Historical Historical Overview of Overview of

Methodologies in Methodologies in ESLESL

English 6010 Week 2English 6010 Week 2

Key TermsKey Terms

ApproachApproach

a well informed set of assumptions a well informed set of assumptions and beliefs about the nature of and beliefs about the nature of teaching and learningteaching and learning

MethodMethod

a generalized set of rules that should a generalized set of rules that should be followed when teaching language be followed when teaching language

primarily concerned with the primarily concerned with the teacher and the students’ roles as teacher and the students’ roles as opposed to subject-matter objectivesopposed to subject-matter objectives

TechniqueTechnique

specific activities manifested in the specific activities manifested in the classroom classroom

consistent with a method and consistent with a method and therefore in harmony with an therefore in harmony with an approach as wellapproach as well

Curriculum/syllabusCurriculum/syllabus

a design for carrying out a particular a design for carrying out a particular language programlanguage program

consists of specification of linguistic consists of specification of linguistic and subject-matter objectives, and subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials to meet sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of a designated group of the needs of a designated group of learners in a defined contextlearners in a defined context

MethodologyMethodology

a theoretical frameworka theoretical framework pedagogical practices in general and pedagogical practices in general and

considerations involved in “how to considerations involved in “how to teach”teach”

based on an epistemological stance based on an epistemological stance (how do we learn)(how do we learn)

Historical Overview Historical Overview of ESL Educationof ESL Education

Classical Period Education as an arm of theocracy

Purpose of education was to teach religious orthodoxy and good moral character

Emphasis on learning to read and writeLittle importance on placed on higher education

Latin Grammar SchoolsLatin and Greek to Understand the Holy Scriptures

Modern Languages were learned by studying abroad or from private tutors

American Revolution to the Civil War

The Age of EnlightenmentExpanding trade and commerce

Cultural NationalismCareers available in book-keeping and foreign trade for children of the upper-class

Secular control of educationEmergence of academies and high schools

Modern and Foreign Language TeachingBegins in the mid-eighteen century and it was considered a “frill” subject; not enough of a mental discipline

The “Boom Period”—Civil War to World War I

Tax-Supported Public Education (response Tax-Supported Public Education (response to influx of immigrants), to influx of immigrants), Decline of private academies

Decline in Latin and Classical Studies,German and French the most popular languages

Dominance of traditional methods, Emphasis on memorization and grammar-translation methods; reading as a foreign language

continuedcontinued

Establishment of the Modern Language Association of America (MLA) in 1883Stressed need for L2 study as intellectual discipline

Emergence of psychology as a science and psychological theory and practice influence teaching methods and learning theory

Introduction of the “Direct Method”Role of L1 and L2 is assessed

World War I to 1952

Post-War IsolationismDisillusion with American omnipotence in world affairs

Goal to educate all America’s childrenFocus away from education of the elite; foreign language study only for the “college bound”

The “Melting Pot”Assimilation or “Americanization” of immigrants stressed as the role of the public schools

Continued

Emergence of cultural anthropology and linguisticsLeonard Bloomfield criticizes L2 methodologies; declares “primacy of oral language”

BehaviorismB. F. Skinner and Verbal Behavior, stimulus response learning theory; emphasis on scientific methods of observation

1950s Trends that Last into the 1960s

Age of Material comfort and psychological discomfortEra of bomb shelters, “hippies” rise of subcultures, the “Great Society”

Expanding academic, vocational and general education programsPublic schools seen as the vehicle for progress and social change

New Approaches to teachingTeam-teaching; non-graded classes; open classrooms; individualized instruction; programmed instruction; flexible and core curriculum scheduling

ContinuedContinued

The Audiolingual MethodA marriage of stimulus response (B. F. Skinner) learning theory and linguistics

Rise and fall of media and computer technologyDiffusion and later abandonment of the language laboratory; growing expansion of technology

Continued

1952—William Riley Parker’s National Interest and Foreign LanguagesExpounds on how expanding global interests of the United States require people who are multilingual and multicultural for business, industry, foreign relations, education

1957 Chomsky’s Syntactic StructuresEmergence of generative-transformational grammar; the competence/performance distinction

The 1960s Wedding of Disciplines

1964—Emergence of psycholinguistic theory and interest in childhood vs. adult education

Emergence of eclecticismThe “great debate” over L2 methods resulting from disillusion with audiolingual method; impact of cognitive psychology; examination of L2 teaching “mythology”

Continued

Competence-based EducationAge of social engineering; emergence of the behavioral objective and Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive and effective objectives

Rise of Humanistic PsychologyStudent-centered classrooms; explorations in values education; cognitive styles; attitudes and motivation; group dynamics

1966- TESOL is founded

Back to the Basics Movement

Disassembling of “innovations”; emphasis on accountability reforms in teacher education to emphasize knowledge of subject matter vs. pedagogy

Abolition of language requirementsDe-emphasis of grammar instruction; focus on pragmatic L2 instruction and communicative competence

Incorporation of research findings in L2 theory and teachingExamination of the nature of language proficiency in varying contexts

Language Education 1970 to the Present

The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 and 1974(Title VII) and Lau vs. Nichols. Emphasis on second vs. foreign language studies. Rise of Paolo Freire’s critical pedagogy; cultural pluralism; acculturation; multicultural education. Focus on teaching L2 culture in the classroom

Continued Emergence of new methodologies and

curriculum modelsInnovative methods include the Natural or Communicative Approach; Social therapeutic orientations such as Community Learning, suggestopedia; the Notional-Functional Syllabus

Theorists link cognitive and linguistic development and explain bilingual language development and competence

Shift in emphasis to literacy and content area instruction

Continued

Constructivist theory leads to Whole Language Movement and renewed study of the role of language proficiency in reading and writing; Methods focus on integration of language and content area teaching such as Sheltered English, Integrated Thematic Instruction

English-Only versus English plus Movements

There was a heated debate in political arenas and the public sector over the role of foreign languages and bilingualism in American society; emergence of immersion vs. transitional and two-way bilingual models. Rise of the English-only movement; Proposition 227 in California virtually eliminates bilingual education programs; “Sheltered Immersion” becomes the state-mandated model of instruction; bilingual education preserved and expanded in Texas, New York and Florida.

Overview of Overview of MethodsMethods

The Grammar Translation The Grammar Translation MethodMethod

Vocabulary is taught in the form of Vocabulary is taught in the form of lists or isolationlists or isolation

Long explanations of grammar rulesLong explanations of grammar rules Readings of classical difficult textsReadings of classical difficult texts Grammatical analysisGrammatical analysis Little or no attention to Little or no attention to

pronunciationpronunciation

The Direct MethodThe Direct Method Classroom instruction exclusively in the Classroom instruction exclusively in the

target languagetarget language Grammar was taught inductively (teacher Grammar was taught inductively (teacher

is a facilitator)is a facilitator) New teaching points were taught through New teaching points were taught through

modeling and practicemodeling and practice Both speech and listening comprehension Both speech and listening comprehension

were taughtwere taught Correct pronunciation and grammar were Correct pronunciation and grammar were

emphasizedemphasized

The Audiolingual MethodThe Audiolingual Method

New material is presented in New material is presented in dialogue formdialogue form

MemorizationMemorization Set phrasesSet phrases DrillsDrills Tapes, language lab, visual aidsTapes, language lab, visual aids Successful responses immediately Successful responses immediately

reinforcedreinforced

Cognitive code learningCognitive code learning

Deep structure of languageDeep structure of language Chomsky LAD (language acquisition Chomsky LAD (language acquisition

device)device) DeductiveDeductive Conscious awareness of rulesConscious awareness of rules Generative transformational Generative transformational

grammargrammar

““Designer” Methods of the Designer” Methods of the Spirited 1970sSpirited 1970s

Separation of ESL and linguistics as Separation of ESL and linguistics as a field of studya field of study

Language acquisition studies based Language acquisition studies based on language learning inside and on language learning inside and outside of the classroomoutside of the classroom

Innovative methods were conceivedInnovative methods were conceived

Community Language Community Language LearningLearning

Language learning was visualized as Language learning was visualized as a counseling sessiona counseling session

Rogers’s views on language learningRogers’s views on language learning Avoids threatening environmentAvoids threatening environment Deductive learning (when A then B, Deductive learning (when A then B,

knowledge is “transferred” from the knowledge is “transferred” from the teacher to the learner, information teacher to the learner, information according to established knowledge)according to established knowledge)

SuggestopediaSuggestopedia

Language learning occurs under the Language learning occurs under the right conditionsright conditions

Students are asked to be “child like”Students are asked to be “child like” Business enterpriseBusiness enterprise

The Silent WayThe Silent Way

Learning is facilitated by physical Learning is facilitated by physical objectsobjects

Problem solving involving the Problem solving involving the material to be learnedmaterial to be learned

Rods to introduce vocabularyRods to introduce vocabulary Charts to introduce pronunciation Charts to introduce pronunciation

models, grammatical paradigmsmodels, grammatical paradigms

Total Physical ResponseTotal Physical Response

Commands are givenCommands are given Listening and actingListening and acting No verbal response is necessaryNo verbal response is necessary

KrashenKrashen

Acquisition Learning Hypothesis (learning Acquisition Learning Hypothesis (learning vs. acquisition)vs. acquisition)

The Natural Order (grammatical rules are The Natural Order (grammatical rules are learned in a predictable way)learned in a predictable way)

The Monitor Hypothesis (checks and The Monitor Hypothesis (checks and monitor output of what has been learned)monitor output of what has been learned)

The Input Hypothesis (I + 1) a little The Input Hypothesis (I + 1) a little beyond the comprehension levelbeyond the comprehension level

The Affective Filter Hypothesis The Affective Filter Hypothesis (motivation)(motivation)

The Post-method The Post-method EraEra

The Pull of MethodsThe Pull of Methods

Teachers want to believe that if they Teachers want to believe that if they just do X their students will learn just do X their students will learn language.language.

Students also want to believe that Students also want to believe that there is some magic pill that if the there is some magic pill that if the teacher would just give it to them, teacher would just give it to them, they would learn.they would learn.

Positivist vs. critical Positivist vs. critical perspectiveperspective

Postivist (or scientist) orientation: Postivist (or scientist) orientation: empirical-analytic approach, claims of empirical-analytic approach, claims of objectivity, how we teach is based on objectivity, how we teach is based on knowledge derived through experimental knowledge derived through experimental researchresearch

Critical theory: all knowledge is social, Critical theory: all knowledge is social, cultural, and political; produced in a cultural, and political; produced in a particular economic, historical context; particular economic, historical context; claims to knowledge represent the claims to knowledge represent the interests of certain individuals or groupsinterests of certain individuals or groups

But…But…

Researchers still do not know Researchers still do not know exactly how we learn a second exactly how we learn a second languagelanguage

Human learning can’t be reliably Human learning can’t be reliably studied with experimental research studied with experimental research designsdesigns

So…we cannot produce the “magic So…we cannot produce the “magic bullet”!bullet”!

Discussion What is Prabhu’s problem with people saying “There is no best

method”? What does Pennycook mean when her says that “all education is

political” and that “all knowledge is ‘interested’” (p. 590)? Use the example of English education in Puerto Rico (or language education in another context that you know well) to illustrate his two claims.

What is Pennycook’s problem with the concept of Methos as published by different scholars? (see pp. 599-606)

Pennycook argues that the concept of Method is patriarchal (it imposes ideas developed by mostly male linguists on the mostly female workforce of ESL teachers) and imperialistic (it assumes that Methods, developed in the West, are the best way to teach ESL across the world). Do you agree with Pennycook? Why or why not?

What do you think is the relationship between method and what teachers actually are doing (and have been doing) in the classroom?

PrabhuPrabhu

Best method varies from context to Best method varies from context to contextcontext Still left with search to find the best Still left with search to find the best

method for a particular context.method for a particular context. There is truth in every methodThere is truth in every method

But which parts are true?But which parts are true? Objective method evaluation is Objective method evaluation is

impossibleimpossible

PennycookPennycook