guiding principles rice production in the fraser...

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Guiding Principles for Rice Production in the Fraser Valley Artisan SakeMaker Inc.

Guiding Principles for Rice Production in the Fraser Valley

Artisan SakeMaker Inc.

February, 2013

Introduction

Sake is a traditional Japanese beverage that is produced through the fermentation of rice.

Currently, sake production in BC depends on the import of rice from other countries.

Therefore, to produce 100 percent local sake products, local production of premium-quality

sake rice is required. There is some organic wild rice produced in Canada, but this is a different

class of food product than sake rice. Therefore, production of sake-quality rice varieties in

Canada is a novel endeavor. A need currently exists to address the agricultural and processing

challenges to producing local rice with the quality characteristics required to make a British

Columbian premium sake product. There is a market for sake in BC, Canada and across North

America and there are facilities and expertise for its production in BC, but there is no supply of

local rice.

Local rice production is pertinent to the pressing global need for food security and the national

issue of food sovereignty. Namely, local production of food and beverage products is of

immediate and long-term importance to the sustainability of Canadian agricultural production,

environmentally, socially and economically. Specifically, reducing the food miles attached to

products that are consumed in Canada is primarily of importance to the environment, but it is

also of importance to society as a whole since increased awareness of environmental issues

continues to drive demand for local products. Economically speaking, the ability to efficiently

utilize BC’s limited agricultural land for the production of primary products (that can be

processed into value-added, premium-quality goods) is a vital strategy for maintaining the

competitiveness of Canada’s agricultural industry. As well, during difficult economic times,

Canada’s self-sufficiency in agricultural production and processing capacity helps to maintain a

robust and resilient economy. Agricultural and processing diversity is a key-stone feature of a

healthy economy, which is the basis of national food sovereignty. The most effective strategy

for Canada’s future success is the development of local, value-added, premium-quality products

that efficiently utilize Canada’s agricultural land-base, its integrated processing capacity and

competitive marketing atmosphere.

Preliminary investigations into the viability of local sake rice production in various regions of

British Columbia motivated scientific trials to adapt rice production to the local climate. In

2012, determining field-production techniques that can be used to produce the equivalent of at

least 2,250 lbs of rice per acre of land, while providing adequate grain quality to make

premium-quality sake, was set as the goal. Abbotsford was chosen as a suitable location for the

development of agricultural practices for the efficient production of sake rice (Figure 1).

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Figure 1: The field of rice grown in Abbotsford in 2012 with a paper hawk bird-scare floating in the wind. Photo

taken on September 19, 2012.

Research and Development Conducted in 2012:

1. Germination Trials:

An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of three pre-germination steeping

treatments, three germination growing media and two heating treatments on seedling

germination. Efficient germination of seedlings in the greenhouse is the foundation to cost-

effectively establishing a field of rice through transplanting of small plants.

Steeping is the process of soaking grains before germination. A growing medium is the

substrate in which the grains are germinated. Bottom heating is the use of artificial heat

beneath germinating grains to speed their development.

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2. Methods of field production:

A 1.88 acre field with raised edges and an isle way running north to south was used for both

production of rice in 2012 and field trials to improve production methods. The northernmost

portion of the field was used for these experimental plots, being comprised of an east and west

portion, divided by the raised isle way. Seedlings for use in the field-based trials were produced

by a commercial greenhouse company and taken to greenhouse facilities (Figure 2).

Plots were 1.2 by 1.5 meters with 0.8 m between rows of plots and 0.5 m between plots within

each row (Figure 3). This provided a buffer isle between each plot. For the transplanted plants,

spacing was at 20 cm between rows and 15 cm between plants for a total of six rows of ten

plants (60 plants total). Plots were planted by hand on May 11 and 12 into approximately one

inch of standing water in the completely flooded field. Four replications of each combination of

the following experimental variables were used:

a. Three different varieties: Varieties “G”, “N” and “S”.

b. Two irrigation regimes: Irrigation water was supplied from a nearby creek,

being pumped through pipes to the field and delivered through PVC pipes

with holes in the sides.

i. Flooded: Constant high water levels were used to provide flood

irrigation throughout the growing season.

ii. Dry-land: After the establishment period of six weeks, water levels

were permitted to drop until the point of soil cracking before flush

irrigation was used to bring water levels to the same level as for the

flooded plots. Subsequently, water levels were permitted to recede

again until the cracking point before irrigating again.

c. Three fertilizer treatments:

i. Control: Before field establishment, a base rate of fertilizer with a

basic analysis of 104 lbs of nitrogen per acre, 86 lbs of phosphorus

and 24 of potassium and sulfur.

ii. 10 lbs additional nitrogen: A 24.4-14-16 granular fertilizer was

applied to plots at a rate of 10 lbs of nitrogen per acre. These

applications were made on July 25.

iii. 20 lbs additional nitrogen: As above, a rate of 20 lbs of nitrogen per

acre was applied on July 25.

d. Two establishment methods:

i. Seeding: Seeds of each variety were pre-germinated using a 250C

steeping bath for 36 hours prior to the planting date. Approximately

100 seeds were scattered into the water within the bounds of the

plot.

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ii. Transplanted: By hand, one or two rice plants were transplanted

from the trays of plants into the mud at the appropriate spacing using

a wooden lattice as a spacing guide.

e. Row-cover experiment:

i. Without: Plots were left to the open air.

ii. With: A sheet of white Remay fabric row-cover was placed over the

transplanted seedlings directly after planting, being tucked into the

mud around the edges of the plots using wooden stakes. This fabric

was left in place for six weeks during the establishment period of the

plants.

Figure 2 (left): Trays of seedlings as they acclimate to external conditions in field water. Figure 3 (right): Recently

transplanted plots of rice seedlings with marker flags on the edges of each plot. Photos taken on May 12, 2012.

Reflective tape was used to crisscross the field for bird protection. Paper hawks, owl figurines

and several different types of reflective scare device were used to protect the field (Figure 4).

Toward the end of the season, an auditory bird distress call device was installed in the field to

protect the ripening grain.

After planting, water levels were raised to two inches and slowly increased as the plants

established and continued to grow until June 28 (Figure 5). At this point, the row-cover

treatments were removed and differential irrigation treatments were commenced. Flood

irrigation required constant high levels of water while dry-land irrigation cycled between

completely dry soil and flushes of irrigation (Figures 6 and 7).

Fields were weeded by hand in July, August and September. Hand sickles were used to cut the

base of weeds within plots, which permitted the rice plants to out-compete and grow

vigorously. Weeds around the edges of the field were controlled via gas weed eater.

Pest and disease issues, as well as general field conditions, were monitored periodically, with

disease samples being submitted for identification to the BC Ministry of Agriculture

laboratories. Water tests were conducted at a commercial laboratory in August and compared

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to values taken before the season. The pH, electrical conductivity, temperature and depth of

water was measured weekly from July 25 to September 25.

Harvest of the research plots was conducted with the help of a crew of university students from

the University of the Fraser Valley (Figures 8 and 9). Using sickle knives, the plants from each

plot was harvested, placed in plastic bags, labeled and transported to polyhouse facilities. For

the main production field, a machine harvester was used to cut and tie the sheaves of rice

(Figure 10).

Each plot of rice plants was kept separate and arranged on benches in a polyhouse. Air drying

was conducted for two weeks before threshing. A hand-threshing machine was used to remove

the grain from the stalks of rice for each plot. The total yield of each plot was measured in

grams and then a 250 mL sample of rice from each plot was used for quality analysis. Using a

small grain polishing mill (Figure 11), small subsamples of rice from each plot were prepared for

quality rating (Figure 12). Each sample was subjectively scored for four quality parameters:

size, greenness, colour and cracking/defects. The combined scores for these parameters were

added to produce a range of relative scores for each plot.

Figure 4 (left): An owl figurine bird-scare device in the rice field as the harvest approached. Photo taken on

September 19, 2012. Figure 5 (right): Flood irrigation of a plot of transplanted rice as plants become fully

established. Photo taken on June 28, 2012.

Figure 6: Dry-land irrigation with soil at the point of cracking. Photo taken on August 15, 2012.

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Figure 7: Dry-land irrigation after application of flush irrigation. Photo taken on August 15, 2012.

Figure 8 (left): Plots of rice on the day of harvest. Figure 9 (right): Sheaves of rice after being harvested by hand.

Photos taken on October 6, 2012.

Figure 10: Mechanical harvesting of the main production field of rice. Photo taken on October 6, 2012.

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Figure 11 (left): Grain polishing mill used for rice quality analysis. Figure 12 (right): Part of a rice sample used for

quality rating. Photos taken on November 10, 2012.

Cautionary Note:

All results and recommendations are based on initial research trials in a novel area of study.

Each response to treatments must be understood as the observation of a single year of trials, at

a single location and using a relatively basic set of experimental parameters on just three

varieties of rice. These recommendations are meant as guidelines to direct future research and

production efforts and are not meant as decisive or broadly applicable experimental findings.

No guarantee of grain yield or quality is given since the results of each year of production will

depend on the prevailing weather conditions, physical conditions of the field and the actual

timings and methods of field management. In 2012, weather conditions were unusually cool

and wet until early July and unusually warm and dry into October. Both may have helped with

the success that was achieved in this one year.

Guidelines for Rice Production Resulting from Research:

1. Germination trials:

For fast germination of the majority of rice grains, steeping treatment of 36 hours at 250C and

seeding into a 75:25 peat to perlite growing medium with bottom heat should be applied.

2. Methods of field production:

The seeding method completely failed in the 2012 growing season. In previous years, seeding

had been successful as an establishment method. For climatic and/or field condition reasons,

the seeded plots did not establish well in this year`s trials, resulting in low numbers of

shortened plants with little grain yield and relatively poor grain quality. On the other hand,

transplanting worked very well as an establishment method. Transplanting is recommended

for establishment of all varieties of rice.

All three varieties have the potential to produce sufficient yield to be of use in the Fraser Valley,

yielding the equivalent of 2,773 (variety G), 3,949 (variety N) and 2,159 (variety S) lbs of grain

per acre when transplanted. If maximal yield are the goal, variety N is recommended for full-

scale field production.

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The results for different combinations of fertilizer and irrigation treatments varied for the

different varieties. For production of variety G, dry-land irrigation with a treatment of 20 lbs

of additional N (per acre equivalent) is recommended though flood irrigation with the control

or 10 lbs of additional N may be more feasible from a production standpoint. For production

of variety N, flood irrigation with a treatment of 20 lbs of additional N may be used to achieve

the highest yields. For production of variety S, flood irrigation with the control or a

treatment of 10 lbs of additional N may be used to achieve the highest yields.

The row-cover treatment decreased yields for all combinations of varieties and irrigation

methods. Therefore, the row-cover treatment is not recommended for the Fraser Valley as it

tended to smother the plants under the heavy rain conditions during the establishment

period.

3. Field Management and Monitoring:

a. Algae:

Once temperatures began to rise in mid-June, algal blooms became evident (Figure 13 and 14).

Several species of algae grew quickly in the relatively stagnant water of the rice field where the

water temperature was warm and nutrients were in abundance. Despite the presence of these

algal species throughout the growing season, the rice plants did not appear impeded. Tillering

had commenced before the algal populations began to increase and so it is suspected that the

plants were able to outcompete. Without registered algicides in Canada, no control methods

were recommended.

With the onset of differential irrigation treatments, algae in the west (dry-land) section of the

field were highly reduced as the drying cycle resulted in algal death. The algae persisted in the

flooded section of the field. Since yields in the flooded plots were greater than under the dry-

land irrigation, the algae could not have had a very strong impact on the growth of the rice.

This cannot be said for certain since a comparison of flood irrigated plants with and without

algae was not made.

It is recommended that investigation into the actual need for control methods be made. If

future results indicate a negative effect of algae then control methods should be pursued, but

these results provide no such indication.

Figure 13 (left): Algae growing in the water around the base of transplanted seedlings at the end of the

establishment period. Photo taken on June 28, 2012. Figure 14 (right): Close-up shot of two species of algae

growing near the end of the season. Photo taken on September 14, 2012.

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b. Weeds:

During the establishment period, several weed species took advantage of high water levels

when the rice plots were too recently established to safely weed without disturbing their

establishing root systems. The majority of these weeds were aquatic sedge and grass species.

Once water levels were permitted to temporarily recede, weeding with a hand sickle was highly

effective in removing the majority of the shoot growth of these weeds. This set the weeds back

enough to permit the rice to continue to outcompete. Complete removal of these weeds from

the ground usually proved too difficult due because the field was composed of hardened mud

with very little structure due to standing water conditions during establishment. A specialized

hand-propelled weeding implement (Figure 15) is also available for weeding large sections of

fields, plowing weeds into the mud. This method was not compared for efficiency with hand

weeding using the sickle, but it is clearly intended for managing weeds of a smaller size than

can be managed by sickle.

It is recommended that weeding be avoided during the establishment period and that the

hand-propelled weeding implement be used between rows if weeds are not large and a hand

sickle be used if weeds are large when conditions permit field operations.

Figure 15: Hand-propelled weeding implement for turning smaller weeds into the mud between rice rows. Photo

taken on August 15, 2012.

c. Insects:

Observations of insect pests were made throughout the season. Among other classes, fruit

flies, fungus gnats, mosquitoes and aphids were observed (Figures 16 and 17). The first three

classes were all expected due to the relatively stagnant water and a nearby milk protein

transfer facility. Their effect was not deemed detrimental to the development of the rice crop.

Initial concern over the presence of aphids was later deemed unnecessary as the number of

infestations did not increase to more than 5 or 10 percent of the plants; no significant effects of

the plants’ ability to grow and develop were noticed; and the levels did not enter an

exponential phase, perhaps due to preferred hosts in the developing corn field to the east or

the presence of abundant biological controls in the brush and grasslands to the north. In fact, it

was observed that the aphids preferred some of the weeds species in the perimeter of the field,

such as broad-leaved plantain.

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Though some repellant spray products (e.g., garlic extract) are available, no effective control

chemical is registered on rice in Canada. Therefore, these observations provide no indication

of the need for registration of chemical sprays at this time. Rather, continued field

observation over multiple years will provide a better understanding of the future needs for

integrated pest management in rice.

Figure 16: Insect larvae growing in the stagnant, warm and nitrified waters of the rice plots. Photo taken on

September 14, 2012. Figure 17: Aphids living on a broad-leaved plantain weed at the edge of the field. Photo

taken on September 26, 2012.

d. Birds:

In the experimental plots, reflective tape effectively discouraged ducks and geese from eating

the young rice plants as they established. In the main production field, with more area to

protect, the application of a variety of visual deterrents to birds were effective during the

establishment period.

Later on, during grain development, large groups of starlings were seen entering the fields since

the long-standing visual control methods had lost their novel effect. Since starlings are

primarily insectivores, only feeding on grain when their preferred food is not present, their

presence was not a great concern. They were most likely feeding on the abundant insects

growing in the water and on the plants. Only a small amount of bird damage was estimated

from the plots of rice in this research trial. The producer did purchase an auditory bird distress

call machine, which helped to keep some birds out of the field, but was not entirely effective.

Control of birds should be maintained to avoid attracting species that will readily switch to

rice as a food supply and to reduce plant losses during the establishment phase. Visual

controls using reflective tape and predatory bird figurines as well as auditory bird distress call

machines should be deployed at strategic times during the season.

e. Diseases:

Three distinct sets of disease symptoms of concern were noted in the field. Again, since no

chemical control methods are registered for rice in Canada, these observations were made

merely to direct future efforts in integrated pest management.

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The first type of symptom (Figures 18 and 19) was a premature bolting with elongated stems

and whitish panicles. The panicles are empty and chlorotic while the entire plant tends to fall

over and die. The BC Ministry of Agriculture’s plant pathology lab did not detect this fungus, but

the presence of a bacterial infection in the panicle was detected. This bacteria was cultured

and identified as Pseudomonas fluorescens, which is not a disease causing organism but a

common epiphyte of plant surfaces. Further incubation revealed the presence of Alternaria sp.

and Cladosporium sp., the former of which is known to cause leaf spot in rice (see below). The

cause of the bolting was not confirmed by these examinations.

Another sample of plants with these same symptoms (Figure 20) was submitted with the

inclusion of a sample of the base of the plant. Fungal growth, appearing to spread by spores

was observed at the base of the plant. The plant pathology lab used polymerase chain reaction

to determine the presence of Fusarium proliferatum, which is known to cause seedling blight

and root rot in rice. The destruction of the root system is potentially the cause of the above

ground stem elongation and chlorotic/empty panicles.

No recommendation for control is indicated, but future evaluation of the severity of this

disease should be made to determine if future control methods are required.

Figure 18 (left): Disease symptom of bolting of stems. Figure 19 (centre): Disease symptom of empty panicles

associated with bolting. Figure 20 (right): Disease symptom of fungal growth around the base of the plant

associated with bolting and chlorotic panicles. Photos taken on August 15, 2012.

The second type of symptom was a rust-like blotching and black powdery spots on the leaf

blades with leaf tip burn at the ends (Figures 21 and 22). The plant pathology lab incubated

and identified three leaf spot fungi: Ascochyta ap., Alternaria sp. and Cercosproa sp. The

growth of black powdery spots was determined to be due to Epicoccum sp. These symptoms

did not seem to affect the plant’s ability to produce grain.

Foreseeably, such fungal infections could increase in severity over multiple years of rice

production. If it were to become an agronomically important issue, investigation into

fungicides for future registration would be recommended.

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Figure 40 (left): Rust-like blotching on leaf. Figure 41 (right): Leaf tip burn with small black powdery

spots. Photos taken on August 9, 2012.

The third type of symptom (Figures 23, 24 and 25) was browning/blackening of florets and

subsequent signs of necrosis. The plant pathology lab detected bacterial infection, but only

found Pseudomonas fluorescens, which is not a plant parasite. Physical damage, due to low

temperature or excessive rainfall or humidity, may have resulted in proliferation of

opportunistic plant parasites. Upon evaluation of grain quality, it was found that only the most

severely darkened husks resulted in damage to the actual grain within. Therefore, this

darkening, though prevalent, may not be agronomically important.

As for the second set of symptoms, future work should focus on evaluation of the actual

agronomic impact of these disease symptoms and isolation of its root causes. Only then

should control methods be pursued.

Figure 42 (left): A healthy rice panicle. Figure 43 (centre): A rice panicle with browning of florets. Figure 44

(right): A symptomatic sample submitted to the plant pathology lab. Photos taken on August 9, 2012.

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Acknowledgements:

Funding for this project has been provided by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada through the

Canadian Agricultural Adaptation Program (CAAP). In British Columbia, this program is

delivered by the Investment Agriculture Foundation of BC.

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) is committed to working with industry partners.

Opinions expressed in this document are those of Artisan SakeMaker Inc. and not necessarily

those of AAFC.

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