Historia de los negros americanosDesde África hasta la aparición del Reino de algodón Philip S. Foner

Bibliografía y fuentesGENERALES BIBLIOGRÁFICAS GUÍAS

Hay una serie de guías bibliográficas generales al estudio de los negros americanos. Uno de los primeros fue Monroe N. trabajo, Unabibliografía de los negros en África y América (Nueva York, 1928), pero desde entonces hemos tenido Dorothy B. Porter, una listaseleccionada de libros de y sobre el negro (Washington, 1936 y reimpreso 1970); Erwin K. Welsch, El negro en los Estados Unidos, UnaGuía de Investigación (Bloomington, 1965); Erwin A. Salk, una guía de divulgación de la Historia Negra (Chicago, 1966 y reimpreso1967). Sin embargo, dos obras recientes son de especial importancia: James M. McPherson, Laurence B. Holanda, James M. Banner,Jr., Nancy J. Weiss, Michael D. Bell, los negros en Estados Unidos: Ensayos bibliográficas (Nueva York, 1971) , disponible en lasediciones de tela y de papel, y Dwight L. Smith, editor, Afro-American History: Una bibliografía, introducción por Benjamin Quarles (SantaBarbara, California, 1974), disponible sólo en paño. El trabajo de Smith incluye 2.900 resúmenes de los artículos que han aparecido enlas últimas dos décadas, mientras que el trabajo por McPherson et al. incluye tanto libros como artículos, aunque no los resúmenes. Sinembargo, sí incluye obras en el Caribe y América Latina, que no están cubiertos en la guía de Smith. Ni guía incluye las tesis inéditas ydisertaciones.

1. Pasado africana tempranaIntroducción

Las discusiones sobre el tratamiento tradicional de África en las obras históricas y otras, así como las áreas de la historia de África aúnno se ha explorado, se pueden encontrar en la albahaca Davidson, África en la Historia: Los temas y esquemas (Nueva York, 1969);Philip D. Curtin, African History (Nueva York, 1964); John D. Fage, "Historia", en Robert Lystad, ed, The African Mundial (Nueva York,1965).; Jan Vansina, Tradición Oral (Chicago, 1965); George P. Murdock, África: su gente y su historia cultural (Nueva York, 1959); yDonald L. Wiedner, Una historia de Africa al sur del Sahara (Nueva York, 1962). Estos deben ser complementados por los siguientesartículos: Kenneth Onwuka Dike, "El Estudio Científico de la historia de África," Historia de los Negros Bulletin, 21, marzo de 1968;Clarence G. Contee, "Problemas Actuales de África Historiografía," Negro Boletín de Historia, 30, abril de 1967; y Angene Wilson, "AfricaPasado, Presente y Futuro," Negro Boletín de Historia, 21, 1968, octubre Un excelente estudio de los mitos occidentales relacionadoscon África pre-europeo es Katherine George, "El Occidente civilizado Mira a África Primitiva: 1400-1800 , Estudio en El etnocentrismo,"Isis, 49, 1958 Una discusión brillante y conmovedor de las contribuciones WEB DuBois de los estudios africanos y sus efectos sobre supropio trabajo, es William Leo Hansberry," Influencia WEB DuBois "en Historia de África," Freedomways, Primeros cuartos, Invierno1965, WEB DuBois Memorial de Emisión. Una apreciación de JA Rogers es Burghardt W. Turner, "Joel Augusto Rogers: un historiadorafroamericano," Historia de los Negros Bulletin, 35, febrero 1972.

Por la actitud de los estadounidenses negros hacia África, véase George Shepperson, "Notas sobre la Influencia americano del negroen la Aparición de nacionalidad africana," Diario de la Historia de África, 1, No. 2, 1960; John A. Davis, ed, África desde el punto de vistade América del Negro (París, 1958, un número especial de la revista Presencia Africana); WEB Du Bois, Negro Folk:. Antes y ahora(Nueva York, 1939), y Carter G. Woodson, Fondo Africano Contorno (Washington, 1936). También es útil John Hope Franklin,"Descubriendo Negro American History", en Joseph S. Roucek y Thomas Kiernan, eds., El Negro Impacto en la Civilización Occidental(Nueva York, 1970), y especialmente Ernest Kaiser, "La Historia de la Historia de los Negros , "Negro Digest, febrero 1968.

Para historias generales de África, los mejores trabajos de impresión son Roland Oliver y John D. Fage, Una breve historia de África(Baltimore, 1962), aunque es débil en el primer período y colonial; JC DeGraft-Johnson, La Historia de Vanished Negro Civilizaciones(Londres, 1954); Robert julio, Una Historia de los Pueblos Africanos (Nueva York, 1970); y Harry A. Gailey, Historia de África desde losprimeros tiempos hasta 1800 (Nueva York, 1970). Robert I. Rotberg, una historia política de África Tropical (Nueva York, 1965), es elprimer intento (hace mucho tiempo) para contar la historia política de la mayor parte de África, y aunque un proyecto demasiadoambicioso, es lo suficientemente amplio como para proporcionar útil información en todo. Un breve repaso útil es el folleto de PhilipCurtin en la Asociación Histórica de servicio Serie American Center, Historia de África.

Encuestas regionales útiles de África son John D. Fage, Introducción a la Historia de África Occidental (Cambridge, Ing., 1962), y BasilioDavidson et. al., Una historia de África occidental hasta el siglo XIX (Nueva York, 1966).

África: Lugar de nacimiento de la Humanidad

Para el desarrollo de los primeros hombres en África, los estudios útiles son Henriette Alimen, La Prehistoria de África (Londres, 1958);LSB Leakey, de Adán Antepasados (Londres, 1953); y J. Desmond Clark, La Prehistoria de África Meridional (Harmondworth, Ing.,1959). Estos pueden complementarse con LSB Leakey, El Progreso y evolución del hombre en África (Londres y Nueva York, 1962); M.Boule y Vallois H., Hombres fósiles, 2d ed., Inglés trans. (Nueva York, 1957); PV Tobias, Olduvai Gorge (Cambridge, Eng, 1967.); . J.Desmond Clark, ed, Tercer Congreso Pan-Africana de la Prehistoria (Livingstone, Zambia, 1955; Londres, 1957); y S. Tax, ed, "El Origendel Hombre", Current Anthropology, 6, 1965. También son útiles las secciones sobre "Prehistoria" -. "orígenes prehistóricos de la culturaafricana" por J. Desmond Clark y "la prehistoria económica" por C. Wrigley-en PJM McEwan, ed., África desde los primeros tiemposhasta 1800 (Londres, 1968).

Sobre el tema de los descubrimientos africanos en las matemáticas, véase Claudia Zaslavksy, "Negro africanos matemáticastradicionales," El Profesor de Matemáticas, abril de 1970, y "Matemáticas del pueblo Yoruba y de sus vecinos en el sur de Nigeria," Losdos años de universidad Matemáticas Diario, Fall 1970, desarrolló plenamente en su trabajo importante, Condes de África (Nueva York,1974).

Egipto en la Historia de África

Para el papel de África en Egipto, la controversia sobre si los egipcios eran negros y negros contribuciones a la historia de Egipto, lasdiscusiones son sugerentes que se encuentran en Robert O. Collins, ed., Problemas en África Historia (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1968) , yPaul Bohannon, África y los africanos (Garden City, Nueva York, 1964). Ver también los estudios más antiguos: Eduard Henri Naville, "ElOrigen de la Civilización Egipcia," Informe Anual de la Institución Smithsonian en 1907, y Alexander Francis Chamberlin, "Lacontribución de los negros a la civilización humana," Diario de Desarrollo de Carrera, 2, abril 1911 Por comentarios de Diodoro, véaseDiodoro de Sicilia, Trans. CH Oldfather (Cambridge, Mass., 1935), vol 2. También digno de estudio es Frank M. Snowden, los negros enla Antigüedad (Cambridge, Mass., 1970).

El imperio de Kush

Para Kush, los estudiantes deben consultar AJ Arkell, Una historia de Sudán desde los primeros tiempos hasta 1821 (Londres, 1961);Basilio Davidson, The Lost Cities of Africa (Boston, 1959), y el pasado de África (Boston, 1964); y Wyatt MacGaffey, "La Historia de lasmigraciones de negros en el norte de Sudán" Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 17, Verano 1961 Para Meroë el mejor estudio esPeter Shinnie, Meroe (Nueva York, 1967).

Axum: Una civilización etíope

Aunque no existe aún en Inglés estudio no completa de Axum, los siguientes son útiles: las dos obras de Basilio Davidson antes citada,y Basilio Davidson, africana Reinos (Nueva York, 1966), con magníficas ilustraciones fotográficas, y R. Keating, Nubia Crepúsculo(Nueva York, 1936), también magníficamente ilustrado. Para Axum, Nubia y Etiopía lo siguiente debe ser consultado: Sylvia Pankhurst,Etiopía: Una historia cultural (. Essex, Eng, 1955); Edward Ullendorff, los etíopes (Londres, 1960); Elizabeth Munroe, Una historia deEtiopía (Oxford, Ing, 1962.); y Roland Oliver, ed., La Edad Media de la Historia Africana (Londres, 1967), los capítulos 1 y 2 EdwardWilmot Blyden fue el autor del cristianismo, el islam y la Raza Negra (Londres, 1887). La cita es de su artículo, "Mohammedianism y laRaza Negra," El registrador cristiano (Filadelfia), 14 de septiembre 1876.

2. reinos africanos medievales y modernosLos imperios del oeste de Sudán

For the Western Sudan the following books provide good general coverage: Spencer Trimmingham, A History of Islam in West Africa(London, 1962); Edward W. Bovill, Caravans of the Old Sahara (London, 1933), and a later, more popular edition, published in 1958under the title The Golden Trade of the Moors of which a new, revised edition is available. For the Saharan slave trade, see GB Fisherand Humphrey J. Fisher, Slavery and Muslim Society in Africa (London, 1970). A general discussion of the Sudanese Kingdoms is to befound in Joseph Greenberg, “The Negro Kingdoms of the Sudan,” Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences , Series II, No. 4,1949; and Basil Davidson's Lost Cities of Africa (Boston, 1959) and The African Past (Boston, 1964). Studies of specific Negro kingdomsinclude John D. Farge's excellent Ghana (Madison, Wis., 1959). Two specialized articles that should be read in conjunction are John D.Farge, “Ancient Ghana: A Review of the Evidence,” Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana , 3, No. 2., 1957, and RaymondMauny, “The Question of Ghana,” Africa , 24, No. 3, 1954; reprinted in Martin A. Klein and G. Wesley Johnson, eds, Perspectives on theAfrican Past (Boston, 1972). The best works on Mali and Songhai are in French: Jean Rouch, Les Songhay (Paris, 1954), and CharlesMonteil, “Les Empires du Mali,” Bulletin du Comité d'Etudes Historiques et Scientifitjues de l'Afrique Occidentale Française , 12, Nos. 3—4, 1929. The following article is available in English: Edward W. Bovill, “The Niger and the Songhai Empire,” Journal of the AfricanSociety , 25, 1925. An important Arabic source available in English and which should be consulted is Mohammed Ibn Abdallah IbnBattuta, Travels in Asia and Africa (1325–1354) , trans. Hamilton AR Gibb (London, 1960), which contains useful primary material.

Other Black Kingdoms of the Western Sudan

For Mossi, Hausa, and Kanem-Bornu, Robert L. Rothberg, A Political History of Tropical Africa (New York, 1965), contains usefulsummaries that should be supplemented with Elliot Percival Skinner, “The Mossi and Traditional Sudanese History,” Journal of NegroHistory , 43, 1958, and Elliott P. Skinner, The Mossi of the Upper Volta (Stanford, Cal., 1964).

Kingdoms of the West African Forest and the Savanna

Robert L. Rothberg, A Political History of Tropical Africa , should be consulted for general discussions of the kingdoms of Benin, Oyo,Dahomey, Akan, and Ashanti. Useful specialized studies include William Turnbull Buhner, A History of the Akan Peoples of the GoldenCoast (London, 1925); RE Bradbury, The Benin Kingdom and the Edo-speaking Peoples of Southwestern Nigeria (London, 1957);Joacob Egharevba, A Short History of Benin , 3d ed. (Ibadon, 1960); Samuel Johnson, The History of the Yoruba (Evanston, Ill., 1964);Melville J. Herskovits, Dahomey , 2 vols. (New York, 1938); Robert S. Rattray, The Ashanti (Oxford, Eng., 1923); and William Tardoff, “TheAshanti Confederacy,” Journal of African History , 3, No. 3, 1962.

The following are interesting and useful discussions of Bantu expansion: Roland Oliver, “The Problem of the Bantu Expansion,” Journalof African History , 7, No. 3, 1936; Joseph Harold Greenberg, Studies in African Linguistics (New Haven, Conn., 1955); and MalcolmGuthrie, “Bantu Origins: A Tentative New Hypothesis,” Journal of African Languages , 2, 1962. A general discussion of the Zimbabweculture and the medieval kingdoms of Central Africa is to be found in Eric Stokes and Richard Brown, eds., The Zambesian Past: Studiesin Central African History (New York, 1967). More specialized studies include D. Randall-MacIver, Medieval Rhodesia (London, 1906);HA Wieschoff, The Zimbabwe-Monomatapa Culture in South-East Africa (Menasha, Wis., 1941); G. Caton-Thompson, Zimbabwe Culture(Oxford, Eng., 1931); Jan Vansina, The Kingdoms of the Southern Savannah (Madison, Wis., 1965); DP Abraham, “The Early Political

History of the Kingdom of Mwene Mutapa (850–1589),” in Historians in Tropical Africa (Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia, 1962); RogersSummers, “Zimbabwe,” Africa South , 2, Jan.–Mar., 1958; and MA Jaspan, “Negro Culture in Southern Africa before European Conquest,”Science & Society, Summer 1955. The kingdom of the Kongo is discussed in James Duffy, Portuguese Africa (Cambridge, Mass., 1959).

3. African Society and CultureThere is a considerable body of literature dealing with pre-European African society and culture. Good general accounts are PaulBohannon, Africa and Africans (Garden City, NY, 1964); Maurice Delafosse, The Negroes of Africa: History and Culture (Washington, DC,1931); and George P. Murdock, Africa: Its People and Their Cultural History (New York, 1959). African culture is also discussed in twoissues of the Harvard African Studies, No. 2 (Cambridge, 1917) and No. 3 (Cambridge, 1918). Studies of the African kingdoms of theWestern Sudan and the kingdoms of Mossi, Benin, Oyo, Dahomey, and Ashanti cited above should also be consulted.

Especially worth studying is John N. Paden and Edward W. Soja, eds., The African Experience (Evanston, Ill., 1970), Vol. 1.

Economic and Political Institutions

For economic and political institutions, useful specialized studies include Walter Cline, Mining and Metallurgy in Negro Africa (Menasha,Wis., 1937); CK Meek, Law and Authority in a Nigerian Tribe (London, 1937); KA Busia, The Position of the Chief in the Modern PoliticalSystem of Ashanti (London, 1951); and Stanley Diamond, “Dahomey: A Proto-State in West Africa” (Ph.D. dissertation, ColumbiaUniversity, 1951). Two interesting studies of the class structure of pre-European African society, both by Marxist scholars, are Jean Suret-Canale, “The Traditional Societies of Tropical Africa,” Marxism Today, February 1966, and Samur Amin, “The Class Struggle in Africa,”Reprint No. 2, African Research Group, Cambridge, Mass., nd This is a reprint of an article originally published in the Paris-basedmagazine Revolution (1, No. 9, 1964), under the anonymous signature of XXX.

Social Organization, Religion, and the Arts

For kinship systems and marriage, the following works are useful: AR Radcliffe-Brown and Daryll Forde, African Systems of Kinship andMarriage (London, 1950), and Mayer Fortes, “Primitive Kinship,” Scientific American, June 1959. For religion a useful introduction isGeoffrey Parrinder, African Traditional Religion (London, 1954). For art the following works will be found useful: Alain Locke, Negro Art:Past and Present (Washington, DC, 1936); Eliot Elisofon, The Sculpture of Africa (London, 1958); Melville J. Herskovits, “The Art of theCongo,” Opportunity, 5, May 1927; James J. Sweeney, African Negro Art (New York, 1926); and Paul Wingert, The Sculpture of NegroAfrica (New York, 1950). These should be supplemented with HD Gunn, Handbook of the African Collections of the Commercial Museum,Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1959); HK Schneider, “The Interpretation of Pakot Visual Art,” Man, 52, 1955; Justine Cordwell, “Naturalismand Stylization in Yoruba Art,” Magazine of Art, 46, 1953; M. Trowell and KP Wachsmann, Tribal Crafts of Uganda (London, 1953); andRS Rattray, Religion and Art in Ashanti (Oxford, 1927). The well-known black scholar, the late James A. Porter, has some valuableinsights on African art in his article “African Art from Prehistory to the Present,” in Joseph S. Roucek and Thomas Kiernan, eds., TheNegro Impact on Western Civilization (New York, 1970). Literature is discussed in two older but still useful studies, George W. Ellis, NegroCulture in West Africa (New York, 1914), and AO Stafford, “The Turk E. Soudan,” Journal of Negro History, 2, Apr. 1917, and the morerecent work, Ruth Finnegan, Oral Literature in Africa (Oxford, 1970). For African proverbs, see Melville J. Herskovits, “Wisdom fromAfrica,” The Crisis , Sept. 1929. African music, both in its musicological and sociological aspects, is discussed in AP Merriam, A Prologueto the Study of the African Arts (Yellow Springs, Ohio, 1962), but one should also consult the opening chapters in Eileen Southern, TheMusic of Black Americans (New York, 1971). A useful article is Maude Cuney Hare, “Africa in Song,” Metronome, 38, Dec. 1922. Thestatement by Maurice Delafosse is from The Negroes of Africa (Washington, DC, 1931).

African Cultural Survivals in the New World

For African survivals in American Negro culture, the following works should be consulted: Melville J. Herskovits, The Myth of the NegroPast (New York, 1941), and his The New World Negro: Selected Papers in Afroamerican Studies , ed. Francis S. Herskovits(Bloomington, Ind., 1969); James G. Leyburn, The Haitian People (New Haven, Conn., 1941); Lorenzo D. Turner, Africanisms in theGullah Dialect (Chicago, 1949); Jean Price-Mars, “Africa in the Americas,” Tomorrow , 2, Autumn 1954; Romeo B. Garrett, “AfricanSurvivals in American Culture,” Journal of Negro History , 51, Oct. 1966; Dorothy C. Conley, “Origin of the Negro Spirituals,” Negro HistoryBulletin , May 1962. E. Franklin Frazier's criticism of Herskovits' thesis is found in the opening chapter of The Negro in the United States(New York, 1949).

For criticism of Herskovits, see MG Smith, “The African Heritage in the Caribbean” in Vera Rubin, ed., Caribbean Studies: A Symposium(Seattle, 1960), and an interesting reply by George E. Simpson; Paul Bohannan, Africa and the Africans (New York, 1964), pp. 126–128;Robert A. LeVine, “Africa,” in Francis LK Hsu, ed., Psychological Anthropology: Approaches to Culture and Personality (Homewood, Ill.,1961), pp. 48–92. Herskovits paper, “Ethnophilosophy,” appeared in Melford E. Spiro, ed., Context and Meaning in Cultural Anthropologyin Honor of A. Irving Hallowell (New York, 1965).

For conflicting interpretations of the origin of black American folktales, see Richard M. Dorson, American Folklore (Chicago, 1959);American Negro Folktales (Greenwich, Conn., 1968); Aurelio M. Espinosa, “Notes on the Origin and History of the Tar-Baby Story,”Journal of American Folklore , 43, 1930, and William D. Piersen, “An African Background for American Negro Folktales?” Journal ofAmerican Folklore , 134, Apr.–June 1971.

4. Slavery: Ancient, Medieval, and ModernAncient and Medieval Slavery

For slavery in Egypt, Babylonia and Palestine, Greece and Rome, two general works are still useful: Sir George MacMunn, SlaveryThrough the Ages (London, 1938), and Kathleen Simon, Slavery (London, 1929). Specialized studies include Isaac Mendelsohn, Slaveryin the Ancient Near East; a Comparative Study of Slavery in Babylonia, Assyria, Syria, and Palestine from the Middle of the ThirdMillennium to the End of the First Millennium (New York, 1949); Moses I. Finley, The World of Odysseus (New York, 1959); William L.

Westermann, The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity (Philadelphia, 1955); and Moses I. Finley, ed., Slavery in ClassicalAntiquity: Views and Controversies (Cambridge, Eng., 1960). These should be supplemented by Moses I. Finley, “Between Slavery andFreedom,” Comparative Studies in Society and History , 6, Apr. 1946, and Victoria Cuffel, “The Classical Greek Concept of Slavery,”Journal of the History of Ideas , 37, July–Sept. 1966.

An excellent discussion of slavery in medieval Europe is Melvin Knight, “Medieval Slavery,” Encyclopedia of Social Sciences , 13: 77–80.A work that thoroughly documents the continuity and persistence of slavery from ancient to modern times is Charles Verlinden,L'Esclavage dans L'Europe mediévalé. Tome Premier. Péninsule Ibérique; France (Brugge, 1955). For a recent emphasis on thecontinuity of slavery, see David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (New York, 1966), Chapter 2. The absence ofracial prejudice in ancient slavery is discussed in William L. Westermann, The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity , Moses I.Finley's essay, “Between Slavery and Freedom”; and Victoria Cuffel's article, “The Classical Greek Concept of Slavery.”

Slavery and Racism

For a general discussion of racism, see Pierre L. Van den Berghe, Race and Racism: A Comparative Perspective (New York, 1967). Animportant discussion of racism and Indian slavery in the Americas is Lewis Hanke, Aristotle and the American Indians: A Study of RacePrejudice in the Modern World (Chicago, 1959). The most comprehensive study of racism and Negro slavery in the New World, althoughconfined to the English and ignoring manifestations of racism among other Europeans, is Winthrop Jordan, White Over Black: AmericanAttitudes Toward the Negro, 1550–1812 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1968). (A later work directed to a popular rather than a scholarly readership, isWinthrop D. Jordan, The White Man's Burden: Historical Origins of Racism in the United States [New York, 1974].) Jordan, however, failsto probe the economic forces behind the development of white racism and the relationship of class and economic interests to prejudiceand slavery. Also worth consulting are Marvin Harris, Patterns of Race in the Americas (New York, 1964), and Louis Ruchames, “TheSource of Racial Thought in Colonial America,” Journal of Negro History, 52, Oct. 1967. For Portuguese racial attitudes one shouldconsult Charles R. Boxer, Race Relations in the Portuguese Colonial Empire, 1415–1825 (Oxford, 1963), and James Durry, A Questionof Slavery (Cambridge, Mass., 1967). For the “Curse of Ham,” see Rev. J. Allen Viney, “The Curse of Ham,” Colored American Magazine ,Jan. 1904, and for the Mormon view that Negroes are cursed as descendants of Cain, see The New York Times , Jan. 25, 1970

Dr. King's comment on semantics and racism appears in his speech, “Where Do We Go From Here?” reprinted in Philip S. Foner, TheVoice of Black America: Major Speeches of Negroes in the United States, 1797–1971 , New York, 1972, p. 1068.

Slavery and the Slave Trade in Pre-European Africa

Para la esclavitud en pre-europeo de África, ver RS Rattray, Ashanti (Londres, 1923), y su Ley de Ashanti y Constitución (Londres,1929); Melville J. Herskovits, Dahomey: Un africano antiguo reino West (Nueva York, 1938); y el ensayo de A. Norman Klein, "ÁfricaOccidental no libre Trabajo Antes y Después de la rebelión de la trata de esclavos del Atlántico", en Laura Foner y Eugene D. Genovese,eds, la esclavitud en el Nuevo Mundo:. Un Lector en Historia Comparada ( Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969). Dos artículos interesantes penade consultoría son Walter Rodney, "La esclavitud africana y otras formas de opresión social en la Costa Alta Guinea en el contexto de latrata de esclavos del Atlántico," Diario de la Historia de África, 7, 1966, y JD Fage, "La esclavitud y la trata de esclavos en el contexto dela historia de África Occidental ", Revista de Historia de África, 10, 1969 Para el comercio de esclavos de África Oriental en el siglo XIX,véase JM Gray," Zanzíbar y la Cinta Costera, 1840-1884, "en R . Oliver y G. Mathew, eds, Historia de África del Este (Oxford, 1963).; y eltrabajo anterior, E. Hutchinson, el comercio de esclavos de África Oriental (Londres, 1874).

5. La Internacional trata de esclavosLa expansión de Europa

JH Parry, La Edad de Reconocimiento (Londres, 1963), es un excelente estudio general de la expansión europea entre 1450 y 1650,una obra anterior del mismo autor, Europa y un mundo más amplio 1415-1715 (Londres, 1949), cubre una espectro más amplio. Elpapel del príncipe Enrique de Portugal se discute en RH Major, La vida del príncipe Enrique de Portugal, apodado el Navigator(Londres, 1867).

El comercio de esclavos pronto para Europa y las actividades de los portugueses en el tráfico se discuten en John W. Blake, Principioseuropeos en África Occidental, 1454-1478 (Nueva York, 1937). El mismo autor también corrigió los europeos en África Occidental, 1450-1560 (Londres, 1942). También es importante James Duffy, Portugal en África (Cambridge, Mass., 1962). La cita sobre la incautación de165 esclavos en 1444 es de Charles Raymond Beazley, el príncipe Enrique el Navegante (Londres, 1901), p. 213.

Los africanos en Europa

Para la esclavitud en Portugal y España, ver Gomes Banes de Zurra, La crónica del Descubrimiento y Conquista de Guinea, trans.Charles Raymond Beazley y Edgar Prestage (Londres, 1896); CR Boxer, relaciones raciales en el Imperio Colonial Portugués 1415-1825 (Oxford, 1963); y Sir Arthur Helps, La conquista española de América (Londres y Nueva York, 1900). No hay ninguna biografía deAnton Wilhelm Arno, pero su carrera se discute por N. Lochner, "Anton Wilhelm Arno: A Ghana Académico en Alemania del siglo XVIII,"Transacciones de la Sociedad Histórica de Ghana, 3, de 1958, y por Herbert Aptheker, "Anthony William Arno," El Mundo 15 de febrerode 1969, que también describe las obras recientes de Arno publicadas en latín con traducción al inglés en la República DemocráticaAlemana.

Para impactos africanos en la literatura española, véase Alma C. Allen, "Relaciones literarias entre España y África," Diario de la HistoriaNegra, 50, abril de 1965; Velaurex B. Spratlin, "El negro en la literatura española," Diario de la Historia de los Negros, 19, enero de1943; y Margaret Sampson, "África en Medieval Literatura Española: su aparición en El Caballero Cifar," Negro Boletín de Historia, 32,diciembre de 1969 Por la influencia general de los moros, un excelente breve discusión es Philip S. Cohen y Francesco Cordasco, "ElMorrish Impacto en Europa Occidental", en Joseph S. Roucek y Thomas Kiernan, eds., El Negro Impacto en la Civilización Occidental(Nueva York, 1970).

Para la acción del Consejo Privado británico sobre los africanos en Inglaterra en 1596, véase Paul L. Hughes y James F. Larkin, eds,Tudor Royal proclamaciones, 3. (New Haven, Connecticut, 1969.): 219-221.

Negros y el Nuevo Mundo

La teoría de que los africanos descubrieron el Nuevo Mundo antes de Colón se discute ampliamente en Leo Wiener, África y eldescubrimiento de América, 3 vols. (Filadelfia, 1922). Los artículos que tratan el tema incluyen MDW Jeffreys, "negros precolombinos,"Scientia, 44, 1953; MDW Jeffreys, "Maíz Precolombino en África," la Naturaleza, 21 de noviembre 1953; y Harold G. Lawrence,"Exploradores africanos del Nuevo Mundo, La Crisis, 159, junio-julio de 1962, la participación de los negros en la exploración del NuevoMundo después de Colón es discutido por Richard R. Wright," Compañeros negros de la Exploradores españoles ", con notas deRaimundo Logan, Phylon, 2, del Cuarto Trimestre de 1941; JF Rippy, "El Negro y pioneros españoles en el Nuevo Mundo," Diario de laHistoria de los Negros, 6, abril de 1921; James B. Browning, "Compañeros negros de los pioneros españoles en el Nuevo Mundo,"Estudios Universitarios de la historia Howard (Washington, 1936); y Raimundo W. Logan, "Estevanico, Negro Descubridor delSouthwest," Phylon, 1, Cuarto Trimestre. 1940 Cabeza de Vaca, La Relación, es la odisea de los supervivientes de la malogradaexpedición con la que se asoció Estevanico. Una de las traducciones es por Fanny y AF Bandalier (Nueva York, 1905).

La dirección de Thomas L. Jennings, Nueva York líder negro, se publicó en el Diario Libertad 's, 04 de abril 1828.

La esclavitud indígena en el Nuevo Mundo

Para la esclavitud indígena en la América española, véase Silvio Arturo Zavala, nuevos puntos de vista en la colonización española deAmérica (Londres, 1943); Harry M. Rosen, ed, Los Conquistadores de Oro (Indianapolis, 1960).; Philip S. Foner, Historia de Cuba y susrelaciones con los Estados Unidos (Nueva York, 1962), vol. 1; y Lewis Hanke, Bartolomé de Las Casas (Filadelfia, 1952). Lacontratación de funcionarios blancos en Inglaterra para las colonias se discute ampliamente en Abbot Emerson Smith, colonos enBondage: Blanco Servidumbre y condenar Trabajo en América, 1607-1776 (Chapel Hill, Carolina del Norte, 1947). Por sus excelentesbreves discusiones de la agricultura india aborigen, vea los artículos sobre el este de América del Norte en Jesse D. Jennings, ed.,Hombre prehistórico en el Nuevo Mundo (Chicago, 1964).

El Comercio de América del Esclavo

La colección más completa de material de origen en relación con el comercio de esclavos africanos es la monumental obra editada porElizabeth Donnan, documentos ilustrativos de la historia de la trata de esclavos a América, 4 vols. (Washington, 1900-1935). Lasintroducciones y notas a cada volumen son importantes para la comprensión del desarrollo, la organización, y los horrores de la trata deesclavos. Tres estudios populares de la trata de esclavos africanos se han publicado recientemente: Basil Davidson, Negro Madre: Losaños de la trata de esclavos africanos (Boston, 1961); Daniel P. Mannix y Malcolm Cowley, Negro Cargas: Una Historia del Comercio deEsclavos del Atlántico, 1518-1865 (Nueva York, 1962); y James Pope-Hennesey, pecados de los padres: un estudio de los comerciantesde esclavos del Atlántico, 1441-1807 (Nueva York, 1968). Los dos primeros son de especial importancia para la organización de la tratade esclavos y sus efectos. Obras generales más antiguos incluyen George F. Dow, ed, los barcos de esclavos y trabajar como esclavos.(Salem, Massachusetts, 1927.); Edmund B. D'Auvergne, Ganadería Humano (Londres, 1933); y Hugh Archibald Wyndham. El Atlántico yla esclavitud (Londres, 1935). Un artículo general, sigue siendo útil, es Jerome Dowd, "La trata de esclavos africanos," Diario de laHistoria de los Negros, 3, enero 1917 Un estudio útil en forma mimeografiada es C. Fyfe, ed., "La trata transatlántica de esclavos deOccidente África ", Universidad de Edimburgo, Centro de Estudios Africanos, 1965.

Las declaraciones de testigos por los europeos que participaron en el comercio incluyen J. Barbot, una descripción de las costas delnorte y sur de Guinea, traducido del francés (Londres, 1746); William Snelgrave, una nueva cuenta de algunas partes de Guinea y latrata de esclavos (Londres, 1754); y Alexander Falconbridge, Cuenta de algunos trata de esclavos en la costa de África (Londres, 1788).Una cuenta por un europeo quien también mandó varios barcos de esclavos estadounidenses es Theodore Canot, Memorias de uncomerciante de esclavos, ed. Brantz Mayer (Nueva York, 1854); una versión condensada de la obra es Theodore Canot, Aventuras deun Slaver africano, ed. Malcolm Cowley (Nueva York, 1935). Revistas y correspondencia de los traficantes de esclavos como GeorgeArthur Plimpton, ed, El Diario de un Slaver africano, 1789-1792. (Worcester, Massachusetts, 1930.); Nicholas Owen, Diario de un tratantede esclavos, ed. Eveline Christiana Martin (Londres, 1930); TS Ashton, ed, Cartas de un comerciante de África Occidental, Edward Grace1767-1770 (Londres, 1950).; John Newton, El Diario de un esclavo del mercado, 1750-1754, ed. Bernard Martin y Mark Spurrell(Londres, 1962); y Donald D. Cera, ed., "un cirujano de Filadelfia en un slaving Voyage to Africa, 1749-1751," Pennsylvania Revista deHistoria y Biografía, 92, 1968 Los horrores de la "Middle Passage" octubre son gráficamente retratado en I. Aguet, historia ilustrada de laTrata de Esclavos (Londres, 1968). El mito de una cuidadosa selectividad de los esclavos se explotó en Donald D. Wax "Preferencias deesclavos en la América colonial," Diario de la Historia de los Negros, 58, octubre de 1973.

El efecto de la producción de azúcar en el Caribe en el crecimiento del comercio de esclavos se analiza brillantemente en Eric Williams,Capitalismo y esclavitud (Chapel Hill, Carolina del Norte, 1944). Véase también Arthur P. Newton, las naciones europeas en las IndiasOccidentales, 1493-1688 (Londres, 1933). El comercio de esclavos en los daneses y holandeses se discute en Mathew Nolan, "LaCosta de Oro en el final del siglo XVII bajo los daneses y holandeses," Diario de la Sociedad Africana, 4, 1904 Algunas observacionesinteresantes son también a encontrarse en Peter C. Emmer, "La historia de la trata de esclavos holandés, de una investigaciónbibliográfica," Revista de Historia Económica, 33, septiembre 1972 El comercio de esclavos portugués está bien resumido en HerbertKlein, "La trata de esclavos portugueses de Angola en el siglo XVIII, "Revista de Historia Económica, 32, septiembre 1971 Obras que seocupan de la trata de esclavos británico incluye GK Davies, La Real Compañía Africana (Londres, 1957), una historia de estudiante deuno de los de comercio de esclavos más importante de Europa empresas; y Frederic Zook, La Compañía del Real Aventureros deComercio con África (Lancaster, PA., 1919). Un trabajo anterior es Anonymous, Liverpool y Esclavitud (Liverpool, 1884). Artículosespecializados incluyen Luther P. Jackson, "isabelina Marinos y el Comercio de Esclavos africanos," Diario de la Historia de los Negros,9, 01 1924; Eric Williams, "La edad de oro del sistema esclavista en Gran Bretaña," Diario de la Historia de los Negros, 25, enero de1940; Alice M. Kleist, "The African Comercio Inglés bajo los Tudor," Transacciones de la Sociedad Histórica de Ghana, 3, 1957; y SimonRottenberg, "El negocio de la trata de esclavos," Atlántico Sur Quarterly, 66, Verano 1967 El impacto de la trata de esclavos en laeconomía británica y su relación con el ascenso del capitalismo industrial se analiza en profundidad en Eric Williams, Capitalismo y La

esclavitud, y Wilson E. Williams, África y el auge del capitalismo (Washington, 1938). Para una crítica del trabajo de Eric Williams, véaseLa trata transatlántica de esclavos desde África Occidental, publicado por el Centro de Estudios Africanos de la Universidad deEdimburgo (Edimburgo, 1965).

El comercio de esclavos en las colonias americanas se discute en dos primeras obras: George C. Mason, "La trata de esclavos africanosen la época colonial," American Historical Record, vol. 1, 1872, y WE Burghardt DuBois, la represión de la trata de esclavos de África alos Estados Unidos de América, 1638-1870 (Cambridge, Mass., 1896).

Resistencia Esclavo

Resistencia Negro a la trata de esclavos es un tema aún en necesidad de exploración. Se presta cierta atención a que en Daniel P.Mannix y Malcolm Cowley, cargas Negro:. Una historia de la trata de esclavos del Atlántico, 1518-1865, pp 104-130, estudios másdetallados son Lorenzo J. Greene, "Mutiny on the Slave Buques, "Phylon, 5, Cuarto Trimestre, 1944, pp 346-354, que, sin embargo, estálimitada por el hecho de que se trata de levantamientos de esclavos en sólo los buques de Nueva Inglaterra.; y Darold D. Cera,"Resistencia Negro a la trata de esclavos Early American," Diario de la Historia Negra, 51, enero 1966 Las reimpresiones de informes demotines de esclavos en periódicos de la época se pueden encontrar en los volúmenes 2 y 3 de Documentos de Elizabeth Donnanilustrativos de la historia de la trata de esclavos a América.

Consecuencias de la trata de esclavos para África

Muchos de los argumentos de ambas partes antes expuestos son convenientemente disponible en Laura Foner y Eugene D. Genovese,eds, la esclavitud en el Nuevo Mundo:. Un Lector en Historia Comparada (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969). El libro incluye extractos de losescritos de Tannenbaum, Elkins, Mintz, Genovese, Harris, Davis, Klein, Sio, Jordania, así como otros. Eugene D. Genovese también hahablado de las sociedades esclavistas en el Caribe y América Latina en la parte 1 de su El mundo de los esclavistas Made (Nueva York,1969). También consulte con Magnus Morner, "La historia de relaciones raciales en América Latina: algunas consideraciones sobre elestado de la investigación," Latin American Research Review, 1, 1966 Un ejemplo reciente de un estudio comparativo de la esclavitudes Richard R. Beeman, "Trabajo Las fuerzas y relaciones raciales: una visión comparada de la colonización de Brasil y Virginia,"Ciencias Políticas Quarterly, 86, diciembre 1971.

Las Indias Occidentales Británicas

Los estudios más completos de la esclavitud y la situación de los negros en las Antillas francesas son las obras en francés. Un trabajoreciente en Inglés, aunque muy poco precisa sobre el período anterior a 1791, es Shelby McCloy, El Negro, en las Antillas francesas(Lexington, Ky., 1966). Estudios especiales sobre Saint Domingue incluyen Lothrop Stoddard D., La Revolución Francesa en SanDomingo (Boston, 1914), y la brillante obra de CLR James, Los jacobinos Negro: Toussaint L'Ouverture y la Revolución de SantoDomingo (Londres, 1938). Para el Padre Labat, ver Père Jean Baptiste Labat, Voyages aux Isles de l'Amérique (Antillas), 1693-1705(París, 1931). Las cartas de Martinica del marqués de Fénelon y Girod-Charitians están en los Archives Departamentales de la Martinica,donde llevé a cabo la investigación durante diciembre de 1969 y enero de 1970 Una imagen de la sociedad de esclavos en SantoDomingo, así como un análisis comparativo con la esclavitud en Cuba se presenta en Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Control Social en SlavePlantation Socieites: Comparación de St. Domingue y Cuba (Baltimore, 1971).

Danesa y holandesa de las Indias Occidentales

Para la esclavitud en las Islas Vírgenes, el mejor trabajo es Waldemar Westergaard, The Danish West Indies Company Bajo Regla,1671-1754 (Nueva York, 1917). Para los holandeses y la esclavitud en Surinam, ver Charles R. Boxer, El Imperio holandés Seaborn,1600-1800 (Nueva York, 1965); Arthur Percival Newton, las naciones europeas en las Indias Occidentales, 1493-1608 (Londres, 1933);Harry Hoetinck, "relaciones raciales en Curazao y Surinam," en Foner y Genovese, la esclavitud en el Nuevo Mundo, y Cornelis C.Goslinga, los holandeses en el Caribe y en la costa salvaje, 1580-1680 (Assen, Países Bajos, 1971 ). Indispensable para un análisiscontemporáneo es el capitán JG Stedman, Narrativa, después de cinco años de expedición contra los negros se rebelaron de Surinam,en Guayana, en la costa salvaje de América del Sur, a partir del año 1772, a 1777, 2 vols. (Londres, 1813). Para los cimarrones deSurinam, Thomas Wentworth Higginson ver, viajeros y proscritos. El extracto de la obra de WR Van Hervell se puede encontrar en ElLibertador de 17 de septiembre 1858.

7. esclavitud y las relaciones raciales en el Caribe y América Latina: Cuba, Continental Española Latina, yBrasilCuba

Importantes obras en español sobre la esclavitud y las relaciones raciales negros en América continental española incluyen GonzaloAguirre Beltrán, La Población Negra de México, 1519-1810 (México, 1946); Roberto Rojas Gómez, "La exclavitud en Colombia," Boletinde Historia e Antiquedades, 14, 1922; y Jaime Jaramillo Uribe, "Esclavos y señores en la sociedad Colombiana de Siglo XVIII," AnuarioColombiano de Historia y social, de cultura, 1, 1963. estudios especiales en Inglés que tratan el tema son James F. King, "Negro Laesclavitud en el Virreinato de la Nueva Granada "(tesis doctoral, Universidad de California, Berkeley, 1939); el mismo escritor es el autorde "Historia de los Negros en América Continental Española," Diario de la Historia de los Negros, 29, enero de 1944; Ildefonso PeredaValdés, "los negros en Uruguay" Phylon, 4, tercer trimestre de 1943; Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán, "Carreras en Decimoséptimo SigloMéxico," Phylon, 6, Tercer Trimestre de 1945; el mismo escritor es el autor de "La Tradición de esclavos en México", Hispanic AmericanHistorical Review, 29, agosto de 1944; David Pavy, "El Origen de Colombia negros," Diario de la Historia de los Negros, 52, enero de1967; Joaquín Roncal, "La Raza Negra en México", Hispanic American Historical Review, 24, agosto de 1944; Edgar F. Amor, "Negroresistencia al dominio español en el México colonial," Diario de la Historia de los Negros, 52, abril de 1967; T. Lynn Smith, "Lacomposición racial de la población de Colombia," Revista de Estudios Interamericanos, 8, 1966; David M. Davidson, "Negro Control deEsclavos y de la Resistencia en el México colonial, 1419-1650," Hispanic American Historical Review, 46, 1966; John Lombardi, ladecadencia y la abolición de la esclavitud de los negros en Venezuela (Westport, Conn., 1971). La historia de la alianza de Sir Francis

Drake con los cimarrones se encuentra en IW Wright, ed, los documentos relativos a la Voyages Inglés Español Principal 1569-1580(Londres, 1932).; y el plan de Richard Hakluyt para una colonia de cimarrones y Inglés es en EUR Taylor, ed., los escritos originales ycorrespondencia de los Dos Richard Hakluvts (Londres, 1935), vol. 1.

Brasil

Aunque algunas regiones importantes de esclavos aún no se han estudiado, la literatura en Brasil, gran parte de ella en portugués, esenorme. Las obras de Gilberto Freyre, afortunadamente, han sido traducidos al Inglés y son básicos para la comprensión del desarrollode la esclavitud y las relaciones raciales, a pesar de la reciente literatura crítica y revisionista. Tres libros y un artículo de Freyre estándisponibles en Inglés: The Masters y los esclavos: Un estudio en el desarrollo de la civilización brasileña (Nueva York, 1956); lasmansiones y las chabolas: The Making of Modern Brasil (Nueva York, 1963) ; Nuevo Mundo en los Trópicos: Cultura del Brasil moderno(Nueva York, 1963); y "La vida social en Brasil, en la Mitad del Siglo XIX", Hispanic American Historical Review, 5, 1922. dos mayoresobras en portugués que difieren en el enfoque de Freyre son Caio Prado Jr., Formacáo economica do Brasil contemporania (Río deJaneiro, 1931), una sólida historia económica y social marxista de Brasil; y Joao Dornas Filho, A Excravido no Brasil (Río de Janeiro,1939). Los escritos revisionistas de la escuela de São Paulo están representados por Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Capitalismo eEscrabidao no Brasil Meridonal (São Paulo, 1962); Octavio Ianni, Como Metamorfoses hacer Escravo (São Paulo, 1962); y FernandoHenrique Cardoso y Octavio Ianni, Cor ae Mobilidade em Florianópolis (São Paulo, 1964). Obras en Inglés críticos de Freyre y presentarun panorama totalmente diferente de la esclavitud brasileña incluyen Stanley J. Stein, Vassouras: Un café brasileño País, 1850-1900(Cambridge, Mass., 1957); Celso Furtado, el crecimiento económico de Brasil; Una encuesta de Colonial a Modern Times (Berkeley, Cal,1963.); Vianna Moog, Bandeirantes and Pioneers (New York, 1964); and three books by CR Boxer: The Golden Age of Brazil, 1697–1750: Growing Pains of a Colonial Society (Berkeley, Cal., 1962); Race Relations in the Portuguese Colonial Empire, 1415–1825(Oxford, 1963); and Portuguese Society in the Tropics: The Municipal Councils of Goa, Macao, Bahia and Luanda, 1510–1800 (Oxford,1965). Also useful for a critical evaluation of the stereotype of the “Big House” in the writings of Brazilian sociologists and historians isArthur Ramos, The Negro in Brazil , trans. Richard Pattee, (Washington, DC, 1951). A standard history of Brazil in English is Jao PandiaCalogeras, A History of Brazil (Chapel Hill, NC, 1939). A useful study of the Negro in a particular area is Donald Pierson, Negroes inBrazil: A Study of Race Contact in Bahia (Chicago, 1942). The earliest comparative study is Manoel de Oliveira Lima, The Evolution ofBrazil Compared with that of Spanish and Anglo-Saxon America (Stanford, Cal., 1914). For the view that slavery in Brazil was even moresevere than in the United States, see Carl N. Degler, “Slavery in Brazil and the United States: An Essay in Comparative History,”American Historical Review , 75, Apr 1970, and his Neither Black Nor White (New York, 1971). Also useful for a comparison of slavery inBrazil and the United States are HB Alexander, “Brazilian and United States Slavery Compared,” Journal of Negro History , 15, 1930;Mary W. Williams, “The Treatment of Negro Slaves in the Brazilian Empire: A Comparison with the USA,” ibid. , 15, July 1930. A usefularticle is Margaret V. Nelson, “The Negro in Brazil as Seen Through the Chronicles of Travelers,” ibid. , 30, Apr. 1945. The economics ofsugar production in Brazil is discussed in Kit Sims Taylor, “The Economics of Sugar and Slavery in Northeastern Brazil,” AgriculturalHistory , 44, July 1970.

The best account in English on the Republic of Palmares is RK Kent, “Palmares: An African State in Brazil,” Journal of African History, 6 ,1965. See also Charles E. Chapman, “Palmares, The Negro Numantia,” Journal of Negro History , 3, Jan. 1918, and Stanley Warren, Jr.,“Palmares: A Negro State in Colonial Brazil,” Negro History Bulletin , 28, Jan. 1965. For Bahia, see Norman Holub, “The BrazilianSabinada (1837–38),” Journal of Negro History , 54, July 1969.

African influence on Brazilian life is discussed in José H. Rodrigues, “The Influence of Africa on Brazil and of Brazil on Africa,” Journal ofAfrican History , 3, 1962, and in Alan K. Manchester, “Racial Democracy in Brazil,” South Atlantic Quarterly , 64, Winter 1965. For racerelations in present-day Brazil, see Carl N. Degler, Neither Black Nor White , and Jean-Claude Garcia-Zamor, “Social Mobility of Negroesin Brazil,” Journal of Inter-American Studies , Apr. 1970.

Figures on the decline in the slave population in Jamaica, Saint Domingue, and Cuba are presented in Franklin W. Knight, “Slavery inThree Colonies of Three Empires: Jamaica, St. Domingue and Cuba,” unpublished paper presented at the Fifty-fourth Anniversary of theAssociation for the Study of Negro Life and History, Birmingham, October 1969.

8. Slaves and Free Blacks in the Southern ColoniesThe neglect of black Americans in most studies of colonial history is analyzed by Darold D. Wax, “The Negro in Early America,” TheSocial Studies , 60, Mar. 1969, and Gerald W. Mullin, “Rethinking American Negro Slavery from the Vantage Point of the Colonial Era,”Louisiana Studies , 12, Summer 1973.

Virginia

Por la presencia de los negros en lo que se convertiría en Carolina del Sur en 1526, ver Woodbury Lowery. Los asentamientosespañoles dentro de los límites actuales de los Estados Unidos, 1513-1561 (Nueva York, 1901). Libros canónicos que se ocupan de laservidumbre Negro antes de la esclavitud en Virginia incluyen a James Curtis Ballagh, Una historia de la esclavitud en Virginia(Baltimore, 1902); Ulrich B. Phillips, American Negro Esclavitud (Nueva York, 1918); El negro en Virginia (Administración WPA enVirginia, Nueva York, 1940); Frank Craven, las colonias del sur en el siglo XVII, 1607-1689 (Baton Rouge, Luisiana, 1952.); y Richard B.Morris, Gobierno y Trabajo en América Colonial (Nueva York, 1958). Para las estimaciones de la población negro en Virginia, ver LCGray, historia de la agricultura en los Estados del Sur, 2 vols. (Nueva York, 1941). Una discusión detallada de los temas involucrados enel bautismo de los esclavos es Denzil T. Clifton ", el anglicanismo y Negro La esclavitud en la América colonial", Revista Histórica,Protestante Episcopal Church, marzo 1970.

El duro trato de los funcionarios blancos en Virginia se discute en Edmund S. Morgan, "el primer boom americano: Virginia 1618-1630,"William y Marv Quarterly, 28, abril de 1971, y TH Breen, "Una fuerza laboral cambiante y Raza Relaciones en Virginia 1660-1710 ",Revista de Historia Social, 7, Otoño 1973.

Un útil resumen de la literatura sobre el tema de la aparición de la servidumbre negra a la esclavitud es Winthrop D. Jordan, "Las

tensiones modernos y los orígenes de la esclavitud americana," Journal of Southern History, 18, febrero de 1962 La posición de Oscar yMaría Handlin, que el lote del siervo Negro apenas difería de la del fiador de blanco antes de la esclavitud, se presenta en "Orígenes delSistema Laboral Sur," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d Series, 8, de 1950, que está disponible sin fuentes de referencia en Oscar Handlin,raza y nacionalidad en American Life (Boston, 1948). Este punto de vista es efectiva y convincente desafiado por Carl N. Degler, "Laesclavitud y el Génesis de Carrera Americana Prejuicio," Estudios Comparados en Historia y Sociedad, 2, octubre 1959, que sereimprimió en totalidad en Melvin Drimmer, ed., Negro Historia: Un replanteamiento (Nueva York, 1968), y que se resumen en Out CarlDegler de nuestro pasado: Las fuerzas que formaron Modern America (Nueva York, 1959). Una más reciente, bien documentado,desafío a la tesis de Handlin es Paul C. Palmer, "Siervo en Slave: La evolución de la condición jurídica de la Negro Obrero en Virginiacolonial," South Atlantic Quarterly, 65, verano de 1966; véase también Adele Hast, "La situación jurídica de los negros en Virginia, 1705-1765", Revista de Historia de los Negros, 54, julio de 1969 Por la aparición de la ley afirmando que el bautismo no alteró el estado delesclavo, ver Warren S. Billings, "Los casos de Fernando e Isabel Clave: Una nota sobre el Estatuto de los negros en el Siglo diecisieteVirginia," William and Mary Quarterly, 30, julio de 1973 Los códigos de esclavos de Virginia colonial se discuten en detalle en Thad W .Tate, The Negro in Eighteenth-Century Williamsburg (Williamsburg, Va., 1965). Terratenientes negros en Virginia se discuten en JamesH. Brewer, "Negro Dueños en Decimoséptimo Siglo Virginia," William and Mary Quarterly, 12, 3d Series, octubre de 1955 Legislacióncontra la manumisión de los esclavos se discute en John H. Russell, El Negro libre en Virginia, 1619-1865 (Baltimore, 1913). Laprivación del derecho de los negros libres de votar se discute en Emory G. Evans, "A Question of Color: Documentos relativos al negro yal Franchise in Eighteenth-Century Virginia," La Revista de Virginia de Historia y Biografía, 68, abril 1970 .

The controversy over whether slavery caused or preceded racial prejudice can be followed in the articles by the Handlins and Deglercited above, as well as in Carl N. Degler, “Slavery and the Genesis of American Race Prejudice,” Comparative Studies in Society andHistory , 2, 1959. Winthrop D. Jordan takes a position somewhat midway between the two in his article also cited above, which, however,he altered in another article, “The Influence of the West Indies on the Origins of New England Slavery,” William and Mary Quarterly , 18,Apr. 1961, and in his book White Over Black . Also useful for the viewpoint that racial prejudice preceded enslavement is Milton Cantor,“The image of the Negro in Colonial Literature,” New England Quarterly , Dec. 1963. For the decision of Lord Mansfield in the Somersettcase, see Jerome Nadelhaft, “The Somersett Case and Slavery: Myth, Reality, and Repercussions,” Journal of Negro History , 51, July1966.

Maryland

There are two studies that deal in some detail with the Negro in colonial Maryland, both fairly dated: Jeffrey R. Brackett, The Negro inMaryland: A Study of the Institution of Slavery (Baltimore, 1889), and James M. Wright, The Free Negro in Maryland, 1634–1860 (NewYork, 1921). The first chapter of Wright's study is of value for the colonial period. The most recent studies are Jonathan L. Alpert, “TheOrigin of Slavery in the United States—the Maryland Percedent,” American Journal of Legal History , July 1970, and Raphael Cassimere,Jr., “The Origins and Early Development of Slavery in Maryland, 1633 to 1715” (Ph.D. thesis, Lehigh University, 1971). For statistics onthe growth of the slave population, one should consult Evarts B. Greene and Virginia D. Harrington, American Population Before theFederal Census of 1790 (New York, 1932). Legislation dealing with slaves is published in Maryland Archives , especially Volumes 1,13,and 22, although the dates are sometimes in error. For the career of Jupiter, see C. Ashley Ellefson, “Free Jupiter and the Rest of theWorld: The Problems of a Free Negro in Colonial Maryland,” Maryland Historical Magazine , 66, Spring 1971.

The Carolinas

The best brief discussion of the founding and early history of Carolina is Wesley Frank Craven, The Southern Colonies in theSeventeenth Century, 1607–1689 , Vol. 1 of A History of the South (Baton Rouge, La., 1949). A useful monograph dealing with the Negroin colonial South Carolina is Frank J. Kleinberg, An Appraisal of the Negro in Colonial South Carolina: A Study in Americanization(Washington, DC, 1941). This study is based mainly on materials of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. A summary of slaveryin South Carolina, though somewhat incorrect in details, is Edward McCrady, “Slavery in the Province of South Carolina, 1670–1770,”American Historical Association Report , 1885. More valuable are M. Eugene Somans, Colonial South Carolina, 1663 (Chapel Hill, NC,1969), and John Donald Duncan, “Servitude and Slavery in Colonial South Carolina 1670–1776” (Ph.D. dissertation, Emory University,1972). White servitude and Indian slavery in colonial South Carolina are also discussed in Warren B. Smith, White Servitude in ColonialSouth Carolina (Columbia, SC, 1961), and Almon Wheeler Lauber, Indian Slavery in Colonial Times Within the Present Limits of theUnited States (New York, 1913). Most of the slave codes and laws dealing with Negroes are in Thomas Cooper and David J. McCord,Statutes at Large of South Carolina (Columbia, SC, 1836–1875),Vols. 1–7, and summaries are in BR Carroll, ed., Historical Collection ofSouth Carolina , 4 vols. (New York, 1904). Also useful is Howell M. Henry, The Police Control of the Slave in South Carolina (Emory, Va.,1914). For a good example of the savagery of the slave code of 1696, see William D. McCloughlin and Winthrop D. Jordan, “BaptistsFace the Barbarities of Slavery in 1710,” Journal of Southern History , 29, Nov. 1963. Alexander Hewett's comment on rice production isin his An Historical Account of the Rise and Progress of the Colonies of South Carolina and Georgia , 2 vols, (London, 1779). Most of thework is devoted in Carolina. Population statistics for colonial South Carolina are in EB Greene and Virginia D. Harrington, AmericanPopulation Before the Federal Census of 1790 (New York, 1932). Efforts to regulate the ratio of white to black population by imposingduties on the importation of slaves are discussed in Elizabeth Donnan, “The Slave Trade into South Carolina before the Revolution,”American Historical Review , 33, July 1928.

The emergence of the legal status of the slave as a chattel from custom is discussed in an excellent article by M. Eugene Sirmans, “TheLegal Status of the Slave in South Carolina, 1670–1740,” Journal of Southern History , 28, Nov. 1962. The author effectively demolishesthe thesis advanced by Oscar and Mary F. Handlin (“Origins of the Southern Labor System,” William and Mary Quarterly , 7, Apr. 1950)that South Carolina could not have borrowed its slavery customs from Barbados or any other island colony.

The discussion of contacts in South Carolina between blacks and Indians and the contribution of Africans to rice production in the colonyis based on Peter H. Wood, “Slavery in Early South Carolina: The Herskovits Thesis Reconsidered,” unpublished paper delivered atMeeting of the Organization of American Historians, Apr. 1972, which is fully developed, along with many other aspects of black life andculture in colonial South Carolina, in the same author's Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the StonoRebellion (New York, 1974).

The main sources for slavery in North Carolina during the colonial period, a subject that is still in need of study, are John SpencerBassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina (Baltimore, 1896); Rosser Howard Taylor, “Slaveholding in NorthCarolina: An Economic View,” The James Sprunt Historical Publications , University of North Carolina, 18, 1926; Hugh Talmage Leflerand Albert Ray Newsome, North Carolina: The History of a Southern State (Chapel Hill, NC, 1954; rev. ed., 1963); Guion G. Johnson,Ante-Bellum North Carolina (Chapel Hill, NC, 1937); and James A. Padgett, “The Status of Slaves in Colonial North Carolina,” Journal ofNegro History , 14, July 1929. A study of slavery in one of the largest counties of eastern North Carolina is James K. Turner, “Slavery inEdgecombe County,” Historical Papers of the Trinity College Historical Society, Series 12 (Durham, NC, 1916). The slave codes arediscussed, though rather generally, in Ernest Clark, Jr., “Aspects of the North Carolina Slave Code, 1715–1860,” North Carolina HistoricalReview , 39, Spring 1962. Some discussion of treatment of slaves in the courts may be found in Paul M. McCain, “The County Court inNorth Carolina before 1750,” Historical Papers of the Trinity College Historical Society , Series 31 (Durham, NC, 1954). For the tax on freepersons, see Marvin L. Michael Kay, “The Payment of Provincial and Local Taxes in North Carolina, 1748–1771,” William and MaryQuarterly , 3rd Series, 26, Apr. 1969. I am indebted to Dr. Kay for information from the tax receipts about the number of slaves held byhouseholders in New Hanover and Pasquotank counties. For the petitions to end the discriminatory tax against free persons of color,signed by whites, including slave-holders, see Legislative Papers, 94-R-R2, 1763, 1771, North Carolina Archives.

Georgia

The best study of the founding of Georgia and its early development is Trevor Richard Reese, Colonial Georgia. A Study in BritishImperial Policy (Athens, Ga., 1963). A brief account of the reasons for settling Georgia, and the prohibition and introduction of slaves, is inE. Merton Coulter, A Short History of Georgia (Chapel Hill, NC, 1933). Another study is HB Fant, “The Labor Policy of the Trustees forEstablishing the Colony of Georgia in America,” Georgia Historical Quarterly , 16, 1932. The relationship between Parliament and theTrustees is discussed in Richard S. Dunn, “The Trustees of Georgia and the House of Commons,” William and Mary Quarterly , 11, 1954.The most detailed record of slavery in Colonial Georgia is Allen D. Candler, ed., The Colonial Records of the State of Georgia (Atlanta,1904–1915). Volume 21 contains the correspondence of the Trustees; Vol. 24 contains the Whitfield-Bolzius Correspondence; Vol. 18contains the slave code of 1755 and the acts relating to freedom for slaves and the importation of free persons of color. For a discussionof the slave code, see also Ralph B. Flanders, Plantation Slavery in Georgia (Chapel Hill, NC, 1933), and Rubye Mae Jones, “The Negroin Colonial Georgia, 1735–1805” (MA thesis, Atlanta University, 1938). The debate over the ban on Negroes is summarized in Darold D.Wax, “Georgia and the Negro Before the American Revolution,” Georgia Historical Quarterly , 41, Mar. 1967. The use of slave labor onGeorgia plantations is discussed in Willard Range, “The Agricultural Revolution in Royal Georgia, 1752–1775,” Agricultural History , 21,1947. Statistics on the Negro population of Georgia are in US Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States. ColonialTimes to 1957 (Washington, DC, 1960).

There is still a need for an overall study of the Negro in colonial Georgia. But some scholars still do not regard this as a subject worthy ofstudy. In a paper read at the annual meeting of the Georgia Historical Society in Savannah, 15 February 1969 (Published in the GeorgiaHistorical Quarterly , June 1969), Kenneth Coleman, professor of History, University of Georgia, discusses “Colonial Georgia: Needs andOpportunities.” Professor Coleman describes in the paper what has been written “and what the author thinks needs to be written aboutColonial Georgia.” In this discussion there is not a single mention of the Negro.

The Southern Colonies: An Overview

Reverend Peter Fontaine's observation may be found in Ann Maury, ed., Memoirs of a Hugenot Family. Translated and Compiled fromthe Original Autobiography of the Reverend James Fontaine (New York, 1753), pp. 348–353. Leonard Price Stavisky's unpublishedstudy, “The Negro Artisan in the South Atlantic States, 1800–1860: A Study of Status and Economic Opportunity with Special Reference toCharleston” (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1958), contains some discussion of the colonial period. Carl Bridenbaugh paysattention to the Negro craftsman in his work, The Colonial Craftsman (New York, 1950). The situation in Charleston is discussed in anearlier work, Ulrich B. Phillips, “The Slave Labor Problem in the Charleston District,” Political Science Quarterly, 22 , Sept. 1907, and inthe more recent Richard Walsh, Charleston's Sons of Liberty: A Study of the Artisans 1763–1789 . For Timothy Ford's observation in1785, see Joseph W. Barnwell, “Diary of Timothy Ford, 1785–1786,” South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine , 13, July1912. A very useful work on the use of slave mechanics in various colonies is Richard B. Morris, Government and Labor in Early America(New York, 1964). Still useful are the early sections of WEB DuBois, The Negro Artisan (Atlanta, 1902). The use of slave labor in theVirginia and Maryland ironworks and the system of rewarding slaves for “overwork” is discussed in Ronald L. Lewis, “Conciliation andMotivation: Slavery on Chesapeake Iron Plantations Before the American Revolution,” unpublished paper delivered at the 1973 sessionsof the Association for the Study of Afro-American Life and History. An interesting discussion of the use of slave labor in a particularcolonial industry is Joseph A. Goldenberg, “Black Labor in Colonial Shipyards,” unpublished paper delivered at the 1973 sessions of theAssociation for the Study of Afro-American Life and History. Peter Biret's advertisement appeared in the South Carolina Gazette , Nov. 20,1736. The petition of the white shipwrights to the South Carolina Assembly, the report of the committee, and the action of the Assembly,may be found in James Harold Easterby, ed., The Journal of the Commons House of Assembly (Columbia, SC, 1951–1962), 4: 541–550.

The work of the SPG is discussed in Arthur Lyon Cross, The Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies (New York, 1902); EdgarLegare Pennington, Thomas Bray's Associates and their Work Among the Negroes , (Worchester, Mass., 1939); Henry Paget Thompson,Into All Lands: The History of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701–1950 (London, 1951); and Frank J.Klingberg, An Appraisal of the Negro in Colonial South Carolina, A Study in Americanization (Washington, DC, 1941). A summary may befound in Denzil T. Clifton, “Anglicanism and Negro Slavery in Colonial America,” Historical Magazine, Protestant Episcopal Church ,March 1970.

For a picture of Charleston society, see Leila Sellers, Charleston Business on the Eve of the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, 1933). J.Hector St. John Crevecoeur's comment on Charleston society may be found in his Letters from an American Farmer (New York, 1782). Onslave marriage, see Morris Taeplar, The Sociology of Colonial Virginia (New York, 1968). For the episode of “Blackman David,” seeJordan, White Over Black , pp. 209–210, and Leland J. Bellot, “Evangelical Defense of Slavery in Britain's Old Colonial Empire,” Journalof Southern History , 37, Feb. 1971.

9. Slaves and Free Blacks in the Northern Colonies

The only general history of Negro slavery in the Northern colonies is Edgar J. McManus, Black Bondage in the North (Syracuse, NY,1973). Although a useful work, it is too small a treatment of the subject, and it is arranged by subjects and not by individual colonies, sothe student will also want to study the works that deal with particular areas.

Pennsylvania and Delaware

The standard history of the Negro in Pennsylvania is Edward R. Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, Slavery-Servitude-Freedom. 1639–1861 (Washington, DC, 1911). He is also the author of “Slavery in Colonial Pennsylvania,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History andBiography , 36, 1912. Turner's masterful studies have been supplemented by Darold Duane Wax, “The Negro Slave Trade in ColonialPennsylvania” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1962). Several of the chapters have already appeared in print: “NegroImports into Pennsylvania, 1720–1766,” Pennsylvania History , 32, July 1965; “The Demand for Slave Labor in Colonial Pennsylvania,”ibid. , 34, Oct. 1967; and “Quaker Merchants and the Slave Trade in Colonial Pennsylvania,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History andBiography , 86, 1962. An interesting discussion of the limited need for slave labor in Pennsylvania is Alan Tully, “Patterns of Slaveholdingin Colonial Pennsylvania: Chester and Lancaster Counties 1729–1758,” Journal of Social History , Spring 1973. The use of Negro slavesin Philadelphia and the growth of the institution in that city is examined in detail in the important study, Gary B. Nash, “Slaves andSlaveowners in Colonial Philadelphia,” William and Mary Quarterly , 3d Series, 30, Apr. 1973. The employment of slaves in the ironindustry is discussed in Joseph E. Walker, “Negro Labor in the Charcoal Iron Industry of Southeastern Pennsylvania,” PennsylvaniaMagazine of History and Biography , 93, Oct. 1969. Negro slave craftsmen are discussed in Leonard P. Stavisky, “Negro Craftsmen inEarly America,” America Historical Review , 54, 1949, and Carl Bridenbaugh, The Colonial Craftsman (New York, 1950). White servitudeis analyzed in Chessman A. Herrick, White Servitude in Pennsylvania: Indentured and Redemption Labor in Colony and Commonwealth(Philadelphia, 1926). The Quaker attitude toward slavery is discussed at length in Thomas E. Drake, Quakers and Slavery in America(New Haven, Conn., 1950), and more briefly in Herbert Aptheker, “The Quakers and Negro Slavery,” Journal of Negro History , 25, 1940.For Pastor Acrelius' comment on the mildness of slavery in Pennsylvania, see Israel Acrelius, A History of New Sweden; o. TheSettlements on the River Delaware (Philadelphia, 1874), For Oberholtzer's discussion of the legal status of slaves and free blacks, seeEllis P. Oberholtzer, Philadelphia: A History of the City and its People, A Record of 225 Years (Philadelphia, 1912), Vol. 1.

For the banning of slavery and the importation of slaves in New Sweden, see Israel Acrelius, History of New Sweden (Philadelphia,1874); John Franklin Jameson, William Usselinx (New York, 1887); and Joseph J. Mackley, “Some Account of William Usselinx,”Historical Society of Delaware Papers , 3, 1881. Charles Shorter, “Slavery in Delaware” (MA thesis, Howard University, 1934), devotesseveral sections to the colonial period.

Nueva York

Although it does not deal with the everyday life of the slave and contains little about the free Negro, the best study of the Negro in colonialNew York is Edgar J. McManus, A History of Negro Slavery in New York (Syracuse, NY, 1966). Earlier, though inadequate, works areEdwin V. Morgan, Slavery in New York (Washington, DC, 1891), and Ansel J. Northrup, Slavery in New York (Albany, 1900). Still worthconsulting is Samuel McKee, Labor in Colonial New York, 1664–1776 (New York, 1935). Specialized studies include William R. Riddell,“The Slave in Early New York,” Journal of Negro History , 13, Jan. 1928; Leo H. Hirsch, Jr., “The Negro in New York, 1783–1865,” ibid .,15, 1931; AG Lindsay, “The Negro in New York Prior to 1861,” ibid ., 6, 1917; Henry McCloskey, “Slavery on Long Island,” BrooklynCommon Council Manual , 1864; Aaron H. Payne, “The Negro in New York Prior to 1860,” Howard Review , 1, 1923; Frank J. Klingberg,“The SPG Program for Negroes in Colonial New York,” Historical Magazine of the Protestant Episcopal Church , 8, 1939. The slavestatutes of colonial New York are discussed in Julius Goebel and T. Naughton, Law Enforcement in Colonial New York (New York, 1944),and Edward Olsen, “The Slave Code in Colonial New York,” Journal of Negro History , 29, Apr. 1944. Olsen also has a study entitled“Social Aspects of Slave Life in New York,” Journal of Negro History , 26, Jan. 1941. A readable summary of slavery in New York may befound in the first two chapters of Roi Ottley and William J. Weatherby, eds., The Negro in New York: An Informal Social History (New York,1967). The book is edited from manuscripts in the Schomburg Collection of Negro Literature and History, which were originally preparedby the Federal Writers Project.

Nueva Jersey

The establishment of slavery in New Jersey is discussed in Richard McCormick, New Jersey from Colony to State, 1609–1789 (Princeton,NJ, 1964). The development of slavery in the colony is described in Henry S. Cooley, A Study of Slavery in New Jersey (Baltimore, 1896);James C. Connolly, “Slavery in Colonial New Jersey and the Causes Cooperating Against its Extension,” Proceedings of the New JerseyHistorical Society , 3d Series, 10; AO Keasby, “Slavery in New Jersey,” ibid ., 5; Hubert F. Schmidt, Slavery and Attitudes on Slavery inHunterdon, NJ . (Flemington, NJ, 1941). For statistics on the growth of the slave population, see Simeon F. Moss, “The Persistence ofSlavery and Involuntary Servitude in a Free States, 1685–1866,” Journal of Negro History , 35. The history of slavery in the late colonialperiod is well summarized in Atalanta Brown Lipscomb, “The Status of the Negro in New Jersey during the Period 1763–1804” (MAthesis, Columbia University, 1942).

The use of slaves in the ironworks and as craftsmen is discussed in Charles S. Boyer, Early Forges and Furnaces in New Jersey(Philadelphia, 1931), and Leonard Stavisky, “The Origins of Negro Craftsmanship in Colonial America,” Journal of Negro History , 32.Comments on the mild nature of slavery in New Jersey will be found in EP Chase, trans., Our Revolutionary Forefathers: The Letters ofFrançois Marquis de Barbé-Marbois, 1779–1785 (New York, 1929), and Peter Kalm, Travels in North America (New York, 1932). For thepetition to the Queen asking repeal of the Regulating Act of 1704, see New Jersey Archives , 1st Series, 3: 473. For the legal status of theNegro in New Jersey, see Marian T. Wright, “New Jersey Laws and the Negro,” Journal of Negro History , 28, Apr. 1943. She is also theauthor of Education of Negroes in New Jersey (New York, 1941), and “Negro Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776–1785,” Journal of NegroHistory , 33, 1948.

The only study of the free Negro in New Jersey is Laura Foner, “The Free Negro in New Jersey” (unpublished seminar paper, GraduateHistory Department, Rutgers University, 1966). The mixed racial community of Gouldtown is discussed in William Steward andTheophilus G. Steward, Gouldtown, A Very Remarkable Settlement of Ancient Date (Philadelphia, 1913). The career of John Chavis isdiscussed in Sherman W. Savage, “The Influence of John Chavis and Lunsford Lane on the History of North Carolina.” Journal of Negro

History , 25. See also the sketch of Chavis in the Dictionary of American Biography .

The New England Colonies

The position of the Negro in New England during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries has been studied by only one historian:Lorenzo J. Greene, whose The Negro in Colonial New England, 1620–1776 was published in 1942. It is still the only comprehensivetreatment of the subject. A more critical view of the position of the slave in New England, especially in Massachusetts, and still the beststudy of slavery in that colony, is George H. Moore, Notes on Slavery in Massachusetts (New York, 1866). The slave trade in NewEngland is discussed in WEB DuBois, The Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States (New York, 1896); Lorenzo M.Greene, “Slaveholding New England and its Awakening,” Journal of Negro History , 13, Oct. 1928. Still worth consulting is William B.Weeden, “The Early African Slave Trade in New England,” Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society , New Series, 5, 1889. Agood summary of the legal status of the Negro in Massachusetts, but otherwise rather uncritical in its approach to slavery and the freeNegro, is Robert C. Towmbly and Robert M. Moore, “Black Puritan: “The Negro in Seventeenth Century Massachusetts,” William andMary Quarterly Review , Apr. 1967. Slavery in Massachusetts is also the subject of an unpublished doctoral dissertation, Lawrence W.Towner, “A Good Master Well Served: A Social History of Servitude in Massachusetts, 1620–1750” (Northwestern University, 1954), andan unpublished 1955 MA thesis at Columbia University, Marilyn Anne Lavin, “The Negroes of the Old Colony.” Indian slavery in NewEngland is duscussed in Alden T. Vaughan, New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 1620–1675 (Boston, 1965). Relations betweenIndians and Negroes are discussed in Carter G. Woodson, “The Relation of Negroes and Indians in Massachusetts,” Journal of NegroHistory , 5, 1920, and Kenneth W. Porter, “Relations between Negroes and Indians within the Present Limits of the United States,” ibid .,17, 1932.

For the other New England colonies, see William Johnston, Slavery in Rhode Island, 1755–1776 (Providence, 1894); Edward Channing,The Narragnnsett Planters (Baltimore, 1886); Charles A. Battle, Negroes in the Island of Rhode Island (Newport, 1932); William D.Johnston, “Slavery in Rhode Island, 1755–1776,” Rhode Island Historical Society Publications , New Series II, July 1894; JP Parker,“Slavery in Rhode Island” (MA thesis, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, 1954); Bernard C. Steiner, A History of Slavery in Connecticut(Baltimore, 1893); Louise G. Griswold, “Slavery in Connecticut” (MA thesis, Columbia University, 1950); and Robert A. Warner, NewHaven Negroes: A Social History (New Haven, Conn., 1940). Also useful for Connecticut slavery are two autobiographies by formerConnecticut slaves: Venture Smith, Narrative of the Life and Adventure of Venture Smith, an african; but Resident above Sixty Years inthe United States of America, Related by Himself (Hartford, Conn., 1798), and John Mars, Life of John Mars, A Slave Born and Sold inConnecticut, Written by Himself (Hartford, Conn., 1864). For separation of families in New Hampshire, see Charles E. Clark, The EasternFrontier — The Settlement of Northern New England, 1610–1763 (New York, 1970), p. 350. For the petition of Massachusetts blacks tothe legislature in 1774, see Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States (New York, 1951). Forthe laws relating to slaves and free Negroes in the militia, see “The Negro in Military Service of the United States: A Compilation ofRecords, State Papers, Historical Extracts, etc. Relating to his Military Service and Status from the date of his introduction in British NorthAmerica,” Chapter 1, National Archives, Microfilm Copy. For the rules of the Society of Negroes organized by Cotton Mather, see ThomasJames Holmes, Cotton Mather: A Bibliography of His Works (Cambridge, Mass., 1940), Vol. 3.

The description of the parade and dinner following the election of the “African Governor” in Connecticut appears in Orville H. Platt, “NegroGovernors of Connecticut,” New Haven Historical Magazine , 6, 1900.

The Northern Colonies: An Overview

The most detailed treatment of the refusal of British colonists to distinguish Negroes from mulattoes is Winthrop D. Jordan, “AmericanChicaroscuro: The Status and Definition of Mulattoes in the British Colonies,” William and Mary Quarterly , 3d Series, 19, Apr. 1962, andthe discussion in his White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550–1812 , For Orlando Patterson's description of theracial system categories in America, Latin America, and the West Indies, see his article, “Toward a future that has no past—reflections onthe fate of Blacks in the Americas,” The Public Interest , Spring 1972.

10. Slave Resistance in Colonial AmericaFugitive Slaves

Nearly every monograph dealing with slavery in a specific colony contains some information on fugitive slaves. However, for a generaldiscussion of the runaway slave in colonial America, see EE Preston, Jr., “Genesis of the Underground Railroad,” Journal of NegroHistory , 18, Jan. 1933. Descriptions of advertisements for runaways in the colonial newspapers are “Eighteenth Century Slaves asAdvertised by their Masters,” Journal of Negro History , 1, Apr. 1916; Lorenzo J. Greene, “The New England Negro as Seen inAdvertisements for Runaway Slaves,” ibid ., 29, 1944; and Darold D. Wax, “The Image of the Negro in the Maryland Gazette, 1745–74,”Journalism Quarterly , Spring 1969. For the assistance of the colonial governments in recapturing runaways, see Arthur P. Scott, CriminalLaw in Colonial Virginia (Chicago, 1930); Jeffrey R. Brackett, The Negro in Maryland (Baltimore, 1889); Lorenzo M. Greene, The Negro inColonial New England, 1620–1776 (New York, 1942); and Edgar J. McManus, A History of Negro Slavery in New York (Syracuse, 1966).For the estimate of runaway slaves in Massachusetts, see Lawrence W. Towner, “A Fondness for Freedom: Servant Protest in PuritanSociety,” William and Mary Quarterly , 3d Series, 19, Apr. 1962. Gerald W. Mullin's estimate of runaway slaves in Virginia newspaperadvertisements is in his Flight and Rebellion: Slave Resistance in Eighteenth Century Virginia (New York, 1972), p. 40.

The following are important for the role of Florida under Spain and Indian-Negro relations: Verner W. Crane, The Southern Frontier,1670–1732 (Durham, NC, 1928); John Lee Williams, The Territory of Florida (Gainsville, Fla., 1962); Kenneth Wiggins Porter, “Negroeson the Southern Frontier, Journal of Negro History , 33, Jan. 1948; Laurence Foster, Negro-Indian Relationships in the Southeast(Philadelphia, 1935); and Lois Katz Brown, “Negro-Indian Relations in the Southern United States, 1526–1890” (MA thesis, University ofToledo, 1968). For Mose, see IA Wright, “Dispatches of Spanish Officials on the Free Negro Settlements of Garcia Ereal de Santa Teresade Mose,” Journal of Negro History , 9, Apr. 1924; Eugene P. Southall, “Negroes in Florida Prior to the Civil War,” ibid ., 19, Jan. 1934;and Leedell W. Neyland, “The Free Negro in Florida,” Negro History Bulletin , 29, Nov. 1965. The Maroon colonies are discussed inHerbert Aptheker, To Be Free: Studies in American Negro Slavery (New York, 1948). For Williams' statement of 1735, see Virginia

Magazine of History and Biography 9 (1902): 226.

For the controversy among historians on black-Indian relations, see Laurence Foster, Negro-Indian Relations in the Southeast(Philadelphia, 1935); Kenneth W. Porter, The Negro on the American Frontier (New York, 1971); Gary B. Nash, “African-Indian Contact,”in Red, White and Black: The Peoples of Early America (New York, 1974), pp. 290–97; Lerone Bennett, Jr., “The Road Not Taken;Colonies Turn Fateful Fork by Systematically Dividing the Races,” Ebony , 25, Aug. 1970; William S. Willis, “Divide and Rule: Red, Whiteand Black in the Southeast,” Journal of Negro History , 48, July, 1963, and William GM Loughlin, “Red Indians, Black Slavery and WhiteRacism: America's Slaveholding Indians,” American Quarterly , XXVI, Oct. 1974.

Other Forms of Resistance

Every study of slavery in colonial America has information on slave thefts, arson, and use of poison by slaves, and reports of murders ofowners and overseers by bondsmen. See also the studies of advertisements by Greene and Wax cited above. An important source forslave resistance, although most of the evidence relates to the post-Revolutionary period, is Helen C. Catterall, ed., Judicial CasesConcerning American Slavery and the Negro , Vols. 1–4 (Washington, DC, 1926–1937). The evidence in this work is summarized inMarion J. Russell, “American Slave Discontent in Records of the High Courts,” Journal of Negro History , 31, 1946. The statistics of blacksexecuted in North Carolina, 1751–1770, are from the Records of the Contingency Fund. I am indebted to Dr. Michael Kay for calling myattention to this source. For the description of the cruel execution of the slave in South Carolina, see Hector Saint John de Crévecoeur,Letters from an American Farmer (New York, 1912), p. 173.

Conspiracies and Revolts

The pioneer study of slave conspiracies and revolt in America is Joshua Coffin, An Account of Some of the Principal Slave Insurrections,and Others, which have occurred, or been attempted, in the United States and elsewhere, with various remarks (New York, 1860). (Thestudy was originally published in 1833 as an appendix to Amos A. Phelps, Letters on Slavery.) This should be supplemented with thesame author's A Sketch of the Historv of Newburv, Newburypon, and West Newburv from 1636–1845 (Boston, 1845). The indispensablemodern source for slave conspiracies and revolts in colonial America is Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York,1943). Briefer accounts may be found in Harvey Wish, “American Slave Insurrections before 1861,” Journal of Negro History , 22, July1937, and in Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black , Chapter 3, “Anxious Oppressors.” A statistical analysis of slave revolts, some of itcovering the colonial period, is Marion D. de B. Kilson, “Towards Freedom: An Analysis of Slave Revolts in the United States,” Phylon, 25, Spring 1964.

The letter from Charleston, Sept. 28, 1739, was first published in the National Anti-Slavery Standard , Sept. 10, 1846. The other account ofthe Stono revolt quoted is Edwin C. Holland, ed., A Refutation of the Calumnies Circulated Against the Southern and Western States,Respecting the Institution and Existence of Slavery Among Them (Charleston, NC, 1822), pp. 70–71. See also “An Account of the NegroInsurrection in South Carolina,” in Allen D. Chandler, ed., The Colonial Records of the State of Georgia, 1732–1782 , 26 vols. (Atlanta,1904–1916), Vol. 22, Part 2. RH Taylor's article “Slave Conspiracies in North Carolina,” North Carolina Historical Review 5, 1928,contains very little on the colonial period.

The best study of the New York slave revolt of 1712 is Kenneth Scott, “The Slave Insurrection in New York in 1712,” New York HistoricalSociety Quarterly , 44, 1961. For the panic in New York in 1741, see Richard B. Morris, Government and Labor in Early America (NewYork, 1946); T. Wood Clarke, “The Negro Plot of 1741,” New York History , 25, 1944; Walter F. Prince, “New York 'Negro Plot' of 1741,”New Haven (Conn.) Sunday Chronicle , June 28–Aug. 23, 1902, copy in New York Public Library; Ference M. Szasz, “The New YorkSlave Revolt of 1741; A Re-Examination,” New York History , 48, 1966; and Thomas J. Davis, “The New York Slave Conspiracy of 1741as Black Protest,” Journal of Negro History , 56, Jan. 1971. The best contemporary source is Daniel Horsmanden, A Journal of theProceedings in the Detection of the Conspiracy Formed by Some White People, in Conjunction with Negro and Other Slaves for Burningthe City of New York in America and Murdering the Inhabitants … (New York, 1744). Extracts from this work appear in Malcolm Ross, “AllManners of Men,” Negro Digest , June 1940. The entire work was reprinted in 1969.

The New Jersey slave plot of 1734 is discussed rather confusingly by Lester W. Perrin, “The Slave Plot of 1734,” manuscript copy inRutgers University Library.

11. Antislavery in Colonial AmericaThere are unfortunately no good, scholarly biographies of the great Quaker protesters Lay, Woolman, and Benezet. The following,however, contain useful information: Robert Vaux, Memoirs of the Lives of Benjamin Lay and Ralph Sandiford (Philadelphia, 1815); C.Brightwen Rowntree, “Benjamin Lay,” Journal of the Friends' Historical Society , 33, 1936; Janet Whitney, John Woolman, AmericanQuaker (Boston, 1942). These should be supplemented by The Journal and Major Essays of John Woolman , ed. Philips P. Moulton (NewYork, 1971); George Brooks, Friend Anthony Benezet (Philadelphia, 1937); Leonard C. Lashley, “Anthony Benezet and his Anti-SlaveryActivities” (Ph.D. dissertation, Fordham University, 1939); Jean S. Straub, “Anthony Benezet: Teacher and Abolitionist of the EighteenthCentury,” Quaker History , Jan. 1970.; and Robert A. Brunn, “Anthony Benezet and the Rights of the Negro,” Pennsylvania Magazine ofHistory and Biography , 96, Jan. 1972. An interesting recent discussion of Quaker antislavery with special emphasis on John Woolmanmay be found in Part 3 of David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, NY, 1966). John Quasmine's letter toMoses Brown, 6 June 1776, is in the Moses Brown Papers, 2, No. 461, Rhode Island Historical Society.

12. Antislavery in Revolutionary AmericaImpact of the Enlightenment

An important discussion of the Enlightenment as a source of antislavery thought is in David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery inWestern Culture (Ithaca, NY, 1966). Also worth consulting is Edward D. Seeber, Anti-Slavery Opinion in France During the Second Half ofthe Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 1937). Montesquieu's writings on slavery may be found in Complete Works of Montesquieu ,translated from the French (London, 1777). For John Locke's views, see The Works of John Locke (London, 1714), Vol. 1, and for those of

Adam Smith one should consult his Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments , towhich is added A Dissertation on the Origin of Languages (London, 1767). Useful discussions can be found in Elie Halévy, The Growth ofPhilosophical Radicalism , trans. Mary Morris (Boston, 1955), and JB Bury, The Idea of Progress: an Inquiry into its Origin and Growth(New York, 1955). The contradictory nature of Montesquieu's influence on the slavery controversy is discussed in FTH Fletcher,“Montesquieu's Influence on Anti-Slavery Opinion in England,” Journal of Negro History , 18, Oct. 1933.

For discussions of natural rights and the Negro, the following are useful: Mary S. Locke, Anti-Slavery in America (Boston, 1901); WilliamF. Poole, Anti-Slavery Before the Year 1800 (Cincinnati, 1873); George H. Moore, Notes on the History of Slavery in Massachusetts (NewYork, 1866); Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in The American Revolution (Chapel Hill, NC, 1961); James F. Jameson, The AmericanRevolution Considered as a Social Movement (Princeton, NJ, 1940); Michael Kraus, “Slavery Reform in the Eighteenth Century: AnAspect of Trans-Atlantic Intellectual Cooperation,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography , 60, 1936; and Bernard Bailyn, TheIdeological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1967).

Negro Petitions; Benjamin Rush; the Slave Trade

Negro petitions are presented in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States (New York,1951); Moore, op. cit.; and “Negro Petitions for Freedom,” Massachusetts Historical Society Collections , 5th Series, 3, 1877.

Benjamin Rush's views on slavery can be studied in The Autobiography of Benjamin Rush , ed. George W. Corner (Princeton, NJ, 1948);LH Butterfield, ed., Letters of Benjamin Rush (Princeton, NJ, 1951); and David J. D'Elia, “Dr. Benjamin Rush and the Negro,” Journal ofthe History of Ideas , 30, July–Sept. 1969.

Thomas Paine's essays on slavery and the slave trade are published in Philip S. Foner, The Complete Writings of Thomas Paine (NewYork, 1945), Vol. 2. For actions against the slave trade the best source is still WEB DuBois, The Suppression of the Slave Trade to theUnited States of America, 1638–1870 (Cambridge, Mass., 1896; reprinted, New York, 1970). Also worth consulting is Peter Duignan andClarence Clendenen, The United States and the African Slave Trade, 1619–1862 (Stanford, Cal., 1963).

For advertisements indicating that runaway slaves were heading for England after learning of Lord Mansfield's decision in the Somersettcase, see Gerald W. Mullin, Flight and Rebellion: Slave Resistance in Eighteenth-Century Virginia (New York, 1972).

The First Abolitionist Society

For the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, see Edward R. Turner, “The First Abolition Society in the UnitedStates,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography , 26, 1912. For Benjamin Franklin and the school for Negro children inPhiladelphia, see Richard I. Schelling, “Benjamin Franklin and the Dr. Bray Associates,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History andBiography , 13, Jan. 1939, and for Franklin's views on slavery see Verner W. Crane, “Benjamin Franklin on Slavery and AmericanLiberties,” ibid ., 62, Jan. 1938, William E. Juhnke, “Benjamin Franklin's View of the Negro and Slavery,” Pennsylvania History , 41, Oct.1974.

The use of Negroes in the colonial militia during wartime is discussed in Benjamin Quarles, “The Colonial Militia and Negro Manpower,”Mississippi Valley Historical Review , 45, Mar. 1959. See also advertisements for fugitive slaves who fought in the colonial wars and hadserved as privateers in Journal of Negro History , 1, Apr. 1916. The participation of Negroes in the battles of Lexington and Concord andBunker Hill is discussed in Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, NC, 1961); Herbert Aptheker, TheNegro in the American Revolution (New York, 1940); Frank W. Coburn, The Battle of April 19, 1775 (Lexington, Mass., 1912); and DavidE. Phillips, “Negroes in the American Revolution,” Journal of American History , 5, 1911. John R. Alden's A History of the AmericanRevolution (New York, 1969) has been called by Professor Jack P. Green “the best one-volume history of the Revolution written thus far.”But it has no room in its lengthy discussion of the battles of Lexington and Concord and Bunker Hill for Negro participation. On Trumbull'spainting of the Battle of Bunker Hill, see EH Silver, “Painter of the Revolution,” American Heritage , 9, 1958. The question of whether PeterSalem fired the shot that killed Major Pitcairn is a disputed one, but most authorities accept it as accurate.

Lord Dunmore's Black Regiment

The best treatment of Lord Dunmore's proclamation to the slaves and its consequences is the chapter “Lord Dunmore's EthiopianRegiment” in Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution . Another study which can be consulted is Francis L. Berkeley, Jr.,Dunmore's Proclamation of Emancipation (Charlottesville, Va., 1941). For the effects of the proclamation and Dunmore's black regimenton Maryland and Virginia planters, see Merrill Jensen, “The American People and the American Revolution,” Journal of American History, 57, June 1970, and Tad W. Tate, “The Coming of the Revolution in Virginia: Britain's Challenge to Virginia's Ruling Class, 1763–1776,”William and Mary Quarterly , 3d Series, 19, June 1962. For George Washington's changing position on recruiting Negroes in theContinental Army, the best account is Walter H. Mazyck, George Washington and the Negro (Washington, DC, 1932).

The most complete collection of materials relating to the Negro in colonial wars, in the Battle of Lexington and Concord and the Battle ofBunker Hill, and also dealing with Lord Dunmore's proclamation and its effects, is “The Negro in the Military Services of the United States:A Compilation of Official Records, State Papers, Historical Records, etc.,” Chapters 1 and 2, National Archives, Washington, DC

Declaración de la Independencia

The antislavery activity of Reverend Samuel Hopkins and Moses Brown is discussed in W. Patten, Reminiscences of the Late ReverendSamuel Hopkins (Boston, 1843); Mack Thompson, Moses Brown, Reluctant Reformer (Chapel Hill, NC, 1962); James F. Reilly, “MosesBrown and the Rhode Island Anti-Slavery Movement” (MA thesis, Brown Univeristy, 1939); Arline Ruth Kiven, “The Nature and Course ofthe Anti-Slavery Movement in Rhode Island, 1637–1861” (MA thesis, Brown University, 1965); and Norman S. Fiering, “The Anti-SlaveryActivities of Samuel Hopkins, DD (1721–1803)” (MA thesis, Columbia University, 1953). For Hopkins' Dialogue , see Samuel Hopkins, ADialogue Concerning the Slavery of the Africans (Norwich, Conn., 1776), which also includes Hopkins' letter to the Continental Congressaccompanying his Dialogue . The Dialogue also appears in Samuel Hopkins, Timely Articles on Slavery (Boston, 1854).

Thomas Jefferson's views on slavery have been fully analyzed in many studies. The most recent, and one of the most penetrating, isWilliam Cohen, “Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Slavery,” Journal of American History , 56, Dec. 1969. Valuable discussions mayalso be found in Matthew T. Mellon, Early American Views on Negro Slavery: From the Letters and Papers of the Founders of theRepublic (Boston, 1934); the chapter on Jefferson in Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550–1812 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1968); and Robert McCooley, Slavery and Jeffersonian Virginia (Urbana, Ill., 1964). For a defense of Jefferson fornot having manumitted his slaves, see Dumas Malone, Jefferson and His Times (Boston, 1948–1962), especially Vol. 3. For J. FranklinJameson's query, see his The American Revolution Considered as a Social Movement (Princeton, NJ,, 1926).

The inscription on John Jack's gravestone is published in George Tolman, John Jack, the Slave, and Daniel Bliss, the Tory (Concord,Mass., 1902), p. 4.

14. Black Soldiers and Sailors in the War for IndependenceBlacks and the Continental Army

The jingle on the complexion of the American army is in John Herbert Nelson, “The Negro Character in American Literature,” Bulletin ofthe University of Kansas: Humanistic Studies , 4, No. 1 (Lawrence, 1926), p. 18. A good description of the desperate plight of theContinental Army in the early years of the war may be found in Willard M. Wallace, Appeal to Arms: A Military History of the AmericanRevolution (New York, 1951), Chapters 4 and 7. For the steps leading up to the formation of the Rhode Island black battalion, includingthe correspondence of generals Varnum and Washington and Governor Cooke, the act of the legislature and the protest of the dissenters,see “The Negro in the Military Service of the United States, 1639–1887,” pp. 116–125, 284–286; for the repeal of the act of February1778, see p. 138. Much of this material is summarized in Lorenzo J. Greene, “Some Observations on the Black Regiment of Rhode Islandin the American Revolution,” Journal of Negro History , 37, Apr. 1952. For the battles in which the black battalion engaged and the praiseof the battalion by Lieutenant Colonel Volney, see “The Negro in the Military Service of the United States, 1639–1887,” pp. 192, 219,286–289; Greene, op. cit.; and Paul Barnett, “The Black Continentals,” Negro History Bulletin , 33, Jan. 1970. The discussion ofenlistments in Connecticut, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, and Maryland is based on “The Negro in the Military Service ofthe United States, 1639–1887,” pp. 130–142, 174, 187–189, 194–196, 290–192, 295; and Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the AmericanRevolution (Chapel Hill, NC, 1961), pp. 52–57. For the black legion of Saint Domingue in the battle of Savannah, see TG Steward, “Howthe Black St. Domingo Legion Saved the Patriot Army in the Siege of Savannah, 1779,” Occasional Papers, No. 5 , the American NegroAcademy, Washington, DC, 1899.

For the situation in Virginia, see “The Negro in the Military Service of the United States, 1639–1887,” pp. 160, 179, 293–294; and Quarles,op. cit. , pp. 57–58. For the black Indians, see Harold Preece, “Black Indians,” Negro History Week, 1959 (New York, 1959), p. 8. For theaction of the Virginia Assembly freeing slaves of masters who went back on their promises, see Virginia Historical Magazine , 11: 308,and for the letter of Lafayette to Jefferson, see ibid. , 5: 377. The letter of Colonel Woodling to his superiors is in “Belknap-Tucker Letters,”Massachusetts Historical Society Collections , 5th Series, 3 (Boston, 1877), p. 406.

The South and Arming of Blacks

The discussion of Colonel John Laurens' plan to arm the slaves of South Carolina and Georgia, the Congressional recommendation tothese states to do so, and the reaction of both state governments, including the correspondence of Laurens, Hamilton, Washington,Rutledge, Greene, and others, is based on material in “The Negro in the Military Service of the United States, 1639–1887,” pp. 153–159,170, 181–185, 201–203; Pete Maslowski, “National Policy Toward the Use of Black Troops in the Revolution,” South Carolina HistoricalMagazine , 77, Jan. 1972; David Duncan Wallace, The Life of Henry Laurens (New York, 1915), pp. 448—452; Quarles, op. cit. , pp. 60–67. For “Sumter's Law,” see Richard B. Morris, The American Revolution Reconsidered (New York, 1968), p. 76.

For the British use of slaves and their reluctance to arm them, see Quarles, op. cit. , pp. 111–157. The correspondence of Lord Dunmorewith General Henry Clinton and Lord Germain in which he outlined his plan to arm ten thousand blacks is in “The Negro in the MilitaryService of the United States, 1639–1887,” pp. 206–214, 220. The comment of J. Hammond Trumbull on the difficulty of determining thenumber of blacks who enlisted in Conneticut battalions is in ibid. , p. 291. The figure on the number of free Negro soldiers inMassachusetts is based on FB Heitman, Historical Register of Officers of the Continental Army (Washington, DC, 1914). For the story ofMoses Sash, see Sidney Kaplan, “A Negro Veteran in Shays' Rebellion,” Journal of Negro History , 33, Apr. 1948.

Black Sailors

The best discussion of black sailors during the war both for the Patriots and the British is in Quarles, op. cit. , pp. 84–93, 152–156. A briefdiscussion is in Herbert Aptheker, “Negroes Who Served in Our First Navy,” Opportunity , Apr. 1940. For use by Americans of blacks whowere captured from British naval vessels, see also “The Negro in the Military Service of the United States, 1639–1887,” 144–145, 161–163. For James Forten's service on the privateer and his experiences on the prison ship, see Ray Allen Billington, “James Forten:Forgotten Abolitionist,” Negro History Bulletin , 13, Nov. 1949.

Freedom for Wartime Service

The story of Deborah Gannett is related in Julia Ward Stickley, “The Records of Deborah Sampson Gannett, Woman Soldier of theRevolution,” Prologue, 4 , Winter 1972.

The “Antibiastes” broadsheet was entitled Observations on the Slaves and Indentured Servants, inlisted in the Army, and the Navy of theUnited States (Philadelphia, 1777). For Washington's grant of freedom to William Lee, see William C. Nell, The Colored Patriots of theAmerican Revolution… , Boston, 1855. The full text of the Virginia law granting a pension to George McCoy appears in New National Era, 12 June 1873.

For the story of Ned Griffin, see Herbert Aptheker, “Edward Griffin, Revolutionary Soldier,” Negro History Bulletin , 13, Nov. 1949. Theefforts of the Southern planters to obtain compensation for the slaves taken by the British and the refusal of Jay to press their claims is

discussed in Samuel F. Bemis, Jay's Treaty (New Haven, Conn., 1962), and in Richard B. Morris, The Peacemakers: The Great Powersand American Independence (New York, 1965). For the complaint of Virginians in 1781, see Petition from Henrico County, 1784, VirginiaLegislative Papers, Virginia State Library, Richmond. The story of the Nova Scotia blacks and their settlement in Sierra Leone issummarized in Quarles, op. cit. , pp. 177–181. A more detailed account is Adams G. Archibald, “Story of the Deportation of Negroes fromNova Scotia to Sierra Leone,” Nova Scotia Historical Society, Collections , 7, 1889–1891. See also Earl Leslie Griggs, Thomas Clarkson,the Friend of the Slaves (London, 1936), pp. 66–68, and Mary Beth Norton, “The Fate of Some Black Loyalists of the AmericanRevolution,” Journal of Negro History , 58, Oct. 1973.

15. Abolition of Slavery and the Slave Trade in the NorthNew England

The statement of Virginia slave-owners on liberty and property is dated Nov. 10, 1785, Virginia Legislative Papers.

On the abolition of slavery in Vermont and New Hampshire, see John H. Watson, “In Re Vermont Constitution of 1777… ,” Proceedings ofthe Vermont Historical Society , 1919–1920; Isaac W. Hammond, “Slavery in New Hampshire,” Magazine of American History , 21. 1889.The text of the petition of slaves in Connecticut is in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the UnitedStates (New York, 1950), 10–12; For the abolition of slavery and the slave trade in Connecticut, see Bernard C. Steiner, “History ofSlavery in Connecticut,” Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science , 11, 1893; Jeffrey R. Brackett, “The Status ofthe Slave, 1775–1789,” in J. Franklin Jameson, ed., Essays in the Constitutional History of the United States (Boston, 1889), pp. 296–297;Revolutionary War Archives , 1763–1789, 37: 231, 252; Connecticut Colonial Official Papers, 1631–1780 , collected by Gov. JonathanTrumbull, 13:186–288; Jonathan Edwards, The Injustice and Impolicy of the Slave Trade and of the Slavery of the Africans (Newburyport,Mass., 1834); and Theodore Dwight, An Oration Spoken Before the Connecticut Society for the Promotion of Freedom and the Relief ofPersons Held in Bondage (1794).

The discussion of gradual emancipation in Rhode Island is based on the following sources: Petitions to the Rhode Island GeneralAssembly, 1783, 20: 102, Rhode Island Archives, Providence; Moses Brown to Samuel Hopkins, Mar. 3, 1784; Samuel Hopkins to MosesBrown, Apr. 29, 1787, Moses Brown Papers, vol. 4, folder 72, and vol. 5, folders 6, 11; Rhode Island Historical Society; Mack Thompson,Moses Brown, Reluctant Reformer (Chapel Hill, NC, 1962), pp. 77–84; Arthur Zilversmit, The First Emancipation: The Abolition of Slaveryin the North (Chicago, 1967), pp. 116–118.

The text of the petition of Massachusetts blacks is in Aptheker, op. cit. , pp. 9–10; for the names of the signers, see George H. Moore,Notes on the History of Slavery in Massachusetts (New York, 1886), p. 181. For the letter of the legislature to Congress, see Zilversmit, op.cit. , p. 111. The traditional view that slavery was abolished in Massachusetts by court decision is set forth in Arthur Zilversmit, “QuockWalker, Mumbet and the Abolition of Slavery in Massachusetts,” William and Mary Quarterly , 25, Oct. 1968. The challenge to thisinterpretation is presented in Elaine MacEacheren, “Emancipation of Slavery in Massachusetts: A reexamination, 1770–1790,” Journal ofNegro History , 55, Oct. 1970. For the details of the litigation in the six cases involving Quock Walker, see Moore, op. cil. , pp. 211–219;John D. Cushing, “The Cushing Court and the Abolition of Slavery in Massachusetts: More Notes on the Quock Walker Case,” AmericanJournal of Legal History '. Apr. 1961; Robert M. Spector, “The Quock Walker Cases (1781–1783)—Slavery, its Abolition and the NegroCitizenship in Early Massachusetts,” Journal of Negro History , 53, Jan. 1968; Zilversmit, The First Emancipation , pp. 112–115. For thelife of Paul Cuffe, see HN Sherwood, “Paul Cuffe,” Journal of Negro History , 8, Apr. 1923. The petition of the seven blacks of Dartmouth isin Aptheker, op. cit. , pp. 14–16, and that of Paul and John Cuffe to the selectmen of Dartmouth is in William C. Nell, Colored Patriots ofthe Revolution (Boston, 1855). The tribute of Peter Williams, Jr., to the Cuffe brothers is in Philip S. Foner, ed., The Voice of BlackAmerica: Major Speeches of Negroes in the United States, 1797–1971 (New York, 1972), pp. 28–33.

The campaign to end the slave trade in Rhode Island may be traced in the correspondence between Moses Brown and Samuel Hopkinsin the Moses Brown Papers, Rhode Island Historical Society, especially the letters of Brown to Hopkins, May 14, 1784,. and Hopkins toBrown, Nov. 17, 1784, and Aug. 13, 1787. Some of the letters are also in Edward A. Park, The Works of Samuel Hopkins (Boston, 1852),especially 1: 121–123, 158, and in Mack Thompson, op. cit. , 190–195. The following also may be consulted: Arline Ruth Kiven, “TheNature and Course of the Anti-Slavery Movement in Rhode Island, 1637–1861” (MA thesis, Brown University, 1965), and James FrancisReilly, “Moses Brown and the Rhode Island Antislavery Movement” (MA thesis, Brown University, 1941). The essays of “Crito” werepublished in the Providence Gazette of Oct. 16, 23, 1787, and the petition of the New England Friends' Yearly Meeting to the GeneralAssembly in the same paper on Nov. 10, 1787. The text of the law abolishing the slave trade is in Rhode Island Records , 10: 282.

The petition of the New England Yearly Meeting to the Massachusetts legislature is in Moses Brown to the Mass. Committee on Memorialof Friends, Nov. 1, 1787, Moses Brown Papers. For the text of the petition of Massachusetts blacks to the legislature against kidnappingand the slave trade, see Aptheker, op. cil. , pp. 20–21. The petition of Reverend Belknap is discussed in Moore, op. cit. , p. 226, and inLorenzo M. Greene, “Prince Hall: Massachusetts Leader in Crisis,” Freedomways , Summer 1961. Reverend Belknap's comment on theloophole in the Massachusetts act of Mar. 26, 1788 abolishing the the slave trade is in Massachusetts Historical Society Collections , 1stSeries, 4: 205.

The text of the act of 1788 abolishing the slave trade in Connecticut is in Records of the States of Connecticut (Hartford, 1894–1895). 6:472–473. For the act of 1792, see ibid. , 7: 379.

Pennsylvania

The best summary of gradual emancipation in Pennsylvania is Zilversmit, The First Emancipation . An earlier account, which differs insome details from Zilversmit's, is Edward R. Turner, “The Abolition of Slavery in Pennsylvania,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History andBiography , 26, 1912. The career of George Bryan is discussed in Burton A. Konsile, George Bryan and the Constitution of Pennsylvania,1731–1791 , (Philadelphia, 1922). For a discussion of the split among the Germans on abolition, see Owen S. Ireland, “Germans AgainstAbolition: A Minority's View of Slavery in Revolutionary Pennsylvania,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History , 3, Spring 1973. For the text ofthe Executive Council's messages to the Assembly, see Samuel Hazard, ed., Pennsylvania Archives …(Philadelphia, 1852–1856), Vol. 7.

The text of the gradual emancipation act of 1780 is in Pennsylvania Statutes at Large , 10: 67. The battle to modify the act of 1780 isdiscussed in Robert L. Brunhouse, The Counter-Revolution in Pennsylvania, 1776–90 (Harrisburg, Pa., 1942), pp. 98–108. The letter of“Cato” to the Freeman's Journal is quoted in part in Zilversmit, op. cit. , p. 136, but the entire letter is reprinted in Philip S. Foner, “A PleaAgainst Reenslavement,” Pennsylvania History , 29, Apr. 1972. The text of the petition to the General Assembly in 1788 calling for the endof the slave trade in Pennsylvania and other changes in the act of 1780 is in Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography , 15, 1891,and the text of the act of 1788 is in JT Mitchell and Henry Flanders, eds., The Statutes at Large of Pennsylvania from 1682 to 1801(Harrisburg, Pa., 1896–1915), 13: 54. For the role of the Pennsylvania courts in freeing slaves, see Stanley I. Kutler, “PennsylvaniaCourts, the Abolition Act, and Negro Rights,” Pennsylvania History , 30, 1963.

Nueva York

The best general discussions of abolition in New York may be found in Zilversmit, The First Emancipation , Chapters 6 and 7; EdgarMcManus, A History of Negro Slavery in New York (Syracuse, NY, 1966). Chapters 8 and 9; and Edgar McManus, “Antislavery Legislationin New York,” Journal of Negro History , 46, 1961. Zilversmit and McManus do not agree on the question of whether slavery was stillprofitable in New York in the 1780s; the former insists that it was, and the latter argues that the “rapid increase in the supply of free labormade slavery uneconomic.” Zilversmit's evidence is convincing. For the New York State Constitution of 1778, see JS Murphy, InterestingDocuments (Containing the Constitution of New York State with its Amendments) (New York, 1819). The report of the ManumissionSociety in 1786 is in “Minutes,” New York Manumission Society, 1: 21–23, New York Historical Society. The constitution of the Society isalso in the Minutes. For the history of the Society, see Thomas Robert Mosely, “A History of the New York Manumission Society, 1785–1849” (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1963).

Jupiter Hammon's Address to the Negroes of the State of New York , 1787, is in Carter G. Woodson, ed., The Mind of the Negro AsReflected in Letters Written During the Crisis, 1800–1860 (Washington, DC, 1926). See also Stanley Austin Ransom, Jr., America's FirstNegro Poet: The Complete Works of Jupiter Hammon of Long Island (New York, 1970). William Hamilton's statements are in his letter toJohn Jay, Mar. 8, 1796, John Jay Papers, Columbia University Library. For evidence that white workers supported abolition, see Alfred F.Young, The Democratic-Republicans of New York: The Origins 1763–1797 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1967). The comment on slaveadvertisements is in the Forlorn Hope of Apr. 19, 1800.

Nueva Jersey

The long process involved in achieving gradual emancipation in New Jersey is traced in the following sources: Henry Scofield Cooley, “AStudy of Slavery in New Jersey,” Johns Hopkins Studies in Historical and Political Science (Baltimore, 1922); Simeon Moss, “ThePersistence of Slavery and Involuntary Servitude in a Free State (1685–1866),” Journal of Negro History , 35, 1950; Zilversmit, The FirstEmancipation , pp. 142–136, 173–174, 184–193, 220–221. For the New Jersey legislature's request for revision of the Articles ofConfederation, see Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774 –1789 (Washington, DC, 1903–1937), 11: 637–640. On the work ofDavid Cooper, see “Notices of David Cooper,” Friends' Review , 15: 1862–1863. The manuscript copies of the correspondence betweenSamuel Allinson and William Livingston are in the Rutgers University Library. Joseph Bloomfield's optimistic statement of 1794 is in hisletter to Samuel Coates, June 30, 1794, Bloomfield Mss ., New Jersey Historical Society, Newark, NJ The liberation of his slaves byJoseph Bloomfield is discussed in Atalanta Brown Lipscomb, “The Status of the Negro in New Jersey during the Period 1763 to 1804”(MA thesis, Columbia University, 1942), p. 86. The report of the New Jersey Abolition Society of 1798 is in Minutes of the Society, Mss . inthe Quaker Collection, Haverford College, Pennsylvania. The full text of the 1804 petition of the Abolition Society to the New Jerseylegislature is published in the Trenton (NJ) True American , Feb. 6, 1804. The statistics of slaves in New Jersey from 1790 to 1860 may befound in The Negro in New Jersey, Report of a Survey by the Interracial Committee, Dec. 1932 , p. 77. The text of the laws of 1784, 1786,1787 may be found in Laws of the State of New Jersey, December 1703–November 1799 , compiled by William Patterson (Newark, NJ,1800), and the text of the Act of 1804 is in Laws of the State of New Jersey , Compiled and Published under the Authority of theLegislature, by Joseph Bloomfield (Trenton, NJ, 1800–1811). For the abolition of the slave trade in New Jersey and New York, see WEBDuBois, The Suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the United States of America, 1638–1870 (New York, 1970), pp. 239–240.

For the ruling of the Chief Justice of New Jersey in 1846, see New Jersey Reports (Jersey City, 1886), 30: 372–373. The census statisticson the decline of slavery in the middle states are in JD DeBow, Statistical View of the United States and a Compendium of the SeventhCensus (Washington, DC, 1864), p. 82.

Slavery Banned in the Northwest

For James Madison's interpretation of the reasons for the ban on slavery in the Ordinance of 1787, see his letter to Robert Walsh, Nov.27, 1819, in Gaillard Hunt, ed., The Writings of James Madison …(New York, 1900–1910), 9: 9–10. Staughton Lynd's analysis ispresented in his article, “The Compromise of 1787,” Political Science Quarterly' , 81, 1966, and reprinted in his book, Class Conflict,Slavery, and the United States Constitution (Indianapolis, 1967). For the Negro population in 1790, see US Bureau of Census, NegroPopulation of the United States, 1790–1915 (Washington, DC, 1915), p. 51.

The Ordinance of 1787 and the attempt to eliminate the ban against slavery are discussed in Bernice E. Finney, “The Prohibition ofSlavery in the Old Northwest, 1784–1830” (MA thesis, Howard University, 1939); Jacob P. Dunn, ed., “Slavery Petitions and Papers,”Indiana Historical Society Publications , 2, 1895; Jacob P. Dunn, A Redemption from Slavery (Boston and New York, 1888); N. DwightHarris, The History of Negro Servitude in Illinois and of the Slavery Agitation in that State, 1719–1864 , (Chicago, 1904), and FS Philbrick,ed., “The Laws of the Indiana Territory, 1801–1809,” Illinois State Historical Library Collections , 21, Law Series. 2: 1930. The text of thelaws in the Indiana Territory establishing Negro servitude may be found in Emma Lou Thornbrough, “The Negro in Indiana: A Study of aMinority,” Indiana Historical Collections 37, (1957): 8–9.

For John S. Rock's statement, see Philip S. Foner, ed., The Voice of Black America (New York, 1972), p. 206. John Jay's comment is in hisletter to Granville Sharp (1788), in Henry P. Jackson, ed., The Correspondence and the Public Papers of John Jay (New York, 1890–1893), 3: 342. For the celebrations of free blacks in the Southern cities over the abolition of slavery in New York, see Freedom''s Journal ,13, 20 July 1827.

William W. Freehling's position is set forth in his article “The Founding Fathers and Slavery,” American Historical Review , 77, Feb. 1972.

16. A Constitution for the New Nation—With SlaveryLimits of the Southern Antislavery Impulse

The argument that there was a strong antislavery movement in the South in the post-Revolutionary years is set forth in Stephen B. Weeks,Southern Quakers and Slavery (Baltimore, 1896); Mary Stoughton Locke, Anti-Slavery in America from the Introduction of African Slavesto the Prohibition of the Slave Trade, 1619–1808 (Boston, 1901); Alice Dana Adams, The Neglected Period of Anti-Slavery in America,1808–1831 (Boston, 1908); William M. Boyd, “Southerners in the Anti-Slavery Movement, 1800–1830,” Phylon , 9, Second Quarter, 1948.The best critical analysis of this thesis is Gordon Eslie Finnie, “The Anti-Slavery Movement, 1787–1836; Its Rise and Decline in the Southand its Contribution to Abolitionism in the West” (Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State University, 1968). See also the same author's article, “The Anti-Slavery Movement in the Upper South Before 1840,” Journal of Southern History , 35, Aug. 1969.

Madison's dependence on slavery for subsistence is set forth in Gaillard Hunt, ed., The Writings of James Madison (New York, 1901), 2:154; and for Patrick Henry's statement, see Moses Coit Tyler, Patrick Henry (Ithaca, NY 1962), p. 389. For John Leland's observation, seeLF Greene, ed. The Writings of the Late Elder John Leland (New York, 1845), p. 97.

Discussions of prosperity in the South after the Revolution may be found in Merrill Jensen, The New Nation: A History of the United StatesDuring the Confederation 1781–1789 (New York, 1958), pp. 234–237; Lewis C. Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southern United States(Washington, DC, 1933), 1: 462–481; and Melvin Drimmer, “Was Slavery Dying Before the Cotton Gin?” in Melvin Drimmer, ed., BlackHistory: A Reappraisal (New York, 1968), pp. 96–115. WEB DuBois' discussion of the revival of the slave trade after the peace is in hisThe Suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the United States of America, 1638–1870 (Cambridge, Mass., 1896; reprint edition, NewYork, 1970), pp. 50–52.

The Slavery Issue at the Constitutional Convention

For Samuel Hopkins' appeal to the delegates at Philadelphia to abolish slavery, see Samuel Hopkins to Moses Brown, Aug. 13, 1787,Moses Brown Papers, 6: 11, Rhode Island Historical Society, and Edward A. Parks, ed., The Works of Samuel Hopkins (Boston, 1852), 2:613–624. For views of public figures on the opportunity missed by the founding fathers to end slavery, see William Goddell, Slavery andAnti-Slavery (New York, 1855), pp. 130–135. For Luther Martin's comment on the absence of the words “slaves” and “slavery” in theConstitution, see Secret Proceedings and Debates of the Convention…including “The Genuine Information” Laid Before the Legislatureof Maryland by Luther Martin …(Washington, DC, 1909), p. 44. For a discussion of the compromising of the principle of equality by thefailure to act against slavery, see Winifred Reinhard Balliner, “Equal Protection of the Laws: A Comparative Study of its Background andEarly Development, 1750–1850” (Ph.D. dissertation, Duke Univeristy, 1960), pp. 305–308.

Gerry's opposition to the Constitution may be found in Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society 64 (1932): 144, and LutherMartin's attack on the concessions to the owners of slaves is in Secret Proceedings, op. cit ., pp. 44–46. See also Paul S. Clarkson and R.Samuel Jett, Luther Martin of Maryland (Baltimore, 1970), pp. 127–28, 136–138. For Mason's attack on the slave trade and slavery at thecontention, see Elliot, Debates , 1: 496 and 5: 458. For his opposition to the Constitution because it did not sufficiently protect the slaveowner, see Jonathan Elliot, The Debates in the Several on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution …(Philadelphia, 1859), 3: 452–453,and Robert A. Rutland, ed., The Papers of George Mason , 1: 32–52. For Patrick Henry's opposition to the Constitution on the same issue,see Elliot, Debates in the Several State Conventions , 3: 445–456, 587–596, 622–625, and for Rawlins Lowndes' statement, see ibid ., 4:298. The position of the Pennsylvania Quakers is in John Bach McMaster and Frederick Stone, eds., Pennsylvania and the FederalConstitution, 1787–1789 (Lancaster, 1888), pp. 588–592. Samuel Hopkins' position is in his letter to Moses Brown, Oct. 22, 1787, MosesBrown Papers, 6, Folder 15, Moses Brown Papers, and for the comment of Levi Hart, see E. Park, Samuel Hopkins , pp. 158–159. Thesummary of the position of the New Hampshire ratifying convention is in Joseph B. Walker, A History of the New Hampshire Conventionfor the Investigation, Discussion, and Decision of the Federal Constitution …(Boston, 1888), 8: 44. James Schouler's comment is in hisHistory of the United States (New York, 1894), 1: 63, and the stand of the Rhode Island ratifying convention on the slave trade is inDuBois, op. cit ., 68. Tench Coxe's position is in Harold Hutcheson, Tench Coxe: A Study in American Economic Decelopment (Baltimore,1938), pp. 10, 13. For the extract from “Othello's” antislavery tract, see Carter G. Woodson, ed., Negro Orators and their Orations(Washington DC, 1925), pp. 14–25. The comment of 1860 on the first ten amendments is in Horace Greeley and FF Cleveland, compilers,A Political Text–Book for 1860 (New York, 1860), p. 53.

Was Slavery Central to the Constitution?

A copy of the Lexington, Kentucky, printing of David Rice's antislavery speech is in the Library Company of Philadelphia. A Philadelphiareprint appeared the same year. For discussion of the 1792 and 1799 Kentucky constitutional conventions, see Asa Earl Martin, The Anti-Slavery Movement in Kentucky Prior to 1850 (Louisville, 1918), pp. 13–17, 24–33, 98–146. John Breckenridge's statement is quoted inibid ., p. 26. The Delaware antislavery societies are discussed in Charles Shorter “Slavery in Delaware” (MA thesis, Howard University1934), pp. 438–443, and Monte A. Calvert, “The Abolition Society of Delaware,” Delaware History , Oct. 1963. A copy of St. GeorgeTucker's Dissertation is in the Library Company of Philadelphia. For the attempt to apply the Northwest Ordinance to Tennessee, seeAnnals of Congress , 4th Cong., 1st Sess., pp. 1306, 1307. Elihu Embree's statement is quoted in Chase C. Mooney, Slavery inTennessee (Bloomington, Indiana, 1957), p. 65. For the antislavery agitation in the churches of Kentucky, see Gordon Ealey Finnie, “TheAntislavery Movement in the South, 1787–1836: Its Rise and Decline and its Contribution to Abolitionism in the West” (Ph.D. dissertation,Duke University, 1962), pp. 214–216, 260–284. For evidence that plantation slavery had advanced to the back country of South Carolinaby 1794, see D. Huger Bacet, “The South Carolina Up Country at the End of the Eighteenth Century,” American Historical Review , 28,July 1923. For the statement of the South Carolina back country, see John Loften, “Enslavement of the Southern Mind: 1775–1825,”Journal of Negro History , 43, Apr. 1958, and for that of the Presbyterian Synod, see Finnie, op. cit ., p. 157. For the statements ofGeorgians, see William Sumner Jenkins, Pro-Slavery Thought in the Old South (Chapel Hill, NC, 1935), p. 54; Annals of Congress , 1stCong., 2nd Sess., p. 1200; and Finnie, op. cit ., pp. 176–178. Thomas Rodney's comment is in his “Notes on Slavery,” nd, CA RodneyPapers, Historical Society of Delaware, Wilmington. The report of French emissaries from Saint Domingue may be found in the Boston

Independent Chronicle , Nov. 7, 1793, and the reply of Frenchmen is in the Baltimore Daily Intelligencer , Dec. 4, 1793. For Jefferson'sletter to Governor Drayton, see HA Washington, ed., The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (Washington, DC, 1853–1854), 4: 97–98.

18. Black Revolution in the West IndiesThe tax revolt in Peru led by blacks is discussed in Leon G. Campbell, “Black Power in Colonial Peru: The 1779 Tax Rebellion ofLambayeque,” Phylon , 33, 1972.

The Three-Caste Slave Society of Saint Domingue

Studies in English of the structure of society in Saint Domingue on the eve of the French Revolution are T. Lothrop Stoddard, The FrenchRevolution in San Domingo (Boston, 1914), Chapters 3–5, and CLR James, Black Jacobins (New York, 1963), Chapters 1–3. Stoddard'swork, however, should be used with caution; James refers to Stoddard's industrious and ingenious “vendetta against the Negro race,”pursued “with the aid of extracts from the correspondence of irresponsible private persons and by ignoring whatever does not fit” histhesis. The position of the free people of color is explored in Laura Foner, “The Free People of Color in Louisiana and St. Domingue: AComparative Portrait of Two Three-Caste Slave Societies,” Journal of Social History , 3, Summer 1970. There is a vast literature in Frenchon Saint Domingue and the black revolution of the 1790s. See especially for the island before the Revolution, Pierre de Vassière, Saint-Domingue, la société et la vie Créoles sous l'ancien régime (Paris, 1909); Auguste Lebeau, De la condition des gens de couleur libressouls l'ancien régime (Paris, 1903); Gabriel Debien, “Gens de couleur libres et colons de St. Domingue devant la constituante,” Revued'histoire de l'Amérique française , 4, 1950; Emile Nau, Réclamations par les affranchis des droits civils et politiques (Port au Prince,1840).

The letter from the governor on the militia in 1761 is in Vassière, op. cit ., pp. 115–117, and the instructions from Paris of 1766 are inDebien, op. cit ., p. 214; the reasons for the order barring free people of color from entering France are in Lebeau, op. cit ., p. 76. For theemphasis on the need to maintain the color line to sustain slave subordination, see Laura Foner, op. cit ., p. 426 n .

Impact of the French Revolution

For the issue of slavery and slave trade in the French Revolution, see Oscar Hardy, The Negro Question in the French Revolution(Menasha, Wis., 1919). For the influence of America on antislavery opinion in France, see Edward Seeber, Antislavery Opinions inFrance during the Second Half of the 18th Century (Baltimore, 1937), pp. 117–120, and for general discussions of the influence ofAmerica on the French Revolution, see Bernard Fäy, The Revolutionary Spirit in France and America , trans. Ramon Guthrie (New York,1927); Durand Echeverria, Mirage in the West: A History of the French Image of American Society to 1815 (Princeton, NJ, 1957); andJoyce Appleby, “America as a Model for the Radical French Reformers of 1789,” William and Mary Quarterly , 28, Apr. 1971. A biographyof one of the leading Friends of the Blacks is Ruth F. Necheles, The Abbé Gregoire: 1787–1831. The Odyssey of an Egalitarian (Westport,Conn., 1971), especially pp. 53–191.

The National Assembly and the Free People of Color

The petition of the friends of the Blacks is in Société des Amis des Noirs de Paris, Adresse d l'Assemblée Nationale, Pour l'Abolition de laTraite des Noirs (Paris, 1790). A good discussion of the successful campaign of the alliance of colonial deputies, the shipping, merchantinterests, and the commercial cities against the efforts of the Friends of the Blacks to end the slave trade, is Valerie Quime, “Decisions onSlavery, the Slave-Trade and Civil Rights for Negroes in the Early French Revolution,” Journal of Negro History , 55, Apr. 1970. See alsoHardy, op. cit ., pp. 14–23. For Jaurès' statement, see Jean Jaurès, Histoire Socialiste de la Révolution Française (Paris, 1922), p. 73.

Uprising of the Slaves

For the uprising of the slaves and free people of color in Saint Domingue, see Stoddard, op. cit ., Chapters 11–12; James, op. cit.; andStoddard, op. cit . An early in-interesting anonymous account published in Philadelphia in 1894 is The Life and Military Achievement ofTousant Loverture, Late General in Chief of the Armies of St. Domingo . There is a copy in the Library Company of Philadelphia.

France Abolishes Slavery

For the abolition of slavery by the National Convention in 1794 and Danton's speech, see Anna Cooper, L'Attitude de la France à l'égardde esclavage pendant la revolution (Paris, 1915), pp. 360–367. For General Maitland's comment on recognizing an independent Negrogovernment, see Ludwell Lee Montague, Haiti and the US, 1714–1938 (Durham, NC, 1940), p. 367. Fortescue's conclusion is in Hon. SirJohn William Fortescue, A History of the British Army (London and New York, 1899–1930), 4, Part 1: 565.

Toussaint and Napoleon

For American assistance to Toussaint in his campaign against Rigaud, see Rayford W. Logan, The Diplomatic Relations of the UnitedStates with Haiti, 1776–1891 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1941), pp. 61–110, and “Letters of Toussaint Louverture and of Edward Stevens, 1789–1800,” American Historical Review , 16, Oct. 1910. For the report by an American on Toussaint's achievements, see “An American to aGentlemen in Providence, Rhode Island,” Apr. 4, 1800, in Consular Dispatches, Cap Haitien, 4, National Archives, and for the massacresof blacks by Leclerc's army reported by a Yankee shipmaster, see Boston Gazette , Aug. 5, 1802. The charge that Leclerc committed actsof genocide is by Thomas Oliver Ott in his “The Haitian Revolution, 1789–1804” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Tennessee, 1970), p.237.

Ott's study is published under the same title (Knoxville, 1973).

The evaluation of Toussaint's rule by CLR James is in his A History of Pan-African Revolution (Washington, DC, 1969), pp. 11–12, whichalso includes (pp. 18–19) Toussaint's letter warning France against attempts to restore slavery. The charge that Toussaint restoredslavery during his rule is made by C. Vann Woodward in “Clio with Soul,” Journal of American History , June 1969, pp. 19–20. The tribute

to Toussaint by the editor of the New York (state) Mechanic is reprinted in The People's Advocate (Concord, New Hampshire), Aug. 5,1842 which also carried the poetic tribute by Whittier. For the effort to denigrate Toussaint in comparison with Christophe, see HubertCole, Christophe, King of Haiti (New York, 1968), and the review of the book by Selden Rodman, New York Times Book Review , Jan. 14,1968, p. 10. Aimé Césaire's evaluation is in his Toussaint Louverture: La Révolution Française et le.Problème Colonial (Paris, 1961), pp.307–310.

The Republic of Haiti

The prophecy by William Wells Brown is in his St. Domingo: Its Revolutions and its Patriots (Boston, 1855).

19. The Impact of Black Revolution, IFederalists and Republicans on Saint Domingue

For Governor Charles Pickney's letter to the Colonial Assembly of St. Domingo, see San Domingo File, South Carolina Archives. ForGenêt's comment on the far-reaching effects in the United States of the insurrection in the West Indies, see Frederick Jackson Turner, ed.,“Correspondence of the French Ministers to the United States, 1791–1797,” Annual Report, American Historical Association 2 (1903):245–264. Nathaniel Russell's letter to Ralph Izard is in Ulrich B. Phillips, “The South Carolina Federalists, II,” American Historical Review, July 1909, p. 735. Ralph Izard's comment on the prospect of an alliance with France against Great Britain is in his letter to MathiasHutchinson, Nov. 26, 1794, Ralph Izard Papers, South Carolina Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC The toasts of theNew York Tammany Society are in “Society of Tammany or Columbian Order, Committee of Amusement, Minutes, Oct. 24, 1791, to Feb.23, 1795,” Manuscript Records, New York Public Library, Manuscript Division. For the toast of the General Society of Mechanics andTradesmen of the City of New York, see American Daily Advertiser , July 10, 1795.

For the use of Saint Domingue in the political rivalry between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans, see Donald H. Stewart, TheOpposition Press of the Federalist Period (Albany, NY, 1969), pp. 90, 180, 206, 319–320, 326, 338, 344–347, 352, 375, 473, 510, 550,577, 776; Eugene P. Link, Democratic-Republican Societies, 1790–1800 (New York, 1942), pp. 62–63, 96–97, 152–153, 154–155, 173–174, 184–185; Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black , pp. 386–391; Annals of Congress , 5th Cong., 2nd Sess., pp. 1229, 1308;Washington Gazette , June 7, 1797, and Charleston City Gazette , Oct. 3, 1800. For the opposition of Southern Federalists andRepublicans to Jay's Treaty, see William Renwick Riddell, “Jay's Treaty and the Negro,” Journal of Negro History , 13, Apr. 1928. For theconnection between Saint Domingue and the Alien and Sedition Acts, see John C. Miller, Crisis in Freedom: The Alien and Sedition Acts(Boston, 1952), pp. 144–145, 149–150, 189, and James Morton Smith, Freedom's Fetters: The Alien and Sedition Laws and AmericanCivil Liberties (Ithaca, NY, 1956), pp. 159–187.

The action by state legislatures and Congress for French refugees from Saint Domingue is discussed in Frances Sergeant Childs, FrenchRefugee Life in the United States, 1790–1800 (Baltimore, 1940). For the Federalist justification for dealing with Toussaint, see ThomasPickney to Dward Rutledge, Philadelphia, Feb. 3, 1798, Dreer Collection, Rutledge Papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania. PresidentAdams' proposal to increase the armed forces is in James D. Richardson, ed., Messages and Papers of the Presidents (New York, 1897–1914), 1: 226–227, and the undelivered draft of the message is in the Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society. Robert GoodloeHarper's plea for federal troops to put down insurrections is in his Observations of the Dispute between the United States and France …(Philadelphia, 1798). For evidence of increase in Federalist support in the South in 1797–1798, see Lisle A. Rose, Prologue toDemocracy: The Federalists in the South, 1798–1800 (Lexington, Ky., 1968), pp. 160–165. John Simon's letter to Oliver Wolcott, Jr., is inthe Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society.

Black “Insolence”

On the action of slaves in New York raising a liberty pole, see Newburgh (NY) Mirror , Oct. 15, 1798; Stewart, op. cit ., p. 346; for theconduct of blacks in Philadelphia, see Edward Channing, A History of the United States (New York, 1905–1925), 4: 134, and for thethreatened invasion of Philadelphia by black crewmen, see Naval Documents Related to the Quasi-War Between the United States andFrance (Washington, DC, 1935), 1: 149. Prince Hall's address is published in Philip S. Foner, ed., The Voice of Black America (New York,1972), pp. 13–15. The comment on the “insolence” of blacks, John Randolph's report of a conversation he overheard, and the report ofrunaway blacks are in WP Palmer and S. McCrae, eds., Calendar of Virginia State Papers (Richmond, 1875–1893), 6: 453, 470, 475–476. For the memorial of the fugitive blacks from North Carolina, the statement of William Smith, and the rejection of the petition, seeAnnals of Congress , 4th Cong.. 2nd Sess., pp. 2015–2018, and for the 1800 petition of free blacks of Philadelphia to Congress, see ibid., 6th Cong., 1st Sess., pp. 229–245. For St. George Tucker's comment on the influence of Saint Domingue on American slaves, seePalmer and McRae, op. cit ., 6: 649–651.

Slave Conspiracies and Revolts

The letter from a slave found on the streets of Yorktown, Virginia, is published in Herbert Aptheker, A Documentary History of the UnitedStates , pp. 28–29, and for the slave uprising said to be planned by Garwen, see Palmer and McRae, op. cit ., 6: 428–430. The account ofthe conspiracy in Warwick County, Virginia, is in ibid ., 7: 453, and Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts , pp. 214–215. Thereport from Charleston in 1793 is also published in Mary Truedley, “The United States and Santo Domingo, 1879–1866.” Journal of RaceDevelopment 7 (July 1916): 125. For the slave conspiracy of 1797 in Charleston, see Harvey Wish, “American Slave Insurrections Before1861,” Journal of Negro History , 22, 1937, and Lisle A. Rose in William and Mary Quarterly , 26, Jan. 1969. John Randolph's statementmay be found in Annals of Congress , 6th Cong., 1st Sess., p. 242.

The Gabriel Insurrection

The best account of Gabriel's conspiracy is Gerald W. Mullin, Flight and Rebellion: Slave Resistance in Eighteenth-Century Virginia (NewYork, 1972), pp. 140–160. Another excellent account is William J. Kimball, “The Gabriel Insurrection of 1800,” Negro History Bulletin , 34,Nov. 1971. An earlier account that is still interesting is Thomas W. Higginson, “Gabriel's Defeat,” Atlantic Monthly , 10, 1862. Aptheker'sdiscussion is in his American Negro Slave Revolts , pp. 219–229. A novel based on the conspiracy is Arna Bontemps, Black Thunder

(Boston, 1968). Kirkland's letter to McPherson, Sept. 28, 1800, is in the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. James Monroe's letter toJefferson, Sept. 5, 1800, is in SM Hamilton, ed., Writings of James Monroe (New York, 1898–1903), 3: 201. The slave conspiracies inNorth Carolina in 1800 is mentioned in RH Taylor, “Slave Conspiracies in North Carolina,” North Carolina Historical Review , 5, Jan.1928, and Wish, op. cit ., p. 315. For the panic in South Carolina in 1802 following report of a planned landing of blacks by a Frenchsquadron, see Howard A. Ohiline, “Georgetown, South Carolina: Racial Anxieties and Militant Behavior, 1802,” South Carolina HistoricalMagazine , 73, My 1972.

Defense of Black Revolution

The letter of Henry W. De Saussure to Oliver Wolcott, Jr., Charleston, Dec. 28, 1801, is in the Oliver Wolcott Papers, Connecticut HistoricalSociety, and Thomas Dwight's observation is in his letter to Hannah Dwight, Boston, Jan. 21, 1802, Dwight-Howard Papers,Massachusetts Historical Society. JP Martin's defense of the blacks of Saint Domingue is in American Museum , 12 (1791): 299–300;David Rice's is in his Slavery Inconsistent with Justice and Good Policy (Philadelphia, 1792), p. 9; Theodore Dwight's is in his An OrationSpoken before the Connecticut Society for the Promotion of Freedom and the Relief of Persons Unlawfully Holden in Bondage,Convened in Hartford on the 8th Day of May, AD, 1794 , pp. 20, 23.

The Lesson of Saint Domingue

Thomas Paine's warning is in his letter to William Short, Nov. 1791, in Philip S. Foner, ed., Complete Writings of Thomas Paine (NewYork, 1945), 2: 1321. “An Account of a Plot by the Negroes of Goree…” is in American Museum 2 (1792): 304–307. The poetic warning isentitled “Lines on the Devastation of St. Domingo,” and is in ibid . 12 (Appendix I, 1792): 13–14. The verse from the Rural Magazine isreprinted in Jordan, op. cit ., p. 379. For the stand of the American Convention of Abolition Societies, see Minutes , 1793, p. 23; 1795, pp.24–25, George Thatcher's warning is in Annals of Congress , 5th Cong., 2nd Sess., pp. 1306–1313. Genet's evaluation of Jefferson's fearof Saint Domingue is in Turner, op. cit ., p. 53. For Jefferson's insistence that the way to prevent another Saint Domingue is throughremedial measures, see his letter to St. George Tucker, Aug. 28, 1797, in Paul L. Ford, ed., The Writings of Thomas Jefferson(Washington, 1903–1904), 8: 335.

Response of Slave-Owners

For the action in Burke County, North Carolina, see Edward W. Phifer, “Slavery in Microcosm, Burke County, North Carolina,” in AllenWeinstein and Frank Otto Gatell, ed., American Negro Slavery: A Modern Reader (New York, 1968), p. 85. For South Carolina's law of1800 and Charleston's ordinance of 1806, see George B. Eckhard, ed., A Digest of the Ordinances of the City Council of Charleston fromthe Year 1783 to October 1844, to Which are annexed the Acts of the Legislature which Relate Exclusively to the City of Charleston(Charleston, 1844), pp. 376–378. For measures adopted in North Carolina, see Taylor, op. cit ., p. 21, and Aptheker, American NegroSlave Revolts , pp. 74–76.

20. The Impact of Black Revolution, IIQuarantining the South

For David Ramsey's plea, see his Observations on the Impolicy of Recommencing the Importation of Slaves, Respectfully Submitted tothe Legislature of South Carolina, By a Citizen of South Calolina (sic) (Charleston, 1791), pp. 3–7, 10–11. For laws restricting importationof blacks from the West Indies, see WEB DuBois, Suppression of the African Slave Trade (New York, 1896), pp. 70–72, and HerbertAptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York, 1943), pp. 73–75. For the appeal to Congress from Wilmington, North Carolina, andthe action taken by Congress, see Annals of Congress , 7th Cong., 2nd Sess., pp. 385–386, 424, 459–467, and Du Bois, op. cit ., pp. 84—85. The issue of fugitive slaves around Wilmington is discussed in Herbert Aptheker, “Slave Guerrilla Warfare,” in To Be Free: Studies inAmerican Negro History (New York, 1948), p. 75.

The correspondence of Postmaster Gideon Granger to Senator Jackson and the postal law of 1802 can be found in American StatePapers, Post Office Department , p. 27; Annals of Congress , 7th Cong., 1st Sess., Mar. 11, 1802, pp. 199, 208, and Appendix, pp. 1371–1372. The appeal of Ward and Simpson for a presidential pardon, dated Apr. 18, 1806, is in the Jefferson Papers, Library of Congress.For the role of a black post rider in Gabriel's Rebellion, see Gerald W. Mullin, Flight and Rebellion: Slave Resistance in Eighteenth-Century Virginia (New York, 1972), pp. 143–144.

For the Virginia Assembly's efforts to get rid of dangerous slaves and the correspondence of Monroe and Jefferson on the issue, seeArchibald Alexander, History of Colonization on the Western Coast of Africa (Philadelphia, 1846), pp. 73–81; SA Hamilton, ed., Writings ofJames Monroe (New York, 1899–1903), 3: 292–295, and HA Washington, ed., The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (Washington, 1853–1854), 4: 419–422. For the negotiations to ship Virginia blacks to Sierra Leone, see Monroe to Jefferson, Apr. 25, 1802, and Jefferson toMonroe, June 3, 1802, Thomas Jefferson Papers, Library of Congress; Jefferson to Rufus King, July 13, 1802, in Charles R. King, ed.,The Life and Correspondence of Rufus King (New York, 1894–1900), 4: 171–175. See ibid ., p. 310, for discussions of using parts ofLouisiana for the Virginia blacks.

The Louisiana Purchase and the Slavery Issue in the Louisiana Purchase

The Albany Journal’s editorial is reprinted in the Springfield (Mass.) Republican , July 2, 1901 under the heading, “Why Not ToussaintL'Ouverture?”

For Henry Adams' evaluation of the significance of the French defeat in Saint Domingue for the Louisiana Purchase, see his, History ofthe United States of America During the Administration of Thomas Jefferson (New York, 1889), 1, 377–98.

For Adrienne Koch's comment, see her Power, Morals, and the Founding Fathers (Ithaca, NY, 1961), p. 48, and for the opposition to theLouisiana Purchase, see Edmund Quincy, Life of Josiah Quincy of Massachusetts (Boston, 1869), pp. 312–314; ES Brown, TheConstitutional History of the Louisiana Purchase, 1803–1812 (Berkeley, Cal., 1920), pp. 40–48; and Jerry W. Knudson, “Newspaper

Reactions to the Louisiana Purchase,” Missouri Historical Review , Jan. 1969. For the debates and votes on the Breckenridge Bill, seeAnnals of Congress , 8th Cong., 1st Sess., pp. 240–242; Everett Somerville Brown, ed., William Plumer, Memorandum of Proceedings inthe United States Senate, 1803–1807 (New York, 1923), pp. 115–122; ES Brown, “The Senate Debate on the Breckenridge Bill for theGovernment of Louisiana, 1804,” American Historical Review , 22, Jan. 1917. The last is a collection of documents that reprints thedebates as recorded in the private journal of Senator William Plumer of New Hampshire. Thomas Paine's position is set forth in his“Address to the Inhabitants of Louisiana,” in Philip S. Foner, ed., Complete Writings of Thomas Paine (New York, 1945), 2: 963–968, andhis letter to Jefferson, Jan. 25, 1805, ibid ., 1456–1464. For a brief discussion of York, William Clark's slave, see Donald Zochert, “ 'Thisnation never saw a black man before,' ” American Heritage , 22, Feb. 1971.

Decline of Abolitionism

For the attacks on the antislavery societies by Southern legislatures, see Samuel Shepard, ed., The Statutes at Large of Virginia, fromOctober Session 1793 to December Session 1806, Inclusive (Richmond, 1835–1836), 1: 363–365; Palmer and McRae, op. cit ., 9: 178;Maryland Gazette , Dec. 12, 1791. For the resolution of the 1801 abolitionist convention condemning Gabriel's rebellion, see Minutes ofthe Proceedings of a Convention of Delegates from the Abolition Societies (Philadelphia, 1801), pp. 38–39.

The decline of the antislavery societies under the impact of Saint Domingue may be traced in Minutes , American Convention forPromoting the Abolition of Slavery and Improving the Condition of the African Race (Philadelphia, 1806); Mary S. Locke, Antislavery inAmerica (Boston, 1901), pp. 108–109; James Francis Reilly, “Moses Brown and the Rhode Island Anti-Slavery Movement” (MA thesis,Brown University, 1941), pp. 48–50; Norman B. Wilkinson, “Papers of the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery,”Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography , 68, July 1944; Edward Needles, An Historical Memoir of the Pennsylvania Society forthe Promotion of the Abolition of Slavery (Philadelphia, 1848), pp. 54–56; Thomas R. Mosely, “A History of the New York ManumissionSociety” (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1963), pp. 311–314. For the anonymous abolitionist who defended Gabriel'sinsurrection, see Humanitas (pseudonym), Reflections on Slavery; With Recent Evidence of its Inhumanity (Philadelphia, 1803). PeterEarly's statement appears in Annals of Congress , 9th Cong., 2nd Sess., p. 238.

The United States and the Black Republic

For the breaking off of trade between the United States and Haiti, see Henry Adams, op. cit ., 3: 138–142; Logan, op. cit ., pp. 151–187;and Donald L. Robinson, Slavery in the Structure of American Politics, 7765 –1820 (New York, 1971), pp. 370–371.

Abolition of the African Slave Trade

For the abolition of the slave trade in England, see Thomas Clarkson, History of the Abolition of the Slave Trade (London, 1828); JeanTripp, “The Liverpool Movement for the Abolition of the English Slave Trade,” Journal of Negro History , 13, July 1928; ECP Lascelles,Granville Sharp and the Freedom of Slaves in England (London, 1928). For the influence of Saint Domingue on the abolition of the slavetrade in England, see Alan M. Rees, “Pitt and the Achievement of Abolition,” Journal of Negro History , 39, July 1954. Wilberforce'srefutation of the idea of Negro inferiority is discussed in William Baker, “William Wilberforce on the Idea of Negro Inferiority,” Journal of theHistory of Ideas , 31, 1970. DuBois' estimate of importance of Saint Domingue on the abolition of the slave trade in the United States is inSuppression of the African Slave Trade , p. 94. The best account of the factors behind the reopening of the slave trade in South Carolinain 1803 is Patrick S. Brady, “The Slave Trade and Sectionalism in South Carolina, 1787–1808,” Journal of Southern History , 38, Nov.1972. See also, however, John H. Wolfe, Jeffersonian Democracy in South Carolina (Chapel Hill, NC, 1940), pp. 188–192. For DavidBaird's warning in Congress, see Annals of Congress , 8th Cong., 1st Sess., p. 996.

Jefferson's message to Congress on the closing of the slave trade is in Annals of Congress , 9th Cong., 2nd Sess., p. 14. The bestdiscussion of the committee activities and the debates in Congress is in Robinson, op. cit ., pp. 324–338. See also DuBois, op. cit ., pp.94–108. For the text of the speech by the Reverend Peter Williams, Jr., see Philip S. Foner, The Voice of Black America (New York, 1972),pp. 19–25. The speech of Jedidiah Morse is in his A Discourse Delivered at the African Meeting-House in Boston, July 14, 1808, inGrateful Celebration of the Abolition of the African Slavetrade (Boston, 1808).

There is a considerable body of literature dealing with the black Seminoles and the Seminole wars. The present discussion is based onthe following sources: Edward C. McReynolds, The Seminoles (Norman, Okla., 1957); James Hugo Johnston, “Documentary Evidence ofthe Relations of Negroes and Indians,” Journal of Negro History , 14, Jan. 1929; Wyatt F. Jeltz, “The Relations of Negroes and Chochtawand Chicksaw Indians,” ibid ., 33, Jan. 1948; Kenneth W. Porter, “Negroes on the Southern Frontier,” ibid.,; Kenneth W. Porter, “Negroesand the East Florida Annexation Plot, 1811–1813,” ibid ., 30, Jan. 1945; Kenneth W. Porter, “Negroes and the Seminole War, 1817–1818,” ibid ., 36, July 1951; Kenneth W. Porter, “The Seminole in Mexico, 1850–1861,” Hispanic American Historical Review,” 21, Feb.1951; Kenneth W. Porter, Negroes and the Seminole War, 1835–1842,” Journal of Southern History , 30, Nov. 1964; Kenneth W. Porter,“Florida Slaves and Free Negroes in the Seminole War, 1835–1842,” Journal of Negro History , 28 (Oct. 1943); Lois Katz Brown, “Negro–Indian Relations in the Southern States, 1526–1890” (MA thesis, University of Toledo, 1968); J. Leitch Wright, Jr., “A Note on the FirstSeminole War as Seen by the Indians, Negroes and Their British Advisers,” Journal of Southern History , 34, Nov. 1968; Frank Laumer,Massacre (Gainesville, Fla., 1968). A tribute to the Seminoles is a pictorial history by Irvin W. Peithman entitled The UnconqueredSeminoles (St. Petersburg, Fla., 1969).

The article in the Albany (NY) Argus is reprinted in National Trades Union , Mar. 26, 1836.

21. Free Blacks, 1790–1820Growth of the Free Black Population

Population statistics of free blacks between 1790 and 1820 may be found in US Bureau of the Census, Population of the United States inI860 , pp. 592–604; Wilbur Zalinsky, “The Population Geography of the Free Negro in ante-Bellum America,” Population Studies , 3, Mar.1950. The best discussion of the growth of the free black population in the upper South in the post-Revolutionary years is Ira Berlin,“Slaves Who Were Free: The Free Negro in the Upper South, 1776–1861” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1970), Chapter 1.

Routes to Freedom

The statement of the Virginia Assembly in freeing the two slaves who had informed on Gabriel is quoted in Berlin, op. cit ., p. 132. Thecomment of the Maryland abolitionist on freedom suits is in John S. Tyson, Life of Elisha Tyson, the Philanthropist (Baltimore, 1825), p.15, and that of the Delaware abolitionists is in the Report of the Delaware Abolition Society to the American Convention, Dec. 11, 1802,and quoted in Berlin, op. cit ., p. 23.

The best study of self-purchase is Herbert Aptheker, “They Bought Their Way to Freedom,” Opportunity , Apr. 1940, and reprinted in his ToBe Free: Studies in American Negro History (New York, 1948), pp. 31–40. Cases involving self-purchase may be found in Helen T.Caterall, ed., Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro (Washington, DC, 1929), 2: 275, 479. Illustrations of blackswho bought themselves and relatives and freedom out of slavery may be found in Constance McG. Green, The Secret City: A History ofRace Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ, 1967), p. 16; Lorenzo J. Greene, “Self-Purchase by Negroes in Cole County,Missouri,” Midwest Journal , 2, Winter, 1948; Luther P. Jackson, “Manumission in Certain Virginia Cities,” Journal of Negro History , 15,1937; Benjamin Quarles, Black Abolitionists (New York, 1969), pp. 58–60, Samuel Eliot Matisqn, “Manumission by Purchase,” Journal ofNegro History , 33, Jan. 1948. On the limited number of self-purchases in Virginia, see James Hugo Johnston, Race Relations in Virginiaand Miscegenation in the South (Amherst, Mass., 1970), pp. 8,44. For Negroes who owned slaves and the importance of benevolentreasons for the practice, see Calvin D. Wilson, “Negroes Who Owned Slaves,” Popular Science Monthly , 82, Nov. 1912, and John HopeFranklin, “The Free Negro in the Economic Life of Ante-Bellum North Carolina” North Carolina Historical Review , 19, Oct. 1942.

The advertisements dealing with fugitive slaves may be found in the Virginia Gazette (Richmond), Apr. 15, 1795; Norfolk (Virginia) Herald, Jan. 16, Feb. 5, 14, Mar. 2, 9, 12, 19, May 16, Aug. 1, 1799.

Danger of Reenslavement

For the incidence of kidnapping in Virginia, see Berlin, op. cit ., pp. 172–185, and for the operation of kidnapping rings in Delaware, seeJohn Gary Dean, “The Free Negro in Delaware: A Demographic and Economic Study, 1790–1860” (MA thesis, University of Delaware,1970), pp. 38–40. The difficulty of convicting kidnappers is outlined in the Minutes of the Delaware Abolition Society, Nov. 11, 1803,Historical Society of Delaware. The report of the Charleston grand jury is in John Lofton, Insurrection in South Carolina: The TurbulentWorld of Denmark Vesey (Yellow Springs, Ohio, 1964), p. 87. For debt peonage and other infringements on the freedom of free blacks inDelaware, see Richard B. Morris, “The Course of Peonage in a Slave State,” Political Science Quarterly , 65, June 1950.

For the practice of kidnapping in Illinois, see Alexander Davidson and Bernard Stuve, A Complete History of Illinois from 1673 to 1876 …(Springfield, Ill., 1877), pp. 319–320.

Resisting Reenslavement

For the case of John Read, see West Chester (Pa.) Village Record , Dec. 20, 1820, May 16, Aug. 9, 15, 21, 1821 (copies in ChesterCounty Historical Society, West Chester, Pennsylvania); “What Right Had a Fugitive Slave of Self-Defense Against His Master?”Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography , 13, 1889; William R. Leslie, “The Pennsylvania Fugitive Slave Act of 1826,” Journal ofSouthern History , 18, Nov. 1952.

Free Blacks in the South

There are a number of specialized studies of free blacks in the South that, though extending beyond 1820, include material on the periodhere under discussion. Among them are Berlin, op. cit.; Charles S. Sydnor, “The Free Negro in Mississippi before the Civil War,” AmericanHistorical Review , 32, July 1927; E. Horace Fritchett, “The Traditions of the Free Negro in Charleston, South Carolina,” Journal of NegroHistory , 25, Apr. 1940; John Hope Franklin, The Free Negro in North Carolina , 1790–1860 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1943); Jeffrey R. Brackett,The Negro in Maryland (Baltimore, 1889); John H. Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia, 1619–1865 (Baltimore, 1903); Ralph B. Flanders,“The Free Negro in Ante-Bellum Georgia,” North Carolina Historical Review , 9, Feb. 1943; Annie LW Stahl, “The Free Negro in Ante-Bellum Louisiana,” Louisiana Historical Quarterly , 25, Apr., 1942; Henry S. Robinson, “Some Aspects of the Free Negro Population ofWashington, DC, 1800–1862,” Maryland Historical Magazine , Spring 1969; Luther P. .Jackson, Free Negro Labor and Property Holdingin Virginia, 1830–1860 (New York, 1942); John Hope Franklin, “The Free Negro in the Economic Life of Ante-Bellum North Carolina,”North Carolina Historical Review , 19, Oct. 1942. The articles by Sydnor, Fritchett, and Franklin are also reprinted in John H. Bracey, Jr.,August Meier, and Elliott Rudwick, eds., Free Blacks in America, 1800–1860 (Belmont, Cal., 1971).

For restrictions and attacks on the rights of free Negroes in the South after 1790, see Berlin, op. cit ., pp. 170–190; Syndor, op. cit ., p. 17;Johnson, Race Relations , p. 43; Russell, op. cit ., p. 63. For restrictions on suffrage, see Bracket, op. cit ., pp. 186–187; JS Bassett,“Suffrage in the State of North Carolina,” American Historical Association Report , 1895; John Gary Dean, “The Free Negro in Delaware,”op. cit ., p. 11; Roger W. Shugg, “Negro Voting in the Ante-Bellum South,” Journal of Negro History , 21. For restrictions on meetings inBaltimore and the keeping of dogs by free blacks in the same city, see Brackett, op. cit ., pp. 199, 216, and for restrictions on freedom ofmovement, see Sydnor, op. cit ., p. 7. For the petition of free persons of color to the South Carolina Senate in 1791, see Herbert Aptheker,“Petition of South Carolina Negroes,” Journal of Negro History , 31, Jan. 1946, and reprinted in the same author's Documentary History ofthe Negro People in the United States , pp. 26–28. For the declaration of the Supreme Court of Louisiana, see Helen T. Caterall, ed.,Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro (Washington, DC, 1936), 3: 571. For legislation by Congress andordinances adopted by the city government of Washington relating to the free Negro, see Robinson, op. cit ., and Worthington G. Snethen,The Black Code of the District of Columbia (New York, 1848).

The discussion of segregation of blacks in the South during this period is based on the following sources: C. Vann Woodward, TheStrange Career of Jim Crow , 1st ed. (New York, 1955), pp. 13–14; 2d ed. (New York, 1957), p. xvii; Richard C. Wade, Slavery in theCities, The South, 1820–1860 (New York, 1964), pp. 266–268; Roger A. Fischer, “Racial Segregation in Ante-Bellum New Orleans,”American Historical Review , 74, Feb. 1969; Frederic Bancroft, Slave Trading in the Old South (Baltimore, 1937), p. 219.

The discussion of the economic status of free blacks in the South is based on Berlin, op. cit ., pp. 200–232; Wade, op. cit ., p. 325; Lofton,

op. cit ., pp. 85–86; Leonard P. Stavisky, “The Negro Artisan in the South Atlantic States: 1800–1860: A Study of Status and EconomicOpportunities with Special Reference to Charleston” (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1951), pp. 219–233. For the petition fromRichmond free blacks for a new cemetery, see Petition, Dec. 10, 1810, Virginia State Library, and for reprisal law and McPherson'scomment, see Christopher McPherson, A Short History of the Life of Christopher McPherson …(Lynchburg, 1855), p. 6.

Free Blacks in the North

For the 1788 law of Massachusetts barring Negroes, see Theron Metcalf, ed., General Laws of Massachusetts , Mar. 26, 1788, Chapter54, Sect. 6, p. 322, 324–26. The investigation of 1821–1822 is in Theodore Lyman, Jr., Free Negroes and Mulattoes , MassachusettsHouse of Representatives Report, Jan. 16, 1822; John Daniels, In Freedom's Birthplace; A Study of the Boston Negroes (Boston and NewYork, 1941), pp. 28–29. For the laws of New Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois excluding Negroes, see James H. Wright, “New JerseyLaws and the Negro,” Journal of Negro History , 65; Carter G. Woodson, “The Negroes of Cincinnati Prior to the Civil War,” Journal ofNegro History , 1, Jan. 1916; Journal of the Convention of the State of Illinois , pp. 31, 92–96, 255, 453–455; Emile Kettleborough,Constitution Making in Indiana , 1: 361– 363, 414, 421; Charles B. Galbreath, History of Ohio (New York, 1925), 1: 167–202; Helen T.Catterall, Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro (Washington, DC, 1937), 5: 3. For the “Black Laws” of Illinois, seeSamuel H. Treat, Bennett Scales, Robert Blacknell, The Statutes of Illinois (Chicago, 1858), 2: 821–830.

The discussion of the campaign to restrict the rights of free blacks in Pennsylvania is based on the following sources: Edward R. Turner,The Negro in Pennsylvania: Slavery-Servitude-Freedom, 1639–1861 (Washington, DC, 1911), pp. 122, 136, 148, 152–153; Charles M.Snyder, The Jacksonian Heritage in Pennsylvania Politics, 1833–1848 (Harrisburg, Pa., 1958), p. 105; Elias P. Oberholtzer, Philadelphia:A History of the City and its People, A Record of 225 Years (Philadelphia, 1912), 2: 286–288; Stanley I, Kutler, “Pennsylvania Courts, TheAbolition Act, and Negro Rights,” Pennsylvania History , 30, 1963; James Forten, A Series of Letters by a Man of Color (Philadelphia,1813); Appeal of Forty Thousand Citizens threatened with disfranchisement, to the People of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1838).

The discussion of Negro suffrage in the North outside of Pennsylvania is based on the following sources: Emil Olbrich, The Developmentof Sentiment in Negro Suffrage to 1860 (Madison, Wis., 1912); George H. Moore, Notes on the History of Slavery in Massachusetts (NewYork, 1866), pp. 187–190; Journal of the Proceedings of the Convention of Delegates, Convened at Hartford, August 26, 1818, for thePurpose of Forming a Constitution of Civil Government for the People of Connecticut (Hartford, Conn., 1901), pp. 46, 90; IH Barlett, FromSlave to Citizen, The Story of the Negro in Rhode Island (Providence, 1954), pp. 20–22; Marion Thompson Wright, “Negro Suffrage inNew Jersey, 1776–1785,” Journal of Negro History , 33, 1948; Dixon Ryan Fox, “The Negro in Old New York,” Political Science Quarterly, 33, June 1917; Thomas EV Smith, Political Parties and their Places of Meeting in New York City (New York, 1893), p. 10; Herman D.Bloch, “The New York Negro's Battle for Political Rights, 1777–1865,” International Review of Social History , 10, 1964; Laws of the Stateof New York (Albany, 1813), 2: 94–95, 253–254; AB Street, The Council of Revision of the State of New York, its History…and its Vetoes(Albany, 1859), pp. 266–269; 362–364; A Report of the Debates and Proceedings of the Convention of the State of New York (Albany,1823); Mary Joyce Adams, “The History of Suffrage in Michigan,” Publications of the Michigan Political Science Association , 3, Mar.1898; Ohio House of Representatives, Report of the Committee on the Colored Population of Ohio , reprinted in Journal , Feb. 1, 1832.

The discussion of the economic status of black workers in the North is based on the following sources: Whittington Bernard Johnson,“Negro Laboring Classes in Early America, 1750–1820” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1970), Chapter 6; Amett Lindsay, “TheEconomic Condition of the Negroes of New York Prior to 1861,” Journal of Negro History , 6, Apr. 1921; Charles H. Wesley, Negro Laborin the United States, 1850–1925 (New York, 1927), Chapter 2; WEB DuBois, The Philadelphia Negro (Philadelphia, 1899), Chapter 1;Julian Rammelkamp, “The Providence Negro Community, 1820–1842,” Rhode Island History . 7, Jan. 1948; Donald Martin Jacobs, “AHistory of the Boston Negro from the Revolution to the Civil War” (Ph.D. dissertation Boston University, 1968), pp. 81–82. For thevaledictorian address at the New York African School, see Charles C. Andrews, The History of the New York African Free Schools …(New York, 1830), p. 132. An interesting account of the rise of a black pauper and transient labor class in a specific Northern communityis Carl D. Oblinger, “Alms for Oblivion: The Making of a Black Underclass in Southeastern Pennsylvania, 1780–1860,” in John E. Bodnar,ed., The Ethnic Experience in Pennsylvania (Lewisburg, Pa. 1973).

23. The Free Black Vanguard, 1790–1820Frederick Douglass' comment is in his letter to the editor of The Hub, Mar. 3, 1884, clipping in Frederick Douglass Papers, Library ofCongress.

Júpiter Hammon

Jupiter Hammon's life and poems are discussed in Oscar Wegelin, Jupiter Hammon, American Negro Poet (New York, 1915). His poemsare also included in William Robinson, ed., Early Black American Poets (Dubuque, Iowa, 1970).

Phillis Wheatley

The discussion of Phyllis Wheatley is based on the following sources: Julian D. Mason, Jr., ed., The Poems of Phillis Wheatley (ChapelHill, NC, 1966); Benjamin Brawley, Early American Writers (Chapel Hill, NC, 1935), pp. 21–74; Edward D. Seeber, “Phillis Wheatley,”Journal of Negro History , 24, July 1939; Philip St. Laurent, “Phillis Wheatley,” Tuesday , Sept. 1967; Carl Bridenbaugh, “The Earliest–Published Poem of Phillis Wheatley,” New England Quarterly , Dec. 1967; Winthrop .D. Jordan, White Over Black , pp. 284–286; ShirleyGraham, The Story of Phillis Wheatley (New York, 1949); Vernon Loggins, The Negro Author (New York, 1945), pp. 9–29. These shouldbe supplemented with Early Negro Writing, 1760–1837 , selected and edited by Dorothy Porter (Boston, 1971). For an interesting thoughrather strained effort to depict Phillis Wheatley as a more militant poet than she has usually been made out to be, see R. Lynn Matson,“Phillis Wheatley—Soul Sister?” Phylon , 33, No. 3, 1972.

Benjamin Banneker

The first comprehensive biography of Benjamin Banneker was published in 1972: The Life of Benjamin Banneker by Silvio A. Bedini. Esdesde hace mucho tiempo. Previous works are mainly sketches such as Martha Ellicott Tyson, Sketches of the Life of Benjamin

Banneker, from Notes Taken in 1836 (Baltimore, 1854); John HB Lagroe, Memoir of Benjamin Banneker (Baltimore, 1854); Will W. Allen,Benjamin Banneker, Afro-American Astronomer (Washington, DC, 1915); Henry E. Baker, “Benjamin Banneker,” Journal of Negro History, 3, 1919; William B. Settle, “The Real Benjamin Banneker,” Negro History Bulletin , 16, Jan.–Apr. 1953. The Banneker-Jeffersoncorrespondence has been frequently published, and may be found most conveniently in Aptheker, Documentary History , pp. 22–25. Forthe Federalist attack on Jefferson in this matter, see William L. Smith, The Pretensions of Thomas Jefferson to the Presidency Examined…(np, 1796), pp. 8, 10. David Rittenhouse's praise of Banneker is in his letter to James Pemberton, Philadelphia, Aug. 6, 1791, theoriginal of which is in the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. A detailed account of Banneker's role in the laying out of the nation's capitalis Silvio A. Bedini, “Benjamin Banneker and the Survey of the District of Columbia, 1791,” Columbia Historical Society Records , 1969–1970.

Dr. James Derham

The best study of black medical practitioners in early America is Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (Washington,D:C., 1967); chapters 2 & 3. A sketch of James Derham is also in Kelly Miller, “The Historic Background of the Negro Physician,” Journalof Negro History , 1, Apr. 1916. For Derham's relations with Rush, see Betty L. Plummer, “Benjamin Rush and the Negro” (MA thesis,Howard University, 1969). For Caesar's cure, see Morais, op. cit ., pp. 207–208.

Black Artists and Musicians

The black artist in early America is discussed in Alain L. Locke, The Negro in Art: A Pictorial Record of the Negro Artist and the NegroTheme in Art (Washington, DC, 1940), and in Edward Strickland, “Our 'Forgotten' Negro Artists,” Masses & Mainstream , Sept. 1954. ForJoshua Johnston, see Katherine Scarborough, “An Early Negro Portrait Artist: Joshua Johnston,” Negro History Bulletin , 31, Feb. 1968.The comment on Stephen Fortune is by Bishop Henry McNeal Turner, and may be found in Philip S. Foner, ed., The Voice of BlackAmerica (New York, 1972), p. 563. For black musicians in early America, see Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans: A History(New York, 1971), pp. 105–112.

Black Teachers

Negro teachers are discussed in Carter G. Woodson, The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861 (New York, 1915), pp. 120–140;Southern, op. cit ., pp. 80–81; CW Bimie, “The Education of the Negro in Charleston, South Carolina before the .Civil War,” Journal ofNegro History , 12, Jan. 1927; W. Sherman Savage, “The Influence of John Chavis and Lunsford Lane on the History of North Carolina”ibid ., 25, Jan. 1940.

Black Actors

The African Grove Theater is discussed in Loften Mitchell, Black Drama: The Story of the American Negro in the Theater (New York,1967), pp. 24–26; in Herbert Marshall and Mildred Stock, Ira Aldridge: The Negro Tragedian (New York, 1958), pp. 28–47; and in GeorgeCC Odell, Annals of the New York Stage, 1821–1835 (New York, 1928).

Black Preachers

For the many black preachers in this period, see Carter G. Woodson, The History of the Negro Church (Washington, DC,). Richard Allen'searly life may be traced in Rt. Rev. Richard Allen, The Life Experience and Gospel Labor of the Rt. Rev. Richard Allen (New York, 1960),pp. 1–25; Charles Wesley, Richard Allen, Apostle of Freedom (Washington, DC, 1935), which also has important biographical informationabout Absalom Jones and other black religious figures in early America. For Absalom Jones, see Absalom Jones, Narrative of the Life ofRev. Absalom Jones (np, nd); William Douglas, Annals of the First African Church in the United States (Philadelphia, 1862), pp. 118–123.Daniel Coker's early life is set forth in Journal of Daniel Coker, A Descendant of Africa (Baltimore, 1820). For Lemuel Haynes, seeTimothy Mather Cooley, Sketches of the Life and Character of the Rev. Lemuel Haynes (New York, 1837); W, H. Morse, “Lemuel Haynes,”Journal of Negro History , 4, 1919; William Yates, ed., Rights of Colored Men. A Book of Facts (Philadelphia, 1838), pp. 40–45. There isno biography of Prince Saunders, but there is a brief sketch in the Dictionary of American Biography .

Black Businessmen

For Negro businessmen in early America, see Abram L. Harris The Negro as Capitalist (Philadelphia, 1936), pp. 6–15; JH Harmon, Jr.,“The Negro as a Local Business Man,” Journal of Negro History , 14, Apr. 1929; Edmund Berkeley, Jr., “Prophet Without Honor:Christopher McPherson, Free Person of Color,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography , 67, Apr. 1969. For the comment of the NewYorkers on the black barber, see Henry Bradshaw Fearon, Sketches of America: A Narrative of a Journey of Five Thousand MilesThrough the Eastern and Western States of America (London, 1818), pp. 58–59, and Isaac Candler, A Summary of America (London,1824), p. 284. A brief sketch of Samuel Fraunces is John W. Davis, “Samuel Fraunces: Revolutionary Patriot and Citizen-Extraordinary,”Negro History Bulletin , 30, Nov. 1967.

There is no biography of Pierre Toussaint, but the following are useful: HFS Lee, Memoir of Pierre Toussaint, Born a Slave in SantoDomingo (Boston, 1854); Henry Binsse, “Pierre Toussaint, A Catholic Uncle Tom,” US Catholic Historical Society Records & Studies , 13,1918; and Leo R. Ryan, “Pierre Toussaint, 'God's Image Carved in Ebony,' ” ibid., 25 , 1935. The latter is mainly a summary of thecontents of the Papers of Pierre Toussaint, which are deposited in the manuscript division of the New York Public Library. Paul Cuffe isdiscussed in the first chapter of Sheldon H. Harris, Paul Cuffe: Black America and the African Return (New York, 1972); HW Sherwood,“Paul Cuffe,” Journal of Negro History , 8, Apr. 1923; and Peter Williams, “A Discourse on the Death of Paul Cuffe,” reprinted in Foner, ed.,The Voice of Black America . The life of James Forten is presented in Ray Allen Billington, “James Forten: Forgotten Abolitionist,” NegroHistory Bulletin , 13, Nov. 1949; Robert Purvis, Remarks on the Life and Character of James Forten (Philadelphia, 1842); and William C.Nell, Patriots of the American Revolution (Boston, 1855), pp. 166–175.

There is a survey of the emergence of the black elite in Boston, in Adelaide Cromwell Hill, “The Negro Upper Class in Boston—ItsDevelopment and Present Social Structure” (Ph.D. dissertation, Radcliffe College, 1962). But there is no study of the more important black

elite of Philadelphia. Some discussion of the families that made up this elite may be traced in Richard Bardolph, The Negro Vanguard(New York, 1959.)

The Black Vanguard and the Black Masses

The discussion of Christopher McPherson is based on his A Short History of the Life of Christopher McPherson , and Berkeley, Jr., op. cit., James Forten's appeal to the Pennsylvania legislature in 1813 is in his Letters from a Man of Colour, on a Late Bill before the Senate ofPennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1813), extracts from which are to be found in Aptheker, ed., Documentary History , pp. 59—65. PaulPreston's view on the yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia may be found in Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 13,(1912): 287. For Benjamin Rush's letters on the role of blacks in the yellow fever epidemic, see LH Butterfield, ed., Letters of BenjaminRush (Princeton, 1951), 1: 638–658. Richard Allen and Absalom Jones's pamphlet is A Narrative of the Proceedings of the Black PeopleDuring the Late Awful Calamity in Philadelphia in the Year 1793 … (Philadelphia, 1795).

Black Antislavery Spokesmen

The Allen and Jones pamphlet contains “An Address to those who Keep Slaves and Approve the practice,” “To the People of Colour,” and“A Short Address to the Friends of Him Who hath No Helper.” “Othello's” antislavery tract Negro Slavery may be found in Carter G.Woodson, ed., Negro Orators and Their Orations (Washington, DC, 1925), pp. 14–25. For the text of Cyrus Bustill's address toPhiladelphia slaves, see Melvin H. Buxbaum, ed., “Cyrus Bustill Addresses the Blacks of Philadelphia,” William and Mary Quarterly , 29,Jan. 1972.

24. The Emergence of Separate Black InstitutionsBlack Benevolent (Mutual Aid) Societies

For the organization of benevolent societies among whites, see Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States (NewYork, 1947), 1: 26–27. The birth and early growth of the Free African Society of Philadelphia may be traced in “Minutes of the Free AfricanSociety,” reprinted in William Douglass, Annals of the First African Church in the United Stales of America, now styled the AfricanMethodist Episcopal Chruch of St. Thomas (Philadelphia, 1862). For benevolent societies in other cities, see Berlin, op. cit ., pp. 431–435;Aptheker, Documentary History , p. 38; Lofton, op. cit ., pp. 84–85; “The Condition of the Coloured Population of the City of Baltimore,”Baltimore Literary and Religious Magazine 4 (1838): 174–175; and Daniel Perlman, “Organizations of the Free Negro in New York City,1800–1860,” Journal of Negro History , 56, July 1971. The beginnings of black insurance companies are discussed in Carter G.Woodson, “Insurance Business Among Negroes,” Journal of Negro History , 14, Apr. 1929, and James B. Browning, “The Beginnings ofInsurance Enterprise Among Negroes,” ibid ., 22, Oct. 1937.

Black Masons

The literature on Black Masonry is extensive, but the following are especially worth consulting: William Upton, Negro Masonry(Cambridge, Mass., 1902); George W. Crawford, Prince Hall and His Followers: Being a Monograph on the Legitimacy of Negro Masonry(New York, 1914; reprinted New York, 1969); and William Alan Maraskin, “Black Masons: The Role of Fraternal Orders in the Creation ofa Middle-Class Black Community” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1970). A facsimile of the charter of African LodgeNo. 459 is published in In Black America (Prudential Publishers, Los Angeles, 1969), p. 9.

Black Churches

Racist practices in the white churches are discussed in Joseph W. Nichols, The Negro's Church (New York, 1933), pp. 21–22; Henry J.Cadbury, “Negro Membership in the Society of Friends,” Journal of Negro History , 21, Apr. 1936; Carter G. Woodson, The History of theNegro Church (Washington, DC, 1921), pp. 97–99; WEB DuBois, The Negro Church: A Social Study (Atlanta, 1903), pp. 111–115; WalterH. Brooks, “Evolution of the Negro Baptist Church,” Journal of Negro History, 7 , Jan. 1922; Charles H. Wesley, Richard Allen, Apostle ofFreedom (Washington, DC, 1935), pp. 125–135; The Negro Pew, Being An Inquiry Concerning the Propriety of Distinction in the House ofGod, on Account of Color (Boston, 1837), pp. 84–87. Richard Allen's comment on reading sermons is in his The Life Experience andGospel Labors of the Right Reverend Richard Allen (New York, 1960), pp. 29–30. The first Negro congregation in the nation is discussedin Walter Brooks, “Priority of the Silver Bluff Church,” Journal of Negro History , 7, Apr. 1922, and John N. Davis, “George Liele andAndrew Bryan, Pioneer Baptist Preachers,” ibid ., 3, Jan. 1918. For the Williamsburg African Church, see Luther P. Jackson, “ReligiousDevelopment of the Negro Church in Virginia, from 1760 to 1860,” Journal of Negro History , 16, Apr. 1931, and Berlin, op. cit ., pp. 130–135.

The story of St. Thomas' Church is traced in Douglass, Annals . For Benjamin Rush's role in the building of the African Church, see LHButterfield, ed., Letters of Benjamin Rush (Princeton, 1951), pp. 599, 624, 636, 638, 717. The story of Mother Bethel and the fight forcontrol is dramatically set forth by Allen himself in his Life Experience and Gospel Labors , pp. 25–60, and in RR Wright, Encyclopedia ofAfrican Methodism (Philadelphia, 1922), pp. 300–334, and in Carol Ann George, “Richard Allen and the Independent Black ChurchMovement, 1787–1831” (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Syracuse University, 1970).

Dr. Rush's letter to his son. was published as a leaflet, Philadelphia, Oct. 19, 180. For the black Methodists of Baltimore, Wilmington, andNew York, see Daniel A. Payne, A History of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (Nashville, Tenn., 1891), pp. 5–18; Elmer T. Clark etal., eds., The Journal and Letters of Francis Asbury (London & Nashville, 1958), 2: 65–70; and David H. Bradley, History of the AfricanMethodist Episcopal Church Zion (Nashville, Tenn., 1956), pp. 50–54. The formation of the African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1816and the election of Bishop Richard Allen are discussed in Charles H. Wesley, Richard Allen, Apostle of Freedom (Washington, DC,1935), pp. 130–165.

The formation of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church is discussed in Woodson, op. cit., pp. 78–80. For black Presbyterian andBaptist churches, see Andrew E. Murray, Presbyterians & the Negro—A History (Philadelphia, 1966), and Walter H. Brooks, “TheEvolution of the Negro Baptist Church,” Journal of Negro History , 7, Jan. 1922. Fear of slave insurrections as a factor limiting the growth

of independent African churches in the South is discussed in Berlin, op. cit ., pp. 395–398, and W. Harrison Daniel, “Virginia Baptists andthe Negro in the Antebellum Era,” Journal of Negro History , 56, Jan. 1971.

Black Schools

Education for blacks and the establishment of African Schools is discussed in Carter G. Woodson, The Education of the Negro Prior to1861 (Washington, DC, 1919), pp. 255–307; Marion T. Wright, The Education of Negroes in New Jersey (New York, 1941), pp. 19–33; ABrief Sketch of the Schools for Black People and their Descendants Estsablished by the Religious Society of Friends in 1770(Philadelphia, 1967), pp. 3–17; A Short History of the African Union Meeting and School-House Erected in Providence in the Years 1819,'20, '21, with Rules for the Future Government (Providence, 1821), pp. 3–7; Charles C. Andrews, The History of the New-York AfricanFree-Schools… (New York, 1830; reprinted New York, 1969); Thomas Robert Mosley, “A History of the New York Manumission Society,1785–1849” (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1963), Chapter 4; William O. Bourne, History of the Public School Society of theCity of New York …(New York, 1869), pp. 366–367; Constitution of the Education Society for the People of Color in New England with anAddress of the Executive Committee to the Public (Boston, 1817); Arthur O. White, “Blacks and Education in Antebellum Massachusetts:Strategies for Social Mobility” (Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1969).

Elisha Dick's warning against African schools is in William P. Palmer, ed., Calendar of Virginia State Papers (Richmond, 1875–1893), 9:178. For white hostility to African Schools in the South, see Berlin, op. cit ., pp. 141–145. The opposition to Sunday Schools is set forth inLevi Coffin, Reminiscences of Levi Coffin …(Cincinnati, 1876), pp. 69–71, and Genius of Universal Emancipation , Sept. 1821. The storyof James McPherson's school venture is related in Edmund Berkeley, Jr., “Prophet Without Honor, Christopher McPherson, Free Personof Color,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography , 52, June 1967.

For the Pennsylvania Augustine Society for the Education of People of Colour, see Prince Saunders, An Address Delivered at BethelChurch, Philadelphia, on the 30th of September 1818 before the Pennsylvania Augustine Society for the Education of People of Colour(Philadelphia, 1818). Arthur Donaldson's Philadelphia school for black children is described in his The Juvenile Magazine No. 3 .(Philadelphia, 1813). Copy in Boston Public Library, Rare Book Room. The poem by MAB in the last number of the Juvenile Magazine(Aug. 1813) is also reprinted in William Gribbin, “Advice from a Black Philadelphia Poetess of 1813,” Phylon , 34, No. 1, 1973.

Blacks and Public Schools

For the beginnings of public schools for blacks in Philadelphia, see Harry Charles Silcox, “A Comparative Study in SchoolDesegregation: The Boston and Philadelphia Experience 1800–1881” (Ph.D. dissertation, Temple University, 1972). The battle for publicschools for blacks in Boston is discussed in White, op. cit .; Lorenzo Greene, “Prince Hall: Massachusetts Leader in Crisis,” Freedomways, 1, Fall 1961; and Aptheker, Documentary History , pp. 19–20.

25. Emigrate or Stay and Fight for Equality: The Initial DebateTwo recent works which deal to some extent with the black emigration movement of the 1790–1820 period are Edwin S. Redkey, BlackExodus: Black Nationalist and Back-to-Africa Movements, 1890–1910 (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1969), and Theodore Draper,The Rediscovery of Black Nationalism (New York, 1970). Draper's book has come under sharp attack, especially by black scholars, forwhat is viewed as its lack of understanding of the appeal of black nationalism among black Americans. See especially the review by EarlOfari in The Black Scholar , Oct. 1970, and the exchange between Draper and Ofari in ibid ., June 1971. A critical review of Redkey'sbook and an estimate of the black emigration tradition is the review article by Melvin Drimmer in Journal of American Studies (publishedby Cambridge University Press for the British Association for American Studies), Feb. 1971.

For Samuel Hopkins' suggestion to Phillis Wheatley that she return to Africa as a missionary, and her rejection of the suggestion, seeKenneth Silverman, “Four New Letters by Phillis Wheatley,” Early American Literature , 8, Winter, 1974.

The correspondence between the Union Society of Africans in Newport and the Free African Society of Philadelphia is published inWilliam Douglass, Annals of the First African Church in the United States of America, now styled the African Methodist Episcopal Churchof St. Thomas (Philadelphia, 1862), pp. 25–29.

Role of Paul Cuffe

The most recent and most authoritative study of Paul Cuffe's role in relation to Africa is Sheldon H. Harris, Paul Cuffe: Black America andthe Africa Return (New York, 1972). The work includes letters to and by Cuffe and the journal of his voyage to Sierra Leone. Other studiesof Cuffe are Henry N. Sherwood, “Paul Cuffe,” Journal of Negro History , 8, Apr. 1923, and the same author's “Paul Cuffe and hisContribution to the American Colonization Society,” Proceedings of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association for the Years 1912–13 ,6. For plans to deport free Negroes prior to the formation of the American Colonization Society, see Walter L. Fleming, “Historic Attemptsto Solve the Race Problem in America Through Deportation,” Journal of Negro History , 4, Jan. 1910; Henry N. Sherwood, “Early NegroDeportation Projects,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review , 2, Mar. 1916; Brainerd Dyer, “The Persistence of the Idea of NegroColonization,” Pacific Historical Review , 12, Mar. 1943. For the full details of one such early plan, see Ferdinando Fairfax, “Plan forLiberating the Negroes in the United States,” American Museum , 8, Dec. 1790.

Birth of the American Colonization Society

There is a considerable body of literature dealing with the American Colonization Society. The most recent study is Peter J. Staudenraus,The American Colonization Movement, 1816–1865 (New York, 1961). However, Professor Staudenraus tends to overemphasize thesincere benevolence of many members of the ACS and pays insufficient attention to the significance of proslavery support and theSociety's role in increasing racial prejudice. An older but still useful work is EA Fox, The American Colonization Society (Baltimore, 1917).George M. Frederickson's viewpoint is set forth in The Black Image in the White Mind (New York, 1971). For the comment of the editor ofthe New York Courier on the Society's founding meeting, and the “Sambo” piece, see issues of Jan. 1, 13, 1817.

Reaction of Free Blacks to the Colonization Society

Reverend Finley's report of his meeting with Philadelphia black leaders appears in Isaac Van Arsdale Brown, Biography of Robert Finley(Philadelphia, 1819), pp. 99–102, and is repeated in the 1857 edition, pp. 121–124. James Forten's letter to Paul Cuffe, Jan. 25, 1817, ispublished in full in Sheldon H. Harris, op. cit ., pp. 243–245, and in part in William Loren Katz's introduction to William Lloyd Garrison'sThoughts on African Colonization (New York, 1968), p. ix. The proceedings of the Richmond meeting and the Philadelphia meeting ofJan. 1817 are in ibid ., Part 2, pp. 9–11, 62–63, and in Aptheker's Documentary History , pp. 70–72, which also publishes AbrahamCamp's letter to Elias B. Caldwell. Finley's “Dialogue on the African Colonization” is reprinted in EV Brown, Memoirs of the Rev. RobertFinley, DD , …(New Brunswick, NJ, 1819). Lott Cary's return to Africa is discussed in Miles Mark Fisher, “Lott Cary, the ColonizingMissionary,” Journal of Negro History , 7, Oct. 1922.

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History of Black Americans -- : From Africa to the Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom

MLA" Bibliography and Sources ." History of Black Americans : From Africa to the Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom . Westport, CT: Greenwood Press,1975. The African American Experience . Greenwood Publishing Group. 25 Oct 2014. <http://testaae.greenwood.com/doc.aspx?fileID=GR7529&chapterID=GR7529-2404&path=books/greenwood>

Manual de Estilo de Chicago" Bibliography and Sources ." In History of Black Americans : From Africa to the Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press,1975. The African American Experience . Greenwood Publishing Group. http://testaae.greenwood.com/doc.aspx?fileID=GR7529&chapterID=GR7529-2404&path=books/greenwood. (accessed October 25, 2014).

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