here’s the news: a radio news manual

Compiled and Edited byPaul De Maeseneer

Unesco Associate — Expert

With the compliments ofUnited States Information Service (USIS)

Embassy of the United StatesP. 0. Box N-8197.Nassau, Bahamas

Telephone: (809) 322-4268/9

Here’s the News : A Radio News Manual

CONTENTS AND INTRODUCTION

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Original Pagination New PaginationIntroduction 5 0.0 4Unit 1: News Directives

1.1 Organization of the Newsroom 10 1.1 11.2 What is news 20 1.2 11.3 Who is the audience 25 1.3 11.4 News Sources 27 1.4 11.5 News Formats 28 1.6 11.6 National constraints and legal aspects 30 1.7 11.7 The A. B.C.: Accuracy — Balance — Clarity 34 1.7 1

Unit 2: Writing for Radio News Original Pagination New Pagination2.1 Writing for the ear: five principles 38 2.1 12.2 How to make your copy sound lively 44 2.2 12.3 How to shape a sentence 47 2,3 12.4 How to structure a newsitem 49 2.4 12.5 How to grab the attention of the listener 52 2.5 12.6 How to retain the interest of the listener 56 2.6 12.7 Help the newsreader 59 2.7 1

Unit 3: Reporting Original Pagination New Pagination3.1 The Basics of Reporting 68 3.1 13.2 Quoting the Source 71 3.2 13.3 Tools for Newsgathering 74 3.3 13.4 Handouts, News Releases 77 3.4 13.5 Covering Speeches 81 3.5 13.6 Covering Seminars, Conferences 83 3.6 13.7 Covering Disasters, Obituaries 84 3.7 13.8 Crime and Court reporting 86 3.8 1

Unit 4: Interviewing for Radio News Original Pagination New Pagination4.1 Types of Interviews 94 4.1 14.2 Planning and Preparation of the Interview 97 4.2 14.3 The Question Line during the

Broadcast Interview 100 4.3 14.4 Recording the Interview 103 4.4 14.5 Editing the Recorded Interview 105 4.5 1



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Unit 5: Bulletin Editing Original Pagination New Pagination5.1 The Basics of Bulletin Editing 110 5.1 15.2 Lifetime of a News Item Follow up of News 112 5.2 15.3 Length of a story 113 5.3 15.4 Bulletin Structure and Content 114 5.4 15.5 Main points and Recapitulation 117 5.5 1

Unit 6: Presentation Original Pagination New Pagination6.1 Towards more lively news 120 6.1 16.2 Types of news programmes 122 6.2 16.3 Actuality — inserts 126 6.3 16.4 Voice Reports 130 6.4 16.5 Running Order 135 6.5 16.6 The approach of the newscaster 137 6.6 1

Unit 7: Additional Style Notes Original Pagination New Pagination7.1 Figures 140 7.1 17.2 Consumer Price Index 143 7.2 17.3 Journalese — cliches 146 7.3 17.4 Names and Titles 149 7.4 17.5 Abbreviations 155 7.5 1

Unit 8: Translation Issues Original Pagination New Pagination8.1 The many problems of Translation 158 8.1 18.2 What is good Translation? 161 8.2 18.3 Translate meaning rather than form 164 8.3 1

Unit 9: Equipment for Radio News Production Original Pagination New Pagination9.1 Microphones 168 9.1 19.2 Sound Recording Machines 1699.3 Portable Sound Mixers 1729.4 Sound transmission over lines 1729.5 Telephone Recordings 1749.6 Wireless Microphones and

Microphone Transmitters 1759.7 Radio Newsgathering Vehicles 1759.8 Wireless News Links 176



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INTRODUCTION

In most Asia-Pacific nations, radio is and will be for a long time, the most important means of mass com-munication. For many people, radio is the only source of news. Compared with television and newspapers,radio has many advantages:

* Radio is the fastest means of disseminating news.

* Radio can be received in areas without electricity.

* Production of radio programmes is cheap. Countries can afford to establish regional and even local sta-tions to make the medium more effective for community service and development.

* Radio has the potential for being the most immediate, intimate and accessible medium.

* Live broadcasting at the location of a news event is easy.

* Illiteracy is not a barrier to radio usage.

Radio also has weaknesses:

* It relies on sound only. Television is more complete.

* Radio is subject to atmospheric and other interferences over long distances.

* Like Television, radio cannot deliver too much information too quickly. It cannot compete with newspa-pers in the amount of material it conveys.

News is broadcasting’s most important product. So it follows that the radio journalist must be professional,and a committed practitioner. The purpose of this manual is to help you in your specialized work ofproducing news for radio.

The manual gives practical advice and instruction on modern techniques of radio journalism. It is organizedin nine units. After dealing with a number of news directives, such as the organization of the newsroomand a discussion of the question 'what is news?', the manual moves on to the basic principles of writingfor radio news, reporting, interviewing, bulletin editing and presentation of news. Unit 7 focuses onspecific style problems, such as how (not) to use figures, names and titles and cliches.

Unit 8 is a discussion of the problems involved with translation, which are particularly relevant to the multi-



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lingual societies of Asia -and the Pacific.

Finally, Unit 9 provides the basic information on equipment used in modern radio news production. Thisunit has been written by Kris Heyrman, a broadcast engineer formerly with Belgian Radio and Television(B.R.T.) and now an associate-expert of UNESCO, based at the Asia-Pacific Institute Institute forBroadcasting Development.

We would hope that this manual will be used as a set of guidelines, not rules. If therehas to be one rule, then let it be this one: you should use your own imagination and creativity in adaptingsome of the guidelines to your own situation. Radio should be a creative medium!

At a regional seminar on Radio News, organized by the A.I.B.D. in June 1982, the Heads of Radio Newsdepartments of several Asian countries discussed the relation between the strengths of radio, professional-ism and training. Their observations are extremely important:

"Radio can serve society only to the extent that it retains the trust and confidence of its listeners, its credi-bility as a channel of information and its persuasiveness as an agent of social change and development.For this reason it is necessary that it should observe high standards of accuracy and truthfulness in thepresentation of facts, and fairness, impartiality and balance in the presentation of opinions and views sothat it may serve as a true forum of public interest.

The effectiveness of radio and its capacity to serve the long term public interest require that temporarypolitical considerations and the restraints of bureaucratic management should not impair its reputation forcredibility or blunt the trust its audience reposes in it.

All countries have invested large sums of money in setting up news, current affairs, and other radio servic-es. Their aim has been defined in many countries as ensuring the maximum participation of the people inthe tasks of national development.

Fulfillment of this aim is hindered, the benefits of the investment are lost, and public funds are wasted if theservices fail to win and retain the confidence of the public.

Loss of this confidence has already occurred in some countries because the desired professional stan-dards of radio journalism have been subordinated to short sighted political and administrative considera-tion. As a consequence the morale, effectiveness and professional judgement of the staff have deteriorat-ed. The resulting loss of audience and credibility would be confirmed if proper listener research, which hasbeen neglected in many countries, were conducted systematically.

Broadcasting services should maintain high standards of professionalism. It is the feeling of the seminar



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that many of the problems faced by news departments arise from the lack of a professional approach. Thishas led to stagnation in the presentation of radio news for instance, and the blunting of skills. For this rea-son it is important that news departments should be staffed by persons of the requisite professional stan-dard, who should be appointed primarily on grounds of competence and then allowed to function accordingto their professional judgement, subject only to a broad overall policy mandate."

This manual deals with the professional techniques of radio journalism in the context of the societies of theAsia-Pacific region. In this sense, it hopes to contribute to raising the professional competence in thisregion.

But before we go into detail, let's consider a few basic and universal qualities of a professional radio jour-nalist.

One quality demanded before all others is an enthusiasm to communicate. You must want to tell your lis-teners what's happening.

Then you must develop a disciplined mind. Clear and logical thinking is the basis of clear and logical writ-ing and speaking.

Another quality is a wide general knowledge, and an eagerness to acquire knowledge. A journalist must becurious about everything in life. You must keep yourself informed about what's happening in your countryand elsewhere in the world. Listen as much as possible to national and foreign news bulletins, and currentaffairs programmes. Read as many newspapers and magazines as possible. A journalist must develop agenuine interest in the lives of people, their problems, wages, the value of what they produce, their rights,and their quality of life.

And last but not least, it is also a good quality to be unfailingly skeptical of all information given to you, nomatter the source.

The guiding principle in writing news for radio is to tell your story clearly and accurately — as effectively aspossible, in the least number of words. But there's more: A professional radio journalist must have a multi-tude of skills. He must be good at reporting, interviewing, writing, editing, using equipment, broadcastinglive, and thus he should have a basic knowledge of news presentation.

We'll deal with all these techniques of radio journalism in the notes that follow.



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Radio organizations in the Asia-Pacific region vary in extreme form from news departments with only a fewfull time staff members to sophisticated operations with hundreds of staff and a much larger budget.

Radio Republik Indonesia, established in 1945, has more than 100 reporters and editors in its 49 stationsall over Indonesia. In Jakarta alone R.R.I. has around 35 to 40 reporters and editors. All are civil servants.R.R.I. is managed by the Directorate Radio, under the Directorate General of Radio Television and Film,who is one of the three D. G. 's within the Ministry of Information. Almost all local news sources are inIndonesian. The regional stations have their own news programmes but they hook up with the Jakarta sta-tion for national news, commentary, press opinion and special reports.

The news department of Radio Kiribati in the South Pacific is under the umbrella of the KiribatiBroadcasting and Publications Authority. News is first collected and written in the local language and latertranslated for a broadcast in English. All five reporters and the editor are involved in producing the news.

The newsroom of Radio Nepal has four full time staff members and 12 people on short-term contracts. Forthe Nepali bulletins 8 people are involved, on a shift basis, whereas 6 people contribute to the 2 bulletins inEnglish. The sources of news are the national news agency and monitoring. Radio Nepal has no reportersof its own. Source material is only sketchily edited and then presented by contract announcers.

All India Radio functions under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. A.I.R.broadcasts 246 news bulletins daily covering a total duration of almost 34 hours. Of these 67 bulletins go inthe home service from New Delhi in 19 languages (total duration: 10 hours), 63 in the external service in24 languages and 116 bulletins are broadcast from the 40 Regional News Unit in 23 languages and 33dialects.

A.I.R. news policy follows a well laid down fourteen point news code evolved over the years, in addition tobroad general guidelines issued by the government from time to time. The General Newsroom (G.N.R.) atthe headquarters is the focal point which receives news from the network of A.I.R. correspondents at homeand abroad, A.I.R's own monitoring unit, two local English and two Hindi news agencies. The G.N.R. func-tions in four shifts, each shift under a Senior News Editor. He selects the news items and the so calledPool Editors treat them for inclusion in the pool copies, which are stencilled for distribution to no less than40 compilation desks. Home stories are included in Pool I, foreign stories in Pool II, sports items in theSports Pool and Parliament proceedings in the Parliament Pool. The language bulletins are compiled byAssistant News Editors and various language desks prepare the respective language versions on the basisof the master scripts prepared in English.

The News Service Division of All India Radio also broadcasts along list of current affairs programmes.

The News and Current Affairs wing of Radio Pakistan is part of a statutory corporation, the PakistanBroadcasting Corporation. The development of the news operation in Pakistan is synonymous with thedevelopment of Pakistan itself. It started from scratch on a network of three low power stations in 1947 withno hook-up facilities. Now, the main news bulletins are broadcast in a national hook-up linking 15 stationsacross the country. Radio Pakistan broadcasts 79 news bulletins daily with a total duration of almost 11hours. Of these, 50 are broadcast in the home service in 21 languages and dialects. News and currentaffairs constitute 14 percent of the programmes.

Unit 1 News Directives 1.1 ORGANIZATION OF THE NEWSROOM

HERE’S THE NEWS - A RADIO NEWS MANUAL page 1.1 1

UNIT 1 NEWS DIRECTIVES 1.1 ORGANIZATION OF THE NEWSROOM

The General News Room in Islamabad operates in four shifts. The head of each shift oversees the draftingof a master copy of the bulletin in English. Each bulletin is passed on page by page to the Urdu unit fortranslation in the national language. There are 14 reporting units across the country.

Radio The Voice of Vietnam began broadcasting in 1945, but went underground during the nine years ofresistance to French colonialism until 1954. Radio the Voice of Vietnam is part of the Vietnam Radio andTelevision Commission, which is administratively directed by the Council of Ministers. The home servicehas six news broadcasts daily of 30 minutes each, while the overseas service broadcasts in 11 languages.There are 5 regional stations with their own news production, apart from 39 provincial stations. News andcurrent affairs are under the same direction. The central newsroom in Hanoi has a staff of about 30 people.

After independence in 1971, Radio Bangladesh was established in Dacca, the capital of Bangladesh.Radio Bangladesh is an attached department of the Ministry of Information, Government of Bangladesh.The master copy is done in English in the General News Room in Dacca. Copies are sent to the languageunits for translation into Bengali. There are two major bulletins in Bengali and English (10 minutes each)and several five minute bulletins. There are five regional stations with their own news production. Radiojournalists are supposed to be familiar with editing, reporting, and production of news.

The Singapore Broadcasting Corporation is a statutory body and as such has to conform with the guide-lines of the government, which retains control over the general policy of S.B.C. through the MinistryCulture. S.B.C. gets its income mainly from advertising and license fees.

Radio and television are under the same direction and news editors and reporters are working for bothmedia.

The radio news service produces bulletins in four official languages: Chinese, Malay, Tamil and English.

There are six major news bulletins in English and Malay and five major ones in Tamil and Chinese. Apartfrom this, there are several minor news bulletins.

The Radio Network News of the Maharlika Broadcasting System in the Philippines is part of the Office ofMedia Affairs, a government ministry. The Radio Network News supports the news requirements of fiveMetro Manila radio stations and 17 provincial and regional stations of the government. There are many pri-vately owned radio stations in the Philippines as well. The central newsroom of the Radio Network Newsproduces the hourly news bulletins and roundups and these are aired on a simultaneous basis over MetroManila stations and regional stations. The latter do not have their own news outfits. Two versions of thenews are prepared. One is in Pilipino (the national language) and the other is in English. The RadioNetwork News has 65 editors, reporters, presenters and typists. This team produces 21 five-minuters andthree major news roundups in Pilipino every day. In English, there are also three major news programmesand 15 five-minute newscasts daily. Extensive use is being made of voice reports and actuality inserts in allmajor newscasts.

Radio Malaysia is a government department under the Ministry of Information. Before independence in1957 Radio Malaya had its headquarters in Singapore and maintained a newsroom in Kuala Lumpur.

News bulletins are produced in Bahasa Malaysia, English, Tamil and four Chinese dialects. There are also



two minor bulletins in local dialects. News bulletins cover a duration of almost. 11 hours in the home serv-ice.

The master copy is produced in two languages: Bahasa Malaysia and English (for the English bulletins andfor translation into Tamil and Chinese).

The eight regional stations each produce a five minute bulletin every day. Regional newsrooms also con-tribute word news and voice inserts to the national newsroom in Kuala Lumpur.

The Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation is a self-financed public corporation. It comes under theMinister of State who is in charge of information and broadcasting. The Ceylon Broadcasting CorporationAct of 1966 states that "it shall be the duty of the Corporation to satisfy itself that as far as practicable, anynews given in the programmes (in whatever form) is presented with due accuracy and impartiality and withdue regard to the public interest. "

There are news bulletins in the three main languages: Sinhalese, English and Tamil.

There are two regional stations with a third to be opened soon. They have their own regional news bul-letins, while the main national news bulletins are relayed by the regional stations. The monitoring unit isequipped with recording and editing facilities. This unit prepares a World News Roundup, with excerpts ofbroadcasts by other broadcasting organizations.

The Fiji Broadcasting Commission began its service in 1954. A full news department came into exis-tence in 1971 only. As a statutory body, the F.B.C. has an independent news service. News releases fromthe Ministry of Information or any other government department are treated like any other news release.The master copy is in English and is then translated into Fijian and Hindustani. There are 14 news broad-casts in English and ten each in Fijian and Hindustani.

Apart from the central newsroom in the capital Suva, there are two regional news offices to cater for thecountry's Western and Northern divisions.

News and current affairs are under the same directions.

The news service of Radio Tuvalu in the South Pacific is part of the Information Division of the govern-ment, and is within the Ministry for Works and Communications. In 1979 a News Editor was appointed. Henormally is assisted by two reporters/announcers. The news is gathered in either English or Tuvaluan,whichever is the language of the source. There is an instant translation. There is only one studio facility,located on the main island. There are two news bulletins daily in the local language and two in English.World news from Radio Australia is carried as a separate relay twice per day. This bulletin is also translat-ed into the local language.

Radio Television Brunei is government controlled and is under the umbrella of the State Secretariat. Thenewsroom caters for both radio and television. News is broadcast in five languages: Malay, English,Chinese, Dusun and Iban (two local dialects). The newsroom has 14 editors, 12 reporters, 11 typists, 10presenters and 10 translators.... who work for both radio and television. There are six news bulletins inMalay, three in English, four in Chinese and one each in Dusun and Iban every day.



Radio Thailand has had news broadcasts for more than 50 years. The home service has 16 news bul-letins daily, four of which are `national news bulletins' which are relayed by all local broadcasting stations,including commercial stations. Radio Thailand is under the government's Public Relations Department,which reports to the Prime Minister's Office. The Public Relations Department operates 60 radio stations,one in Bangkok and 59 in 34 other provinces all over the country. They have their own news productionand at the same time they supply regional news to the central newsroom. The latter has 3 editors, 20reporters, 10 typists and 10 presenters.

These examples are typical of the wide range of news operations in this region.

While the range and titles of jobs vary greatly from country to country, the most frequently encounteredpositions in radio journalism are somewhat similar in the medium to large scale operations.

What follows is a description of an ideal newsroom for a country with three official languages. It is assumedthat the bulletin editors in each of the languages have a fair degree of autonomy in producing an originalbulletin in their own language. In other words, there is no mere translation of a master copy, though therewill of course be coordination among the bulletin editors in the three languages and the Director of News. It




is also assumed that radio and television are separate organizations, though they may well be under thesame umbrella. It should be recognized that methods of news gathering, presentation style and even con-tent of news items are different for radio and for television.

News DirectorThis position generally is the highest in the broadcast news field. The news director must be a person withextensive news experience, administrative ability and supervisory experience. The news director is usuallyresponsible to the General Manager or the Director General of Broadcasting.

The news director is in charge of the entire news operation. He or his deputy co-ordinates the news outputin the different languages. He presides over the daily editorial conferences. Fair knowledge of each of thelanguages is useful.

Bulletin EditorsThe three bulletin editors, or news producers, are responsible for the total look of the news in their respec-tive languages, from content to the number of items, story lineup, timing and the most effective forms ofstory presentation. They will decide on the use of actuality inserts or voice reports, and work closely withthe chief reporter. In some stations, the bulletin editors are in charge of writing the headlines of the news.The job of bulletin editor requires expert knowledge of radio news and production techniques, and requiresworking with the newscasters, reporters, writers and translators.

Chief ReporterThe chief reporter or assignment editor is in charge of covering all news events. He orchestrates coverageof the day's local news for the three languages. He assigns stories in close collaboration with the bulletineditors, lines up interviews, etc.

ReportersThere are reporters for the three languages. Some major events will be covered by three reporters, one foreach language. But the chief reporter will send only one reporter to cover a minor event. The report willthen be translated, by the reporter or by a translator from the reporters pool, and be sent to the respectivebulletin editors.

The reporter writes news and reports it, so a thorough understanding of radio news is essential for thisposition. A reporter must know the techniques of writing for radio and he must also be able to voice hisreport. The "voicer" is recorded for later broadcast.

Some stations have special assignment reporters who specialize in one area of the news - parliament, sci-ence, education, agriculture, etc. - while others rely primarily on general assignment reporters. They areassigned to cover the news, whatever it may be. Beginning reporters are often given routine assignmentscovering, for example, airport, police headquarters, a ministry, or the courts.

Assistant-editors/TranslatorsAlthough reporters do much of the writing for newscasts, the bulletin editor still needs the help of editors orassistant-editors or writers, who also can be translators (they also can be called sub-editors).




A language supervisor with the status of editor checks outgoing copy.

The newswriter is involved with rewriting and translating wire copy from both national and internationalnews agencies, rewriting reporter's copy, editing a voice report or selecting an actuality insert.

Newswriters must turn reporters when necessary. Most likely, they will use a telephone for any furtherenquiry or confirmation of a report.

Good writers tend to make good reporters. Job divisions between subeditors and reporters should be flexi-ble. Radio journalists should have the experience of both reporting and sub-editing.NewscasterThis person is the on-air personality who presents the news to the audience. Some newscasters are littlemore than announcers who read prepared news scripts. But, as we explain throughout this manual, mod-ern radio news presentation requires more than just reading a script. A newscaster should be very much a



part of the news team, a working journalist who helps prepare the news production.

These are the main jobs related to radio news production. Other positions may include:- newsroom secretary: handles incoming calls, general correspondence and clerical duties- technical operators in the news editing studio and the transmission studio

This leads us to the physical organization of the news desk which is illustrated by the following floor plan. Itshows the desirable facilities and inputs, necessary for smooth radio news production for a medium sizednews operation in one particular language.

It's important that all the facilities related to the news department are in the same building, on the samefloor. All inputs must be readily available, the processing of foreign and local copy must be centralized andthe news transmission studio (output) not far away.

Each language should have its own newsroom or work area, but the reporting pool could be in a separateroom, catering for the three language sections.

Apart from reporters, there may be a monitoring unit. They may have their own translators who providecopy in the three languages to each of the language sections. Similarly, wire service copy will go to thethree sections.

Big tables are most helpful in newsrooms. The main table is the one with telephones (direct dialling, notthrough an exchange). Here, the bulletin editor works with his assistant-editors/translators.

Ideally, copy is dictated to typists. If there are no typists, journalists type copy themselves. After checkingthe typed copy, the bulletin editor arranges the copy on the final editing table.

Voice reports can be recorded in the News Editing Studio. If necessary, these reports can still be edited oran actuality insert can be prepared. The tapes are once again checked by the bulletin editor or his assis-tants in one of the audio rooms, before they are lined up on the final editing table.

One of the audio rooms has a telephone pick-up facility. Reporters can phone-in copy, which will then beprocessed by the assistant-editors.

There is a third big table in the newsroom. It can be used for reading newspapers, writing a story, or justfor having a cup of tea.

There are the cupboards for recent newspapers and magazines and there is also an essential referencelibrary, containing dictionaries and the news files of the last few weeks.

The most important part of the newsroom is the transmission studio. Now, the news goes on air and it's upto the listeners to judge whether the whole effort of reporting, gathering, writing, editing and presenting hasbeen worthwhile.



There’s no exact answer to this question, and certainly not a universal one.

The criteria of what is news vary according to the needs of different countries and societies. The needs of developingcountries are different from those of industrialized societies.

But while it is not possible to describe it precisely, every journalist must come to his own understanding of news. Andof course, news evaluation is something a journalist learns as he develops.

As a working definition one can say that NEWS is a new piece of information about a significant and recent eventthat affects the listeners and is of interest to them.

So, first of all, it’s got to be new. For radio, news is what happens now, what happens in the immediate present orwhat will happen.

Significance is a primary news value. News is what is significant to your audience: is it important, is it a big event, aremany people involved or affected?

It must be something that happened recently, of which he have not yet heard and everything that is about to happen. Itcan be an event, but also an idea or opinion. Beware of stories on intentions: what a minister intends doing or evenwhat he is considering or thinking about. News should concentrate more on what has happened (performance) ratherthan on what is going to happen in a far off future (intention).

The news which is of the greatest interest to radio listeners everywhere is the news which affects them. An effort shouldbe made always to see all stories from the point of view of how the event, the statement, the new government policy,etc. will affect people. Where appropriate, a degree of explanation may be necessary. If the story is important to them,people want to know more about it than a brief headline.Finally, news must be relevant to the listeners. Our audience consists of people. News must be broadcast in a style andlanguage people can understand.

Let’s now have a closer look at the elements that may help us to determine what “NEWS” is: timeliness, nearness, con-flict, government action, people’s stories, human interest, developmental issues, names, meetings, weather, sports.

1. Timeliness - it must be new, fresh. A report is of little interest to a listener if he has already heard it or read it else-where. However, circulation of newspapers is rather low in most developing countries. It may thus be useful to followup newspaper stories. But never read them on the air unchanged.

2. Nearness - a) people are more interested in what happens in their village, region, country than in distant events.

Local news, news about people we know, interests us more;b) people are most interested in news affecting the cost of living or their pocketbook or taxes, food prices

and road conditions.

Compare:

“The Government has allocated 30 million Ringgit for the development of during the Fourth Malaysia Plan “

with

“The price of bread will be increased by 10 cents from tomorrow”.

Listener interest can be heightened by finding a local angle to a story and emphasizing it.

A well known phenomenon is that people are eager to read or hear about events in which they have been involved.Sports fans will listen to a sport report on the game they watched a few hours earlier, because of its proximity to them.

WHAT IS NEWS? Page 1.2 1

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualNEWS DIRECTIVES - UNIT 1.2 WHAT IS NEWS?

3 Conflict - conflicts are newsworthy. Conflict is part of life, and news deals with life. In most Asian and Pacific coun-tries, much of the (local) news that deals with events is broadcast blandly, as if most events take place without prob-lems or opposition. Conflicts arouse listeners’ interest. Not to give the opposing view often undermines the station’scredibility, because people are aware of it.Dramatic conflict is whatever happens between two opposing forces. The conflict can be between one person andanother or one nation and another or it can be between man and an outside influence or force, fate, nature.

4. Prominence - News is what happens to prominent people, places or things. Names make news and big names makebig news, provided they do or say something of public interest. Unfortunately, in many parts of the world, news is inpractice often defined as “whenever a minister is present”.

5 Government action - This can be the passage of a new law, new projects, a new regulation, inaugurations, cabi-net meetings, etc. News is given most attention when it tells about the effects of an event, an action or an announce-ment. Too many bulletins sound like a Government Gazette, or worse, like a diary of what cabinet ministers aredoing. It’s important that listeners know what the government is doing and saying. But, often a news story can startwith the effect of an announcement and then refer to the official position.

Not The government has reached agreement with a delegation from people in Tak province, who are short of food,to buy rice at cheap prices.But People in Tak province who are short of food will be able to buy rice at cheap prices. This is the result ofan agreement reached between the government

A story need not necessarily sound official because the information comes from an official source. Even if you takeyour notes from a government report or a legal document, your story shouldn’t sound that way. Avoid bureaucraticlanguage.

Similarly, more important than the opening of a seminar or conference, is what’s being discussed and what are theresults of a meeting. And how those meetings will affect life.

6. Development news - A large part of the Asia-Pacific region consists of countries which have been defined as“developing countries”. Therefore development news should be a subject of special importance to them and of wide-spread interest to their people.

However it does not always receive the attention it deserves. Many broadcasting organizations do indeed devote muchtime to “development” in their news and current affairs broadcasts. But they fail often to treat the subject in a waywhich would bring out its meaning and interest. In particular, the scope of development news is interpreted so nar-rowly that it fails to arouse public interest.

Development means much more than economic growth, increases in the gross national product, per capita income oramounts of allocation in a budget. It means the development of society as a whole, and of all its institutions, eco-nomic, social, political. It comprises the total well-being of all the people, and therefore invokes the most universaland meaningful principles of human justice.

In particular it calls for improvements in the welfare of the poorest people through a fairer sharing out of economicand social resources.

Therefore development news has to concern itself with all that happens to the whole people and their welfare in thebroadest sense of the word. It is people’s news; it is not only about government plans and official speeches or theaffairs of corporations and industries. Its subject is not only statistics and projects but also how these affect the livesof the people. The development story therefore has to be told in terms of the people and what happens to them, notin abstractions which only experts can understand. This man, or this family or this place and community are also the



stuff of development news, not only this project or plan; in fact the former are more the stuff of it than the latter.

And development news is not always, or only, the “good story”. It should not always talk of achievements and sooth-ing things. If development means the promotion of human justice and the protection of human rights, and the fulfill-ment of the basic human needs of all the people, then it also means a new social and economic order, as much with-in countries as between them. Such development can mean enormous strains and tensions between those who demandand those who resist the demand. These tensions are also part of the development story and this part also has to betold with the same skill, and frankness, as the success story. And if it is well told, in terms of the lives of people, itmay help to prevent bigger failures in future.

Always remember: we are broadcasting for people. Failure to remember them, the people at the end of our transmis-sion, is one of the greatest dangers of our profession. People are very interested in stories about other people.

People’s news also can originate from a variety of nongovernmental organizations, such as consumer unions, com-munity associations, trade unions, churches or religious groups, women’s and youth clubs, professional associations.It should be recognized that society is enriched, not weakened, by the growing number of all sorts of groups, volun-tary organizations and other nongovernmental institutions formed on the basis of common interests and opinions.Their activities should be reported.

7. Human interest - this is made up of elements with an emotional appeal: oddities, humour, romance, suspense,tragedy, sympathy, fear, grief, compassion, envy, generosity, loneliness, triumph over handicaps, stories involvingchildren, aged people, nature, animals, etc.

So far, typical human interest stories are almost totally absent in Asian and Pacific news bulletins. Acquainting your-self with human interest elements is important.

Often you may begin a straight news assignment and uncover human interest potential in the story. If there is suffi-cient human interest, it may well deserve more emphasis in the story than the standard news elements.

Human interest stories can also be the result of follow up work. Sometimes they only become obvious when areporter has taken the trouble to follow up the human circumstances involved in an event such as a fire, a robbery,some other tragedy, or a joyful event.

8. Weather - Radio probably ranks number one in the public’s media preference and use for weather information.Radio has the advantage of being the medium that can include updated weather reports throughout the day both aspart of the regular news bulletin and in special reports as the weather changes. This is particularly important for seacoast areas, islands, cyclone or earthquake zones.

9. Sport - there is an intense public interest in sports. Don’t take pride in “knowing nothing about sports”. It’s partof your job to know at least the basic facts and the important people in the popular games and sports in your countryand in the world.

And finally, there is one more characteristic of news that we would like to highlight here. News is something thatdevelops. People tune in “to hear the latest” on an accident, an international conflict, a decision of an important cab-inet meeting, etc. A good news story doesn’t end after first reference.



If news is reporting significant events for a community, we should know something about that community. The morewe know about the audience, the better we are able to serve it.Audience research is the systematic study of the pub-lic. Techniques have been developed for audience research in countries in which there is a lot of media competition,for example the United States and Western Europe. Some developing countries simply do not have the economic andorganisational capability for audience research. But there also seems to be a lack of understanding of the importanceof audience building. This is the importance of considering the needs and desires of the audience when constructingnews accounts.

What kind of basic information should audience research provide?

a) Background information about the population

- number and types of radio receivers in use - people’s availability to listen to news

- what people need from broadcasting, and the programme tastes of the population

- spare-time activities and interests of people

b) Audience size

- estimates of audience for news, and their composition in terms of sex, age, socio-economic group, rural-urban etc.- patterns of listening

c) Research on news as a category of output- pre-broadcast studies to determine the degree of knowledge of the audience, their opinions, prejudices, etc.- how understandable are the news broadcasts? - analysis of the news content, as perceived by the listener - testing the credibility of news

Never forget that we broadcast for people, not radio sets. Nor for politicians or senior civil servants. We broadcast for all types of people, who have different attitudes.

Remember:− listeners have a short attention span− they cannot absorb a great deal at one time− listeners can be distracted by people and happenings around them− listeners are more interested in things which affect their lives, their friends, neighbours etc.− it’s easy to switch off mentally and literally. If people learn to switch off when the news comes up, we are wast-ing our time− listeners may not be geniuses, but they aren’t stupid either. The journalist must make sure that the least learnedof his audience understand, and at the same time avoid offending the experts. A journalist should interpret infor-mation so that it is understandable, but not trivial

Few listeners can give undivided attention to a news broadcast. Therefore we are competing for their concentration,and if we are not getting through to them with clarity, we are losing the most important battle.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualNEWS DIRECTIVES UNIT 1.3 WHO IS THE AUDIENCE?

1.3 1

News doesn’t happen in the newsroom, nor does it necessarily happen during office hours. The countless words pour-ing into a radio newsroom every day come from several sources.

Main sources:- reporters: they must go out and find the news, wherever it can be found: Government ministries and divisions, community groups and organizations, various associations, private and publicinstitutions, trade unions, essential services (water, transport, electricity, hospitals, etc.), police, fire, ambulance, sport-ing bodies, airlines, shipping, Parliament, the Law courts, etc.

- News Agencies:national news agencies international news agencies

Other regular sources:

-publications: newspapers, both national and foreign magazines and newsletters.

- news conferences, briefings and public meetings

- monitoring of other radio and television stations, both foreign and national. It’s important to have good monitoringfacilities specially for landlocked and isolated countries who have few news sources of their own. Some agencies andstations rely almost entirely on foreign sources by monitoring them.

-personal contact with as many people as possible. Remember that there are over 90 million potential news sources in Bangladesh, 35 million in Burma, 700 million inIndia, 150 million in Indonesia, 90 million in Pakistan, 50 million in the Philippines, etc ... If you really take your jobseriously, there’s still a lot more to do!

The great crime in news is inaccuracy. We should be very careful and sure about our news sources. Be suspicious!Even a government minister or an executive can be wrong sometimes. If in doubt, double check. If you can’t find it,leave it out altogether. Do not accept any information as infallible.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualNEWS DIRECTIVES UNIT 1.4 NEWS SOURCES

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In many countries of the region, the news format is still very rigid and formal; a ten or fifteen minute bulletin is readstraight through by one person. Research has shown however, that the attention span of the average listener is limited,particularly when one person is talking all the time.

The method of straight reading therefore is no longer considered the best way of getting information to the listener.Even the use of two newsreaders alternating the presentation of the items in a news bulletin is considered better forkeeping the listener's attention. It is recognized that many Asia-Pacific broadcasting services still base the presentationof their domestic bulletins on what is heard on the World Service broadcasts of the BBC, Radio Australia or the Voiceof America. But the reason these short-wave World Service bulletins maintain the straight read format is related to theirvaried worldwide audience. The English used in these bulletins is delivered slowly, in a more formal, authoritative voice,and it is easier to maintain this style using one reader, than to have several voices in the form of inserts or actuality.Another reason for this style of World Service presentation is to avoid problems of rapid fade on the signal which oftenmakes the news unintelligible. But it must be noted that the internal news bulletins of the BBC, Radio Australia, andthose in the United States of America in no way resemble their World News Services.

News presentation techniques have changed greatly in recent years. In many countries, a large proportion of major newsbulletins is made up of actuality inserts. These cover material from any source other than the newsreader, and includevoice reports by the journalists themselves, brief extracts from speeches, interviews, news conferences and genuinesound effects. Some stations use jingles, gongs, or even drumbeats for instance, between national and foreign newsitems.

So there are many new and varied techniques of news presentation which have developed, but which are not being usedin Asia and the Pacific. Maybe you can also draw upon your traditional ways of communicating information. Effectivecommunication results not from using one method alone, but from the interaction of all the ways of conveying infor-mation in a society.

All these techniques should be used properly. For example, a tape or 'phone-in' insert would be pointless if the techni-cal quality does not ensure clarity. So you must also have the best equipment possible. (see further UNIT 9)

Journalists need to be trained extensively in the various modern broadcasting techniques, such as the use of voice insertsand actuality, tape editing, and presentation. Further Units in this manual deal with these techniques.

Finally, it must be acknowledged that the strict distinction between different formats of news presentation is fast dyinge.g. the bulletin, the newsreel etc. As far as presentation is concerned, all modern techniques can and should be used forbulletins, as well as in current affairs programmes. (see further UNIT 6 on Presentation).

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualNEWS DIRECTIVES UNIT 1.5 NEWS FORMATS

1.5 1

National Parameters

In most developing countries the basic functions of information are supposed to constructively support thedevelopment of the country. Journalistic responsibility is usually defined in terms of the country's politicaland social aspirations.

On the other hand, in western industrialized countries, journalistic responsibility, in addition to being set bysocial and ethical norms, is determined by professional autonomy and independence. These are con-sidered absolute requirements for meeting the responsibility of journalism.

As a general rule, the journalists' freedom is restricted by his responsibility vis-a-vis public order, moralstandards, safety of the state and its institutions. Restrictions are often formulated in terms of national ide-ology.

The constitution of a country usually provides the broad framework within which principles guiding profes-sional journalistic activity are defined.

Civil Laws usually prescribe rules the journalist must follow in relation to his audience e.g. privacy, slanderetc. In some countries, journalists themselves have adopted professional codes of conduct. In mostcases the professional function is described as a public service, the interpretation of which is guided by theprevailing social system. Many of these codes of conduct have certain ethical principles in common. Theseinclude the right of secrecy (the respect for the private lives of all citizens), accuracy, impartiality, balance,good taste, etc.

Self-censorship

The term is used to describe the action of a journalist who stays clear of reporting certain subjects for fearof incurring institutional retribution or punishment. While much of this fear is rooted in political and socialsensitivity, it is also true that a great deal of it is imagined.At a seminar on Development Journalism, held at the Asia-Pacific Institute for Broadcasting Developmentin 1979, most participants admitted that journalists do not take full advantage of the opportunities and free-dom available to them, often preferring to blame those in power for their own shortcomings.

As a journalist it is your responsibility to know your National Parameters, the various civil laws, and socialnorms which may restrict your profession in the Public Service.But the media must serve all sections of the society, and you should not imagine policy rules which do notexist. If in doubt at any time, consult your Senior Editor.

Defamation and Contempt of Court

The most common ways in which radio journalists encounter the law, are with defamation and contempt ofcourt. But individual countries may have a variety of other laws which restrict what can be broadcast e.g.some countries forbid the publication or broadcast of the name of the poison used in a suicide; others havelaws governing the mention of political matters on election days. Broadcasters must familiarize themselveswith the various laws of their country, including laws governing defamation and contempt of court. The fol-

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualNEWS DIRECTIVES UNIT 1.6 NATIONAL CONSTRAINTS AND LEGAL ASPECTS

1.6 1

lowing comments are based on the British legal system:

Defamation

This can be of an individual, an organization or a product. Defamation is the broadcast of anything whichspoils the good reputation of a person, organization or product in the eyes of the ordinary citizen.For example, stories which suggest a person

- has broken the law- is dishonest or corrupt - is bankrupt - is immoral- is not to be trusted

or an organization- is working against the public interest - is financially unsound- uses dishonest methods or practices

or a product- is inferior to another brand - is dangerous - is useless

Defamatory statements can be broadcast, provided the broadcasting organization is convinced the state-ments are in the public interest, and is prepared to defend its point of view in a court of law, if necessary.

It may have to prove, for instance, that the statement broadcast was true or fair comment on a matter ofpublic interest, and not merely malicious. Fair comment must be supported by facts, not rumours orguesswork.

Public interest can cover such cases as:-political and governmental matters - administration of justice- public health- safety of products-the interest of consumers-the institutions in which the public has invested money - the public conduct of someone in public office, or who is in a position of public trust.

Beware of quoting a person saying defamatory things about others, an organization or product. Thesestatements cannot be broadcast unless the person making the statement has evidence of truth, or that thestatements are in the public interest.


1.6 2

Privileged Places

There are places where almost anything said may be reported. These include Parliament, the Courts oflaw, and Commissions of Inquiry. Defamatory statements are often made in these places, and you are freeto report them, provided it's an accurate and fair report. Beware however, of statements made outside thecourthouse, or in the corridors of the Parliament building - these areas are not covered by this same privi-lege. Furthermore, in many countries the presiding officer of Parliament, or the judge or magistrate of acourt has the arbitrary power to order that all or parts of any statements should not be reported by themedia.

Decisions on whether statements are defamatory, and should be broadcast or not, should be discussedwith editors or managers, who in turn may consult lawyers. In a situation where this discussion is not possi-ble, a rough test would be: `How would I feel if this were said about me in public'.

Contempt of Court

Under British law, a person is innocent until he is proved guilty in a court of law. Crimes or accidents whichmay involve negligence, must not be referred to in any way which apportions blame or guilt before the casehas been decided by the courts.

In accident cases, only the facts should be given, without apportioning blame, even if the cause may beclear to everybody.

For example:Not`A motorcyclist on Man Pantai failed to give way last night, and collided with another bike travelling alongMan Bangsar'But `Two motorcycles collided at the corner of Man Pantai and Man Bangsar last night'

Once an arrest is made, reports must not prejudice a fair trial.

Not `X appeared in court today for murdering Y.But 'X appeared in court today charged with murdering Y.

There's also the danger of contempt of court if you broadcast evidence of previous convictions or the pastrecord of the accused before these are presented in court.

For more on Crime and Court reporting, see Unit 3, Section 8.


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ACCURACY

Accuracy is fundamental to any news service. When you fail in accuracy, you fail the audience, and losecredibility. So, GET YOUR FACTS RIGHT. Check everything, don't guess. You can never be too carefulwith facts, figures and names.

The electronic media have a big advantage in being faster than the press, but speed increases the risk oferror. Limitations of air-time also require news to be tightly compressed, thus raising the possibility of dis-tortion and ambiguity.

Distortion of news occurs when inaccuracies and untruths replace fact.For rewriting, always go to the original source. Don't rewrite from someone else's copy - check and recheckall facts, figures and names.

Do not use rumour. The word rumour must never appear in your copy.It is not the role of the news service to speculate. The purpose is to report accurately. Speculation is notfact, although facts need to be explained. Indeed, there's a growing need to place events and issues in abroader context. So, EXPLAIN, rather than speculate.

A news service should not contain opinion. It should report only the facts, and other people's opinions.

Inaccuracies also occur in translation. Translators have the important task of understanding the message,and translating it accurately into another language (see further UNIT 8).

BALANCE

Balance is one of the most important issues. You should seek to give both sides to a story, particularlywhen it's a controversial subject. If you don't do this, you lose credibility. Balance should be achieved ineach news item, each bulletin, and certainly over a period of time.

There are serious imbalances in the newscasts produced in the Asia Pacific region:-extensive use of governmental views only- over-use of stories of intentions (what a minister or somebody intends doing)- little news in which the opposite opinion is given- too much foreign news, much of which is irrelevant to the local community- contradictions between the handling of local news (positive centered news), and foreign news,

which almost exclusively involves conflict and controversy.- too much urban oriented and urban originated stories, whereas Asia Pacific societies are

predominantly rural- too few stories with a human interest angle

In the interest of harmony in multi-racial and multi-religious societies, you must be careful in the way youreport news relating to the various communities.

You should also seek balance in presentation styles. For instance, stories with, or without voice inserts.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualNEWS DIRECTIVES UNIT 1.7 THE A.B.C.S OF PROFESSIONAL JOURNALISM:

ACCURACY - BALANCE - CLARITY

1.7 1

CLARITY

If the audience cannot understand what you are saying, because it is not clear, the whole effort is wastedand no communication has taken place. As we explain later in Unit 2, you have only one chance to beunderstood. That's why clarity must have top priority. If an item is not crystal clear to you, it will be a mean-ingless babble to the listener.

ACCURACY + BALANCE + CLARITY = CREDIBILITY

When the message is accurate, balanced and clear, the audience will believe it.

Credibility is journalism's greatest asset.

In Asia and the Pacific, most radio and television services are government controlled. Their messages suf-fer from lack of independent validation. There's a tendency to say `oh, that's Government propaganda'.Many of us have the experience of not trusting people who have a vested interest in the message. If some-one tries too hard to sell us something, we look upon that person with suspicion, because we feel that per-son has something to gain by convincing us.

Only journalism which is both free and responsible, and believed to be both, can enjoy the respect andconfidence of people, and earn credibility in their eyes.

If you do not strive for, and earn credibility, and listeners don't believe your news service, you are wastingyour time, and the contents of this manual will be of little value.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualNEWS DIRECTIVES UNIT 1.7 THE A.B.C.S OF PROFESSIONAL JOURNALISM:

ACCURACY - BALANCE - CLARITY

1.7 2

Writing for radio is writing for the ear. Write as you would speak. Better still, write as you would hear.

Because of the strict time limits observed in news broadcasts, the script must be written. But the difficultywith having to use a script is that people have been trained in school to write material only for other peopleto read silently to themselves. This is writing for reading, not for talking aloud.

Writing for radio is, quite different from writing for print media. We must write for the ear, not for the eye.The eye can take in a whole sentence at a time. It can take in a news agency lead running to five or sixlines, with clauses going in all directions. This is how it works when you read: you recognize words ingroups - sometimes two or three words at a time. It takes about a third of a second for each group. Then,the average adult reader pauses for about a quarter of a second between one group of words and anotherin order to assign provisional meanings to what he has read. As he goes on, his provisional understandingmay change. He then will go back to look at a key word group. This stop-go-backward-forward movementis characteristic of the average reader.

The listener cannot go back to recheck a fact. The ear takes in a sentence word by word. It must wait untilthe end of a sentence to discover its shape, to understand its full meaning.

In this unit, we'll give you some guidelines on how you can improve your news writing for radio.

It's a good practice to work with typists. In that case, the journalist doesn't type his copy, he dictates, orrather speaks and the typist writes. Tell the news to your typist as your audience will eventually hear it.

If you have to type the script yourself, it's a must to say it aloud. Too often, a typewriter is a barrier to clearcommunication. Good journalists talk to themselves as they write, testing each phrase for its sound andjudging how easy it is to say. Whether you are a reporter or a bulletin editor it is saying copy out aloud thatwill achieve the conversational approach necessary in broadcast news.

There are five key principles you should always remember about any radio programme.

- It is spoken- It's immediate- It's person to person- It's heard only once- It's sound only

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualWRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.1 WRITING FOR THE EAR: FIVE PRINCIPLES

2.1 1

A) It is SPOKEN

It's not written literature, it is TALK. So, be natural and use only words you know the meaning of and whichare in your spoken vocabulary. The following example may sound allright in a United Nations Assembly, butnot on air.

Not The implementation of the environmental quality promotion and preservation project, which will belaunched during the Fifth National Economic and Social Development Plan, will place emphasis on solu-tions to the problems of pollution, population migration and settlement, the deterioration of naturalresources and the changes of ecology.

But Government has plans to tackle the problems of environment pollution under the new Economic and SocialDevelopment Plan. A project to improve the quality of the environment is to be launched. It will try to findsolutions for the problems of pollution, the migration of people from villages to cities and the increasingscarcity of natural resources.

Use the spoken words of everyday speech. Don't be afraid to use the same word twice or three times, if itis the right word. The broadcast style must be natural, not invented.

Not The road is not motorable

But The road is blocked (or closed, impassable) or: The road can't be used

Contractions are common in conversation, but the person starting out to write news for broadcast oftenseems instinctively to avoid them.

So use: that's, there's, he's, they're, don't, won't, isn't, aren't, etc.

But don't use contractions if you want to emphasize any words, particularly in the case of a strong negativeemphasis.

Example He said last night he will not resign.


2.1 2

B) It's IMMEDIATE

Radio is the "now" - medium!

The greatest advantage over newspapers is immediacy, and this can be emphasized by using the presenttense. Wherever possible, use the present tense rather than reported speech. This newspaper stylesounds strange on the air.

Not The Prime Minister said today the country's economy was booming.

But The Prime Minister says the country's economy is booming.

If you are telling someone what the Prime Minister said, you will not put it in reported speech, howevergrammatically correct that may be. The comfortable newswriter must not care too much about the weight ofrules applying to written English to which few give a second thought in spoken expression.

Things read on the radio should appear to the listener to be happening NOW. The present tense is a typi-cal broadcast tense because it gives a sense of immediacy.

C) It's PERSON to PERSON

Writing for radio is not great oratory, it must be informal, it's YOU and ME. There may be thousands of oth-ers listening at the same time, but each of them is listening on his own, or in a small group.

However, in news programmes, the styles can be slightly more formal than ordinary conversation, yet cer-tainly not as rigid as that of a newspaper. It must be easy to listen to without sounding casual.

Although radio must give news straight, remember that it is also an entertainment medium. Try not to bedull and too formal in your style. Try to avoid bureaucratic language.

Not

The Executive Committee of the National Economic Council has approved the third phase of the familyplanning scheme involving an expenditure of over 200 crore taka with a foreign exchange component ofabout 106 crore taka.

But The National Economic Council has approved the third phase of the family planning scheme. Over 200crore taka will be spent. Almost half of that money is foreign aid.


2.1 3

But when it is necessary to use an unfamiliar word it should be explained in a short explanatory sentence.

Example ... writ of Habeas Corpus, this means that the authorities must bring the suspect before thejudge.

Radio must become a friend, whom the listener will believe. And when we broadcast, we should talk as toa friend.

D) It's HEARD ONLY ONCE

The broadcast, once made, is gone and the listener has no means of referring to what was said. If theaudience has to think twice, to disentangle some cumbersome clause, what you say is lost forever.

Clarity has top priority

Use simple, declarative short sentences. When a sentence is too long, it can easily be split up into two orthree simple sentences. Don't cram all the information in one sentence.

Clarity relies almost completely on simplicity. Confusion comes from complex sentence construction, awk-ward alignment of clauses, unexplained technical terms, etc. In other words, always try to say it simply.

NotThailand and Austria have both agreed on the desirability of expanding two-way trade and increasingAustrian participation in the economic development of Thailand under the fifth Five Year Plan.

ButThailand and Austria want to expand trade. Austria will also participate more in the economic developmentof Thailand under the fifth Five Year Plan.

The enemy is confusion

Leave out superfluous information. The problem of comprehension is not only a question of simple lan-guage. The idea that is conveyed in a news item must also be easily grasped. You have only one chance!A most useful technique is to put only one idea in one sentence.

Not Prices of white sugar and white refined sugar to be sold in the country are set at 7 Rupees and 8 Rupees akilo respectively.

But The price of white sugar is set at 7 Rupees a kilo. And white refined sugar will be sold at 8 Rupees for akilogram.


2.1 4

E) It's SOUND ONLY

Words are the bridge between the newswriter and the listener. Words are the tools of our trade.

Don't be vague or ambiguous. Use words that convey concrete images.

NotThe officials point out that the annual elephant birthrate in Burma is usually lower than the death rate.

ButOfficials say that more elephants die each year than there are born.

Be exact and concise. Explain complex and abstract concepts. If you can't, avoid them.

Not He also said reciprocity will be the guiding rule in the implementation of the U.S. - Philippines extraditiontreaty, aimed at curbing crimes that could create irritants to their bilateral relations.

But He also says both the Philippines and the United States will apply the same principles under the extraditiontreaty. The treaty aims at curbing crimes that could cause difficulties between the two countries.

Avoid sound clashes, they are distracting to the listener.

Not The building is built by a local builder.

But A local company has built the house.

Be careful with words that sound alike.

Exampleaccepted - excepted retain - regain

This is also the case with figures (15-50, 19-90 etc.)

Not Container handling through Port Klang increased by more than 19 percent.

But Container handling increased by about 20 percent.


2.1 5

Punctuation is absolutely vital.

When eyes see a mark on a page, the brain reacts in a certain way. A large percentage of reading is auto-matic. Therefore, if the newsreader's brain is suddenly confronted with something unusual, it will causesome hesitation. No matter how momentary, the hesitation will be noticed by the listener. So, rememberthat you are writing a script to be read aloud. Your punctuation must be correct. Newsreaders expect prop-erly written material.

However, if a sentence is not properly written, punctuation won't be of much help, as this example shows:

"The chairman of the association", said Mr. Khader, "is a liar".

The listener will get the opposite impression of what you intended. In this case put the name of the speakerfirst (See further Unit 3, Section 2).

Summary

Having written the script, read it aloud. If it isn't easy to say ...it sounds strange ...it's ambiguous, not clear ...it's pompous...it's complex ...then: CHANGE IT.


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DULL COPY can hardly be read in a lively way. Crisp, lively copy can come only from a lively awarenessof how to use words distinctly in a sparing, but telling way.

Verbs do the work

They are the chief tools in spoken word writing. Think hard about verbs. They are the keystone of broad-cast style.

Example A series of violent earth tremors shook a big area of the New Guinea Islands this afternoon. In Rabaul, thetown's main roads heaved and rippled when the main tremor struck shortly after four o'clock... Dozens ofchildren playing on a beach jumped into the water to escape tons of rubble that swept down a hill andacross the roads towards them.

Adjectives are not as much help as one might think in descriptive and narrative writing. They tend toslow the pace and obstruct good delivery and perception. In almost every case, adjectives or adverbs areunnecessary. This is particularly so for the vague adjectives (colourful, traditional, huge, vast, giant, mas-sive, drastic ).

Whenever possible, use verbs in the active voice

The active voice tells in better. Word order is often the key to movement in a sentence. Active voice is sub-ject-verb-object.

NotSales counters have been opened by the newspapers at a few important places in the city.

ButNewspapers have opened sales counters at a few important places in the city.

Use the present tense

Logical use of the present tense gives a tinge of freshness to news, makes it sound more immediate.

Radio news must report what has just happened, what is happening and what is just about to happen. Forthis reason the present, the present perfect and the future are used more than in print journalism.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualWRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.2 HOW TO MAKE YOUR COPY SOUND LIVELY

2.2 1

Newswriters can make good use of the present perfect tense, as in this example:

The Burmese Navy has arrested a Thai trawler.

The "has" gives more feeling of continuing drama. Using the past tense often sounds very silly

Not The Minister said that the project was expected to be completed in 1985.

ButThe Minister expects the project will be completed in two years.

In reporting on statements which refer to a view that is still held by the speaker you can use the word`says' instead of said.

But remember the present tense must be applied wisely and logically.

NotThree people are dead today from weekend traffic accidents

But Three people died in weekend accidents.

In dealing with future events, it is preferable to use "is to" rather than "will". By saying "The minister is tovisit the flooded area tomorrow" we are simply reporting his intention, rather than committing ourselves toa prediction of fact.

A mixture of tense is usual in conversational language. Don't bother too much about certain grammaticalrules that apply to written English.

ExampleThe F.A.O. Director said that new development projects can easily be doubled if sufficient resources areavailable.

You can humanize stories and add vitality to news items by getting closer in paraphrase to the way peopleexpress themselves in everyday speech. A lot of formal language can be simplified without misrepresent-ing the source.

NotThe shortfall in the publication of books in Bahasa Malaysia against the increasing rate of literacy in thelanguage may frustrate government efforts to expand public library services, it was stated today.

ButThe Director of the National Library says not enough books are being published in Bahasa Malaysiawhereas more and more people are able to read the national language. This may make government efforts


2.2 2

to expand public libraries very difficult.

But in any case avoid the reverse. This is the process which turns a news contact's simple, straightforwardremarks into formal sounding phrases. A road service spokesman who tells you that a lot of cars havebeen breaking down because of floods should not have his words elevated to "a high incidence of vehiclemalfunctions". And a person who says he's fed up with a certain situation should not figure in the. bulletinas "expressed dissatisfaction".

Everyday cliches that people still use have more vitality than manufactured media cliches!

Try to avoid the negative

You can add colour to many stories by converting from the negative to the positive. It can be done fre-quently, especially in lead sentences.

NotThe ministry of Agriculture has made it clear that fishermen are not prevented from catching prawns in in-shore areas by using traditional gear.

ButFishermen can still catch prawns along the coastline if they use traditional gear. The Ministry of Agriculturemade it clear that ...

Punctuate for sound

With rare exceptions the only punctuation marks you need in writing for radio are the full stop, the comma,the question mark and the dash.

Punctuation marks are for the newscaster, not for the listener. Therefore, use them only when they will helpthe announcer use his voice. It's useful for the announcer if you underline certain words for emphasis.Newsreaders rely on the writers to use punctuation correctly and intelligently.


2.2 3

Remember, again and again that we are writing for the ear, not for the eye. Broadcasting researchers havefound that almost nobody can follow clearly a sentence containing more than about eighteen to twentywords. Therefore keep your sentences crisp or, in other words, WRITE IT TIGHT!

How can you go about doing this? Try to follow a simple suggestion: think out each sentence in fullbefore you write it. Most people think out the first two or three words of what they're going to write andput them on paper. Then they think for a while and add a bit more and so on. The result is labouriously andbadly written copy. In other words start making notes rather than a script. Know and understand the story,order it in your thoughts and then speak it out. Think it, say it, then write it.

Think of some particular person, to whom you talk often (a friend, your mother, your wife, your brother.....).Tell him or her the story. How would you say it? Write it that way!

DO'S AND DONT'S

- Tighten your sentences. This basically means that you shouldn't waste words. Every word must count.

Not The Prime Minister said the effect of the measures would be to increase the availability of finance for theprivate sector and to provide a boost to the confidence of business and the community generally. (35 words)

But The Prime Minister says the measures will give more financial aid to the private sector and boost the confi-dence of business and the community.(24 words)

- Avoid needless repetition. Don't say the same thing twice.

Examples It's a true factShe gave birth to two twins Holiday periodThe reason is because A new record Future plansTraffic conditionsIn a weeks timeAll prisoners in jails in Northern Ireland Half of the total water supply He died in a fatal accident

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualWRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.3 HOW TO SHAPE A SENTENCE

2.3 1

- Avoid subordinate clauses. They are rarely used in everyday conversation. Avoid the clumsy `which'clause. The easy way out is to split the sentence in two.

Not All one hundred men in the boilermaking section of Millers Limited, who have been on strike for a fortnightin protest against the dismissal of a welder, reported for work this morning.

ButAll one hundred men in the boilermaking section of Millers Limited reported for work this morning. Theyhave been on strike for a, fortnight in protest against the dismissal of a welder.

- Avoid starting a sentence with a participle. This construction is a writing idiom, not an idiom of speech.

NotWelcoming the members to the first session of this year, the speaker, Mirza Gholam Hafiz said a sounddemocratic atmosphere has been created on the basis of multi-party representation in the House.

But In his welcoming speech to the first session of this year, the ....

- The simpler the syntax of a sentence, the better.

NotThe Minister of Public Works said it would have been impossible to have chosen a better site than thePudu area for the Central Bank Building.

ButThe Minister of Public Works says Pudu area is the right choice of site for the Central Bank Building.

- Don't put a vital verb at the end of a sentence. Newsreaders drop their voices slightly at the end ofsentences. The impact of a key verb can then be lost.

Not A stone mason received minor head injuries this morning when a wall of the General Post Office buildingcollapsed.

ButA stone mason received minor head injuries this morning when a wall collapsed at the General Post Officebuilding.

- Try not to end a sentence with an adjective or an adverb. A strong meaningful last word gives a sen-tence definition.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualWRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.3 HOW TO SHAPE A SENTENCE

2.3 2

The structure of a straight news item is an inverted pyramid.

The arrangement in newswriting is the reverse of the literary form. In the conventional literary form, firstcomes the introduction, then the facts of increasing importance, building up to the climax and conclu-sion.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualWRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.4 HOW TO STRUCTURE A NEWS ITEM

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The flow is chronological.

The flow in newswriting is the reverse of the literaryform.

The lead or climax of the story comes on top: What is the news?

Often the second paragraph sets the scene. Who is the main actor, where did the event take place? Onwhat occasion?

Then it's time to give the other elements of the story and to give important supporting facts.

Now, you can add background, that's a word or phrase or sentence added to make a news item clearer.The listener wants to know the "why?" of the story Make the news intelligible and complete. Use compari-son and contrast to show the unusual or the different. Explain and interpret the story for your audience:"This means that ...."

If possible, have a strong end. Repeat the main news element but of course not using the same words orsentences. However, always start with the most important element and then give the other elements of thestory in diminishing order of importance.

There are a few reasons for the rather rigid arrangement of the inverted triangle: listeners always get theimportant facts of the story in the lead; this structure automatically provides a continuity of ideas so thatnothing gets out of order; and the bulletin editor can always cut a story from the bottom if he has to shorten

it (for instance, because of the length of other more important stories).

Consider this example, a press release from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade in Papua NewGuinea, and how it is converted into the "inverted pyramid" structure.


2.4 2

The National Executive Council today endorsed a submission from the ministerfor Foreign affairs and Trade, Mr. Noel Levi, imposing a four-month ban on ply-wood and veneered panel imports into Papua New Guinea.

Mr. Levi said that the ban, effective immediately, would provide protection forlocal industry against foreign imports.

He told Cabinet that sales of locally-manufactured plywood had fallen sinceNovember last year because of imports from New Zealand, Singapore andMalaysia.

Mr. Levi said that while the ban is in force, Government forestry and tradeexperts will study options for the implementation of an import quota system toapply from January next year.

Papua New Guinea Forest Products Limited -of Bulolo is the only locally-basedmanufacturer of plywood.

The company is 65 percent Government-owned and produces variety of fin-ished timber products including veneered panels, chopsticks and drawer sides.

Mr. Levi said the import ban would encourage Papua New Guinea ForestProducts to boost production for the domestic and export markets.

"Wherever possible the Government will encourage the development of the tim-ber manufacturing industry. The Government is opposed to the export of PapuaNew Guinea's timber resource in its natural form because it offers a small returnfor a valuable resource", Mr. Levi said."The Government is determined to develop a timber manufacturing industrywhich will provide jobs for Papua New Guineans and give us a better return onour resource, " he said.


2.4 3

THE LEAD SENTENCE

You must attract the listener with the sound of the first sentence. Make him want to hear more. Theopening sentence (or lead) is the most important one of a news item. You catch or lose your listener withthat first sentence.

ExampleA padi farmer at Kota Bharu has doubled the income from his land by using a new strain of rice.

(Most padi farmers hearing the opening sentence will keep on listening for further details.)

Good newswriters spend much time on writing a catchy lead, a lead with punch. Give the lead yourbest shot. Write it, re-write it, and polish it until you're sure it's the best you can do. After you've finished thefirst draft of a story, read it over critically. Frequently, a clearer way of saying something in the lead willbecome apparent.

The dominant news point must be isolated as the lead. In selecting the lead, ask yourself: "If I have tosay only one sentence about this information to my friend, what would I say?" Then, that informationshould be the lead.

A lead should be written in a simple, uncomplicated manner that will not confuse - and lose - the lis-tener. You should not try to begin the story by answering the questions of WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHERE,WHY and HOW all in one sentence. You must emphasize the most newsworthy of the 5 W's and H in thelead sentence.

Study the following example.

NotBecause of the continuing severe fall in the world price of copra, over which neither the Copra Board

nor the Government have any control, the Copra Board has most reluctantly decided that there is no optionbut to reduce the price of first grade copra to 10 cents for a 5 -pound lot effective from the 1st March. Thedrop in price has been forced on the Board because it is subsidizing the present price of 2 1/2 cents to theexcessive amount of $22.40 a ton, or 1 cent a pound.

The Board cannot continue to eat into its reserves any longer, or else it will not have enough moneywith which to pay cutters for copra. The price for second grade copra will be 71/2 cents.

But There's to be a further reduction in the copra price. The new price for first grade copra will be two

cents a pound - a reduction of half a cent a pound. The price of second grade copra will be one and a halfcents a pound. The new prices take effect next Monday.

The Copra Board says it was forced to reduce the prices paid to the local cutters because the worldprice of copra is still falling.

The Copra Board is already subsidizing the present price at the rate of one cent a pound and thishas eaten into its reserves.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualWRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.5 HOW TO GRAB THE ATTENTION OF THE LISTENER

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DO'S AND DON'TS

- Avoid overcrowding the lead. Be brief. Most good leads are just one sentence long (with a maximum of20 words). Other facts not selected for this single sentence are placed in succeeding paragraphs.

NotThe President has reaffirmed this morning his determination to maintain democracy when he addressedgovernment agents at their annual conference.

ButThe President has reaffirmed his determination to maintain democracy. He told government agents at theirannual conference that......

- Be wary of question leads. They can be used effectively at times, if they are original and provocative.But in general the journalist is there to inform the listener, not to ask him questions.

- Avoid giving away key information in the first two or three words. After each story the reader paus-es. During that pause the attention cases. It takes the listener a few seconds to tune in with full concentra-tion to the next item. So, hold the key word back.

Not 273 have died in a plane crash near Manila.

ButThere has been a plane crash near Manila in which 273 people have died.

- But don't hold the key word back too far. Get it in as early as possible in the opening sentence. If thelistener is kept waiting too long to discover what it's all about, he'll leave you. So hold it for a second, thenpunch it home - what happened and where.

NotThe president of the Women's Association, Mr.'. Khalil, said today increasing importance is needed to beplaced on education if women were to take a more active part in community affairs.

ButThe president of the Women's Association says education must be given greater importance if women areto take a more active part in community affairs.


2.5 2

Here's another example of a key word that comes much too late in the sentence.

NotA survey by the University Affairs Bureau said that 20 percent of graduates from the 1979-1980 academicyear from 12 universities and other institutions of higher learning remain jobless.

ButOne in five graduates who completed university 3 years ago are still without jobs. A survey by theUniversity Affairs Bureau shows that ... (substantiate).

- You cannot hit listeners with a strange, unfamiliar name. You should tie up the name so that lis-teners are prepared.

NotHOJA TULISLAM SYED ALI KHAMENEI has been sworn in as the new President of Iran.

ButIran has a new President. He's HOJATULISLAM SYED ALI KHAMENEI, who....

- Never start a lead sentence with a long dependent clause.

NotQuoting from the timeless prose of the Roman writer Cicero, in the original Latin, from the impeccablepoetry of Totagamuwe Sri Rahula and even from the works of the eighteenth century English bard, WilliamCowper, the Delimitation Commission, in its report, submitted to the President, goes to some lengths toexplain its concern for the consolidation of friendship and harmony between the various communities in thecountry.

ButThe Delimitation Commission is concerned for the strengthening of friendship and harmony between thevarious communities in the country. In a report submitted to the President, the commission ....

- Do not begin all stories with a location ("In Manila", "In Karachi", etc.). This can easily become repeti-tive and unimaginative.

NotIn Kuala Lumpur, the government has ....

ButThe Malaysian government has ...

- Be wary of figures, certainly in a lead sentence. By themselves, statistics mean nothing. Figures mustbe explained before they have any significance. (On figures, see further Unit 7)


2.5 3

- Keep out the "todays" if you can. Be proud that it is today's news that you are telling today. Its overusemakes newscasts monotonous. You can eliminate some of the todays simply by using the present tense.

However the time element should be mentioned when it's relevant.

Example The body of X was recovered today. He was kidnapped last month.

There might be some point to "this morning" or "last night", "less than an hour ago", "in three hours fromnow", etc.

The use of "A.M." or "P.M." should be discouraged. That's for writing.

- Don't keep the listener waiting until the end of a long lead sentence to find out where it happened.

NotPolice have broken up a big car stealing racket in which cars worth thousands of dollars have been stolenin the last six months in the Metro Manila area.

ButPolice in Metro Manila have broken up a big car stealing racket. Cars worth thousands of dollars havebeen stolen in the last six months.

- In quotation leads, put the attribution up first. Attribution is necessary for all statements that implyblame, are of doubtful validity, and may be disputed. Quotation marks cannot be heard. That's why attribu-tion must precede quoted opinions on radio. Without that attribution, listeners may think the broadcaster ismaking his own statement.

NotTwo children's hospitals in Madras will be forced to close if the State Government continues to refuse finan-cial aid, a clinic administrator said today.

ButA clinic administrator says 2 children's hospitals in Madras will be forced to close if the State Governmentcontinues to refuse them financial aid.

(On attribution: see further Unit 3, Section 2)


2.5 4

The more difficult we make it to understand the spoken word, the more quickly we lose the interest of thelistener.

By using simple language, avoiding long words and long awkward sentences, we retain their interest.

Let your sentences breath. You're telling a story, not ramming it down people's throats.

You must convey information in logical order. Once you've chosen a lead, think of the next obviousquestion it raises. Answer that question in the second sentence. Then consider what question your secondsentence raises - and answer it. The story must be a progression of facts that cover all major questions thelistener could ask: what, when, where, who, why and how?

A common mistake is the failure to lay the groundwork for a fact you are introducing. You should set thestory up, so that every fact fits into the whole. The listener should be prepared for the facts that are aboutto be presented.

Make skillful use of repetition. A listener who has missed the first sentence of a story should not be leftgroping for clues as to what the story is all about or where it happened.

In any story that is more than half a minute long, repeat the scene of the event or the name of the speaker.It's irritating to the listener to hear a succession of "he said's" when he has missed the name of the speakerin your first sentence.

A useful technique is to repeat the basic information in the last sentence. Many people don't really beginpaying attention until you're well into the story. Give the listener a second chance of getting the news ele-ment in the story. Remember the last time you heard an obituary on the radio but missed the identity of thedeceased? It's pretty annoying.

Consider the following story. If you happen to miss the first sentence you can finish up without the faintestidea of what this is all about and where it happened.

NotReports from Sabah say that two people have been killed in explosions aboard a patrol boat of theMalaysian Navy. Five others were injured. They were taken to the General Hospital. The accident occurredlast night. Eyewitnesses say there were at least fifteen explosions. The end of the jetty where the ship wasmoored was blown away. A number of fishermen reported that the blazing vessel had been towed awayabout half a mile off shore, and firemen were also battling fires on the jetty. The cause of the explosions isunknown.

But Reports from Kota Kinabalu in Sabah say that two people have been killed in explosions aboard a patrolboat of the Malaysian Navy. Five others were injured and taken to the General Hospital in Kota Kinabalu.Fishermen said they heard at least 15 explosions. The end of the jetty where the ship was moored wasblown away and the burning patrol boat of the Navy had to be towed out about half a mile off shore. Thecause of the Sabah tragedy in which two people died is not yet known.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualWRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.6 HOW TO RETAIN THE INTEREST OF THE LISTENER

2.6 1

Don't use jargon, abbreviations or initials, without clarifying them. It's the best way of irritating yourlisteners. If these are to be used, the short form should be fully spelled out at least once in the story. (Onabbreviations and clichés: see further Unit 7).

Don't put stumbling blocks in your copy. Just as the proper length and placement of a sentence orphrase can help a story move along, the improper placement or length can make the newsreader stumble.If, for instance, a long and difficult phrase suddenly appears, the whole momentum of the story is interrupt-ed. Of course, if all sentences are short, the story will sound monotonous and turn off the listener. So, varythe length of sentences. Ideally, each story should contain a blend of short, medium and longer sentences.

Other stumbling blocks for the newsreader are typographical errors and difficult, strange names, which areoften unnecessary. They interrupt the flow of the story and the listeners will loose interest.

A smooth flow in newswriting can be obtained by making skillful use of transit points and link sen-tences.

Very helpful words are "but" or "however", which indicate to the listener that an opposite view or fact willbe given.

The word "meanwhile" is overworked as a link and in most cases it is not used properly. This adverbshould be used only when a close relationship exists in subject matter and intervening time actually ismeant (simultaneously).

"Besides" means "in addition to", but sounds a bit old fashioned. There is no harm in using "also".

"In another development" or "in a related development" are link words which can be used occasionally.But it would be much better to make clear what is the exact relation between the two events, rather thanjust use a general linking sentence.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualWRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.6 HOW TO RETAIN THE INTEREST OF THE LISTENER

2.6 2

In this section we deal with the basic rules for setting out stories. The main purpose of these is to make iteasy for the newsreader or announcer to read without stumbling. The newsreader is an important memberof the news team. He is the link between the broadcasting organization and the listener, so there should bea close relationship between the reader and the bulletin editor. It's something of a partnership. This meansthat the editor's job is not finished until the story has been read on air. In most newsrooms, it's the editor'sresponsibility to check pronunciation for the newsreader and he should also be able to answer any ques-tions the reader might have about the meaning of any report. News editors should indeed seek the activeco-operation of news announcers for suggestions. They should be encouraged to point out errors in thesense or wording of bulletin copy or obscure phrasing that can be changed without affecting the sense ofthe item itself. Announcers themselves, however, as a general rule should not make changes in copy with-out first consulting the editor.

Follow these guidelines

- all newsroom copy must be typed- type in double or triple space on one side of the paper only- every sentence should be in a paragraph by itself; with separate paragraphs the

announcer's eye will easily pick up the thought for each sentence- do not split words at the end of the line- usually you will have to type an original and three to four carbon copies

Example

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualWRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.7 HELP THE NEWSREADER

2.7 1

The Soviet leader, Mr. BREZHNEV, has warned his communist allies that economic difficulties

will be the greatest challenge to the Soviet bloc in the 1980s.

Mr. BREZHNEV was addressing a special meeting of communist leaders in CZECHOSLOVAKIA.

He said that for the socialist countries everything depends

on improving the efficiency of production and on raising the standard of administration.

For the past five days, Mr. BREZHNEV

has been attending the congress of the Czechoslovak Communist Party.

The layout of a scriptEvery item written for news, current affairs and sports should be accompanied by certain reference infor-mation, included at the top and bottom of the script.

In the top righthand corner is the date. This enables copy to be filed easily in chronological sequence.

Under the date is a slug, one or two words which convey the essence of the item. Avoid general words,such as "meeting" or "government", but use specific words.

Just under the slug or catchline, some organizations put the time of broadcast for which this copy is pre-pared.

Move the paper up at least three spaces and begin the first sentence. This is to avoid confusion for thenewsreader. Each item should be kept to one page if at all possible. If more than one page is requiredmake the last sentence on the page a complete sentence. At the end of a page, if the story carries overinto the next page, the bulletin editor places an arrow. You can also put "more" in the bottom righthandcorner.

Once the item is finished, put the source of the story in the bottom lefthand corner. It is not necessary touse the word "ends" which is more suited to a written newspaper style.


2.7 2

Exception: When the following sentence is a qualification of the previous one. In that case, the announc-er's eye should see there is something important that qualifies or adds information to the first sentence.

Example

A JAPANESE cargo ship has sunk off southern JAPAN, after hitting a submarine.

The ship went down fast after the collision.

Thirteen of the crew went picked up by a Japanese destroyer nearly twelve hours later.

Two, including the captain, are missing.

Survivors say the submarine surfaced directly after the accident

but then submerged and disappeared.

Some organizations insist that the source in the bottom left hand corner should include all people involvedin processing, sub-editing or re-writing the story. From left to right it should follow the story sequencebeginning specifically with the source and moving through to the final person to process the story beforebroadcast.

In a fast breaking radio situation where the story originates in your newsroom it is an advantage to includethe contact phone number of the source to enable anyone later involved in processing the source to makea quick contact to check or follow up the story.

Example


2.7 3

10/8/82 AFRICAN AID

7.30 am

The United Nations has announced a big aid programme for African refugees.

More than half of the aid programme of 425-million dollars was promised

by the UNITED STATES.

The plight of the refugees was discussed at a special UN conference in GENEVA,

attended by 82 countries.

The UN Secretary General drew a grim picture of life for some five million refugees in Africa.

He said many of the refugees were exhausted women and children

reduced to skeletons in search of bare sustenance.

Reuter/Narayanan/Fetrat

A similar approach is followed when the story contains an audio insert (see further Unit 6). In such a tape-supported story it is important to give full details of the insert.

Example


2.7 4

22/08/82NURSES 5.00 pm

Every year sixty nurses graduate from Mahabaudha nursing campus.

This is the only institute in Nepal, where nurses are trained for both

government and private hospitals. DHRUBA THAPA went to the

campus and has this report

Cue in: "The campus is part of ....Cue out: ... go abroad and study. " Duration: 57 seconds

And that report of Dhruba Thapa ends this roundup

of health services on the occasion of World Health Day.

Interview/Dhruba Thapa/Reetha

Turn in a clean script: announcers cannot be expected to read news properly if copy is unclear and full ofcorrections.

Follow these rules:

a) if a page has more than three corrections, it should be retyped. b) if a word is incorrect, cross it out completely and write the correct word in capital letters.

Example dead

Four persons are reported lost in a place crash.

c) leave nothing ambiguous in your script.

Punctuation marks are for the announcers, not for the listener. For radio, do not use the following signson your typewriter:

( ) & 1/z 3/a $ @ %

The only punctuation marks you really need for broadcasting are

the period (.) (full stop),

comma (,) question mark (?) and dash (-) to indicate a pause without the finality of the period).

If a name is unfamiliar or likely to give problems in pronunciation, the correct pronunciation should be typedin parenthesis above the word in question. People don't like having (their) names mispronounced. It'sequivalent to a misprint in newspapers. Proper names and place names should be typed in capital letters.


2.7 5

Example

(yahroo-ZELskee)The Polish Prime Minister, General JARUZELSKI

(bid-gosh)expressed regret for the recent incident in BYDGOSZCZ

where several members of the Solidarity trade union were beaten up by police.

Note that the accent can be indicated by upper and lower case. The upper case shows the syllable thatgets the accent: yahroo-ZELskee

When using members - write out numbers one to eleven. Use figures for 12 through 99. After 999, writeout hundred thousand, million etc.

Example89,000 = 89 - thousand67,043,000 = 67 - million 43 - thousand 2,500 = two thousand five hundred

Numbers up to 1,900 (except for 1,000) should be written in hundreds.

Example 1,200 = 12-hundred

Fractions are always written out: e.g. one half, three quarters etc.

Take care with roman numerals

Not Queen Elizabeth II (could be read as "eleven")But Queen Elizabeth the second

Underline for emphasis. This is particularly useful if two sentences seem to be dealing with the samesubject when they are not, or when they are in contrast or comparison.

Example There were five-thousand refugees this year, that's two thousand more than last year.

The American Defense Secretary says that the United States is already producing the neutron bomb.

When you have finished your story, read it back aloud to make sure it is correct. Check particularly forspelling errors and words missed out.

It requires a lot of mental discipline to re-read copy. But you should be proud of handing in correct andclean stories.


2.7 6

News is gathered by reporters. But bulletin editors too should know everything about reporting and havesufficient reporting experience.

The basis of a news story is to be found in the following questions: "WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, HOWand WHY". These are what a reporter has to get. It's a good formula for working on any news story as itputs the questions uppermost in our minds in a logical order.

Writing the news story is only the second part of the reporter's job. First he must get the news, mainlythrough three methods:

(a) observation: a reporter goes to the scene of the news

(b) interview: he talks to people

(c) research: this is consulting secondary sources such as files, reports and all sorts of official and otherdocuments.

And of course you can go and pick up handouts and press releases, but that's not really reporting.

The reporter must have a high standard of personal ethics. He seeks the truth and reports it accurate-ly. He presents only verifiable facts as facts. Assumptions should be identified for what they are. We arenot dealing with rumours or speculations. Reporting must not be biased or opinionated.

Reporting must be factual. One of the first rules of reporting is: never take anything for granted, alwayscheck.

Interpretation, however, is an important part of reporting. We must not leave our audience in any doubtor confusion over the significance of a decision or a happening. It's the reporter's task to spell out theeffects of an announcement on the ordinary citizen. It often means that a reporter needs to follow-up astory and dig out the necessary information to give the item its full meaning. The reporter's job is only halfdone if he doesn't explain the significance of the story to his audience.

A reporter is part of a team. News is a product that is usually highly unpredictable. The basis of newsgathering organizations is flexibility. Be at work at the time the roster says you should be there. Read theroster closely and take note of shift arrangements. But be flexible enough to do some overtime work if astory needs it.

Often reporters find that most of their time is spent waiting for people. When that happens, it is thereporter's business to cut down on the waiting time either by using the telephone, writing a note, or usingsome other method of reaching his source.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualREPORTING 3.1 THE BASICS OF REPORTING

3.1 1

In any case, a reporter must call his desk at regular intervals. Otherwise, the whole news gathering systemis paralyzed through lack of communication.

Before leaving the office to get a story, brief yourself or get a little background information. You shouldalso know what the office requires of you, getting the facts, either for writing up yourself or for a direct con-tribution to a news programme. Never leave without recording equipment and don't forget to check batter-ies. You must learn to think audio, you're working for radio!

At the scene identify yourself and find out as quickly as you can precisely what is happening or has hap-pened. Find the right people who can tell you what the story is, and keep asking questions until you under-stand the situation. Before you can hope to tell a good story, you must be sure in your own mind that youunderstand the situation.

Take notes: Good notes remain the basis of good reporting. It's the only way to ensure accuracy. Try not todepend completely on your tape recorder. It can fail to record! Take written notes as well as make a record-ing. It will save you a lot of time when you come to write a story.

You should learn to take accurate, legible and useful notes. Proficiency in shorthand is very useful andvaluable, but some sort of shortcut writing system is often a sufficient compromise, if you don't know short-hand.

A common practice of reporters is to leave a rather wide margin at the left side of the page on which theytake their notes. They use this space to write down a few words, e.g. on the subject matter, or follow-upwith another question or to check out some details.

Bear in mind your deadlines, get your material back to the office in time to allow further checks or alter-ations to be made before broadcasting.

If necessary, phone copy. Most broadcasting organizations have installed facilities to phone-in copy to theoffice. The copy is dictated by the reporter and the typist writes the copy while listening to an earphone.Dictate slowly, repeat figures, spell out names and place-names. Don't try to dictate directly from yournotes. Write the story first so that you can deliver it to the copy-taker in finished form.

If the office requires a voice piece you must remember that you're not writing copy to be used by some-one else. It's your story. You tell the story, not read it aloud. If the reporter does a straight reading job and ifhis script is written like an ordinary news item, then the difference between his job and that of a newsread-er is not clear to the public. In other words, let it be clear that you were right where the news was beingmade. The maximum duration of a voice report for a radio bulletin is often not more than 45 seconds.


3.1 2

When a reporter is back at the station, he can also do a special package with inserts of interviews, soundeffects and his own voice report. If the story is being broadcast in an evening bulletin, he should also do asecond piece for the morning bulletin, closely watching time references (e.g. "tonight" becomes "lastnight").

Finally, put names and telephone numbers of sources at the bottom of your copy. If office and home num-bers of your contacts are on your story, the follow-up coverage will go more smoothly.

Refusal to comment: people have the right to decline to answer a reporter's questions. But their silencedoes not necessarily mean rejection or acceptance. They may have no view at all.If a person says he does not wish to comment, say just that in your report. If you were to say: "He refusedto confirm or deny", it may be understood to mean that the story is correct, but cannot be attributed to theperson being interviewed. So, be careful.

Many journalists in developing countries have experienced refusals to comment or even to give usefulbackground information. Ironically, those who refuse are also mostly civil servants, like the broadcastingjournalists.


3.1 3

For everything you write, quote an authority wherever possible. Stories gain strength and are more accept-able if the authority is quoted.

But too much attribution in radio slows the action and makes copy dull.

Attribution must precede all statements that imply blame, express opinions, are of doubtful validity,come from a dubious source that may be disputed. Attribution must be at the start of a sentence, sothere can be no doubt that what follows is the viewpoint of someone else, not the broadcaster's.

Newspaper stories can delay their attribution. The eye can see the quotation marks on paper. But we haveto turn it around. We must put the source first, then the statement.

ExampleThe spokesman for the opposition says the economy is in a bad shape.

Simple facts may be written directly. It does not require the authority for a statement to be includedimmediately. In other words don't start all your stories with a credit. The factual news comes in the first sen-tence, without naming the person who said it. The name can come in the next sentence.

ExampleA Thai cultural group will go to Malaysia to present four performances in different parts of the country.

Student grants are to be doubled. The Education Minister announced this last night at a dinner....

In factual statements made by government officials we can often dispense with attribution of source alto-gether. We can take such statements as matters of fact. But beware of some statements which are basical-ly political, but presented as facts. Never end a sentence with a clause "a government spokesman said".That's print media style.

When you are quoting local officials, ask yourself whether it is really necessary to give the exact name ofthe source. Does the name really matter?

NotThe Trengganu State Welfare and Rehabilitation Committee Chairman, Tengku Mahmud Mansor, said thata bicycle loan scheme for poor students will be introduced by the State government this year.

ButA bicycle loan scheme for poor students will be introduced later this year in the State of Trengganu. TheState Welfare Committee Chairman says two million ringgit have been approved

Experts should be quoted as experts in their own field only. One can only speak with authority for the areain which one has expert knowledge.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualREPORTING 3.2 QUOTING THE SOURCE

3.2 1

Avoid use of such phrases as: "It is believed", "It is understood", "It is estimated", "observers said" Try tofind an authoritative person or organization that can be quoted as the source of the statement.

Direct quotations: The listener can't see the quotation marks; so you should use direct quotations only inexceptional cases.

It is not necessary to start and end a quotation with the verbal quotation marks "quote" and "unquote". Youcan use attributing phrases:

ExamplesHe critizised the plan, calling it ....That would be, as he expressed it ....as he said ....in his words ....what he described as ....what is called ....

Avoid direct quotations that ramble on for three or four sentences. For the listener, it's confusing. He does-n't know where the words of the person being quoted stop and the broadcaster's own words begin. Tryinstead to have an audio-insert, if it's really a good statement.

In most cases, you can use indirect quotes.

ExampleHe says that he ... He believes ....

Again, if something is factual then we can state it as a fact.

Example He will leave the organization at the end of the month.


3.2 2

HE SAYS (pronounced "sez")

"To say" is better than any other verb to indicate speech but the word is not used enough. Don't hesitate touse it when it is the right verb. Many substitutions for "said" are clichés or are simply inaccurate becausethey have a different meaning. Spell out, point out, state, "went on to say" are clichés. Claim, point out,insist are coloured words (they have an editorial flavour). Learn the dictionary meaning of:

allege : to state as a fact (often with suggestion that alleger's veracity is open to question).

assert: to express strongly or positively.

declare : to express explicitly, particularly in a formal or public way.

disclose : expose to view, reveal.

point out : you can point out something which is fact, not opinion. If you say someone pointed out thatgovernment policies have failed, you are asserting it to be a fact. You can avoid using this cliché.

proclaim : make public by herald or crier the truth or existence or accession or happening of - publiclydeclare to be.

reveal : make known by inspiration or supernatural means, divulge.

urge : to exhort earnestly and persistently; to advocate pressingly.

Note: "Add" as in "Housewives, he added, are concerned about..." is wrong;

Better: "Housewives, he continued, are concerned


3.2 3

1. Editorial conference: news production is team work. Most newsrooms hold regular meetings, once ortwice a day.

A morning briefing session will normally be held at 9 or 10 a.m., while the afternoon briefing can be held at3 or 4 p.m. It should be at a fixed, but suitable time, preferably at the end of one shift and the beginning ofanother.

All news staff on shift are expected to be present, except those on assignments. The meeting is chaired bythe editor in charge of the next major news bulletin or by the Director or Controller of News. It's a briefmeeting, usually not more than twenty minutes. Starting on time is essential.

The purpose of these meetings is to evaluate and plan. The news casts that have been aired since the lastbriefing session are evaluated for content and style.

ExampleWhat have we missed yesterday that the newspapers carried this morning? Or a voice report was not audi-ble?

Then the latest news developments are discussed and assignments are given or confirmed for reporters.The main stories for the next major bulletin are briefly discussed, and also whether audio-inserts are beingenvisaged. During the afternoon session the news diary for the next day is discussed and assignments aredistributed. Editorial conferences are excellent opportunities for new recruits to learn what the profession isall about.

2. Assignment sheet: on this sheet, the assignments are noted, so that everyone knows what the otherhas to do. A blackboard or softboard in the centre of the newsroom can have the same function.

3. A news diary: every newsroom must keep a news diary. Future events which could be newsworthy andmay need covering by a reporter are noted in this diary. Often a senior reporter or editor is in charge of put-ting together the news diary. He makes a list of the news conferences, openings of seminars, etc. thathave been announced for the next day. Follow-up of news items can be made easier this way. Anannouncement made last month that an enquiry will be held on the 16th of this month can easily be forgot-ten, if it's not put in the diary.

At the briefing session, copies are distributed for all those present and everyone can make notes onassignments.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualREPORTING 3.3 TOOLS FOR NEWSGATHERING

3.3 1

4. A contact book: it lists the names of organizations or people you often have contact with and theirphone numbers. If they are people who you may need to call after office hours, list their home numbers aswell.

The contact book should be kept at a place where all journalists can easily find it. It should be updated reg-ularly.

5. Subject files: as a newsroom grows, it's of tremendous benefit to have a well developed documentationsystem. The context of development stories requires wider and deeper knowledge, that is readily availableand up-to-date. Newspaper clippings and important newsroom copy should be filed as well.

6. Bulletin files: bulletins should be filed and kept for a certain period in case any dispute arises over astory. Audio material should be kept along with the bulletin copy. In some broadcasting organizations, theoriginal source material is kept along with the bulletin copy.

The best system is that where all bulletins for a twenty-four hour period are kept in one file. It's easier tofind the story, if needed. It can be useful to attach a list of the main stories to the front of the file.


3.3 2

Wednesday, 3 May 1982

Kuala Lumpur 9 a.m. News conference by Deputy Prime Minister on elections at P.M.'s office

Kuala Lumpur 9.30 a.m. Opening of Seminar on Rubber at Hilton Hotel

Kuala Lumpur 10.30 a.m. Open enquiry on landslides announced last month, at ....

Example

7. A telephone: more and more reporting is done by telephone. The telephone can be the most useful toolfor a journalist to gather news.

The advantages are obvious. It saves travelling time, assignments can be carried out when you are tied tothe office, etc.

But there are great disadvantages as well. You will have no idea about the circumstances in which the callis being taken, some people will not talk freely over the telephone because there are strangers or subordi-nates in the room. You can't see the facial expression of the person you are talking to, which might indicateif a person is lying. And it's easier to put you off by telephone; many people seem to be constantly "inmeeting" on certain days.

8. Personal contacts: a good reporter has a diary full of contact names and telephone numbers. It isimportant to develop personal contacts who can give you access to background information. But if youbecome too close a friend, there is a danger that you become too subjective and that you lose your criticalattitude towards the received information.

9. Original notes: every reporter should keep his original notes of an interview, a telephone conversation,or eyewitness event until the likelihood of any queries has passed.


3.3 3

One of the worst developments in all countries is the growing power of Public Relations as a source ofnews and information. It is a serious restraint on the media's healthy development.

Journalism is not the same as public relations. Journalists can make careful use of both government andnon-government public relations handouts as a source of news, but the reporter has to avoid the pitfalls ofthe handouts.

First of all, government handouts and ministerial speech notes are used wrongly in large chunks, withalmost no attempts to edit them into radio style. This is lazy journalism.

Secondly, and more important, it should be recognized that handouts and prepared statements are notnecessarily designed to give information.

Sometimes they are deliberately written in a way that obscures the news. At other times, the statement isso ineptly compiled that the effect is the same. In all cases, they are written and offered to news media forone purpose only: to promote something of interest to the dispensing agency. Whenever possible, seekadditional information that is almost always hidden or simply absent in the handout.

However, much of what comes through Public Relations is legitimate news and most is non-controversial:the story of an appointment, plans for a building, the opening of a branch office, the development of a newproduct. In case the news is controversial, P.R. information should serve as no more than a statement ofthe official position of the government agency or company, as an account of one position. In other words,the statement must clearly be attributed.

How to edit the handouts? Read the handout or press release and always check the following five ques-tions:

I. What does it mean?2. What is the effect of it?3. What is not clear and asks for explanations?4. Find out all you can about what is not in the handout.5. Why do they want the information in this release disseminated?

Most government handouts are written in a uniform style:

"The Minister of ..... has ..."

Always ask yourself if it is necessary for the Minister's name to be carried. If the statement is simply a reit-eration of government policy, then try: "The government has " Ministers' statements must be judged onnews value.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualREPORTING 3.4 HANDOUTS, NEWS RELEASES

3.4 1

Beware of the vague handouts that do not really contain any news. There are plenty of them!

Here is an example. Read it carefully and try to write a brief news item.

The Minister of Temple Affairs issued a statement today:

"The most famous and most striking palace in Bangkok, from an architectural point of view is theGrand Palace which covers an area of over one square mile and contains the Temple of theEmerald Buddha and the Ministry of Finance within its compound. "

Unfortunately, the number of esteemed visitors from overseas and ASEAN countries had been grow-ing at an extremely fast rate and this had placed a strain on the floor of the Chakri hall so it is possi-ble that the building will be permanently damaged if the number of visitors was allowed to continueat the same rate.

Very regretful, the Ministry had been forced to take some actions which would reduce the strain onthe floor and this would be achieved by the under-utilization of the quota which had been recom-mended to the Ministry from experts.

The number of visitors was an average of 5,432 per day and under the new quota the number willbe 1,500. Thai people will be guaranteed 500 of those placements, but will need to reserve theirplace along with visitors from the many friendly nations to Thailand.

It will not be necessary to reserve to visit the other buildings.

This handout needs a lot of rewriting. There is something newsworthy in it; but you will not find it in the firstthree paragraphs. Note also that the use of the past perfect tense sounds very silly. Round off figures andstructure the news item in logical sequence, with the news on top and then the background.


3.4 2

Here is another example of a government handout that begins very promisingly. "A conference has clearedthe way .... ". But try to find out how it "cleared the way". What are the real problems the overseas enter-tainers face? What concrete steps are being taken? What's the news for the many relatives of overseasentertainers?

PRESS RELEASE

Ministry of Labor & Employment 19 January 1982

A conference on the employment of Filipino entertainers overseas cleared the way yesterday for thefull implementation of a labor ministry order governing the hiring and deployment of Filipino enter-tainers to Japan and other countries.

Labor Ministry Order No. 6 was issued by Labor Minister Blas F. Ople in August 1980 to insure thewell-being of Filipino entertainers overseas and to generate more exchange earnings in terms ofinward remittances from overseas Filipinos for strengthening the national economy.

The conference which was opened by Director Jonathan de la Cruz of the Bureau of EmploymentServices was attended by Japanese promoters of Filipino entertainers, agents or representatives offoreign employers and other ministry officials, including Labor Attache to Japan Danilo Cruz,Florencio de Guzman, chief of the BES employment regulation division, Alfredo Palmiery, head ofthe BES central processing and records group, and BES legal officer Leonides Garbida.

The labor ministry order guarantees a minimum wage of not lower than the rates approved by theBES and can in no case be less than US$500 a month.

Entertainers should be entitled to free air fare from point of hire to employment destination and backupon successful completion of the contract.

The guidelines also provide regular working periods and number of employment performance in anestablishment for singers, musicians, instrumentalities and dancers.

All hours worked in excess of the regular working periods or performance are considered overtimework and compensable under the laws of the country of employment but in no case less than 125per cent of basic salary.


3.4 3

During the conference, foreign employers clamored for the establishment of an audition centre foroverseas-bound Filipino entertainers to test their qualifications.

This will ensure the deployment of only qualified Filipino entertainers.

Another proposal called for more stringent measures against the flight of Filipino tourists who actual-ly leave the country to look for work overseas.

In a number of cases, it was pointed out, such tourists end up as hostesses in cheap bars and night-clubs in foreign countries.

The conference focused on problems plaguing both Filipino entertainers in Japan and their agentsand managers, such as implementation of contracts, food and accommodation, payment of salaryand booking.

Director de la Cruz, adverting to a question that Filipino entertainers in Japan were allowed only fourmonths stay, said representations were being made to extend the period of their stay four months toat least six months with the Japanese government.


3.4 4

Reporting speeches and meetings is one of the first skills a reporter must master. Speech stories are usu-ally straightforward and relatively easy to handle. Speeches and meetings make up almost half of an aver-age radio news bulletin in a developing country. But too often, speech reporting ends up in cold, imperson-al and predictably uniform sentences.

Advance copies of speeches are often of limited value. Speakers often deviate from prepared notes.Many politicians have speeches drafted for them by public relations officers or aides. Sometimes, advancecopies carry the warning "check against delivery". This should be done in all cases. When a story carriesthe word "EMBARGO", it means that the story MUST be held for release, until the date and time stated.

Without a copy: in covering a speech, the reporter must not emphasize that a speech was given. Rather,he emphasizes what was said. The second paragraph can be used to give details on what the occasionwas, to whom the speech was given and possibly a general "when" and "where".

If people other than the main speaker also address the audience briefly, that should not be mentioned,unless they have said something newsworthy. So, avoid: "Mr. So-and-so also spoke". What a speaker hasto say is usually more important than the fact that he spoke.

For radio you can report only the most important and interesting points from a speech and deal with themas fully as possible. If you try to cover too many facets of a speech, you end up with a confused account.

The structure of a speech is not the same as that of a news item, it's the reverse. The speech has a con-ventional literary form:

- Expression of thanks for being asked to give a speech. The speaker also says that his audience areimportant people.

- Introduction: often this introduction gives clues to what the main ideas are in the speech.

- The body of the speech: a systematic coverage of the subject; the facts and arguments are often pre-sented in an increasing order of importance.

- Conclusion of the speech (or climax) often summarizing the main elements of the discussion.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualREPORTING 3.5 COVERING SPEECHES

3.5 1

The form of newswriting is the reverse of the literary form:

- The news (facts or opinions) must be on top, in the lead. Sometimes the body of the speech does notcontain the main news element. It may be buried in one small sentence towards the end of the speech.

-Then, we have to set the scene: "Mr. X said this at the opening of a seminar this morning. " Avoid thestereotype "He was speaking at ". The reporter must also identify and characterize the speaker, explainthe occasion, state time and place, describe the atmosphere, note the reaction of the audience. Thismakes a story lively.

- More news points, giving background and context to the main news element.

The lead, as always, must capture the important and newsworthy elements of the speech, usually thespeaker's opinion or an important news fact. The lead will be followed immediately by the speaker's identifi-cation. Remember that attribution must precede all statements that express an opinion. Never use adirect quotation in a lead. Further in a speech story, direct quotation can be used sparingly, always makingit clear that this is the viewpoint of the speaker, not of the broadcaster.

A useful lead for a speech story is to paraphrase or to summarize the opinion of the speaker.

ExampleThe Director General of Police, (name) ........ has criticized the way in which the recent hostage crisis wastreated. At the opening of a seminar on police protection this morning, he said that ....

After a speaker's identity is firmly established at the beginning of a story, a simple "he" or "she" is a clearway of handling attribution. However, we do not want a succession of "he's" or "she's" either. In order toretain your listener's interest, repeat the name of the speaker occasionally.

Don't be lazy. When a speaker makes a good point and then fails to elaborate, or if you are unclear aboutwhat he really meant, it's your duty to approach him after the speech is over. Most speakers are willing toco-operate with a reporter who takes such pains to be accurate. You will also experience that some politi-cians are adept at deliberately throwing up a bold idea and then refusing to discuss it further. In suchcases, the aim may be just to win publicity. In that case you could downplay the issue and you can mentionthat the politician did not elaborate or refused to discuss it further.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualREPORTING 3.5 COVERING SPEECHES

3.5 2

In the Asia-Pacific region, many news stories deal with the opening of conferences, symposiums, seminarsand even training courses. Frequently all that is given are the opening remarks by the Ministers concerned.These speeches often have little news value. Rarely does -such a speech contain new news. It is often arepetition of a well known government policy.

There are so many dull stories written about the opening of seminars that really shouldn't be reported at allin radio news. This is also because generalisations are very common in this kind of story and because ofthe fairly stereotyped form in which such news items are presented.

Reporters and news organisations should try to develop a more innovative approach to covering them.

Preparation is essential. Get to the meeting early enough to allow time to talk to some officials. Be sureyou get all the names right.

Never start your report by saying that a meeting was held.

You should try to find out what these deliberations really are about, and what is the intended objective oreffect on the general public. Reporters should not only pick up a press release, but should also talk to dele-gates and organisers to find out what the real issues are and what the impact will be.

It is also very important to follow up the story. Return at the end of the meeting; what has been achieved?What are the results of the meeting or the training? Has the money invested in this conference been wast-ed or did the delegates just have a nice time? Or has some useful contribution been made towards thesolution of the problems of people? This is where dull journalism ends and responsible journalism begins.

3.6 1

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualREPORTING 3.6 COVERING SEMINARS, CONFERENCES SYMPOSIA, ETC.

Disasters like airplane crashes, typhoons, explosions, fires and floods are difficult to cover. You must bedoubly wary of speculation and generalization.

Do not be carried away be disasters, as such. They may well be important according to the magnitude, butmuch depends on the location. This means that listeners will assess the disaster personally according totheir links or knowledge of the people and place concerned. A remote disaster, such as a plane crash inMexico in which 20 people are killed, is less relevant to an Asian audience than an earthquake or floods ina neighbouring country.

Remember too, that first reports often tend to be exaggerated. Don't accept blindly. Quote the source care-fully. Rumours are rampant following disasters. An editor must insist on precise, responsible reporting.

Typhoons, cyclones

According to ESCAP (UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific), the annual lossesdue to tropical typhoons and cyclones is a conservative US$2.8 billion. The damage and destructionwrought by these natural calamities are particularly heavy on agricultural crops, infrastructure, and privateproperty - not to mention human lives.

It is clear that these stories ask for a human interest approach, not for cool figures only. But beware of sen-sationalism.

Floods

Flood damage, in particular, is heavy in many countries of the region. ESCAP says that this will be evenmore severe in the future, owing to the economic developments and population increase in flood proneareas.

In handling flood stories, we must again keep in mind

(a) to all large section of the audience a flood story is merely an item of general interest;

(b) but it is of life or death importance to a particular section of the audience and also of great interest torelatives who may live elsewhere.

We must ensure the second category is well informed. Apart from their interest in the drama, they want thefacts about rainfall, roads, and river heights. Many countries have installed sophisticated forecasting andwarning systems. Make sure that your audience get the official facts.

Whenever you make a particular statement, ensure that it is accurate. Don't say a town is flooded, if in factthere is water in only part of the town. It means a lot to the town.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualREPORTING 3.7 COVERING DISASTERS, OBITUARIES

3.7 1

Estimates of fire damage

No estimates of the value of damage are to be used in stories unless they come from the owner, or aresponsible, quotable officer of a company or organization.

Unsourced estimates and estimates from third parties should not be used. Fire brigades and police are notthe best placed to estimate the value of damage to a particular property. But they may well be in a positionto give useful information on the technical aspects of the fire. By the way, what does an estimated figuremean to listeners? It is better to describe the nature, size, and contents of damaged buildings then to givefigure estimates, which are of interest only to people involved in insurance settlements.

Plane crashes

Most plane crashes aren't witnessed. An editor must be careful to qualify statements, because informationfrequently comes from a variety of sources with conflicting accounts. Attribution is essential.

Obituaries

Radio news usually reports only the deaths of well known persons, such as politicians or artists.Most broadcasting organizations do not carry suicide reports unless they concern prominent figures, or inexceptional circumstances.

All well-organized newsrooms have a file of biographical sketches of nationally or locally prominent per-sons. This information should be constantly updated and ready for use. In some cases, audio material canbe prepared as well.

For radio news, the writing of obituaries presents the problem of compression in one of its most acuteforms. No detailed life story is needed. You can concentrate on the outstanding events in the career, whichmay be very few. In the case of a writer, it can be his most acclaimed book; in the case of a sportsman, hisgreatest triumph; in the case of a scientist, the discovery that made his reputation.

Be sparing with lists of appointments, honours and dates. Beware of clichés. Phrases such as "thefamous", "the celebrated", etc. can be used, but use them sparingly.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualREPORTING 3.7 COVERING DISASTERS, OBITUARIES

3.7 2

As a general practice in many countries, ordinary crime and police stories are left to the newspapers tocover and do not get broadcast.

For radio news, the bulletin editor will decide which cases have a general news value and should be cov-ered. In most cases, it will be sufficient to give first appearance at the sessions and the charge. Thereupononly the verdict and the sentence are given.

The basic principle of court and crime reporting is that nothing is permitted which may prejudice the rightof any accused to a completely fair and impartial trial. Under the British system of justice a person is inno-cent until he is proved guilty in a court of law.

The following notes are based on Radio Fiji's `News and Current Affairs Manual' and on a similar NewsManual of the National Broadcasting Commission in Papua New Guinea.

Crime and court reporting may be divided into four stages:1. The crime 2. The arrest 3. The trial4. The verdict

THE CRIME

The rule here is strict accuracy .... in other words the plain facts, with no fancy dressing, no sensational-ism and no undesirable or revolting features. Radio should report only the crime stories that are of interestfor the community as a whole. As a general practice, do not touch suicides, rape and 'sex crimes, indecentassault and common assault.

Wherever possible, give the facts as set down in the police report. In no circumstances should a report saythat an accused person did such and-such a thing until a court has convicted him. However, you candescribe the crime ("A masked man walked into the bank", etc.) without ascribing criminal actions to theaccused.

THE ARREST

The principle when reporting an arrest is that we say nothing that would prejudice an accused at his trial. Ifwe have a story stating that a bank was robbed in a holdup and police chased a man before making anarrest, that is fair enough. We give facts that cannot be disproved. But there is a limit. We would not saysuch things as "The man was burning office files when police arrived", or "He had certain safe-breakingtools in his possession", or "He refused to halt when ordered to do so".

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualREPORTING 3.8 CRIME AND COURT REPORTING

3.8 1

Statements made by police on crimes are often in contempt of court. Remember that people are innocentuntil proven guilty in court. Police however sometimes tell journalists after arresting somebody that he isguilty. We must avoid repeating this.

Example

A man was arrested yesterday at Hohola for murdering his wife on Monday.

This is contempt. The police may have said this but a journalist should treat the man as innocent until acourt decides otherwise.

The story can read as:

The man was arrested yesterday at Hohola in connection with the death of his wife on Monday.

The word "murder" has been dropped. Once a person has been arrested we must drop this word. It is forthe court to decide whether murder has been committed or not, as well as who or what caused the death.

When a man is arrested, but not formally charged or has not yet appeared in court, we should not give hisname or identify him otherwise.

THE TRIAL

Get the defendant's full name, age and occupation. Make sure you understand the charge and that youcan put it in simpler language if it is too complex. Check your simplification with the prosecutor or magis-trate or a lawyer.

Give background to the charge - what happened, when it happened, who was involved, and how thedefendant pleads (guilty or not guilty). Also, get the name of the court right.

If you start reporting a case, you must follow it through to is conclusion. Remember, this does not neces-sarily mean you have to report all sessions. For radio news the first appearance and the verdict are usuallysufficient.

Anyway, it is always better not to go into much detail, but rather to confine the report to the broad issues ofgeneral interest.

In court reporting, use only what is actually said in court. Do not write into a court story, material gatheredoutside the court.


3.8 2

THE VERDICT

If we have started to report a case, then obviously we must give the verdict. If there is an appeal, weshould report it as well.

We cannot say such things as "the judge was biased, unfair, lenient or whatever". Since that questions theauthority of the court, it would be also considered contempt of court.

Finally, here is a list of some legal terms used in court.

ACCESSORY A person who advises or assists a criminal. If another person advises or assists a personbefore the crime, this is often called `an accessory before the fact' and if the person advises or assists aperson after a crime, this is referred to as `accessory after the fact'.

ACQUITTAL A verdict of not guilty. To acquit a person is to find him not guilty.

AFFIDAVIT A sworn statement in writing used as evidence in court. It is dangerous to report material fromaffidavits unless the passages have been read out in court.

ALIBI A claim by the defense that the accused was somewhere else when the crime was committed.

ALLEGED A word to use when describing charges. For instance, `Mr. X is alleged to have murdered hiswife'.

APPEAL The consideration by a higher court of a decision made in a lower one.

ARBITRATION In the industrial field, the settlement of industrial disputes by a judge or others.

ARREST Detaining a person for the purpose of having him charged in a court with a criminal offense.

ARSON Deliberately setting fire to a building.

BAIL Release from jail on a bond (usually money) to appear in court at a certain time to answer charges.

BANKRUPTCY When a person is unable to pay his debts and his property is put in the hands of a trusteeto distribute among his creditors. It is usual to use the term bankruptcy when referring to individuals andinsolvency when referring to companies.

BURGLARY Breaking and entering a house at night with intent to commit a crime.


3.8 3

CIVIL LAW Usually the law governing private rights and actions

ACTION compensating injured persons.

COMMITAL PROCEEDINGS Preliminary investigation by magistrate into serious charges to decidewhether the accused should stand trial in a higher court.

COUNSEL Barrister, solicitor, lawyer, legal advisor.

CRIME An offense against the community as distinct from an offense against an individual. For instance,an attack on a person may be an offense against that individual but it is also an offense against the com-munity's laws so it is a crime. The two types of cases are criminal cases and civil cases, depending on theoffense.

CROSS- EXAMINATION Questioning of a witness by someone other than the person who called him togive evidence.

DAMAGES Compensation paid in a civil action for doing wrong.

DE FACTO Latin phrase which means 'in fact'.

DE JURE Another Latin phrase which means 'as a matter of Law'.

DEPOSITION Sworn statement of witness taken down in writing and signed by him. Commital proceedingsare often called deposition cases because the evidence is taken down in this way.

DOMICILE The actual or declared permanent home of a person.

EMBEZZLE-MENT The criminal taking of property by an employee after he received the property on behalfof the employer.

EXHIBIT Document or piece of evidence which is identified in an affidavit or by a witness when evidenceis being given.

FELONY Serious types of crimes including murder.

FORGERY Fraudulent making or alteration of a document intended to have some legal effect.

HABEAS CORPUS A legal document directing a person detaining another person to justify holding himand to produce the detained person in court.

HEARSAY Secondhand evidence such as gossip. Not usually acceptable as evidence in court.


3.8 4

HOMICIDE The killing of a human being.

HOUSEBREAKING Breaking and entering a house or any other building at any time with intent to commita crime.

IN CAMERA Hearing of a case from which the general public, including the press, are excluded.

INDICTMENT A written accusation of serious crime brought before the court.

INJUNCTION A court order to stop someone from doing something. For instance, a woman divorced fromher husband might get an injunction from the court to stop her husband visiting her.

LARCENY Theft

LEADING QUESTIONS Questions which suggest an answer. For instance `You hit your wife did you not?'Such questions are not allowed when a person is giving evidence but are allowed when cross-examining aperson on what he said in evidence.

MAINTENANCE An order on a husband or-father for the payment of the living expenses to a describedwife or child.

MALICIOUS PROSECUTION Action by a person acquitted of a crime against the person who began theproceedings. It must be shown that the latter acted from malice.

MANSLAUGHTER Killing in circumstances which are criminal but which are not as serious as murder.Common cases are killings provoked by insult or attack.

MISADVENTURE An accident for which no one is to blame. Crimes which are not too serious.

MURDER Deliberate killing.

MISDEMEANOUR NEGLIGENCE Failure to observe a duty or care.

PLEAD NOT GUILTY To deny all allegations when pleading.

PLEAD GUILTY To accept all allegations as true.

FOUND NOT GUILTY Magistrate lets an accused go free either because t believes the person is innocentor there is not enough evidence against him.

OBTAINING BY FALSE PRETENCE Offences covering cases of cheating or fraud which cannot be calledtheft.


3.8 5

PERJURY Telling lies in court.

REPLY The last say in a case before the judge's summing u or decision.

ROBBERY Theft from a person with violence, or threat of violence.

SINE DIE Another Latin word meaning `indefinitely'.

SUBPOENA A legal document requiring the attendance of person at court usually to give evidence.

WARRANT A document allowing a person to do his duty - usually to give police the right to arrest a personor make a search of a house.

WRIT A formal document by which civil legal proceeding are begun in courts


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The interview is probably the most important, but at the same time, the hardest technique the radio journal-ist has to learn. Only practice can make a good interviewer. Here is some advice.

The straight news interview is designed to elicit information in the form of simple direct answers whichtell or explain the story.

This kind of interview can be used for two purposes: It yields factual material for written news stories and itcan be processed to provide audio material for inclusion in the actual broadcast.

In the first case, the informational interview serves to gather information. The reporter is wise to use anotebook, while the tape recorder merely serves as a memory aid.

In the broadcast interview, the most significant part is used as an actual audio-illustration. The broadcastinterview enlivens the radio news bulletin. It adds human interest as it brings people into the news pro-gramme. The news source is in direct communication with the audience.

According to the circumstances of an interview, there are several types, and with each, particular skillscome to the fore.

A) Interview by appointment: preferably, it's a one-to-one interview. In this case, it's most important to beprepared on the background of the man or woman and the subject of the interview. Keep in mind that noone is obliged to grant an interview and that you are a guest on the interviewee's home ground. Thereforenormal courtesies should be observed. Make an appointment and keep it. If you are delayed, ring and noti-fy him. But do not discuss the subject too fully on the phone.

B) News conferences: there will be many journalists present and there is no real question line. A note-book will be most useful. For radio news, it's better to ask for a separate, short interview after the newsconference. Often, the pace of someone who speaks at the news conference is slow and that can be irritat-ing on radio. But in some cases, recorded words at the news conference itself make excellent "actuality"for radio news.

You have to make sure you get your questions in and not allow more talkative reporters to monopolize thequestioning. Be careful not to upset the momentum of the news conference by asking a question that hasbeen already asked by someone else.

C) On-the-spot interview: Be friendly when interviewing survivors, eyewitnesses and the "man in thestreet". Be encouraging as well. Your interviewee may never have talked to a journalist before. He shouldbe encouraged to be relaxed. Be tactful, particularly if you interview survivors of a fire, a flood or someother disaster. This type of interview is purely for actuality use in a bulletin.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualINTERVIEWING FOR RADIO NEWS 4.1 TYPES OF INTERVIEW

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D) Telephone interview: Telephone quality is generally not the best for bulletin use, and except in emer-gencies, telephone recordings should not be used if it is possible to get a location interview.But the telephone remains an excellent tool for gathering information. Every telephone conversation is, in away, an interview.

You should cultivate good phone manners: careful preparation of questions is essential. Put first thingsfirst. You cannot know how long an interviewee may be interrupted by other business, and it's easy for himto end the interview at any point. Introduce yourself right at the beginning. Keep your questions simple.Watch for mishearings. If you can't hear what your interviewee is saying, ask him to speak louder.Don't, unless necessary, talk to people around you while you are on the phone.

A pause while you scribble in your notebook is acceptable in a personal interview, but not on the tele-phone. Don't irritate your contact in any way.

A brief apology for troubling the person you have called is always appreciated. People like to be thankedwith emphasis for anything they may have done.

E) Live interview: some news programmes are enhanced at times by the inclusion of "live" interviews withpeople in the news, except commentators or specialist reporters. Such interviews can give a feeling ofimmediacy. The disadvantage of course is that a degree of control over the situation is lost. In a live tele-phone interview the connection may be cut or the line may deteriorate.

F) Vox pops: occasionally when a major development occurs which affects the general public, it's interest-ing to obtain man-in-the-street reaction through a series of random interviews, known as "voxpop

Often these are done in a busy street, railway station or market. Try to minimize the background noise bychoosing the best spot, keeping the microphone up close to the speakers.

Be friendly and direct and explain to each interviewee who you are and what you're doing: "Excuse me, I'mfrom Radio X and we would like to know what you think about the celebration".

The results can be lively, amusing and good radio, but don't overdo it. Be careful of your final edited choiceof material. You may end up with something quite unbalanced, especially if the issue is an important one.The "vox pop" is a most unscientific way of doing a "survey"!

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualINTERVIEWING FOR RADIO NEWS 4.1 TYPES OF INTERVIEW

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All sorts of journalistic interviews involve planning and preparation. You should plan the approach to theinterview and define the area you are interested in. You must then prepare for the interview by finding outabout the interviewee and the subject.

A) Plan the interview: First and foremost, you should remember clearly who your audience is. The inter-viewer must see himself as the representative of the ordinary listener. He is there to ask the questionsthat the listeners would themselves like to ask. In other words, the interview should be of interest to the lis-tener.

You must have a clear purpose. Know what you want to achieve. Do you want just information (facts, or aclarification of a statement ) or do you want comment and opinion? Keep the reason for the interview inmind throughout the preparation and the actual interview. "Why am I interviewing this person for this pro-gramme, at this particular time?"

For radio news, limit your interview to one topic only.

So, what would the listener like to know? If you aren't sure, ask your friends or colleagues what they wouldlike to know about the subject. Then decide who to go to or telephone and fix an appointment. Who wouldknow the full story? Who can explain the background of an event? Who is the decision-maker, the man (orwoman) -in-the-news?

A common practice of reporters in locating the right person to interview is to work from the top downwards.This is particularly so in developing countries.

Know your subject. Gather as much background as time allows. If you have difficulties in finding back-ground information on a person or a subject, you can try the "what, when, where, who, why and when"approach. Don't be afraid to appear stupid by asking "silly" questions. Silly questions do not really exist!

B) Prepare the questions: We must caution, however, against rigid adherence to a list of prepared ques-tions once the interview is under way.

Some other do's and don'ts:- draw up a tentative list of questions. Make them short and to the point.- a common fault is that questions are vague or cover too wide an area. Concentrate on one issue ratherthan attempt to cover all the problems in a short interview.

NotCan you tell me about family planning? What are the factors of ...... ? What about income tax?

ButWhat method would you recommend for family planning?

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualINTERVIEWING FOR RADIO NEWS 4.2

PLANNING AND PREPARATION OF THE INTERVIEW

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Such open ended questions are likely to produce very long answers, or a silence as the interviewee worksout where to begin. A question should have one, clear, unmistakable point, obvious to both the listenersand the interviewee.

- Frame your questions so they are direct, short and understandable the very first time.

NotWill you please explain the functioning of the mechanism? ButHow does it work?

- The best question is "why"

- Avoid one word answers. The right questions will start the interviewee talking whereas the wrong onewill simply prompt a `yes' or `no' answer. Beware of questions beginning "Do you....... "

NotI understand you've been working on this rural development programme for eight months and expect to beon it for another six months before it is completed?Answer would be, "yes" or "no, not another six months, we hope to finish it in four"

But You have been working on this rural development programme for eight months. What is yet to be donebefore it's finished?

The last example illustrates a useful technique. A brief statement giving the background, followed by ashort question. If you have only the over-informative statement, you invite a "yes" or "no" answer.

- Put one question at a time. If you ask two or three things at once, you are likely to get the answer toonly one - the last in the sequence. So: one question - one answer.

- Ask questions, don't make comments. An interviewer does not express his personal opinion during aninterview. If you are challenging a politician by presenting an opposite point of view, don't make it appearthat the view is necessarily yours. Source it to some person or organization.

Not The government has an excellent record .......The performance has been very successful .......The players wouldn't like that very much, would they ?ButHow do the players feel about that?



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C) Finally, put the questions in a logical order. If you have too many questions, short-list them to aboutthree or four, eliminate the others. Plan a strong opening question. You must also prepare the possibleanswers. The interviewee's general line is usually predictable. Unless the interviewer has some idea of theanswer he is likely to get, he is merely stabbing in the dark.

So plan the next logical question accordingly.

However, don't have your questions written out in detail. If you have a short memory a few notes may help,listing the key words of your questions. The more spontaneous your questions are, the better the interviewwill sound.

A note on Public Relations

Observe all normal courtesies. Never conceal your identity as a journalist. It's very important to establishrapport with the interviewee right from the beginning. A good atmosphere is often established by some pre-liminary conversation. It will also put the person at ease if necessary.

The purpose of the interview must be clearly explained. However, do not rehearse the interview fully.Discuss in general terms the line you will follow rather than the exact questions. Otherwise, spontaneity willbe lost.

Beware of stating definitely the time of broadcast. It may not be in your authority to decide whether theinterview will be used.

Appreciate the co-operation of the interviewee. He should want to welcome you back.



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Interviews for radio news must be short and to the point. We rarely need more than a minute. In mostcases two or three questions are enough. Try to tailor your interviews in such a way that the subject getshis point across within that time. But if you are not very experienced in news interviewing, it is preferable totake longer than is actually necessary. You can edit it later.

You should have short-listed the three or four vital questions. But be ready to change the order if the inter-viewee introduces an interesting point you could follow up. Don't stand or fall on the question-line you'veprepared.

The interviewee must get your complete attention. He must feel that you are interested in everything hesays and that is the most important thing you have to do for that moment. The interviewee - whether he isa minister or an unskilled labourer - must become an equal to whom you are courteous and in whose opin-ion you are genuinely interested.

Listen to the answer. In principle, let the answer decide naturally and logically your next question. In otherwords, follow up the previous answer instead of passing onto the next prepared question. In fact, in abroadcast interview, the interviewer must listen twice as hard.

Avoid reading questions and do not allow written answers. These "interviews" are usually disasters.Never agree to ask set questions. If someone will only be interviewed if he knows exactly every question inadvance, the interview should not take place. This should be a firm professional principle. Once you agreeto ask only set questions you become a sort of public relations officer.

Avoid a "shopping list" approach: "My first question is ....." "My next question is .....“

Be impartial: the interviewer should refrain from making comments, even unintentionally. The followingexamples all imply a comment.

Example I see...; yes...; right...; would you believe it...; very good...

Don't argue: if the interviewee answers your question with a question, ignore his question and ask yoursagain, or else move on to the next one.

Keep control over the interview: you are holding the mike. Never allow the interviewee to take over yourmike. In general, don't be under the influence of the interviewee. You can't be in control if you are scaredstiff. (The opposite, being superior, is just bad manners to a guest.) Nerves should not be seen or heard.Make sure the interviewee answers your questions: if he doesn't, come back.

Interrupt if necessary: this can be done if the answer is long-winded or dull, when the interview goes offthe point, or when you need clarification or further explanations to make it intelligible.

Except for the forced interruption, don't overlap. Overlapping may make editing very difficult.


THE QUESTION-LINE DURING THE BROADCAST INTERVIEW

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How to interrupt? Jump in during a pause, say anything, but get back control. Open your mouth asthough about to speak or give some visual sign (with your hand) that you wish to interrupt. If all else fails,overspeak politely .........

Example Can I just interrupt and come back to your comment on .....

Losing control: there are a number of unpleasant things the interviewee can do to make you lose control.

- He can keep on talking and talking. Politicians do this to avoid further questions.Your move: stop him, politely but firmly. Answers tend to be much briefer if the interview is recordedwith both parties standing up.

- He can stop talking. Two seconds of hesitation can be natural but when the "dead air" is more than thaton radio, it's terrible. Your move: you must help him out.

- He can give a short answer (yes or no) which is often the result of a poor question.Your move: "why?" is often the best question. Such a very short question can also speed up the inter-view.

- He can pause, as though finished and then start up again just as you start on your next question. Your move: Give way.

- He can ask you to explain what you mean by your question. Your move: explain what you mean by your question.

- He can say "no comment" Your move: put your next question.

- He can answer in vague terms ("We are taking steps", etc.). Politicians are used to this way of talking.But listeners want to know how to solve their housing or financial problems. Your move: be concrete: "What steps?" and insist on an answer.

Appreciation or compliments should be held back until recording has stopped.


THE QUESTION-LINE DURING THE BROADCAST INTERVIEW

4.3 2

The recorder

Modern tape recorders produce high-quality recordings, provided they are used properly and looked aftercarefully.

Open reel tape recorders are of course more reliable, but also more expensive, than cassettes.

Before leaving the newsroom, check for batteries and recording performance. Make sure you have a tapeand an empty spool, in the case of an open reel tape recorder.

Avoid getting your recorder wet or leaving it in the tropical sun.

The venue

Choose this carefully. You want a place that is quiet, free of aural and visual distractions, with suitableacoustics. Indoors - background noise can be better controlled. Typewriters must be stilled and a notice tovisitors can be put up outside the office door. Avoid the noise of airconditioners. In an office, the atmos-phere tends to be formal. Try to get an informal, relaxed armchair approach. Outside - wind can causeover-riding distortion. Use a microphone supplied with a windshield. Watch also for background noisesbeyond your control: a bell, a motorbike, etc.

There are, of course, occasions when background noise is appropriate. An interview done in a children'splayground or on a farm should have some natural sound, but not to the extent that it distracts the listeneror overwhelms what the subject is saying.

In general, find as quiet a place as possible to do your interview and thereafter record some of the back-ground sound "in the clear", separately, if it's important to the story. Then fade the sound in behind yourfinal edited interview.

Microphone handling

Poor sound quality of recordings is a common problem. Cassette recorders are often equipped with a built-in microphone. This should not be used to make a recording intended for broadcast. For all broadcastwork, use a separate microphone with cord.

Another common fault lies in not getting the microphone close enough to the subject. The ideal distancefrom mouth to microphone is usually about 25cm to 36cm.

If you keep the mike too close, it will allow "popping" of the mike by `plosive' sounds (p's and b's). Takecare also with sibilant (s).

The mike should be held vertically, at an equal distance from interviewer and subject, slightly below mouthlevel.


RECORDING THE INTERVIEW

4.4 1

If standing, the interviewer and subject may face each other directly, but it will often put the subject more atease if you stand elbow to elbow with heads turned slightly towards each other. This way you can controloutside noise to some extent and limit the chance of mike rattle by long movements of the microphone.

If seated, try to place the chairs so that both interviewer and subject are speaking into the mike at a dis-tance of about 25cm to 36cm.

Hold the microphone firmly and still. Accidental knocking of the mike controls (remote control switch) oreven nervous movements of the fingers have spoiled many an interview.

Recording

Levels are a well known headache - particularly with cassette recorders. Always check levels beforerecording and play the level test back before beginning the recording. And always check the recordingquality immediately after the interview.

Place the recorder so that you can give the meter an occasional glance out of the corner of one eye. If therecorder operates noisily, keep it well away from the mike.

Keep the possibility of editing always in mind.

This means- keep background noise constant;

- don't overspeak, except in an emergency;- and write down a list of all tracks recorded, never rely on your memory.

Tell the interviewee if you are planning to edit and roughly what you aim to do. He should be prepared for ashortened version.


RECORDING THE INTERVIEW

4.4 2

Often interviews are too long. They need editing. Only part of an interview can be used in a news bul-letin. While a longer but still edited version can be used in a current affairs programme.

For the news insert we want mostly one short clip of about 30 to 40 seconds. The rest of the story can betold more quickly by the newsreader. But those 40-second voice inserts can add the necessary humaninterest and make the presentation livelier.

We must edit to get conciseness. Repetition can be eliminated. The question can be omitted and, wherepossible, answers or parts of answers can be joined. This keeps the pace smooth and saves time.

We must edit to remove obvious faults, slander, technical faults, hesitations, long pauses, etc. But don'tremove all spontaneity.

The first principle is "What can I leave out?" If a point adds little to the, topic or is of no interest to themajority of the listeners, leave it out. In a longer interview, there is normally an initial rough editing of mate-rial. Thereafter comes the final editing process.

Preferably have all IN and OUT cues written down. Duration marks are also a help.

Editing must be fair: the sense of what was said in the original must be maintained at all costs. The char-acter or intention of the speaker must never be distorted.

The editing should not be audible. Editing has failed if it is noticeable (abrupt changes in level, back-ground not continuous, pauses that are not natural, etc.)

It is a common technique to edit out the questions in a news programme, certainly the first question. Theaudio-illustration must come from the interviewee, the man or woman-in-the-news.

Tape Editing Techniques

There are two ways to edit a tape: by physical cutting or splicing the recorded material, and by dubbingor copying from the original tape to another.

The dubbing method is cheaper (it saves cutting tapes) and simpler (it requires only two recorders). Butfine detailed work is impossible.

The quickest, smoothest and most professional editing method is cutting or splicing.

If possible, try not to edit an original tape. It only takes a short while to dub a copy of the interview. Thisallows the editor to make an error in editing without permanently destroying the interview. And it also keepspermanent record of the original in case of controversy.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualINTERVIEWING FOR RADIO NEWS 4.5 EDITING THE RECORDED INTERVIEW

4.5 1

When you've played your recorded material to the points you want edited, stop the tape. You may thenmanually move the reels back and forth to the exact point between the word you want to retain, and thatyou wish to cut out.

Then mark the tape on the centre of the replay head, repeating the procedure for the other spot to bemarked. Once this is done, remove the tape and place into the grooves of the splicing block. Your markshould line up with the angled cutting groove on the block.

Cut the tape along the angle at both your marked spots, removing the length of tape you wish to discard.Bring the two ends you wish joined, neatly together, and when this is done, apply the splicing tape evenlyto the join, making sure its stuck smoothly.

Always check the accuracy of your handiwork by threading and replaying your tape in the normal way.

Dub editing: This simply needs two tape recorders `patched' into one another. The original material isplayed back on one machine, and recorded on the other, stopping your record machine at the point youwish to edit. The original tape continues to play on to the material you do want, at which point you resumerecording. This, as we've said is a very slow, `hit and miss' method of tape editing, which may requiremany stops and starts to ensure accuracy. However, with practice and experience, many users of thismethod have been able to achieve a reasonably accurate and acceptable broadcast quality.

As simply as possible, we've tried to describe the very basic procedure for both methods of tape editing. Ifit is still difficult to follow there's no better way than to seek a demonstration from an experienced col-league.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualINTERVIEWING FOR RADIO NEWS 4.5 EDITING THE RECORDED INTERVIEW

4.5 2

Splice editing: You'll need a pen or 'chinagraph' pencil for making the points on the tape you want cut,splicing tape, and a sharp razor or cutting instrument. You'll also need a splicing block which is often fittedto the face panel of the tape machine.All professional tape recorders carry three `heads' as the diagram shows:

Bulletin editing is the process of selecting news, improving the writing of reports and news agency copy,and putting the different news items in order. The news-, desk-, sub-, or duty- editor (the specific title does-n't matter - we will use the term "bulletin editor"), is directly involved in the actual production of a news bul-letin (content and presentation techniques).

A bulletin editor must never forget that any story entrusted to him becomes his story, and his alone, fromthat moment. He is responsible for what goes on air; it is no longer the story of a news agency, or of areporter or of a correspondent. However, he should respect the work of the originator of the story andensure its accuracy is maintained.

A read-in period before taking over the desk is of prime importance for a bulletin editor at the start of hisshift. His responsibility starts then. It's up to him for instance to update or correct anything written by hispredecessor for the coming bulletin, if this becomes desirable.

A) Reporter's copyAs soon as a bulletin editor gets a reporter's story he begins applying a series of tests:- Does the story make sense to your audience? Is it news?- How does the introduction flow?- Does it establish the situation clearly?- Does the story try to convey too much?- Are the facts and ideas in logical sequence?- Do any phrases stand out as obviously redundant?- Is the phrasing such that the newsreader will easily get the right inflection?- Does the copy need rewriting? (Remember it's important to rewrite from the original source rather thansubbed material.) Do not change unless it is necessary.

In case of a voice report, the bulletin editor must listen to the tape and organize a lead-in to the voicereport, if it is suitable. He also decides on the use of actuality audio inserts in the news bulletin.

B) News agency copyThe other basic source of news is the news agency copy, both national and international. Most wire servic-es write in print media style. This is because that's their main market. Too often in Asian and Pacific news-rooms there is no attempt to rewrite this into radio style. In many cases this copy is only updated and iden-tified geographically, with no attempt to rewrite it for radio or to relate it to the local scene or audience. Theproblem is that this copy is prepared for a very wide, possibly global audience, therefore it lacks local rele-vance. One of the ways to overcome this is to find out about the local impact or reaction to an internationalstory.

The wire sub-editor must also realize that the western world agencies (AP, UPI, Reuters, AFP) will offer alot of foreign news material that is not relevant for developing countries. This is because the main marketof these news agencies is in North America and Western Europe. If this is not taken into consideration,there will be too great a proportion of irrelevant foreign news. It's an easy way of filling bulletins!

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualBULLETIN EDITING UNIT 5.1

THE BASICS OF BULLETIN EDITING

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What to do?Discard all stories you wouldn't want to use. Select the newsworthy stories. Pile the wire copy, arrange it on your desk. You may end up with 5 or 6 or more piles. Label your stories. Write these labels in capital letters so that they stand out.

Make a list of your stories, and put them in a tentative order of importance. Group together stories that are related (either in content or geographically). Start thinking about the presentation technique: do you want a straight voice report, an interview or a tele-phone correspondence? It's better to organize this in advance, if at all possible. That's what editorial conferences are for.

Read the wire copies all. the way through. Underline what is important. Learn to read it critically. Does it make sense? Is it complete? Call the national news agency if you are in doubt. You may have noticed through experience that many of the national news agency stories are not alwayscorrect. Check with other sources if possible. To say afterwards! "Well, the news agency had " is not a good excuse.

Be resourceful. Turn reporter yourself. Use the telephone.

When you have read the wire copy carefully, set it aside and tell the story in your own words. Tell the story all over again in a shorter, more lucid form. That's the theory. Of course, you may not be used to working in that way. But, whatever you do, don't use the wire copy word for word.


THE BASICS OF BULLETIN EDITING

5.1 2

News stories have a lifetime of their own. This means a story will be of interest for a short or long period,determined by the kind of story it is, and by the availability of other more interesting stories. This aware-ness of the "natural life of a story" is one of the more subtle intuitions required in a bulletin editor. There areno rules for it.

Many stories stir interest, reach a peak, decline and disappear within 24 hours. Other stories remain big fordays, while others stay significant for weeks.

Sometimes a bulletin editor is late to see the significance of a new story. Other editors take too long toabandon a story. They don't perceive that its interest and significance have passed. Some make the mis-take of letting an important story die in one set of bulletins. For instance, important news in the evening bul-letin is not taken up or followed up the next morning. Stories of continuing interest must be carried onthrough several newscasts. However, every effort should be made to freshen them up, bringing in newangles.

News generates more news. If you alert people to a certain story, you will irritate them if you don't follow-upwith its developments. If you say in the major morning bulletin that a hunger striker is nearing his death andyou don't mention a word of it in the main evening news, it is annoying, to say the least.

Don't assume that the listener must have heard an earlier broadcast of a story. It's irritating for a listener tohear that "The fire in Kuala Lumpur is now under control", hearing about the fire for the first time. Only inthe big, long running stories can foreknowledge be assumed (e.g. an election campaign, labour unrest inPoland).

So, get continuity in the news. This also means follow up. If you say a seminar on the future of rubbersmallholdings has been opened, the rubber planters in the rural areas may well wish to know of the resultof the meeting. Too often, they will hear no more about it. If the subject is taken up, it improves the credibil-ity of the news service.

Another case of follow up is when there has been a mistake. If it happens, make the correction in the nextbulletin.


LIFETIME OF A NEWS ITEM - FOLLOW-UP OF NEWS

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Knowing just how long a story should be is part of the bulletin editor's job. Let a story's length be dictatedby two things: its importance and the availability of other interesting stories. Probably the biggest fault withradio news items is their length.

Too many stories are over-long. There is no ideal length, but on radio, a story of national importance maybe about one minute. In principle, keep the story short - not more than 6 or 7 sentences with each sen-tence consisting of less than 24 words (maximum). In modern broadcasting, individual stories are consid-ered long if they go beyond a hundred words, (lasting about 50 seconds).

Vary the length of stories. A bulletin in which every story is at least two pages sounds dull, just as a bulletinin which every story is only 2 sentences sounds strange. Several consecutive items of the same lengthresult in monotony.

Short items should have either two or three separate sentences.

The maximum length of a voice report for radio bulletins is around 45 seconds. Together with the lead-inand the extro, it may come to one minute. Some voice reports or actuality inserts are as short as 15 sec-onds.

National/regional (or, if there is place, local) stories, in principle should be longer than international ones.


LENGTH OF A STORY

5.3 1

This is the overall responsibility of the bulletin editor.

Once again, it's impossible to lay down strict rules. But you can follow these guidelines.

Modern radio bulletins are seldom longer than 10 minutes. Most of them are shorter.

Major bulletins are broadcast at the peak listening times (in the morning from 6.00 a.m. to 9.00 a.m., atlunch time and in the evening). Minor bulletins are broadcast in between. A major bulletin must coverwhat has been happening since the last major newscast. The top story must be the biggest story of theperiod, not necessarily the newest.

General make-up of a newscast calls for simplicity. The stories are assembled in order of importance.What affects most people? Prominence should be given to local and national stories, with sports and somehuman interest stories to round off the bulletin. The bulletin shouldn't fade away to a weak end. Long sto-ries at the end of a bulletin are rarely, if ever, a good idea.

Radio news must flow naturally. Too often in Asia and the Pacific, the newsreader seems to jump fromone topic to another. One may hear a local story of a deputy minister visiting a plantation followed by astory about a major international summit.

There are two techniques for an editor to help the presenter lead his listeners from subject to subject:

1) Departmentalization: this is grouping the news items by subject or geography. It helps the news bulletinto flow smoothly. And it gives a sense of depth reporting; it helps the listener measure the importance ofthe news.

2) Transitional phrases: these are used to bridge separate sections. Examples of such linking phrasesare "Now for home news", "Elsewhere in the country", "Turning now to news from abroad", etc.

However, do not always use the same links. Beware of the word "Meanwhile". As we said, this adverbshould be used only when a close relationship exists in subject matter and intervening time actually ismeant.

An editor should try to include as much audio illustration as possible to make the newscast lively.These include: voice pieces, interviews, on-the-spot features and accounts and even music Keep thisaudio illustration short so that the pace of the bulletin keeps flowing. Be strict about sound quality. Many lis-teners use small transistor radios with poor output quality. If the quality of the audio insert is so poor thatthese radios cannot receive your material intelligibly, then you should not use it.

How to keep consecutive bulletins fresh? Keep up a flow of smaller stories which are replaced after onereading. The major story will usually be changing anyway. At least, write a fresh lead. It's important that thebulletins change or appear to change. The same news item or bulletin heard several times with exactly thesame words or stories irritates the listener.


BULLETIN STRUCTURE AND CONTENT

5.4 1

National bulletins do not exist merely to give overseas news nor merely to give national news. The pur-pose must be to give the most important news that is of interest to the listeners. Overseas news can onlybe allowed to swamp the bulletin when the news from abroad is of paramount significance. Such occasionswill be rare. However, there will always be a place for some overseas news. The amount depends finallyon its own importance and the amount of available national news.

The aim is always to BALANCE. The bulletin should be a well balanced mixture of local, national andinternational news. It should not be too urban oriented, should contain human interest and be presented ina lively way (not all the inserts in the beginning or at the end).

Where you have two items on separate sheets of paper which are somehow linked - start the second onewith "And" and put an arrow from the end of the final words on the first item to the bottom right hand cornerof that page, to indicate to the announcer that the next page follows on rather more quickly than usual.

Deadlines: The bulk of each newscast should be written, edited, and the copy numbered in sufficient timeto allow the announcer full opportunity to prepare and understand what he's about to present. As morepresentation techniques will be used, there is additional need for the announcer to become fully aware ofcues for tapes and other production aids, such as a live voice report.

News editors should seek the active cooperation of news announcers for suggestions. They should beencouraged to point out any errors in the wording of newscast copies or obscure phrasing that can bechanged without affecting the sense of the item. In particular we cannot alter what somebody has said.

As a general rule, newsreaders themselves should make no changes in copy without consulting theeditor. The editor is responsible for the output on air.


BULLETIN STRUCTURE AND CONTENT

5.4 2

Main points or headlines call for the clearest, tightest writing possible. They must be `newsy' yet make thelistener want more. Keep them crisp and as short as possible. Three to five main points should be suffi-cient.

Essentially, the headline is intended only as an indicator to the main stories. It does not necessarily tell thestory. Where it cannot, it is better to generalize rather than go into a long, confusing sentence.

Example Government has taken measures to stop the spread of foot and mouth disease.

Normally the main points will contain the news in a nutshell, but from time to time you may be a little "tanta-lizing", arousing the listener's curiosity; by using a `question' headline, for instance. But use it sparingly!

Example .....and "Are former squatters happy with their new apartment life?"(the bulletin has a special report on this issue)

It's not good practice to use the first sentence of individual news items as main points, the writing of whichis a special but challenging skill.

Radio news is what is happening now. You can accentuate this in the headlines by writing them in thepresent tense. Let it sound new news!

Example Syria announces that it accepts an American proposal for a ceasefire in Lebanon.

A headline may be written without a verb. But avoid a succession of verbless main points.

Example A new devastating earthquake in Iran. A general strike in India.

The bulletin editor must see to it that the headline stories get into the bulletin. Few things sound sillier thana headline without a story. And it does happen.

The word `headline' is a print media word. "Main points" is better. Some variety is fine:

- Here's the hews from.... First the headlines (main points)- In the news today - Here are the main points of the news.-or, Example:

In this bulletin:

A new landslip in a tin mine hear Ipoh. The price of sugar.

And the death of another republican hunger striker in Northern Ireland.

How to end the bulletin? In major newscasts, it's common practice to repeat the main points at the end.But don't repeat the headlines word for word. Use complete syntax for this summary or roundup.`Shorthand' forms may be acceptable at the beginning of a bulletin, but sound odd at the end.


MAIN POINTS AND RECAPITULATION

5.5 1

In Asia and the Pacific, bulletins are still presented in a rigid and formal way. A ten to twelve minute script isread straight through. But, because news bulletins are presented in this way, it does not mean this accept-ed method is the best.

Even in developing countries, where communication resources and facilities are relatively scarce, radiocan take the listener to where the news is being made. Radio hardware is comparatively cheap andmodem production and presentation techniques are now within reach of most radio newsrooms.

All over the world, news presentation techniques have changed dramatically over the last ten years.Nowadays, a large proportion of a major modern news bulletin is made up of audio material, other than thevoice of the presenter. It may be a voice report by a reporter telling the story in his own voice; or actualitygiving the sound of the news happening, brief extracts from speeches, news conferences or interviews.This asks for tighter planning, more complex production skills and a newscaster who is experienced inthese advanced presentation techniques. Good presentation is something one notices only when it isn'tthere. A mistake-free and smooth presentation will avoid clicks, bangs and of course misused tapes.

Audio inserts should not be used simply because they are available, nor merely to provide a change ofsound. There must be a special purpose for using audio material. This can be to enliven the bulletin, to addcolour, for emphasis on a particular subject or statement.

So modern news production is a combination of live presentation and recorded inserts. Most piecesto be used during the news bulletin will have been recorded before actual newscast. Occasionally, a liveinsert will be used. In Asia and the Pacific however, it is still a great exception for a live piece to be donefrom outside the studio directly into a news bulletin. If it happens, there is no reason for saying "livefrom.....". You can better say "Over now to the National Stadium and our reporter there is X", or "Now at theNational Stadium is our reporter X".

We'll have more on taped audio inserts (actuality and voice reports) in sections 6.3 and 6.4. At this stagehowever, we would like to make a general observation on sound quality. The aim must be the best techni-cal sound possible. If a piece is badly recorded, it should not be used.

The best way to judge whether sound quality is acceptable is to listen to it once yourself - not severaltimes - and decide whether it is totally understandable on first hearing. Remember, the listener gets no sec-ond chance.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualPRESENTATION UNIT 6.1

TOWARDS MORE LIVELY NEWS

6.1 1

News formats should change regularly to avoid staleness, and to maintain a lively listener interest. This isnot to say that formats should be changed every three or six months!

When modern radio news gave up the idea of the long, ten minute straight-read bulletin, there was a shiftto livelier and much shorter bulletins of perhaps three to five minutes duration. But even these have givenway to longer news broadcasts, more in the nature of small news programmes. The main emphasis is ongiving fuller details of the news which is of the greatest interest, and which affects radio listeners.But it is of course still possible to distinguish several types of news programmes, such as the minor andmajor bulletins, the news flash and the integrated news broadcast. Current affairs programmes such as anewsreel, a radio magazine or a documentary expand on the news by explaining it more in-depth.

In this manual, we have concentrated on the production of a major news bulletin (see Unit 5), but otherpossible presentation formats are briefly described hereafter.

Headline Newscast

This is a sort of 45 second or 60 second newscast. It has only brief items, often provided by a wire service.It contains the top news developments of that moment.

Minor Bulletins (News-in-brief)

These are the news broadcasts presented outside of the peak listening periods during the day. This shouldnot be taken to mean that they are unimportant, and should be treated with less seriousness than otherbulletins. Yo may wish to place less emphasis on production techniques, saving your staff effort for themajor bulletins, but nevertheless, minor bulletins are important.

Your audience for these bulletins may be special interest groups, such as women, both rural and urban, theunemployed, many of whom are youths, shift workers, farmers, fishermen etc. All of these citizens have aright to information, presented in the best professional manner.

The minor bulletin is ideal for the story that is continuously developing during the day. It would generallycontain the essential facts of the main news items as they come to hand, as well as stories of special inter-est to the particular groups of listeners mentioned above.

The length of these minor bulletins is usually about three minutes, of short items, perhaps two or three sen-tences each. But again, since radio is actuality - you may include at least one audio insert, ideally gearedtowards one of the special interest groups.

The News Flash

The flash is traditionally associated with extremely urgent and important information, which cannot waituntil the programme time-slots for major or minor news bulletins. It is used to announce events or decisionsof extreme national importance, and exceptionally rare international ones, especially if these have directrelevance to the national situation.


TYPES OF NEWS PROGRAMS

6.2 1

Disasters such as earthquakes, storms, typhoons, hurricanes, serious floods etc. fall into this category.

Death, particularly of very important national figures, major accidents of trains, aircrafts, ships and otherforms of public transport, involving large loss of life or injury also can be announced in the news flash.The fall of a Government, war, or large-scale community conflict may also justify the use of a news flash.

Because of the nature of the content of the news flash, this presentation format is used very sparingly. Theinformation is often proceeded by some form of attention-getter i.e. a gong, jingle etc - and is presented asa straight read of the essential facts as they are known., At the end of the flash it is usual to indicate thatmore information will be given as it becomes available.

The newsflash can and does pre-empt any other programming at the time.

Integrated News Broadcast

This could be a half-hour news broadcast once a day. It usually includes:- a three to four minute straight-read bulletin of hard news- fifteen minutes of interviews and reports, with quick, lively narration links- about ten minutes of commentary on local, national and international news

The time allotted to each of the three segments could vary from day to day, depending on the materialavailable and its importance.

These longer type news programmes must be based on whether or not listeners have that much time andinterest to sit and concentrate on thirty minutes (or more) of information.

The Newsreel

This format usually is of fifteen minutes duration. It contains eyewitness accounts, extracts of speeches,commentaries, reports of events, short talks and interviews. The newsreel needs a lot of time and staff tobe produced professionally. It also requires good technical facilities, and of course, money. Because ofthese demands, the Newsreel is often beyond the capacity of many broadcasting organizations, particularlythe smaller ones, in developing countries.

Current Affairs Magazine

Like the Newsreel, Current Affairs magazines expand on the news by explaining it - providing backgroundso that listeners can understand why something has happened, or exploring it by giving the views andopinions of those involved.

A Current Affairs magazine aims to follow up the day's news. That's why it is preferable that news reportersand current affairs producers work closely as a team, one complementing the efforts of the other.



6.2 2

Although in this manual we are not dealing with the specific techniques of current affairs production,remember that in principle they are the same as for news production. The only difference is that the sub-jects are treated more in-depth, and that you have more air time than can be allowed in the news bulletin.The current affairs producer is generally quite experienced, is proficient in the use of a tape recorder, has amicrophone voice and a reputation for having done good voice pieces in news bulletins in the past. He alsois very skilled in the art of interviewing.

Most radio stations do not permit comment from its reporters or current affairs producers - not even in thequestions that might be put in an interview. However, some stations have a separate `Commentary' pro-gramme, where an analyst or commentator is allowed to express opinions.

Discussion Programme

The current affairs producer might wish to organism a discussion programme. This provides a platform forthe exchange of ideas.

The simplest discussion is an extension of the interview in which the interviewer plays a more positive orprovocative role. He may present his own ideas so as to draw a response from his guest or perhaps todelve deeper into a subject. This kind of "interview-programme" is best handled by a station personality.

More conventional discussions are those presided over by a chairman and taking place between three orfour participants. Such panel discussions or forums are generally rather formal. The journalist acts as amoderator and does not participate in the discussion except to spark off a new line of inquiry.

Still another type of discussion follows the line of a debate and is usually held before an audience, either inthe studio or in a public centre. A chairman presides and there are two participants with opposing views.The audience is invited to join in their discussion. This type can be very popular.

The essential ingredient of any discussion is conflict. The members of the panel must have differing pointsof view. A discussion programme in which everyone agrees with everyone makes very dull listening.

News Documentary

The documentary or feature is a creative radio form, in which a single subject is treated, using all of thetechniques of sound radio either in the studio or outside, with the emphasis on real events, real soundsand real people, where possible, telling their own experience.

The length of a news documentary is usually between 15 minutes to an hour. Most documentaries use anarrator. The choice of the narrator, the warmth and personality of his voice are very important.

Other formats used in documentary production include interviews, discussions, expert comment, vox pop,eyewitness accounts, dramatization of information, poetry, songs, music and sound effects.

The feature requires thorough preparation and research. Only experienced radio journalists will be able toproduce a good documentary.



6.2 3

There are basically two types of actuality. Speech actuality is the use of recorded words spoken by some-one during a speech, a news conference or an interview. It is the most frequently used form of audio illus-tration in modern radio news bulletins. The other type of actuality is the raw sound of a news event (acyclone, wild sound from a demonstration, applause and cheers, etc.). This kind of actuality also enlivensnews presentation, but it is not as readily available on an every day basis as speech actuality.

Actualities help you take your audience to the scene of the event. The main principle is for thereporter, and indeed for everyone who is involved in the production of a radio news programme, to thinkaudio. A reporter should never leave the office without a tape recorder! If there's a 1980's corollary to theold proverb that a journalist should always have pen and paper with him, it is this: carry your recorderwith you as much as possible. Where we possibly can let the newsmaker tell the main element of thestory.

There are five rules about actualities.

1) Don't use actualities to tell the entire story. The actuality illustrates the story. It is not a self-containedreport, but it enhances the news story.

2) Use actualities only when they add a dimension that your written report could not. If the actuality doesn'tsay anything new, it should not be used.

3) Since actualities are story enhancers, they should be kept fairly short - usually no longer than 30 sec-onds. To avoid interruption in the flow of the news, generally avoid actualities less than 15 seconds inlength.

4) As an audio medium, radio should be extremely careful about standards of sound quality. The actualitymust be technically acceptable. Poor sound quality is a sign of amateurism.

5) Actuality must be tightly edited, preferably through splice editing. A reporter should supply the bulletineditor with a full tape of an interview or speech. But of course the reporter can prepare the excerpt whichwill be used in the bulletin.


ACTUALITY TAPE INSERTS

6.3 1

The following example shows how to set out a simple packaged story with spoken actuality for a news bul-letin. This is the case where a reporter has time to transcribe the voice insert. If not the duration and cuesshould be given (see Unit 2, Section 7).

20/10/82DOMESTIC AIRLINE

5.00 pm

The deputy Prime Minister, Mr. X, has spoken out against suggestions that shares

in the domestic airline P.T.A. should be sold to the public.

Earlier this month, the Federal Transport Minister, Mr. Y, announced that P.T.A.

was to become a public company. Speaking at a lunch in the capital today,

Mr. X welcomed the move to make P.T.A. a public company

as long as the airline remains under government control.

(TAPE BEGINS)

IF SUCH A SALE WENT AHEAD, THE REALITIES OF COMMERCIAL COMPETITION WOULDMAKE IT INEVITABLE THAT THE MORE COSTLY AND LESS PROFITABLE ROUTES NOWOPERATED BY P.T.A. WOULD BE DROPPED. THIS WOULD MEAN GREATER HARDSHIP FORA GREAT MANY PEOPLE LIVING OUTSIDE THE CAPITAL CITIES. IF SUCH A SALE WENTAHEAD, THE COMMERCIAL REALITIES OF AIRLINE OPERATION IN THIS COUNTRY WOULDMEAN THAT YOU HAVE THE RISK OF RUNNING INTO A PRIVATE MONOPOLY AIRLINE SYS-TEM.

(TAPE ENDS)

The deputy Prime Minister, Mr. X

Note that tape transcripts are always done in capitals with the beginning and end of the tape segmentsclearly identified.

Note too that the last three words of the introduction are underlined to cue the studio technician that aninsert follows.



6.3 2

Tape handling

* Clearly mark all tapes (open reel and cassette) with the name of the reporter and the actuality recorded,plus date and time of recording;

* Use the counter on the cassette recorder, so that you can find the selected material easily;

* Dub the selected material onto open reel; if you have more than one actuality out of an interview, dubthe selected inserts in the right order. This is a kind of rough editing.

* If you as the reporter want to insert your own voice in between two actuality inserts, you can now pro-ceed to do the final editing.

* Transcribe the selected material, if that is your station's policy.

* Write the lead-in for the announcer and prepare a clean script in at least two copies, one for the news-reader and one for the studio technician.

Lead-in to an actuality insert

Actualities, no matter what the subject and content, require LEAD-INS.

The opening paragraphs of a news story should be something more than a mere preamble to a tape insert.As always, the most newsworthy point should be the lead. Think out the structure of the story. Then, andonly then, need you worry about the actuality insert. Remember that the insert illustrates the main newspoint or a supplementary point made by the news source.

The lead in should be self-contained, meaning that it doesn't telegraph the fact that an actuality follows.A lead-in should indicate or summarize the tone and substance of the actuality. This does not mean para-phrasing the entire argument. The best approach is to write down to the actuality, so that the first words ofthe actuality seem to pick up the train of thought where the newsreader's or reporter's script has left off.The actuality should advance the story and the introduction should signal the way in which the actuality willdo that. But a lead-in should not signal that an actuality will follow. The distinction is subtle!



6.3 3

Consider this example:

Newsreader: The Finance Minister was asked how the new sugar agreement will affect sugar prices.Actuality: "WE EXPECT ABSOLUTELY NO ECONOMIC EFFECT.... "

In this example the lead-in signals that an actuality follows. It lacks impact and in case the actuality fails toplay and there is some `dead air', it will sound clumsy.A proper rewrite of this lead-in can be: "The Finance Minister says the new subsidies will not cause highersugar prices. "

In any case it's not necessary to introduce an actuality with the phrase: "Our reporter asked Mr. Bricks". It should be obvious that you asked a question; the listener is more interested in what the news sourcehas to say. Also, try not to start with a question by the reporter.

Avoid using a piece of tape that repeats your lead literally. This repetition is annoying. In other words, listencarefully to an insert before using it. Note what the first sentence is so that you can use different words inthe lead-in.

NotNewsreader: "The Prime Minister is optimisticActuality: "I am optimistic that.... "

ButNewsreader: "According to the Prime Minister the crisis is almost over. "Actuality: ` I am optimistic that ...... "

This is called the parrot effect. The lead-in uses the same words that are used on the start of the tape.That sounds very unprofessional.

A useful technique is to listen carefully to the sentence in the interview or speech that precedes the select-ed insert. By rewriting that preceding sentence, you may find a logical bridge to the actuality insert.

Every actuality should have a unique and exclusive lead-in, a proper introduction that's only used for thisparticular actuality. Avoid unimaginative lead-in's such as: " The Minister of Finance has this to say" or "Theproject manager says". There will be a noticeable drop in the voice of the announcer and one can almosthear the semi-colon and the quotation marks appearing.

In exceptional cases, listeners will want to hear with a minimum of leadin, an announcement of majorimportance conveyed by the speaker's own voice (e.g. the Prime Minister announcing the election date,etc.). But dramatic actuality of this kind is rare. In every day news items, actuality should flow smoothly intothe context. It should not be used in a way that sounds awkward, or throws the story-line or bulletin content



6.3 4

out of balance (by using an over-long insert, for instance).

Each voice should be identified just before it is heard. In scripting the edited interview, make sure the lastperson named before the insert, is the first voice heard, and similarly, the first name after an insert must bethe person heard. In other words, the speaker should be identified again in a back-announcement.

If the interviewer only asks one or two short questions, he does not need to be identified.

Lead-out of an actuality insert

Just as much as actualities need a lead-in, they need an "extro" or "tag" or "back announcement" ..... away to get out of it and on to the next story.

The tag or lead-out wraps up the story and brings it to a polished, professional ending. It often refers backto the actuality even if it is only a back announcement or reidentification of the speaker in the actuality justended.

ExampleActuality: “..... IN THE NEXT FEW MONTHS."Newsreader: The Chief Justice, Mr. Prasad.

A tag is often something more than a simple reidentification.

ExampleActuality: DROP OFF IN THE LOWER STAGES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL".Newsreader: Mr. Santiago further proposed that the Education Ministry gives more incentives to

teachers ..... The hearing on the education policy continues tomorrow.

The tag tells your listeners the story has ended and that you are ready to move on to the next item.



6.3 5

The voice report or 'voicer' is a report narrated by the journalist who has been covering a particular newsstory. Its purpose is to supplement and add colour to the basic news. An eyewitness account or on-the-spotreport complete with background sound can be very convincing.

The voice report is a specialized technique of radio reporting. In most cases it will be recorded on tape(either from outside by telephone or studio based), but it can be live as well. The advantage of a studiobased voice report is that the tape can be edited tightly.

There are two sides to a 'voicer' and they go hand in hand. One is the ability to deliver voice reports in amanner that's clear, authoritative and easy to listen to.

The other side is to learn how to write a voice report. Writing a voice report is different from writingstraight news stories. The reason for sending you out "on-the-spot" is to obtain an additional element in thecoverage. In a voice report you may add something to the news that is more personal.

If it's a dramatic event, a flood, a big fire or a dramatic operation, news coverage is greatly enhanced by areporter's first hand account of what he saw and what it was like being there. This is certainly the case inthe descriptive voice report. If some element of individuality doesn't come across to the listener, the wholething may as well have been done by the newsreader.

Voice reports not only add variety in presentation style, but must also improve the content and interest ofthe story. But note that a voice piece is not a license to speculate, or give an opinion. The rules about com-ment, bias, rumour and opinion also apply in voice pieces.

How to get your sound or voice through the telephone? Well, it's fairly easy to hook your recorder up to atelephone. All you need is a cord with a plug on one end and a pair of alligator clips on the other.

Plug the cord into the "earphone" or "monitor" plug on the recorder. Then, take the mouthpiece off the tele-phone and hook the alligator clips to the two prongs inside the handset.

Try to find a telephone where you can take the mouthpiece off, so that you can use it.

There are several kinds of voice reports. The most common are* the descriptive voice piece* the correspondence from overseas or from another state or region* the background piece, for instance the chain of events leading up to a major election. Many newsroomshave a political or parliamentary, or industrial reporter. The specialist reporter acquires authority over theyears* the explanatory piece, an explanation in voice by a reporter of how something works. For instance, anew device to save fuel.

Duration: The maximum length of a voice report for radio is one minute. Some are only 20 seconds.Exceptionally, it can be longer than one minute. The average is 40 to 45 seconds.


VOICE REPORTS

6.4 1

Lead-in to a voice report

The voice report does not tell the basic story. That is again the function of the lead-in, read by the news-reader.

The lead-in to a voice report provides information for the listener's understanding of what follows. Normallyit tells where the event occurred and when.

There are two parts in the lead-in:a) What is the news? The hard factual story essential to the understanding of the voice report. Inmany cases the reporter will make suggestions for, or actually write this intro for it's an integral part of thestory as he is presenting it. But the bulletin editor is responsible for ensuring that the lead-in is written.

Again, avoid duplication with the first sentence of the voice report. Write the intro so that if flows into thefirst line of the report.

If there is a big fire, for instance, the lead-in could contain four or five lines giving the hard news and there-after, the reporter takes up the story.

b) Introduction of the reporter or correspondent:Try to avoid stereotyped introductions. Add variety:

- Here's X with the details of that story - X explains why it took so much trouble - A report from X in Y- As X reports, this is only one of the achievements

The same guidelines can be followed as with the lead-in to actualities. But take special care when reportsbegin with natural sound (as an actuality insert rather than the correspondent's voice.

Example:Lead in:

X reports from the United Nations where 600 delegates of the World Assembly have been meetingTape

- 10 seconds, off mike voices (angry arguments) - reporter's voice

This technique puts the report's name up front in the sentence, not at the end. Thus the natural sound isidentified immediately before it hits the listener's ear.

Another technique is the so called wrap-around. It's like a sandwich with actuality in the middle of a voicereport. The voice of a news source can be included in the voice report. A "wrap" is also useful when areporter has attended a news conference or done an interview, and wants to give an overall report, includ-ing highlights of the answers, with linking material in between. The idea is to keep the voice report moving.


VOICE REPORTS

6.4 2

The sign off by the reporter should be according to the version accepted in your station. Always sign offwrap-arounds, don't let the piece end with actuality or raw sound.

Example"This is X for RTM news in "Y"

The lead-out or "Extro" is read by the news presenter in the studio. The lead-out re-identifies the voice,so listeners will know whose voice they just heard.

ExampleThat was X

If there is an actuality at the end of the voice report, for instance a voice clip from an interview, it issmoother to have a back announcement in the studio.

Example"That was Y, talking to our reporter X"

Here's the transcript of an excellent example of what's possible in modern radio. It's the transcription of areport broadcast in 1981 on CBC News (the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation).

NEWSCASTERAnd finally in the news this morning, in Atlanta, Georgia, last night the stars turned out

(TAPE BEGINS)MUSIC INSERT "I've got the world on a string"

Duration: 15 seconds (music fade to background)

NEWSCASTERFrank Sinatra, Sammy Davis Junior, Dizzie Gillispie, Burt Reynolds along with several sur-prise guests helped the city of Atlanta raise nearly a 150-thousand dollars at a benefit concertbefore 45-hundred spectators at the city's civic centre. As Mike Buckey reports, the moneywill be used to help pay extra-ordinary expenses incurred by Atlanta's police, as they investi-gate the deaths and disappearance of 21 black children in the city.

MUSIC INSERT Duration: S seconds (instrumental)

VOICE REPORT

AFTER HIS OPENING NUMBER SAMMY DAVIS JUNIOR SET THE TONE FOR LASTNIGHT'S BENEFIT CONCERT HERE AT THE ATLANTA CIVIC CENTRE WITH THESEWORDS.


VOICE REPORTS

6.4 3

Actuality Insert THE OCCASION IS SOLEMN..... BUT THE ENTERTAINMENT WE HOPE WILL BE WORTHY OF YOUR PARTICIPATION. I CAN ONLYSAY: I THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION, EACH AND EVERYONE OF YOU FOR BEING AS SUPPORTIVE AS YOU ARE BYCOMING HERE THIS EVENING

VOICE REPORT (Continued)

A LOT OF PRIZED TICKETS WERE SOLD FOR 25 DOLLARS, CHOICE SEATS WENT FOR100 DOLLARS, BUT MANY PEOPLE APPARENTLY DECIDED TO PAY MORE THAN THEASKING PRICE, AND INSTEAD OF 100-THOUSAND DOLLARS, THE MAYOR OF ATLANTATOLD THE CROWD THAT NEARLY 150-THOUSAND DOLLARS WAS RAISED. SECURITYWAS EXTREMELY TIGHT, POLICEMEN WATCHED THE CROWD CLOSELY BECAUSEPSYCHOLOGISTS HAD SPECULATED THAT THE KILLER OR KILLERS OF ATLANTA'S 21CHILD VICTIMS MIGHT TRY TO GET CLOSE TO THE ACTION. IN SUNDAY'S EDITION OFTHE ATLANTA CONSTITUTIONAL JOURNAL IT WAS REPORTED THAT A LETTER WRIT-TEN BY SOMEONE CLAIMING TO BE THE KILLER, CONTAINED A VEILED THREAT THATANOTHER CHILD MIGHT BECOME A VICTIM WHILE THE CONCERT WAS INPROGRESS. THAT HASN'T HAPPENED.

FOR CBC NEWS THIS IS MIKE BUCKEY IN ATLANTA

(TAPE ENDS)


VOICE REPORTS

6.4 4

The running order gives the essential production details. This is a useful service for the person who has toplay the tapes in the correct order. It should be noticed, however, that quite often in modern radio a news-caster plays his own tapes and cartridges.

Even with four or five pre-recorded tapes radio news should always be a live transmission.

If a report will come in `live', the running order should give the details of where it will come from (studio,O.B.-van, etc.)

If an item is recorded, the running order supplies the identifying number of the tape to make sure the cor-rect tape is played, together with any special instruction for the operator. The bulletin editor is in charge oflining up the tapes and labeling them with the right numbers.

Example of a "Running order"


RUNNING ORDER

6.5 1

The presenter may encounter various difficulties in the presentation of news. How to react when a failureoccurs? One good solution is that the presenter's copy should contain a brief summary of the contents ofthe report and he can say: "Technical problems prevent us from giving you that report now, but the ministersaid in the interview......" and then a brief summary.

Some broadcasting organizations do not use a "running order" on a separate sheet, but, the bulletin editorgives a copy of the complete bulletin to the technical operators. The script is the same as the newscaster'sand, if the tapes are lined up and labeled properly, there can be no failure!

Let's now focus on the job of the presenter, who will no longer be just an "announcer" or a "newsreader",but a full-fledged newscaster. Ultimately he is responsible for the success or failure of a news programme.In this sense, the newscaster is the most important member of the news team. He is the link between thebroadcasting organization and the listener. However well planned and well structured, a news bulletin canvirtually be ruined by dull delivery. Since a variety of production techniques will be used, the professionalpresenter must be listening to the inserts, reacting instantly to any unforeseen happenings during the bul-letin (for instance a tape doesn't start, or a wrong tape runs).

The newscaster should be in the newsroom beforehand to go over the bulletin. A few minutes before thebroadcast he should go to the studio, expecting other stories to be delivered either before or during the bul-letin.

Punctuality is a must for a newscaster. It is almost impossible to present a good bulletin if he arrivesbreathless, seconds before the bulletin starts. The newscaster should have gone through the copy at leastonce before airtime. As he prepares, he should mark the copy to make his reading easier.

Remember that broadcast speech is a one-way conversation with every listener as an individual. Youhave an audience of one! Although we have stressed again and again that the language should be writtenconversationally, it must be delivered with authority.

Delivery should be animated without being forced, the diction should be clear. The presenter must be con-fident and convinced of the importance of the message. He needs to be relaxed, without being chatty.Delivery must remain impartial, this means that his likes and dislikes should not show through.

Projection of the voice at normal conversational level is just not enough for radio. Voice projection shouldbe at the level you would use to reach someone 2 metros away.

Speaking rates vary from one person to another, from one language to another. News is generally read ata rate of 110 to 120 words a minute.

Twenty typewritten lines equal one minute of reading time. The best way of timing a script is to read itthrough aloud.

Note that in speech, meaning is not only conveyed by words but by the way the voice is used as well. Thetone of the voice, pauses and emphasis can be used to add colour.

Read the following sentence aloud several times, each time stressing a different word.

I am going to swim in the pool at 3 o'clock.

There are several books which deal with problems of delivery, phrasing emphasis, articulation, pronuncia-tion, pace, response, voice placing, etc. This information is of interest to anyone who works in the news-room. Anyone who works in news should be prepared to voice some reports.

The AIBD manual for Media Trainers "Planning, Presenting, Producing the Radio Programme", is apractical guide. Copies can be ordered from the AIBD. (247 pages, 10 Ringgit).


THE APPROACH OF THE NEWSCASTER

6.6 1

Figures are bad news in radio news. A listener doesn't have a mind like a computer, so he can't absorb allthe figures in your news item. Before using figures, ask yourself if they are necessary.

Does the following example really give useful information for a listener in Sarawak, one of the states ofMalaysia?

The National Padi and Rice Authority is expected to allocate 9 million ringgit for various projects inSarawak under the Fourth Malaysia Plan.

It's vague, and not even hard news ("expected to ...."). In fact, this is wasting air time with useless and irrel-evant "facts". Radio is best, not at giving detailed specific facts, but at giving the meaning of an event.Many figures can be eliminated.

Many development stories involve figures and it is our job to present these in the simplest form. Here is arule: two sets of figures are about all that can be handled in a radio news item. The fewer figures, thebetter. And avoid starting a story with an exact number if possible.

Round off large numbers. The presentation can be simplified by such generalizations as: "about", "nearly","almost", "some", "more than", etc.

201.325 = more than 200 thousand 248 = almost 250 24.927 = just under 25 thousand

Don't put two figures immediately after each other.

NotThe death toll for this year is 563,124 more than last year.ButThe death toll for this year is 563, an increase of 124 in comparison with last year.

Percentages are normally rounded to a whole number. If it is .5% or higher, bring it to the nearest wholenumber above; if it is .4% and below, make it the nearest whole number below it:

Percentages are used by specialists, either to compare

PART AND WHOLE (X homes, of which Y have electricity) orTHIS TIME AND THAT (X this year - Y last year)

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualADDITIONAL STYLE NOTES 7.1

FIGURES

7.1 1

Journalists can express the same comparisons as fractions20% = a fifth, or one in five25016 = a quarter, or one in four 33% = a third, or one in three50% = a half75% = three quarters100% = double

Where percentages aren't supplied you should be able to work these out and so add to the understandingof a story. Do you know the formula?

Remember not to use the % sign. Spell it out (percent).

There is a formula for fractions:

GREATER AMOUNT then multiply to whole numbers LESSER AMOUNT

The British journalist Cedric Pulford gives this example: If 47 out of 121 engines on the railway systemneed spare parts, we can say that two engines out of every five are affected.

GREATER AMOUNT 121LESSER AMOUNT 47 = 2.6

It would be silly to say that one in every 2.6 engines is affected. The smallest number needed to give awhole number on both sides of the statement is 2. Actually it comes out as 2 in every 5.2 engines, but wecall the latter 5. If the figure is not more than 0.2 on either side (in this case, from 4.8 to 5.2), we can call itthe whole number. If the figure is outside that range, we must multiply by another amount to give a wholenumber.

Large figures can be broken to manageable scale. By simply averaging, we can say what a total amountmeans in terms of the individual farmer, consumer, etc.

The formula for an average is TOTAL AMOUNTNo. of Units

If 239 families between them work 619 hectares of land, an average family has 2.6 hectares (in radio style:"about two and half hectares').

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualADDITIONAL STYLE NOTES 7.1

FIGURES

7.1 2

People are always interested in news about the cost of living. The rate of inflation is reflected by theConsumer Price Index or CPI. Price statistics are useful information for the general public, but statistics arehard to absorb. We hope the following suggestions may help you in writing a news story on the CPI.The Consumer Price Index is used to compare current prices of a `market basket' of goods and services toprices of the same items at a given time in the past.

The components of the basket usually include basic necessities like food, clothing, medical care, fuel andother items which the government considers are representative of the needs of the people.

The CPI is issued regularly by a government's statistical office and measures the average change in theretail prices for those goods. Often, by studying that change, consumers are able to gauge the purchasingpower of their money.

It should be noted however, that the CPI does not influence price. It only reflects changes in the prices of aselected group of products and services over a given period.

The concept should be explained at each occasion it is used. A fair, simple and correct description can be:"The index of consumer prices gives an indication of the average increase or decrease in the prices of con-sumer products."

The main news element people want to know is whether the index has `gone up' or `gone down' and byhow much. This information is usually found in the summary provided by the national statistical office. Therise or fall in index points and in percentage represents the main news element, especially if it is a signifi-cant change, for instance, more than 1 percent.

The news item should further give the main reason for the increase or decrease.

Example"The increase is caused mainly by the sharp rise in the price of rice during the last three months."

Furthermore, a general idea can be given of what products have become more expensive over a period oftime and what products have become cheaper. This can be specified for certain towns.

Example"The price of betel nut has fallen sharply in Port Moresby but remained the same in the other towns."

Invariably, in almost all countries, the index of consumer prices tends to go up. People say: "Life is becom-ing more expensive". A fall in the index is rather exceptional and thus makes news. However, it can be thatonly one product causes the general fall in the index, while most other products have increased in price.This should be clear in the news item. If not, listeners "who know better" will simply not believe you.Here's an example of a story on the Consumer Price Index in Papua New Guinea, where the concept is

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualADDITIONAL STYLE NOTES

UNIT 7.2 CONSUMER PRICE INDEX (CPI)

7.2 1

still new and largely an urban feature. The index is published every three months by the National StatisticalOffice in Port Moresby.

13/08/81 JUNE INDEX

7.00 a.m.

The index of consumer prices for the period from April to June has fallen slightly by 0.1 percent

in comparison with the first three months of this year.

However, since June last year the cost of living has risen by almost nine percent.

The index of consumer prices is published by the National Statistical Office and

gives an indication of the average change in the prices of consumer products.

The index is calculated for the major towns only.

The slight drop in the consumer price index

is mainly caused by the sharp fall in the price of betel nut, especially in Port Moresby.

Prices of meat, fish and bread have risen slightly, but sugar, rice and fresh fruit and vegetables were

generally cheaper in the period from April to June.

During this period electricity and fuel prices also increased.

The Statistical bulletin also shows that the price of betel nut in

Port Moresby is nine times more expensive than in Rabaul.

Statistical Bulletin/Agnes Inape/Evodia Boslogo


UNIT 7.2 CONSUMER PRICE INDEX (CPI)

7.2 2

Many newswriters seem to think that the use of journalistic clichés - or "journalese" identifies the journalist.Many of the words we use in broadcast news are words you only hear on broadcast news. You seldomhear these words used in normal everyday conversation. Here is a list of the most overworked clichés. Tryto avoid them. Here's a 85-word blacklist.

CLICHÉS PREFERRED WORD

adequate enoughalleviate easeanticipate expectanxious means "worried", not "eager"age aged 49. But the age is usually irrelevant. In broadcasting we never use "the 49-year-

old" affluent richascertain find outassist helpattempt trybacklash reactionblaze firecease stopclaim (1) greatly misused in place of "admit", "allege", "charge", "maintain" and so on, when

"say" would be better.claim (2) As in "the IRA claimed responsibility for..... The IRA did it.clash is of cymbals. It is not a fight, or a debate in Parliament,

or a disagreement between two parties.commence begin, or startconclude endco-operate helpcurrently nowcurb restrict, reduceconsists of isdramatic devoid of precise meaning, like big, vital, major, huge, massive, ironically. Describe the

drama, the size, the irony deceased deaddonate givedeath-toll a horrible word. It is better to be simple and to write "2000 people are dead"draconian severe, harsheffective as in "the most effective way to" - `the best way to"endeavour tryevacuate People are not evacuated. A city or area is. excess (in, of) more thanexceedingly veryexpense costexpress express hope = hope; express fear = fear;

express dissatisfaction = not to be happy about fly into fly to or "arrive by air at"finalize finish or complete


UNIT 7.3 JOURNALESE - CLICHES

7.3 1

CLICHÉS PREFERRED WORDfacilitate make easygathered metgive rise to causeincorporate includeinfrastructure this is jargon; depending on context, there are better wordsinform tellinitiate start or begininquire askinundate "many homes are flooded"implement do (and never "implementation")kill usually a better word than its synonyms and euphemismslaunch to start (a project, an enterprise)located can be eliminated as in "The temple is (located) at"manufacture makemean while overworked; this adverb should only be used when a close relationship exists in

subject matter and intervening time actually is meant (simultaneously).news newsmen attend news conferences - Press refers to newspapers onlynecessitate need to forceoust(ed) expelled, deposedover more than, when giving numberpersons people - "person" is used only in police report.pertaining to of, aboutpresently nowprior to before (never: "previous to")purchase buypreside over the chairman of the meeting was provided ifreiterate repeatrelinquish give uprequire needrequest ask forresidence homerush An ambulance does not rush people to hospital. Patients are always taken there as

quickly as the traffic allows; or patients go there. shortly soon (never in the near future)step up increase, intensitystockpile stocksubsequently latersufficient enoughterminate end, stoptransportation transporttransmit sendunderprivileged pooruplift pick up or raise



7.3 2

upgrade improveutilize usevehicle say what kind (bus, taxi, car)vessel shipview as "in view of" - clichévirtually means "in effect", not "nearly all"valued at worthweather not "weather condition"



7.3 3

The most important thing about people's names is to get them right. In broadcasting, names and titles aresimplified whenever possible. So, omit initials and middle names unless they've widely recognized as partof the name.

Never start a story with an unfamiliar name. There's a good chance that the listener will miss it. Delay thename until you get the listener's attention. Always ask yourself whether the name does really matter.

ExampleThe UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific has appealed for more international help forlandlocked countries. Its Executive Secretary, Mr. Kibria, said donors have contributed ....

The factual precision of newspapers in giving the full name comes in for relaxed treatment on radio. Middleinitials are often dropped. Instead of "Bert C. Floresca", radio style would prefer "Bert Floresca". Just givingthe initial is often distracting as in this example: "The project manager Mr. W. Bogusch". Remember the lis-tener cannot see, only hear the message, which could be read as: "The project manager, Mr. Bogusch...

Of course, when a person is generally known by his initials, there is no harm in using them.

It is the preferred practice for titles and designations to be given before the name. If the title is long, place a"the" in front of the title.

ExamplePrime Minister Trudeau of Canada has ......

The Prime Minister of Malaysia, Datuk Seri Dr. Mahathir Mohamad, has ....

If a minister has two or more portfolios, it should be enough to mention just the one that is relevant. Forinstance, if there is a Minister of Energy and Telecommunications, and he talks about rural electrification,you can refer to him as "the Minister of Energy".

Titles are not repeated after first reference to a person. Use the title on first reference. But repeat thename, or the function of the person, if it is a long story.

(Generally speaking, we can use Mr., Mrs. or Miss, unless the person has a title.)

It is impracticable to translate titles.

The important thing is to know by which name to call the person and to recognize which parts of the nameindicate rank or status in the society.

The following notes are reproduced from the Style Notes of the News Division of the AustralianBroadcasting Commission and will give some general advice. But reporters and editors should still check inindividual cases.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualADDITIONAL STYLE NOTES UNIT 7.4 NAMES AND TITLES

7.4 1

BURMA

U (pronounce 00) means Mr. Daw means Mrs. Miss is Ma. Maung and Ma are for younger people.

Burmese generally have two names, but some have only one, or three. Family or surnames generally don'texist. All names should be used and in their correct order.

CAMBODIA

Most Khmers have two names; the first is the father's name, the second the given name. The given nameis used in conversation. Formally, the full name should be used, and in story references either the fullname or the given name is usually needed to distinguish the person from other members of the family.

CHINA

Chinese generally have three names. The first is the family name and the two following are linked by ahyphen to form one compound personal name, with the one at the end spelt with 'a small letter. As ChouEn-lai. The first name is used as the surname.

However, some Chinese outside China have adopted to Western ways by switching the surname to theend, and some have adopted Western "Christian" names. In the event of Mr. Chou having done thesethings, he would perhaps be Mr. Herbert En-Lai Chou.

It is acceptable outside China to refer to a man's wife by his family name preceded by Mrs., although inChina a woman does not adopt her husband's name.

INDIAShri equals Mr.; Shrimati equals Mrs.; Kumari equals Miss. Those are the Hindu prefixes. With Sikhs, it'sSardar, Sardarni and Kumari. In either case the English equivalents are correct but NOT doubled up withthe Indian ones.

Singh in a name often (but not always) indicates that the person is of Sikh origin, but he can well be aHindu. The feminine equivalent is Kaur. It usually comes at the end or in the middle. The person should becalled Mr. Whatever Singh, or Mrs. Whatever Kaur, keeping up the double-barrelled reference throughoute.g. Mr. Swaran Singh. Sometimes, the family name is added to the name after Singh, for instanceGurcharan Singh Chawla. He could be a Sikh or a Hindu, though generally a Sikh.

With Muslim names, many prefer the prefix Maulana. India has a large Muslim population (in numbers nextonly to Indonesia). Styles of their names are akin to the Pakistani and Bangladeshi systems.

Secular titles are no longer given in India, but there are many and varied religious or popular honorifics forrevered people e.g. Mahatma, Sant, Maharishi, Acharya, Jagadguru. These should not be confused withnames.


7.4 2

INDONESIA

Some Indonesians, including President Suharto, have only one name; some have three or more, but themajority have two. Where the second name is a long and difficult one, the first name is generally used byitself. In fact, the Department of Foreign Affairs say, "It is never offensive and often correct to select the firstname, and address as Mr., Mrs. or Miss". However, where the first name is a common one, and mistakingof identity likely, both names are used (as by the Finance Minister - Professor Ali Wardhana) or only thesecond name is used after the first reference.

In the absence of a surname, identification is sometimes assisted by the use of the word `bin' (son of) or'binti' (daughter of), e.g. Ahmad bin Ali means Ahmad son of Ali, and he should be called Mr. Ahmad.JAPANThe Japanese in Japan put their family name first and given name second, but invert the order in accordwith Western practice when abroad or dealing with foreigners.It is particularly important not to drop the Mr., Mrs. or Miss in naming a Japanese, since they set somestore by polite forms.In the Japanese contexts, "san" after the name simply means Mr., Mrs. or Miss, but the Japanese do notuse this form of address when speaking English.

KOREA

The Koreans follow the Chinese pattern of three names, the first of which is the family name and whichshould be used in second references. Some Koreans, however, invert the order when dealing with foreign-ers or in rejecting the assumption of Chinese influence.

Korean wives usually keep their father's family name, but a few voluntarily adopt their husband's familyname when dealing with foreigners.

Some Koreans also adopt Western Christian names, putting them first as in English usage.

LAOS

Laotians write the family name after the given name, but a Laotian is normally addressed by the givenname. We should use the full name first, e.g. Mr. Khamleck Bouapha, and thereafter the given name.... Mr.Khamleck.

A Laotian wife adopts the family name of her husband. The wife of the above gentleman would be formallyMrs. Bouapha, informally Mrs. Khamleck.

Laotian prefixes and titles that you should recognize are:Tiao (also written Chao or Chau) meaning Prince or Princess; Phagna, roughly equivalent to the Sir of a Knight; Than, corresponding to Sir or Mr., used for a senior person;


7.4 3

Thao, meaning Mr. or Master, used for young men or men of inferior social standing;Nang, equivalent to Miss.

MALAYSIA

Encik equals Mr. So does Tuan. Cik equals Miss. Puan equals Mrs. There are numerous titles: Tunku, Tun,Tan Sri, and Datuk. There are Sultans - always the Sultan of some state. And above all, the Yang Di-Pertuan Agong, who can be called simply, the King.

The words "Al-Haj" or "Haji" indicate that the person has made the pilgrimage to Mecca. Prefixing themwith "bin" indicate that the person's father made the, pilgrimage. Various considerations govern whichname becomes the right one to use for second references. Bear in mind that Malaysians may be Chinese,Malay or Indian.

PAKISTAN and BANGLADESH

The system of surnames or family names is only beginning to be used. The safest course is to use all of aperson's name unless an acceptable abbreviation is known in the particular case. There is a relativelysmall selection of personal names and differentiation is achieved by using two or three in combination.

Common titles or honorifics are Chaudhry or Khan, Khwaja, Mian, Malik, Maulana or Maulvi, Sardar (orSirdar), Shah, Khandakar, Sheikh and Syed, and Begum (equivalent of Mrs., but mostly used for women ofsome social standing).

If any of these occurs first in the group of words making up the name, it is almost certainly a title ofaddress and should be omitted if Mr. or Mrs. is used.

Unfortunately, many of these titles are also used as names. They usually occur towards the end, and Mr.may then be used. These are Muslim names. Hindus living in Pakistan or Bangladesh have the sameforms of address as Indians.

SRI LANKA

In effect, same as English names. The Sinhalese and Burghers put given name first, family name secondand are referred to by the second. The Tamils put their father's name first and given name second but stillare known by the second.

THAILAND

Most Thais have two names. The first is the given name, the second the family name. Wives take the hus-band's family name. Mr., Mrs., or Miss may be used with the given name, which is usually shorter and easi-er to pronounce than the family name. But the full name must be used first time round. The Thai equiva-lents of Mr., Mrs. and Miss are Nai, Nang and Nangsao, but these are used only in writing, not in speechwhen Khun is used.


7.4 4

Thai titles include: Mom Chao (or M.C.) who should be addressed as Prince or Princess; Mom Rajawong(M.R.) who should be addressed as Mom and first name; Mom Luang (M.L.), Mom and the first name;Chao Phya or Phya addressed. as Chao Khun; Phra, addressed Khun Phra; Luang, addressed KhunLuang.

VIETNAM

Most Vietnamese have three names, such as Tran Van Minh, or Vu Thi Bao.

The first name is the family name, and most Vietnamese bear the names of one of the old Royal dynasties:Nguyan, Tran, Le, Ly, Ho, Mae, for example.

The middle name may indicate sex - Van commonly for men, Thi for women.

The last name is the given name and that is the one to use after the first reference.

LATIN NAMES

Spanish names, as used also in Latin America, embody a trap for the uninformed. A Spaniard (or aMexican, Cuban, etc.) uses three names: given name, paternal surname, maternal surname. For example,Juan Martinez Gonzales, and thereafter as Senor Martinez. To call him Senor Gonzales would be to implythat he was the illegitimate son of an unknown father.

A Spanish married woman's name becomes complicated, as she retains her paternal surname and addsher husband's surname preceded by "de". She should be called by her husband's paternal surname.

Sometimes, Spanish people in dealing with English speaking people recognize their confusion and try tohelp by lopping off the maternal surname. When in doubt, check.


7.4 5

One of the most irritating habits of bad newswriters is the use of initials, without explaining them.

Most abbreviations are to be avoided. The full name of the organization - not the initials - should bereported when it is mentioned for the first time. The abbreviation can be used in subsequent references,but there are ways of avoiding that as well.

Examplethe Bureau of Internal Revenue (in first reference)then: The B.I.R., or better: "The bureau"The National Electricity Board (in first reference)Later: The N.E.B. or better: "The Electricity Board "

Avoid unfamiliar initials, even after a first reference to the full name of the institution. Repeating the fullname is not necessarily bad, and may be better than falling back on a set of initials familiar only to thoseclose to the subject.

We should use initial forms only when they are common language to all people. If an abbreviation is imme-diately recognizable and well known and if the letters of an abbreviation form a pronounceable unit oracronym.

ExampleUnesco B.B.C. Unicef U. S.

But don't presume everyone is familiar with short forms that may be common knowledge to journalists orgovernment officials. Broadcasters are educators and must always think of the least learned in the audi-ence.

ExampleASEAN, that is the Association of South East Asian NationsESCAP, the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

An exception from the rule that most abbreviations are to be avoided are: Mr., Mrs. and Dr. These are insuch common usage that newsreaders prefer them abbreviated.

But names of months and days are written in full.

ExampleJanuary not Jan. Monday not Mon.


UNIT 7.5 ABBREVIATIONS

7.5 1

Since broadcasting is aimed at people, it must seek to reach them in the languages they speak.

The choice of languages for broadcasting therefore is a most important issue and the problem of goodtranslation should be given absolute priority in Asian and Pacific newsrooms. In many countries, it takesthe form of a political dilemma. On the one hand, governments would like to achieve the maximumdegree of political penetration and control over their populations. This goal requires an increase of lan-guages broadcast in order to reach the largest possible audience. On the other hand, the encouragementof a single national language can help to build a sense of nationhood and encourage loyalties at thenational level.

But, of course, a common language broadcast in a multilingual society will not serve the purpose of broad-casting to the people in the language they know.

All India Radio, for instance, broadcasts news in 23 languages and 35 tribal dialects. These language bul-letins are more popular than English.

Most multilingual developing countries face a variety of practical problems.

Linguistic diversity creates an economic burden for radio, though much less so than television.Fortunately many governments have come to realize the importance of developing regional stations whichcan promote people's active participation in radio programmes. Anyhow, a sufficient number of specializedstaff must be recruited to produce news bulletins in the chosen variety of languages.

This brings us to another set of problems. Staff recruited for language work are often without any experi-ence or training. They learn their work at the desk. Not infrequently adhoc recruitment is made to fill everexisting vacancies and sufficient care is not taken in choosing translators.

Another burden for multilingual societies is that a lot of energy, time and personnel goes to mere transla-tion of a news script. This also prevents efforts of modernizing the newscast through voice reports andactuality inserts. Mere translation of one master script certainly suits uniformity of the news message, but inthe long run, it would be better to create separate news desks in respect of the major national languages.The overall news output can of course still be co-ordinated, but this would allow more variety and liveliernews programmes which are much closer to the audience. Listeners differ from one language to another.For instance, the priority and emphasis given to some news items in one language may not have the samemerit in another language.

Last but not least there is a problem of bad translation.

A major concern in this manual has been with the effective use of language, any language, in retaining theinterest of the audience. For obvious reasons, we have stressed the correct and effective use of English forradio news. But we are well aware that most of those using this manual will be dealing with languagesother than English.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualTRANSLATION ISSUES 8.1

THE MANY PROBLEMS OF TRANSLATION

8.1 1

However, in many multilingual countries the original or "master" copy is produced in English and thentranslated into one or several national languages. It may well occur that speeches or news conferences arein a language other than English, then translated into English and thereafter re-translated. Sometimes, inthis double translation process, the spirit and content of the original either gets misrepresented or distorted,not to speak of the waste of energy and time.

Even if the master copy is written in a language other than English, some of the source material, particular-ly foreign news, will be in English.

Translators of radio news face the double problem of translating from one language into another andrewriting or "translating" into radio style (writing for the ear, not for the eye). Sometimes, translators donot have a news approach and some tend to write in literary styles.

The problems of writing news in English are not necessarily the same as those in other languages. Forexample, many languages in the Pacific are oral languages only, with no historical, written form. In thesecases the distinction between the written and spoken language does not really arise. The problem may wellbe the traditional requirement to communicate in public using a ceremonial form of language which is notalways understood well by the common man, particularly the young.

But the problem may well be the reverse, that the younger, educated people understand the standard lan-guage, whereas elderly people in the rural areas are only able to speak the local dialect and don't under-stand the modern words of a language. Some languages have three or more levels of use depending onthe social status of the speaker or the person being addressed. There also may be a lot of differencebetween classical forms of a language and the form spoken by the man in the street.

One cannot expect every citizen to speak two or more languages with full fluency. The broadcasting organi-zation therefore must decide what form of the language will be best understood by the audience. Thebroadcasting organization also is responsible for ensuring a first class translation, particularly in newsbroadcasts. There are too many complaints about poor translation and it is sad to note that the problem isoften not given sufficient consideration.

Translators must keep expanding their understanding of both the languages they are working in, andit is preferable to employ native speakers of the language of broadcast. Translators should have a goodgrasp of the culture which is surrounding the language. This makes the translator an extremely valuableelement of the newsroom.

Translators should be fully involved in the news production process. Unfortunately most translators arenowadays only given an edited version of the news requiring just a verbatim translation. If they becomemore involved with the news team, a full version of the story will be available, which will help them to draftbetter copy.

Ideally radio journalists who are proficient in the two languages should be recruited. A language supervisor,who is an authority in the language, with the status of editor can check the translated copy. Translatorsthemselves should have the status of sub-editor.



8.1 2

In this unit we are not giving precise guidelines for translation into a particular language. But we try toemphasize the principles of good translation.

The following sections are largely based on a paper by Dr. Kemp Pallesen of the Summer Institute ofLinguistics, New Zealand. He has conducted many training courses in the Pacific region, a number ofwhich have included broadcasters. His paper is entitled: "Learning to translate".



8.1 3

As a matter of convenience, Dr. Pallesen uses the expression SOURCE LANGUAGE for the original lan-guage, the one we are translating from. We can use the expression TARGET LANGUAGE for the lan-guage we are translating into.

Very often the SOURCE LANGUAGE will be English and the TARGET LANGUAGE will be the local lan-guage of which you are a native speaker.

The purpose of translation is to communicate a message. A good translation is one which conveys thesame information to the TARGET LANGUAGE as the original did to the SOURCE LANGUAGE audi-ence.

This involves knowing something about the original audience and the author's purpose; it also involvesdefining the TARGET LANGUAGE audience. Translations should be made with a particular audience inmind.

Many people, and unfortunately some translators, think that translation is merely matching words in theSOURCE LANGUAGE with words in the TARGET LANGUAGE, the sort of thing you can do with a diction-ary in one hand, a pencil in the other. This can be done, and has been done, but the results are poor interms of communication.

We should be interested in transferring not the meanings of individual words, but the ideas, the meaning,the message, which words are used to convey.

A great deal of inadequate translation is done. There are four reasons for this:- A lack of concern for the message.- A failure to keep in mind a particular TARGET LANGUAGE audience.- Too great a respect for the SOURCE LANGUAGE and not enough respect for the TARGET LANGUAGE.This results in the translator being tied to the form of the SOURCE LANGUAGE, with the result that histranslation is unnatural, formal or foreign sounding.- Lack of confidence.


WHAT IS GOOD TRANSLATION ?

8.2 1

We must start with the SOURCE LANGUAGE as it is actually written or spoken, that is the form of theSOURCE LANGUAGE. It is a mistake to assume that good translation can be achieved by going straightacross the top from point to point. It cannot be done successfully without some intermediate steps.

Translation involves an analysis of the meaning of the SOURCE LANGUAGE, so that you really under-stand the meaning of the message. Then there is a transfer of that meaning across to the TARGET LAN-GUAGE. And finally there is a restructuring of the transferred meaning into the natural style of the TARGETLANGUAGE.

The message remains unchanged, but it's now in the usual form of the TARGET LANGUAGE.

It is control of these processes of analysis, transfer and restructuring which make a good translator. Thetranslator needs to develop his skill in both languages. It is an ongoing process, but translators particularlyfall into the habit of using limited sets of vocabulary and grammar. The work of some translators is marked



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by what Dr. Pallesen calls 'translationese', a particular style and lack of variety which marks all their work. Itcorresponds to poor journalism.

However, where rapid translation is involved, as in daily broadcast news, the translator or language super-visor should keep a book in which he writes down for ready reference what he has found to be successfuland easily understood ways of expressing words and figures of speech in one language, which are notdirectly translatable from the other language.

The responsibility of radio cannot be underestimated. Radio is the first medium to be affected. Radio is theopinion leader as far as new phrases and words are concerned. Many local newspapers tend to follow thetranslation used by the radio.

Style books for each language at the national and regional levels will be of great help. Words like`self-reliance', `weaker sections', `marginal farmer', `turnkey project', `grass roots', `arms build-up'... whichneed some interpretation, now suffer the most from bad translation. However, adoption of a common stylebook should not mean stereotype translation.



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Good translation is the communication of a message from one language to another. It's the message thatmatters. Unfortunately, for a variety of reasons, the message is often neglected. We must realise that lan-guage is always made up of two basic elements: FORM and MEANING.

The idea or MEANING of `house' is represented in English by the FORM we write h-o-u-s-e. We pro-nounce it in various ways, usually beginning with the consonant h- and ending with the vowel -s. FORMincludes the sounds, the words, the grammar of a language. The purpose of FORM is to convey MEAN-ING.

Notice that the same idea or MEANING is conveyed by different FORMS in different languages, so thatyou hear house in English, maison in French, casa in Spanish, rumah in Bahasa Malaysia, fale in Samoan.The MEANING in every case is the same; only the FORM is different.

With this basic composition of FORM plus MEANING in mind, Dr. Pallesen offers this definition of transla-tion:

TRANSLATION is the transferring of the MEANING conveyed by one FORM in the SOURCE LAN-GUAGE, to the same MEANING conveyed by another FORM in the TARGET LANGUAGE.

The form may change, but the translator tries to keep the MEANING unchanged in the translation process.This is all very obvious, but one might be surprised to find how often the emphasis is put on the form of theSOURCE LANGUAGE, rather than on its meaning.

Respect for the SOURCE LANGUAGE isn't the only reason why translators stick to its form. Another rea-son for following the FORM of English is that the translator is not quite sure what the MEANING of theEnglish is. He thinks it's safer to keep close to the form. But the result may be "rubbish talk". For newstranslators, the best way to transfer the message is to ignore the form of the source language, except forthe information it gives about meaning. The news translator's job is to take the message of the source lan-guage, and to restructure it into grammatical patterns which are natural to the target language.

In news there tends to be too much of FORMAL TRANSLATION. Dr. Pallesen points to four characteris-tics of formal translation:

A) There is a tendency to keep the same parts of speech as the Source Language. This means that nounsare translated by nouns, verbs by verbs, and adjectives by adjectives. An example of this is a sentencefrom the bible. It says, in many English versions, `There is no fear in love'. The word fear and the wordlove are nouns in Greek as well as in the English translation. Yet love and fear are really descriptions of amental attitude and it seems more natural to substitute an adjective and a verb for the nouns fear andlove. Dr. Pallesen suggests this alternative translation: `We do not need to be afraid of someone who lovesus'.

B) There is also a tendency to keep the patterns of the grammar of the Source Language.An example is a sentence like `The dog bit Charlie'. This sentence has an active form in English. It can be

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualTRANSLATION ISSUES UNIT 8.3

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translated in Samoan that way, but it would be more natural to put Charlie at the beginning of the sentence,and simply make the dog the causer of what happened to Charlie, as: `O Sale ua 'ai e le maile' = `Charliewas bitten by a dog".

C) There is a tendency to keep the same sentence length as the Source Language. This problem oftenoccurs when copy from an international newswire (in English) has to be translated. As a matter of fact,there should be a double translation: one from Source Language into the Target Language, and one fromwritten style into radio style. In both instances, communication will gain if you shorten the sentences.

D) Finally, there is a tendency to standardize. This means that a Source Language word is translated bythe same Target Language word wherever it occurs.

Dr. Pallesen cites the famous story told among linguists of a translation made by a computer. The comput-er had been given a set of equivalent words for English and Russian: spirit was represented by a wordmeaning ghost; willing by a word meaning agreeable; flesh by the word meat; and weak by a wordmeaning feeble or tender.

The sentence "The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak" was fed in. It came out in Russian as "The ghost isagreeable, but the meat is tender"!

This is of course an extreme example, but news translators have similar problems almost every day. A Fijiparliamentarian once described an international bank loan for a much needed project as "manna fallingfrom heaven". Unfortunately, "mana" is also a small mud crab readily found and consumed in Fiji. In thetranslation, the loan was-likened to "little crabs falling from heaven".

Another example was about a group of officials, sent overseas to study another country's credit union sys-tem "because credit unions had revolutionized the lives of the people". As a result of the translator's weakunderstanding of the use in this case of "revolutionized" he took it to mean "creating havoc" and so thetranslated item appeared as "credit unions had caused so much trouble in the country that people werebeing sent to put things right."

And finally there is an example of a Tamil translator who translated "minor irrigation" literally into "urine pas-sageway". Urine in colloquial is "small water". "Minor irrigation" was therefore translated into "small waterpassageway".

To know the real meaning of the words is of course essential for a translator. The meanings of words in twolanguages very rarely match exactly.

This means that the translator has to be very much aware of precise distinctions in meaning. This is evenmore so if a word has not only a primary meaning, but may have an extended meaning or an extra mean-ing, in addition to the literal meaning. We won't go into all these details here, but it should be clear thatwords can have many senses, and a good translation must take these different senses into account.Only a competent speaker of a language knows which sense is meant from the context. It's rarely possibleto translate a word in one language by a single word in the other language. The translator's job is that heunderstands - and translates - each word with the sense it had in the original.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualTRANSLATION ISSUES UNIT 8.3

TRANSLATE MEANING RATHER THAN FORM

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The journalist may not always have a say in the choice of equipment he has to work with. However, it isimportant for him to know what various types of equipment can do, and what they cannot do.

Equipment for radio news production must be durable, since it is used regularly by many different people. Itshould be able to withstand a reasonable amount of mishandling, as often happens.

Equipment should of course be designed according to professional standards. It must be built to be main-tained. If something goes wrong, it should be possible to repair it well and at low cost. With consumer typeproducts, this is not always the case.

What follows is a simple guide to basic knowledge of equipment used in modern radio newsgathering. It isa good idea to be fully briefed by your station technicians on the use and performance of all the equipmentyou have at your disposal as a radio journalist: microphones, sound recording machines, portable soundmixers, line transmission equipment, gear for recording telephone messages, wireless microphones andmicrophone transmitters, radio newsgathering vehicles, and wireless news links.

If any particular make of equipment is mentioned, this is by way of information. In every case there areequivalent units available, at least as good, from other manufacturers.

1. MICROPHONES

There are two types - DYNAMIC and CONDENSER microphones.

The DYNAMIC microphone is the stronger and cheaper of the two. It can withstand heat and humidity bet-ter than the condenser type, and is well suited to outdoor use and reporting. Generally it does not give thesame sound quality as the condensers. Voices may not sound at their best with a dynamic microphone.

CONDENSER microphones give better sound quality, but are more expensive. They are very sensitive toheat and humidity, and in tropical climates their use should be restricted to air-conditioned studios. A con-denser microphone needs either a built-in battery (keep a spare one!) or a phantom power supply, built intothe tape recorder or mixer you are using with it. Condenser microphones are sensitive to handling,pops and breathing noises. Some types have built-in protection against this. Using a wind-shield willremove pops in any case. For news production, condenser microphones are ideal studio microphones.

Microphones, whether dynamic or condenser, can either be DIRECTIONAL or OMNIDIRECTIONAL.The OMNIDIRECTIONAL microphone picks up sounds coming from any direction, with equal sensitivity.The DIRECTIONAL microphone has a main direction of sensitivity, and should always be pointed to thesound source. This type of microphone helps to reduce sound reverberation inside the studio or back-ground noises.

Every directional microphone will have a `proximity' effect: if you talk close to it (5-20 cm), your voice willbe `coloured'. The low tones in your voice will get boosted. This is not necessarily bad: it gives a voice awarmer and `closer' blend; you may like it. If you like your voice cool, you can however eliminate thiseffect.

Here’s the News : A Radio News ManualEQUIPMENT FOR RADIO NEWS PRODUCTION 9.1

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Many directional microphones have an M/S-switch. In the S-position (S stands for `speech') the proximityeffect is cancelled. The S-position should only be used if you want to eliminate the effect, and if you arereally speaking close. In the M-position (M for `music'), the frequency response is flat. This position is usedif you are speaking from far away, or if you speak close and you want the `close' effect.

Contact Noise

Contact noise (some kind of rumble) is caused by touching or handling a microphone. This is mainlybecause the cable connector will tug at the microphone itself. There are two remedies: holding the micro-phone cable in a loop in your hand (very effective) and using the very low tone cut-off filter - for tonesbelow 80 or 100 Hz - that may be built into the microphone.

Most condenser microphones cannot be hand-held, and, even when used with a stand, they should be pro-tected against shock or vibration.

Reverberation and background noise

There are two basic rules for obtaining clear `dry' voice recordings (if sound reverberation from the walls ofa room makes the voice `wet', and less easily understood) and to decrease background noises (whenrecording outside).

Rule 1: Use a directional microphone, instead of an omnidirectional microphone. The voice level willremain the same, but the amount of reverberated sound or background noise will decrease. Reverberationand surrounding noise come from all directions, not just from the sensitive direction of the microphone.

Rule 2: Get closer to the speaker. Direct sound from his voice will increase, while the reverberated soundor background noise remains the same. You will, in both cases, get a clearer voice. Should you get pops,from going too close, then try this: speak over the microphone, not into it!

Microphone Types

Lavaliere microphones are dynamic microphones, built specifically to be hung around the neck or attachedto clothing. A Lavaliere microphone that is presently in wide use is the AKG D109.

Some other microphones suitable for reporters are the Beyer SM 69, and the AKG D105, both of which aredynamic. The AKG CMS with CK22 capsule is an omnidirectional condenser microphone, designed forclose speaking and outside use.

Lip microphones are designed for close speaking as well. They are used with advantage in situations withvery much surrounding noise, for instance sports fields, public meetings


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2. SOUND RECORDING MACHINES

Cassette recorders

Cassettes are plastic cases with a length of narrow recording tape, ready for loading into a cassetterecorder. Should you use cassettes, the standard 'Low-Noise' C-60 type is to be preferred. C-120 ('Long-Play') cassettes tend to turn tape into spaghetti, inside your cassette recorder.

Cassette recorders for reportage work are cheap and handy. There are major problems, however, with reli-ability and sound quality (tape hiss). Cassette recorders are vulnerable to wear and tear. In humid climates,cassettes easily give `screaming' on play-back, which is caused by mechanical imperfections and by tapefriction.

Use of automatic level control is sometimes necessary to avoid excessive tape hiss, but it should not reallybe used in professional recording.

One professional cassette recorder is the Sony TC-D5PRO. For editing, cassettes are dubbed on 1/4-inchtape.

Reel to reel tape recorders

Tape recorders use 1/4-inch tape on open reels. For news, single-track machines are recommended.Operating speeds are 9.5 cm/s or 19 cm/s (which is recommended for easy splicing and good sound quali-ty).

Tape recorders are reliable and rugged. Some of the recorders commonly used for reportage are those ofthe Uher Report series, the Stellavox and the Nagra 4.

Cartridge machines

Cartridges are plastic cases containing endless loops of 1/4-inch tape on a single reel. In a cartridgemachine, the tape moves across the open end of the case, being drawn from the hub of the reel, and atthe same time winding up on the reel's outside. Only half the width of the tape is recorded with the soundsignal. The other half is recorded independently with a brief pulse or `pip', automatically applied to the tapewhen the sound recording is begun. The machines will `hear' their own pip when the tape loop has beencompletely through to where it began, and will then stop immediately. The tape is thus `cued up', ready toplay again at the correct point. Cartridges contain pre-determined lengths of tape, designed to run for acertain length of time, and are chosen to match the duration of the material they contain.

Tape and tape standardization

It is recommended that your organization standardize the type of tape it uses and align all recorders forthat tape. Far too many broadcasting systems in the region use various long-play, non-professional tapeson professional machines - a combination which does not give good value for money.


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Roughly, modern tapes of all makes fall into two categories: consumer type (but often labeled as `profes-sional') semi-matt backed long-play tapes and professional matt backed tapes such as BASF SPR50LH,Agfa PEM468, Ampex 406 or Scotch 206. Many Asian and Pacific organizations use various types of con-sumer-type long-play tape.

Every tape recorder should operate with record bias and magnetization level adjusted (internally) for oneparticular make of tape. If you record on just any commercial tape on a recorder that is factoryadjusted for one make of professional tape, you lose most advantages of a professional taperecorder. Your technician can adjust the recorder for the tape you are using. The investment in a profes-sional recorder justifies the use of just one make of good professional tape; if not, you should use semi-professional recorders and consumer-type longplay tape for better economy.

Every tape is recorded with either IEC or NAB equalization. These are two different standards for an elec-tronic procedure to reduce tape hiss. The NAB standard is more widely used throughout the world.Broadcasting organizations, however, tend to favour IEC (also called CCIR). The confusion is unfortunate.A broadcasting organization should decide on a single standard. A tape should be played back accord-ing to the same standard as used when it was recorded. Otherwise sound colouration will occur. Sometape recorders can play back according to both standards: there is an IEC/NAB switch. It should then beknown to which standard the recording was made.

Level control

Professional equipment is designed to handle sound signals at a standard level. Meters are usually builtinto the recording equipment, so the user can read the level of the sound being fed into the equipment.Level controls allow you to adjust the level of the sound signal you are recording to the standard magneti-zation level on the tape. The meters are either VU-meters (Volume Unit meters) or PPM-meters (PeakProgram Meters). Competent use of the controls ensures good sound quality.

VU-meters have a scale marked from - 30 dB, over 0 dB, to + 3 dB. The part from 0 to + 3 dB is markedin red. You can also recognize a VU-meter from the inscription `VU', or by the relatively slow meter move-ments. For speech, you should adjust the meter so that the peak readings do not go over 0 dB. Asthe needle movements are not very consistent, it is safe to adjust for peaks going no higher than - 3dB. Better set the level a little too low, than too high.

PPM-meters have a scale marked from - 60 dB, over 0 dB, to + 10 dB, or alternatively a numbered scalefrom 1 to 7. With a PPM-meter, the needle moves very fast when going up, and slowly (say within a fewseconds) when going down. The needle gives consistent peak readings. It should be possible to adjustexactly for peak readings of 0 dB, or 6 on the numbered scale.

You have to re-adjust whenever a new position of the speaker, a changing distance to the microphone, orchanges of mean loudness give you different peak readings.

If you set the recording sound level too low, you will get too much tape hiss when playing back: the soundon tape is `drowned' in tape hiss. If it is set too high, your recording will be distorted: the sound will be`damaged'.


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Automatic level control normally should not be used: you will hear excessive background noise during soft-spoken or silent parts of a speech recording, since the recorder cannot know what part of a speech ismeant to be soft or loud, and will continuously readjust the sound recording level. If the part is soft-spoken,background noise will be amplified together with the soft sound: you will hear the noise clearly.

3. PORTABLE SOUND MIXERS

Sound mixers or consoles are fairly complex pieces of equipment. They are normally operated by a techni-cian. Two types are used in mobile radio newsgathering: commentator units and small multichannel mixers.

A commentator unit contains all necessary equipment to broadcast an interview or news comment liveover a one- or two-way link. It is like a very small studio in a suitcase.

A typical example is the Studer 069. It provides three inputs (microphones or telephone lines) and two out-puts. There are facilities for command communication, microphone mixing and talkback. It is operated by atechnician or the commentator.

Small multichannel sound mixers are used to record on-the-spot. They may be useful for more complexnews recordings. They are normally conceived to work with a portable recorder, but with some extra gear,live work over lines can be accommodated.

A typical unit would have 4 to 8 switchable (microphone/line) input channels, two output groups with VU- orPPM-meters, two line-level auxiliary input channels, a line-up tone generator, headphone outputs for moni-toring and talkback features. Widely used are, for example, the Audix MT-500 and SAM 82 mixers.

4. SOUND TRANSMISSION OVER LINES

Permanent lines are arranged to conduct sound signals to and from studios, control rooms, transmittersetc. They are normally hired on a long-term basis from the telecommunications agency. These are wide-band lines: they are especially set up and equalized to handle the full technical range of frequencies.

The narrowband line has a more restricted frequency response, although it may be better than ordinarydialled telephone lines. It is used to feed urgent sound material to and from the studio. These lines arerented in advance for special purposes from the telecommunications agency. Some broadcasting organiza-tions have lines permanently arranged or available at short notice to points of special interest. The lines aredirect lines, i.e. they do not pass through automatic telephone exchanges.

You may encounter the terms 'two-wire line' or 'four-wire line', sometimes 'one-pair line' and 'two-pair line'; itreally means the same. In broadcasting work, we use two wires (or one pair) to send a signal in one direc-tion only. (With a telephone conversation, normally two wires, i.e. a single pair, is used for transmission inboth directions.)


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You could be asked whether you want a two-wire line or a four-wire line; what you are really being askedis: `Do you want to send. a signal both way? Depending on what you want to do, you may need a one way`pair' or a two-way pair of `pairs'! If you want, for instance, a programme link and a return link for cue pur-poses, you should ask for two pairs, i.e. four wires.

5. TELEPHONE RECORDINGS

With dialled telephone lines, you will always be plagued with insufficient sound quality, clicks, pops, ringingtones and cross-talk from other conversations. If on dialling first, the line is too bad, hang up and dial again- hoping for a better line!

Reports can either be spoken directly into the telephone mouthpiece, or else they can be recorded before-hand. If you send recorded messages, you will need an appropriate cable to connect your recorder to thetelephone mouthpiece. Many telecommunications authorities forbid any tampering with equipment, so itsadvisable that this be checked carefully beforehand. There are some adapters which allow playback ofrecorded messages without any tampering with the telephone.

Some equipment was recently introduced in order to improve sound transmission quality over telephonelines. (Rood's portable BAX Reporter System 112, Rood's Extended Bandwidth System, the Comrex LineExtender). Do not expect wonders, however. Only by using two telephone lines at the same time or byreplaying recorded material at half speed can you really get very significant improvements.

Broadcasting Live Telephone Conversations

Live conversations, dialled and then broadcast from a studio, introduce a new problem. In order to connecta studio, which has a news announcer live on air, to the telephone network, one needs a two-to four-wireadapter bridge. The telephone conversation is on two wires, but the studio side uses two pairs (four wires):one pair for the incoming signal from the correspondent, and one for outgoing signal, which comes via themixer from a studio microphone. In- and outgoing signal will be mixed in the studio into a programme.

Technical considerations require that the adapter bridge be adjusted carefully to the characteristics of thetelephone line. But these are unknown, until the line is dialled! Studer makes an automatic two-to four-wireadapter bridge for this purpose.

6. WIRELESS MICROPHONES AND MICROPHONE TRANSMITTERS

Wireless microphones are microphones with a small, low power transmitter built in. A complete set-upincludes a matching receiver. The set can link a reporter to a newsgathering car. A quality system shouldcarry a sound signal over a distance of a few hundred meters. Many wireless microphones are built for stu-dio conditions. They may perform well only when there is a line-of-sight path from the transmitter to thereceiver.

Wireless Microphone Transmitters: For newsgathering, where transmission outdoors, often over longerdistances, is required, it may be advisable to use a separate transmitting unit, i.e. not built into the micro-


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phone itself. Transmission power will then. be higher. Apart from the programme link, there may be needfor a return link. This enables cues and commands to be given in two directions.

Suitable microphone transmitters are manufactured by Comrex and Sennheiser (the SER series).

7. RADIO NEWSGATHERING VEHICLES

A newsgathering vehicle may simply be a car for getting a reporter with his tape recorder into the field. Itmight be modified to include a two-way radio telephone for assignment purposes. Or it might be a smallmobile recording unit, equipped with a sound mixer, a few recorders, wireless and wired microphones andauxiliary gear. This could fit into a sedan, an estate car, a four-wheel drive vehicle or a small van. If it isforeseen to be used for sudden and unexpected news events, it would be equipped with a wireless link tothe studio. For events that are known beforehand, wire links could be accommodated.

Depending on the application, the following items may be included: air conditioning, acoustic treatment,battery packs for operation without external mains power supply, DC-to-DC or DC-to-AC power inverters,telescopic antenna mast, radio telephone, off-air receiver, cable reels and storage space.

The sound equipment would include a small sound mixer with enough inputs and outputs: flexibilitydemands numerous microphones and tie lines. Tape recorders would be compact. Presumably, portablemachines would be chosen. There would be monitoring, talkback and interpersonal communication facili-ties. For line links, line amplifiers and equalisers are needed. For wireless links, there will be a suitabletransmitter, receiver and antenna.

Intercom deserves special attention. For roving reporters, wireless systems are required. These can besimple walkie-talkie paging systems or more sophisticated ones. Comrex's CTA Cue System is designedspecifically for Radio ENG crews.

Some builders of radio newsgathering vehicles are Audix, Midwest and Standard Telephone and Radio.

8. WIRELESS NEWS LINKS

Wireless Link Cars

Wireless link cars are fitted with a two-way radio telephone for communication with `headquarters', a carradio for receiving the public programmes (for cue purposes, etc.) and with a high quality transmitter, whichrealises a programme link to the studio. Of course, a typical `Radio ENG' vehicle is equipped to performother functions as well, such as mixing, recording and work over line links. `Radio ENG' is a bit of an awk-ward term - it comes from television broadcasting, where 'ENG' means: Electronic News Gathering.


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Link Transmitters

Link transmitters must be capable of continuous operation without breakdown - conventional communica-tion transmitters often work only on intermittent duty. Their sound transmission quality must meet broad-casting requirements, regarding frequency response, noise and distortion.

There is a range of linking transmitters available, ranging from devices designed to be mounted in cars tohand-held devices. The former usually have 15 W transmission power, or higher. The hand-held units have2.5 W - 3 W outputs. The hand-held units can be relayed by a larger unit in a link car. Transmission fre-quency and power levels depend very much on the radio telecommunication regulations in every country.Transmitter/receiver systems for broadcast wireless links can typically offer frequency ranges from 40 Hz to10 khz, with a signal-to-noise ratio of 60 dB. This is more than sufficient for speech.

Moseley, Marti, McMartin and Rohde & Schwarz are manufacturers of wireless link equipment.

Wireless Links in FM Radio Band

An attractive way to realize wireless links is by means of a low power transmitter for FM radio, mounted ina wireless link car, using frequencies in the FM radio band from 87.5 to 108 MHz. Often the Rohde &Schwarz SU-155 transmitter, with an output power of 50 W, is used for this purpose, with a directionalantenna on a telescopic mast. Such a link can be received with any good FM radio receiver, fitted with asuitable directional antenna on a mast. With approximate line-of-sight transmission conditions, an apprecia-ble radius (tens of kilometers) is obtained.


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here’s the news: a radio news manual

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