Bureaucracy and the Public Sector

BureaucracyWhen we say bureacracy, it refers to the entire organization of our government consisting of the different departments, bureaus, divisions, employees, hierarchy of authority designed to dispose or perform large body of work in a routine manner.

OriginBureacracy was coined by Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay, a french economist from the mid 18th century. It came from the old french term:Bureau-a broad cloth used to matle a desk or an agency.Kratos-power, might:mighty with great power; a mighty deed; a work of power; to rule.Bureacracy literaly means rule by officials.

Characteristic of BureaucracyHierarchyIn a Bureaucracy there is a clear and established chain of command. Each member of the bureacracy has a clear description of their positions/roles/jobs in the chain. The power flows from top to bottom and diminishes as it goes lower in the chain, in other word as an individual goes higher up in the ranks he/she gains more power. Those in the higher part of the chain, oversees the work of those in the lower part.

SpecializationEach member of the bureaucracy has a specific job to do. Members are assigned in different departments based on their specialization, this way work can be efficiently and effectively done since members specialize in fields that are appropriate for their works.Division of LaborIn a bureacracy every task is broken down into smaller task, different people work on different parts of the task, this way the job is done with maximum efficiency.RulesBureaucracies implement rules called standard operating procedures. These are clear written instructions for each specialized job and task for all the levels of the hierarchy.

Functions of the bureaucracyThe bureaucracy implements the laws and policies made by elected officials. For example, the administration devised a plan to decrease the amount of traffic in edsa, however this officials do not have the time or specialization to implement this plan, so they pass the task to implement it to the department of the highway patrol group.

Bureaucracy provides the necessary administrative functions (e.g. Conducting examinations, issuing permits and licenses, and collecting fees). Basically the bureacracy handles the paperwork of everyday government.

Bureaucracy regulates various government activities by devising rules for each task in the bureacracy.

BureaucratAn official in the department, bureau or division who is perceived to have the grasp and knowledge of its laws, rules and procedures. In the Philippine context, it is referring to the people in the government services.

Criteria in forming a Bureaucracy1.There must be a department, bureau, or office.2. It is created to perform specific work or goal.3. Individuals are emplyed or hired to attain the goals of efficiency, economy and greater reliability and producing its outputs.

Qualifications to be in a bureaucracyUnder the civil service code (PD no. 807), there are two classes of position in a bureaucracy:a.Career Serviceunder article IV section 5 of PD no.807, Career service is characterized by:1. entrance based on merit and fitness to be determined as far as practicable by competitive examinations, or based on highly technical qualifications2.opportunity for advancement to higher career positions 3. security of tenure.b. Non-Career Serviceunder article IV section 6 of PD no.807, Non Career services is characterized by:1. entrance on bases other than those of the usual tests of merit and fitness utilized for the career service2. tenure which is limited to a period specified by law, or which is coterminous with that of the appointing authority or subject to his pleasure, or which is limited to the duration of a particular project for which purpose employment was made.

Benefits of being a member of a bureaucracy1. Security of tenure for career service2. removal or dismissal is with just cause3. covered by salry standardization of compensation of government officials and employees.4. Opportunity for advancement in higher career levels.

Modern concept of BureacracyThe modern concept of bureaucracy refers to the current state of the bureaucracy and primarily focus on the public sectorthe public service or public administration.Public Sector is identified as any organization that are funded directly or indirectly by public fund. The public sector covers all government employees, armed forces, public school teachers, etc...

Modern Bureaucracy has become a dominant form or organization, however modern bureaucracy is often viewed negatively, ironically due to its inability to produce results with adequate efficiency and its vulnerability to corruption. Due to this modern bureaucracies are often related to negative terms such as red tape.

Red Tape is a an idiom that refers to execessive regulation or strict compliance to formal rules that is often redundant and hinders or prevents action or decision making. Red tape generally includes filling out paperwork, obtaining licenses, having multiple people or committees approve a decision and various low-level rules that make conducting one's affairs slower, more difficult, or both. Red tape can also include "filing and certification requirements, reporting, investigation, inspection and enforcement practices, and procedures.

Seven types of concepts in modern bureaucracyBureaucracy as a rational organizationBureaucracy as organizational inefficiencyBureacracy as a rule by officialsBureaucracy as public administrationBureacracy as administration by officialsBureaucracy as organizationBureaucracy as modern society

Goodnow and Wilsons Public Administration

Woodrow Wilson an american president and Frank Goodnow an american scholar believed that politics(Policy Making) and administration(Enforcement) are different entities tied to the political system. Wilson and Goodnow theorized that to ensure elected officials always run a democratic system, political officials must always control administrative official on the individual and agency level. This way, administrators will never initiate policy and only follow the guidelines and policies laid down by politicians.However due to the emergence of bureacracy, the theoretical base may not apply anymore. Since the implementation of bureaucracy, administrative officials (bureaucrats) can actualy initiate policies while still following guidelines of the politicians. Policy decisions of the administrative officials mainly root from their specialization in their respective fields.

Spoil and Merit SystemSpoil system is a term deriving from the phrase to the victor the spoils. Spoils meant that candidates that suceeded using this system is expected to reward their supporters by giving them government jobs, grants or other special favors. An example of this system is the INC, due to the immense loyalty and numbers of the members, public officials that are backed by the INC can expect that most of the members will support them, however in return the INC expects the officials to hire members of their community that are currently unemployed.Merit System is a system by which governement job, grants, and position are appointed based on their performance. It is characterized based on competitive transparent process of selection and open to all citizens. In a merit system position is a lifetime tenure with removal only through due process and the appointee is insulated from politics.

Weberian Concept of BureaucracyMax Weber, viewed bureaucracy as a unique form of organization found in all aspect of human organization. For Weber bureaucracy in its ideal form was an excellent piece of administrative machinery.Weber pointed out a set of principles that should characterize bureaucratic organizations:1. There is a firmly order hierarchy that ensures that lower offices are supervised by specified higher ones within a chain of command.2. Each office has its own area of expertise, specialization or competence3. Authority is impersonal vested in the rules that govern official business. Decisions are reached by methodically applying rules to particular cases; where privae motives are impertinent.4. People recruited to serve in the bureaucracy on the basis of merits and fitness;5. Bureaucratic rules are strict enough to regulate personel discretions;6. The office in the bureaucracy is considered a public trust.7. Civil servants are salaried employees according to rank.

Theories of Bureaucracy

Liberal or Rational Administrative model The liberal administrative model argued that the weberian bureaucratic frame work assumes that bureaucracy manifests effective, efficient, and predictable social organizations. However those who worked in the weberian framework would argue that it is not predictable or simple since bureaucrats are psycological beings and seldom act in a predictable manner. Bureaucracy like other organizations improvises,informality and entreprenuership in the decision making process are common.The model argues that bureaucracy is far too difficult to control or manage that is why it is often denoted negatively.

Conservative or power bloc modelThis models is socialist in nature. It argues that bureaucracy as an instrument through which bourgeoisie interests are promoted and defends a capitalist system.

New Right or government Oversupply Model This model argues that top bureaucrat officials are primarily motivated by self interest and unless it is managed or checked carefully it will always end in failure.

Organizations of BureaucracyDepartmentRefers to an administrative unit over which a minister exercises control.DivisionSections or bureaus in which the department is divided.Non-Departmental Public BodyQuasi- non governmental organizations (Quango) are detached organizations that combines public funding with operational autonomy thus making them efficient partners for administrative goals.

Civil ServiceCivil service can refer to either branch of governmental service where an individual are employed on the basis of professional merit or the employee in any government agency except military since it is a seperate extension from any national government.Civil Servant is a person in the public sector emplyed for a government department or agnecy.Scope of Civil ServiceAs stated in the article IV section 4 of the PD. No. 807 the civil service embraces every branch, agency,subdivision and instrumentality of the government, including every government-owned or controlled corporations whether performing governmental or proprietary function. Positions under Civil Service Under the article IV section 5 Career service includes:1. Open Career positions for appointment to which prior qualification in an appropriate examination is required; 2. Closed Career positions which are scientific or highly technical in nature; these include the faculty and academic staff of state colleges and universities, and scientific and technical positions in scientific or research institutions which shall establish and maintain their own merit systems; 3. Positions in the Career Executive Service; namely, Undersecretary, Assistant Secretary, Bureau Director, Assistant Bureau Director, Regional Director, Assistant Regional Director, Chief of Department Service and other officers of equivalent rank as may be identified by the Career Executive Service Board, all of whom are appointed by the President; 4. Career officers, other than those in the Career Executive Service, who are appointed by the President, such as the Foreign Service Officers in the Department of Foreign Affairs; 5. Commissioned officers and enlisted men of the Armed Forces which shall maintain a separate merit system; 6. Personnel of government-owned or controlled corporations, whether performing governmental or proprietary functions, who do not fall under the non-career service; and 7. Permanent laborers, whether skilled, semi-skilled, or unskilled.

Under Section 6 article IV of the PD no. 807 Non Career Services includes:1. Elective officials and their personal or confidential staff; 2. Department Heads and other officials of Cabinet rank who hold positions at the pleasure of the President and their personal or confidential staff(s); 3. Chairman and members of commissions and boards with fixed terms of office and their personal or confidential staff; 4. Contractual personnel or those whose employment in the government is in accordance with a special contract to undertake a specific work or job, requiring special or technical skills not available in the employing agency, to be accomplished within a specific period, which in no case shall exceed one year, and performs or accomplishes the specific work or job, under his own responsibility with a minimum of direction and supervision from the hiring agency; and 5. Emergency and seasonal personnel.

Classes of Positions on the Career ServiceArticle 4 section 7 of the PD no. 807 classes of postions are divided into three levels and require examination to be appointed.Level one includes clerical, trades, crafts, and custodial service postions which involves non professional or subprofessional work in a non-supervisory capacity requiring less than four years of collegiate studies.Level two includes professional, technical and scientific positions which requires professional, technical, or scientific work with at least four years collegiate studies.And level 3 covers all positions in the career executive service.

Goals of Civil Service1. To establish a career services.2. Adopt measures to promote morale, efficiency, integrity, responsiveness progressiveness and courtesy in the civil service.3. Strengthen the merit and reward system.4. Integrate all human resource development programs for all level and ranks.5. Institutionalize a management climate conducive to public accountability.6. Submit to the President and the Congress an annual report on its annual personnel programs.7. To establish and promote professionalism and efficiency in public service.

Accountability in Civil ServiceUnder the section one article eleven of the Philippine constitution public officers and employees (e.g. The president, vice president members of the supreme court, members of the constitutional commisions, etc..)must all times be accountable to the people.

OmbudsmanThe ombudsman is a legislative branch lawyer who intervenes on behalf of citizens treated wrongly by the bureaucracy.Section 5 of the article 11 states the creation of the office of the Ombudsman, to be composed of the ombudsman A.K.A Tanodbayan and at least one deputy each for luzon, visayas, and mindanao.Power of the OmbudsmanUnder section 13, article 11 of the Philippine constituions enumerates the power of the ombudsman

(1) Investigate on its own, or on complaint by any person, any act or omission of any public official, employee, office or agency, when such act or omission appears to be illegal, unjust, improper, or inefficient.

(2) Direct, upon complaint or at its own instance, any public official or employee of the Government, or any subdivision, agency or instrumentality thereof, as well as of any government-owned or controlled corporation with original charter, to perform and expedite any act or duty required by law, or to stop, prevent, and correct any abuse or impropriety in the performance of duties.

(3) Direct the officer concerned to take appropriate action against a public official or employee at fault, and recommend his removal, suspension, demotion, fine, censure, or prosecution, and ensure compliance therewith.

(4) Direct the officer concerned, in any appropriate case, and subject to such limitations as may be provided by law, to furnish it with copies of documents relating to contracts or transactions entered into by his office involving the disbursement or use of public funds or properties, and report any irregularity to the Commission on Audit for appropriate action.

(5) Request any government agency for assistance and information necessary in the discharge of its responsibilities, and to examine, if necessary, pertinent records and documents.

(6) Publicize matters covered by its investigation when circumstances so warrant and with due prudence.

(7) Determine the causes of inefficiency, red tape, mismanagement, fraud, and corruption in the Government and make recommendations for their elimination and the observance of high standards of ethics and efficiency.

(8) Promulgate its rules of procedure and exercise such other powers or perform such functions or duties as may be provided by law.