motivation etc.) there is less predictive power

WILHELM WUNDT

• Founder of scientific psychology• 1879: set up first formal

research laboratory in Germany• 1881: established first

psychological journal • Focused his studies on

consciousness – the awareness of immediate

experience

G. STANLEY HALL

• One of Wundt’s students • Vital for bringing psychology to

America• Founded the American

Psychological Association (APA) • Started America’s first research

laboratory at John’s Hopkins University

• Began the first journal of psychology in America

APA Website

Founded by students of Williams James

Founded by students of G. Stanley Hall

Founded by students of Wilhelm Wundt

Founded by Others

Clark University 1889University ofToronto 1890

Brown University 1892

Princeton University 1893

Trenton State College 1892

Randolf Macon Women’s College 1893

Wellesley College 1891

Johns Hopkins University 1883

Cornell University 1891

Yale University 1892

Columbia University 1890

University of Pennsylvania 1887

Catholic University 1891

Harvard University 1892

University of Michigan 1890

Indiana University 1887

University of Chicago 1893

University of Illinois 1892

University of Nebraska 1889

University of Kansas 1889

University of Iowa 1890

University of Wisconsin 1888

Stanford University 1893

Early Research Labs in North America

EARLY APPROACHES: STRUCTURALISM

• Established by Edward Titchener (student of Wundt)• Task of psychology = analyze consciousness into its

basic elements and study how those elements are related– Focus on sensations (vision, hearing, touch), feelings,

images, and perception

• Investigations are based on introspection by trained subjects– Introspection = careful, systematic self-observation of one’s

own conscious experience

EARLY APPROACHES: FUNCTIONALISM

• Created by William James• Psychology should investigate the purpose of

consciousness, rather than what makes it up• Applied Darwin’s theory of natural selection to humans

• inheritable characteristics that provide humans with a competitive advantage are more likely to be passed on

• Fostered later development of behaviorism and applied psychology

WILLIAM JAMES

• Main goal = explain human behavior

• 1890: Wrote first psychology textbook Principles of Psychology

• Argued consciousness is a flow of thoughts (stream of conscious)

MODERN APPROACHES

MODERN APPROACHES

1. Psychoanalytic2. Behavioral3. Humanistic4. Cognitive5. Biological6. Socio-Cultural7. Evolutionary

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORYSigmund Freud: (1856-1939) worked with mentally disturbed patients; viewed person as being pushed and pulled by unconscious wants & desires (sexual & aggressive in nature)

Repression of wants & desires led to mental disorders later in life

Developed stages of life to age 12, claimed that an individual would change little after that point (majority of your personality developed by age 5)

PSYCHOANALTIC THEORY: Explains personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior • Suggests people are not the masters of their own

minds• Emphasizes role of conflict in our lives and early

childhood experiences • Because we cannot accept them in our conscious,

thoughts find their expression in dreams, slips of the tongue that appear as accidents and even jokes

• “Freudian Slips”

PSYCHOANALTIC THEORY

Cause of disorders: Unconscious, unresolved repressed issues from past

Treatment technique Psychoanalysis: Free association, dream analysis, TAT test

View on personality: Id, ego, superego, psychosexual stages

View on motivation: We strive to satisfy our id impulses but we must meet demands of society (super ego)

Psychoanalysis: Pros and Cons

• Pros:– Impact of childhood on development– Many ideas still used in mainstream psychology

• Cons:– No focus on observable behavior– Can’t be scientifically proven– Ignores other explanations– Doesn’t look at changing behavior, just underlying causes

B. F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning. Voluntary behavior

Learning due to consequences (reinforcement & punishment).

Controlled by rewards = NO FREE WILL

John B. Watson (1913): Observe & measure behavior (CC human emotional responses) “Little Albert” study (Rosalie Rayner) Father of Behaviorism.

BEHAVIORAL: emphasizes observable behavior (stimulus-response relations) rather than the role of the consciousness.

Believe behavior is governed by the environment.

Also known as learning theory

Ivan Pavlov: Classical Conditioning. Involuntary behavior = Associative Learning

Studied digestion in dogs by measuring saliva creating

BEHAVIORAL THERAPY

View of cause of disorders: We are reinforced for maladaptive behaviors.

Treatment technique : Change maladaptive behaviors through reinforcements. Systematic desensitization, token economy, aversion therapy

View on personality : Our personality traits arise from reinforcement/ punishment

View on motivation : We’re driven by extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.

Behaviorist Theory: Criticisms

1. Excludes all behaviors that can’t be seen

2. Not all behaviors can be explained through rewards and punishments

3. Doesn’t acknowledge concept of free will

Nature vs. Nurture ControversyNature: Certain elementary ideas are innate to the human mind; not gained through experience• Men are born, not made

Nurture: Anything we know we have learned through experience • Men are made, not born

Nature or Nurture?

HUMANISM: emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their their potential for personal growth

Thought the other approaches were “dehumanizing” and suggesting people weren’t masters of their own destinies

People have a basic need to continue to evolve and fulfill their potential; many psychological disturbances are due to thwarting these needs

Abraham Maslow: MOTIVATION: Hierarchy of Needs, stating that each level of needs must be satisfied before one moves onto the next.

Self Actualization: strive to be the best one can.

Carl Rogers: Focused on the feelings of the client. Unconditional positive regard Fostered a therapeutic approach to therapy:

Fully functioning: personal growth, free will, self-determination

HUMANISM

• View of cause of disorders: Barriers to self actualization. Ideal self and actual self not in congruence

• Treatment technique: Client-centered therapy. Self-help, group therapy

• View on personality : CR said our ideal self must be in congruence with our actual self.

• View on motivation : Maslow’s hierarchy of needs says basic needs should be met before higher needs

COGNITIVE: refers to mental activity including thinking, remembering, problem solving, decision making, learning & using language.

Thoughts impact behavior.

Emphasizes the importance of receiving, storing, and processing information

“People act because they think.”

Jean Piaget: identified 4 stages of cognitive development in children

COGNITIVE

View of cause of disorders : Irrational thoughts lead to anxiety and depression

Treatment technique RET, Beck's Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

View on personality Based on how we think and perceive the world.

View on motivation Based on goals, reducing cognitive dissonance

BIOLOGICAL: behavior can be explained in terms of brain structures and biochemical processes that allow organisms to behave.

BIOLOGICAL APPROACH

View of cause of disorders Imbalance of neurotransmitters, genetics, hormones, brain structure

Treatment technique Drugs and surgery

View on personality Genetics, neurotransmitters hormones

View on motivation Genetics, neurotransmitters hormones

SOCIO-CULTURAL APPROACH: Examines the cultural differences in an attempt to understand, predict, and control behavior

As time progressed more people were traveling and visiting other cultures

Psychologists soon recognized the difference in cultural gestures, body language, and spoken language.

Lev Vygotsky: those we interact with are responsible for the development of higher order functions.

SOCIO-CULTURAL APPROACH

View of cause of disorders: Often we mimic our parents or friends’ depression and anxiety.

Treatment technique: Group therapy

View on personality: Social Cognitive Theory of Personality

View on motivation: Compliance and Conformity

EVOLUTIONARY: Examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for members over the course of many generations

Modern extension of functionalism

Criticisms: Untestable Speculative accounts for obvious behavioral

phenomena

Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.

Those organisms best suited to their environments will flourish & pass on genes more successfully than those with poorer adaptations.

EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH

View of cause of disorders: Anxiety was a defense mechanism in wild

Treatment technique: NA View on personality: Extroverts maintain social networks

View on motivation: Instinct and drive theories

Year

Fla

gs

hip

Art

icle

s w

ith

Ke

yw

ord

s (

%)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 19901975 1980 1985

CognitiveBehavioral

Psychoanalytic

Neuroscience

1995 2000 2005

PROMINENCE OF THEORIES

Intro to Psych Crash Course

Wooo diploma! Now what??

Subfields of Psychology

• Clinical Psychologists: Evaluate and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders

• Counseling Psychologists: Help people adapt to change or make changes in their lifestyle

• Developmental Psychologists: Study psychological development throughout a lifespan

• Engineering Psychologists: Do research on how people function best with machines

Subfields of Psychology• Educational Psychologists: Focus on

how effective teaching and learning take place

• Forensic Psychologists: Apply psychological principles to legal/criminal issues

• Health Psychologists: Concentrate on biological, psychological, and social factors associated with health and illness

• Industrial/Organizational Psychologists: Aim to improve productivity and the quality of work life by applying psychological principles and methods to the workplace

Subfields of Psychology• Neuropsychologists: Explore the

relationship between brain/nervous systems and behavior

• Psychometricians: Focus on methods for acquiring and analyzing psychological data

• Rehabilitation Psychologists: Help clients with mental retardation, developmental disabilities, and disabilities resulting from neurological injury

• School Psychologists: Assess and counsel students, consult with educators and parents, and perform behavioral intervention when necessary

Subfields of Psychology

• Social Psychologists: Focus on how a person’s mental life and behavior are shaped by interactions with other people

• Sports Psychologists: Help athletes refine their focus on competition goals, increase motivation, and deal with anxiety and fear of failure

4.2%Elementary and Secondary Schools

6.3%Business and Government

8.5%Other

19.4%Hospitals and Clinics

28.0%Colleges and Universities

33.6%Private Practice

0.5%Forensic

0.6%Other

0.9%Clinical Neuropsychology

5.2%School

6.1%Industrial/Organizational

14.7%Counseling

72.1%Clinical