grammar book ee
TRANSCRIPT
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Unit 1 Present The verb ‘to be’ and contractions
The verb ‘to have’ Present Simple
The negative form – verb ‘to be’, Present
...Simple
Tags- short answers – verb ‘to be’, Present
...Simple
The Present Simple vs. Present Continuous
The Present Continuous
The Affirmative Imperative
The Negative Imperative
Verbs without a continuous form
Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions
‘Always’ + Present Continuous
Unit 2 Present Perfect and Past Construction and use of the Preterit* (Past
...Simple)
Regular and Irregular Verbs
The Present Perfect
Differences between Present Perfect and
...Preterit* (Past Simple)
The Present Perfect Continuous
‘For’ /‘Since’ / ‘Ago’
'Ever' / 'Never'
Expressions with the Present Perfect
The Preterit Continuous* (Past
...Continuous)
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
‘Used To’
Unit 3 Future The Near Future be + -ing* (Present
...Continuous for Future)
The Future – ‘Will’
Future Continuous – ‘Will be doing’
The Future – ‘Will’ + ‘To be going to’
Future Perfect – ‘Will have done’
The Future with ‘be’ + Infinitive
Table of contents
*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.
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Unit 4 Modals ‘Can’ – ability and likelihood
‘Can’ – perception and knowledge
‘Can’, ‘could’, ‘to be able to’
‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: advice
‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: probability
‘Must’ and ‘have to’
Using ‘must’ for obligation
Strong probability using ‘must’
Absence of necessity
‘May’ and ‘Might’
‘Shall’
‘Would like’: expressing wishes
Modal Auxiliaries
Near certainty in the past:
...‘must have/ can’t have’
Unit 5 Questions Questions without interrogative words
Interrogative Words
‘How long...’
Past Interrogatives
Question Tags
‘Which’ / ‘What’
‘How long…..(for)’/ ‘Since when'
Short Questions
Unit 6 Articles and Nouns Definite and Indefinite Articles
The Plural
Names of Countries: Capitals
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Exclamations with ‘what a’
Construction of Compound Nouns
The use and omission of ‘the’
Definite articles with geographical names
Nouns without singular forms
Negation of the indefinite article
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Unit 7 Pronouns and Determiners Subject Pronouns
Object Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
‘No’ / ’None’
The Possessive
More uses of the Possessive
The Indefinite Possessive
Use of Pronoun ‘one’
Demonstrative Pronouns
‘Here’/ ‘There’
‘Some’ and ‘Any’
‘How much’ / ‘How many’
‘As much as’ / ‘As many as’
‘Some’ / ‘Any’: singular or plural?
‘Either……or’
‘Either……. or’ / ‘Neither …….nor’
‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’
‘Everybody’ / ‘Somebody’ / ‘Nobody’
‘Each other’ / ‘One another’
Different meanings of ‘all’
‘A little’ / ‘A bit’
Use of ‘both’
Unit 8 Relative Clauses and Dependent Clauses Relative Pronouns and Adverbs
‘That’ and Dependent Clauses
When ‘that’ may be left out
‘To hope’ + Dependent Clause
Unit 9 Adjectives and Adverbs Possessive Adjectives
‘Too’ / ‘Too Much’
Placement of ‘Enough’
‘Also’ / ‘As well’ / ‘Too’
Adverbs of Time / Frequency
The Adverb ‘that’
‘Yet’ / ‘Not yet’
‘Still’ / ‘Yet’
Compound Adjectives
Adjectives ending in –ing and –ed
Adjectives ending in –ing
The Past Participle as an adjective
Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs and Adjectives
Uses of ‘so’
The placement of ‘even’
‘Even though’ / ‘Even if’
‘Quite’ / ‘Quite a few’
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Unit 10 Comparatives and Superlatives Comparing equals using ‘as…..as’
Regular and Irregular Comparatives
Regular and Irregular Superlatives
‘The more . . . the more’
A use of the comparative
Unit 11 Prepositions Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of Place
Final Prepositions
Verbs + prepositions
Unit 12 Conjunctions Conjunctions
Use of ‘so’ to express a goal
‘So that’ + ‘may’ or ‘can’
Similarity: ‘like’ and ‘as’
Unit 13 Gerunds and Infinitives Gerunds and Infinitives
Use of ‘be used to’
Use of ‘get used to’
Verbs: Reactions and Preferences
Verb + Infinitive Clause
Verbs expressing a wish to act
Expressions followed by the gerund
Verbs introducing a second action
Unit 14 Conditionals Present Conditional* and Sequence
...of Tenses with ‘if’* (Zero, First, Second)
The Perfect Conditional* (Third Conditional)
The Perfect Conditional using ‘should’
Unit 15 Subjunctive and Wishes Present Subjunctive
Past Subjunctive
Wishes and Regrets
Unit 16 Passive The Passive Voice
The Impersonal Structure
Unit 17 Reported speech The Sequence of Tenses* (Reported
...Speech)
*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.
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Unit 20 Other ‘There is/are’
Time
‘Have’ or ‘make’ without ‘to’
‘To let’
‘When’ / ‘while’ + Present
‘How’ + Adjective or Adverb
‘Had better’ / ‘Would rather’
Expressions of Preference
Words ending in ‘ever’
‘Whether’
Emphatic 'do’
Verbs expressing impressions
...and feelings
‘I am told’
Unit 18 Phrasal Verbs The Main Postpositions* (Common phrasal
...verbs)
Phrasal Verbs
Unit 19 Expressions ‘To get’ + Adjective
‘To look forward to’
‘Kind of’ followed by a noun
‘To be likely’
‘To be left’ / ‘To have left’
‘For the sake of’
Expressions with ‘to have’
Baseball Expressions
‘To be at stake’
Expressions of Increase
*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.
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1Present The verb ‘to be’ and contractionsThe verb ‘to be’ expresses existence, action, or occurrence.Conjugation of ‘to be’ Contraction of ‘to be’ Use + examples ( as a stative verb)I am I’m I am a student.You are You’re I’m a student. He /She /It is He’s / She’s / It’s We are We’re He is my brother.They are They’re He’s my brother.
Negative ‘to be’ Negative contraction ‘to be’ Question I am not I’m not Am I?You are not You’re not or You aren’tHe /She /It is not He’s / She’s / It’s not or He / She / It isn’t Is he/ she/ it?We are not We’re not or We aren’t Are we / you / they?They are not They’re not or They aren’t
The verb ‘to have’The verb ‘to have’ is used to express possession, ownership, qualities or characteristics.The verb ‘to have’ Negative ‘to have’ Question I I don’t have Do + I + have…?You You don’t have youHe /She / It He/ She/ It doesn’t have weWe We don’t have theyThey They don’t have Does + he + have? she it
Examples Examples ExamplesI have 2 brothers. I don’t have 2 brothers. Do you have 2 brothers?He has 2 brothers. He doesn’t have 2 brothers. Does he have 2 brothers?
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Present simple affirmative Present simple negative Present simple questionI work I don’t work Do + I + work…? You work You don’t work youHe /She / It works He / She /It doesn’t work weWe work We don’t work theyThey work They don’t work Does + he + work? she it
Examples Examples ExamplesI work everyday. I don’t work everyday. Do you work everyday?He works everyday. He doesn’t work everyday. Does he work everyday?
Third person (He / She / It) You must always add an –s to the verb.SpellingVerbs ending in: –s / –sh / –ch pass : passes finish : finishes add –es Verbs ending in : –y study : studies try : tries add –iesExcept when the verb is preceded by a vowel. play : playsAlso do : does go : goes
We use the present simple for:◌ things that are true in general◌ things that happen sometimes or all the time◌ to describe regular actions, events or habits
Present Simple
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The Negative FormThe negative form of the verb to be expresses the nonexistence, nonaction, or non occurrence of an action.Structure ExamplesThe verb ‘to be’ I am notAdd : not or n’t to contractions You are not He /She /It is not We are not They are not
They are not my friends. (aren’t) He is not my brother. (isn’t)
Present Simple I don’t work.Add : do not (I, you, we, they) You don’t work. or don’t He / She /It doesn’t work. We don’t work. does not (he, she, it) They don’t work. or doesn’t I don’t play football on the weekends. He doesn’t go to university.
Tags – short answersWhen we answer a question with ‘yes’ or ‘no’, it is usually followed by a tag which is a repetition of the verb ‘to be’ or an auxiliary. The verb ‘to be´Am I a teacher? Yes, you are. No, you’re not. / you aren’t. Are you a teacher? Yes, I am. No, I’m not.Is he a teacher? Yes, he is. No, he’s not. / he isn’t. Is she a teacher? Yes, she is. No, she’s not. / she isn’t. Are we teachers? Yes, we are. No, we’re not. / we aren’t. Are they teachers? Yes, they are. No, they’re not. / they aren’t.
Present SimpleDo I like football? Yes, you do. No, you don’t.Do you like football? Yes, I do. No, I don’t.Does he like football? Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t.Does she like football? Yes, she does. No, she doesn’t.Do we like football? Yes, we do. No, we don’t. Do they like football? Yes, they do. No, they don’t.
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The Present Simple and Present Continuous The present simple describes a present condition, regular or general action; the present continuous describes the action that is currently taking place. Use ExamplesThe Present Simple - Regular actions or events I always eat eggs for breakfast. - When talking in general - Facts He often has English class. - Often used with adverbs of frequency – sometimes, Banks lend money to make profits. often, always, never etc.
The Present Continuous - The action is not happening Catherine wants to work in Italy, so . at the time of speaking. she is learning Italian. (but perhaps she isn’t learning exactly at the time of speaking)
He is having English class at - Now the moment.
- For temporary situations Banks are lending more money (these days) to encourage businesses to expand.
I’m eating.
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The Present Continuous
Present continuous: something is happening now / at the moment / currently
Past Now Future I’m working.
He’s playing football.They’re watching television.
Structure + ExamplesThe verb ‘to be’ + verb –ingI am (not) verb-ing I am working.He/she/it is (not) verb-ing Chris is writing a letter. We/you/they are (not) verb-ing We’re having dinner.
Question: What are you doing now? What is he doing now?
It is raining.
Spelling Verbs that end in –e drop the ‘e’ , add –ing Make – making, write – writing, come – coming, dance – dancingVerbs that end in –ie change to –yingLie – lying, die – dying, tie – tying
I’m eating.We are running.
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The Affirmative Imperative
You can use the imperative form to give an order, a warning or advice.
Affirmative Imperative Structure Examples you (singular + plural) Infinitive without ‘to’ Be Quiet! Walk down the streetI, he, she, we, they Let + object pronoun + Let me check in infinitive without ‘to’ the dictionary. Let + noun phrase + Let Mark sit there. infinitive without ‘to’ Let’s (us) go to the beach. Let them do what they want.
The Negative ImperativeThe negative imperative form is used to give an order, warning or the advice to NOT perform a specific action.
Negative Imperative Structure Examples you (singular + plural) Do not (don’t) Don’t be quiet! + Infinitive without ‘to’ Don’t walk down the streetI, he, she, we, they Do not (don’t) let + object Don’t let me fall asleep. pronoun + infinitive without ‘to Do not (don’t) let + noun phrase + Don’t let the children fall asleep. infinitive without ‘to’
Sit down.
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Verbs without a continuous form Some verbs are never or hardly ever used in continuous forms. Many of these non-continuous verbs refer to states rather than actions.
Mental and emotional states To believe To doubt To feel (= have an opinion) To imagine To know To (dis)like To love To hate To prefer To recognize To remember To see (= understand) To suppose To think (= have an opinion) To understand To want To wish To realize
Use of the senses To appear To hear To look (=seem) To see To seem To smell To sound To taste
Communicating and causing reactions To agree To deny To impress To please To satisfy To mean To disagree
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Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions Certain verbs which do not normally take the continuous form may take it in some cases.Verbs of perception When they express ‘voluntary actions’ To see To hear To feel To smell To taste
I’m seeing Lynn tomorrow. I see what you mean. NOT I’m seeing what you mean
Stative verbsExpressing notions of belief, To think (to reflect) preference, feelings or an What are you thinking about? intellectual activity. . NOT to think ( have an opinion) What are you thinking of it? What do you think of it?
‘Always’ + Present Continuous‘Always’ is normally used with the simple present. However, sometimes it is used with the present continuous in these situations: Use ExampleTo express a repeated action which You’re always running late! has an effect on the speaker.
To talk about unexpected or Compare: unplanned events. When Alice comes to see me, I always meet her at the station. (a regular, planned arrangement) I’m always meeting Mrs. Jones at the supermarket. (accidental, unplanned meeting)
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2Present Perfect and Past Simple The Preterit (Past Simple)
USETo talk about completed actions or finished events that happened at a specific time (yesterday, last year, etc.)
I watched television yesterday.
For regular verbs add –ed For regular verbs ending in –y , drop the –y , add –ied
I watched I didn’t watch Did you watch? You watched You didn’t watch he/she/itHe/she/it watched He/she/it didn’t watchWe watched We didn’t watch weThey watched They didn’t watch they
ExamplesI watched television last night. I didn’t watch television last night. Did you watch television last night?
Irregular Verbs: There is no rule for the construction of irregular verbs in the past, therefore you must memorize them.
Here are some important irregular verbs:begin began fall fell leave left sell soldbreak broke find found lose lost sit satbring brought fly flew make made sleep sleptbuild built forget forgot meet met speak spokebuy bought get got pay paid stand stoodcatch caught give gave put put take tookcome came go went read read(red) tell tolddo did have had ring rang think thoughtdrink drank hear heard say said win woneat ate know knew see saw write wrote
Regular Verbs:
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Irregular VerbsFor the preterit (past simple) and past participle of regular verbs add -edHowever, for irregular verbs there are no rules. You must memorize them.
Here are some common irregular verbs:
Verb Past Tense Past Participlebe was/were beenbegin began beguncatch caught caughtchoose chose chosendo did donedrink drank drunkeat ate eatenfall fell fallenfly flew flowngive gave givenhave had had
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The Present PerfectThe Present Perfect is used to indicate actions that happened in a unfinished period of time.
StructureI/you/we/they have + past participleHe/she/it has + past participle
Have I/you/they/we + past participle….?Has he/she/it + past participle…?
Past Participlesgo gonehave hadtake takeneat eatendrink drunksing sung
Uses ExamplesShows there is a connection with now. -‘Where is your key?’ ‘I don’t know. I have lost it.’ An action in the past has a result now. (I can’t find it now.)
-‘Is Sally here?’ ‘No, she has gone to the mall.’ (She is at the mall now.)Describes an action that started in the -I have tried to learn French, but haven’t succeeded. past and continues in the present. -I have always studied a lot in university. Shows that an action has -Ouch! I have (just) cut my finger.recently happened. -The road is closed. There has (just) been an accident. - (Just is used to show that something -I have (just) finished a great book! happened recently)
They are at home. They are going out. They have gone out. (=They are not at home now)
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Differences between the Past Simple and the Present Perfect
Uses ExamplesPast Simple I saw three movies last week.When the time period has finished (the action has finished in a specific time period in the past).Present Perfect I have seen three movies this week.When the time period has not finished (the week has not finished, so more actions in this time period may take place).
Past Simple Martin has crashed his car last year.To indicate “old” information Present Perfect Martin crashed his car again.When giving recent news
Past Simple I saw that movie on Thursday. (specific day)When the time of the action is clear Present Perfect I have already seen that movie.When the time of action is not specific (no specific day or date of the action)
Past Simple ‘For’ I lived in Victoria for five years.‘For’ is used in the past simple when we want to indicate the period of time that the action occurred but has already finished.Present Perfect I have lived in Victoria for five years.‘For’ and ‘since’ are used when we want to indicate the period of time that the action has been occurring, though the action has not finished yet.
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The Present Perfect ContinuousWe use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and has continued up until this moment in the present.
Uses ExamplesDescribes an action that has recently -Paul is very tired. He has been working hard.stopped and has a connection with now. -Why are your clothes so dirty? What have you been doing?Describes an action that has been -I have been learning English for three years.repeated over a certain amount of time. -She has been playing basketball since she was 6 years old. -They have been traveling to Europe every summer since 1995. It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago and it is still raining. How long has it been raining? It has been raining for two hours.
We often use the present perfect continuous in this way, especially with How long, for… and since…The activity is still happening (as in the example) or has just stopped.
Structure
I/you/we/they have been + verb –ing
He/she/it has been + verb –ing
Have I/you/they/we been + verb –ing ….?
Has he/she/it been + verb –ing …?
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‘For’ / ‘Since’ / ‘Ago’
For, since, ago =
to say how long something has been happening.
Use Examples‘For’ = a period of time two hours a week 20 minutes 50 years five days a long time six months ages
I have been studying English for 3 years.
‘Since’ = the start of a period 8 o’clock 1977 Monday Christmas 12 May lunchtime April they were at school
I have been studying English since 2000.
‘Ago’ = expression of time + ago six weeks agois usually used with the past tense a long time ago two days ago
I studied English 5 years ago.
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‘Ever’ – ‘Never’
Structure ExamplesQuestion – ‘Ever’ Used in present simple and present perfect Do you ever play tennis?Auxiliary + subject + ‘ever’ + main verb Have you ever been to Argentina? Affirmative – ‘Ever’ She’s the nicest person I’ve ever met.Used with ‘if’ or superlative (superlative) Visit the Eiffel Tower if you ever go to Paris. (if)Negative – Negative I never drink and drive.‘Never’ + verb in affirmative I’ve never been to Argentina.
‘Ever’=
at some/any time up to now
‘Never’ =
not ever
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Expressions with the Present PerfectThe Present Perfect is used to indicate unfinished past actions, past actions when the time is not specified, and when a past action is relevant now.
Structure + Use ExamplesWe can use these expressions with the present perfect: Today All dayThis week This yearAlready Just Yet Lately Recently In the last two months All my life So farEver NeverThey refer to a period of time that is not yet over or is recent. We cannot use these expressions with the present perfect: Two months ago One year ago Last week Yesterday When I was a childThey refer to a time in the past that is over.
He’s been in a bad mood all day.I’ve visited my grandmother 2 times this week.I’ve just started the class.I haven’t studied in the last two months.I haven’t heard about it so far.
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The Preterit Continuous (Past Continuous)
Preterit Continuous =to say that someone was in the middle of doing something at a certain time.
It’s 6 o’clock now. Sarah is at home. She is watching television.At 4 o’clock she wasn’t at home. She was playing tennis.
Sarah
4 O´clock
Sarah
6 O´clock
Positive Negative Question
she/it was + verb –ing I/he/she/it was not (wasn’t) + verb –ing Was I/he/she/it + verb –ing?
We/you/they were + verb -ing We/you/they were not (weren’t) + verb -ing Were we/you/they + verb-ing?
It was raining. It wasn’t raining. Was it raining?
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The Past Perfect For actions that happened before related past events or times.
Structure I/we/they/you + had (=I’d etc.) + past participle (gone, seen, finished etc.) He/she/it + had (= he’d etc.) + past participle
Use Examples1. To express an action completed I had never seen a movie before then.before a given time in the past. 2. A state or action beginning in the past They had been friends for ten years when he left.continuing until some later time in the past.
Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too, but they didn’t see each other. Paul went home at 10:30 and Sarah arrived at 11 o’clock.
So: When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasn’t there. He had gone home.
Bye
Paul
Hello
Half an hour later
Sarah
12 12
34
5
910
11
678
12 12
34
5
910
11
678
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The Past Perfect Continuous
Structure I/you/we/they had been + verb –ing (studying, working, listening, etc.)He/she/it had been + verb –ing
I/you/we/they had not been + verb-ing (sleeping, reading, eating, etc.)He/she/it had not been + verb-ingHad I/you/they/we been + verb –ing ….? (helping, playing, talking, etc.) he/she/it been + verb –ing …?
Uses ExamplesTo show that something started in the past and Mary had been talking with John for 15continued up until the moment that something minutes until Lindsey arrived.else happened.To show cause and effect. Jason was tired because he had been jogging.
The Past Perfect Continuous is used for actions that were unfinished when another action
took place.
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‘Used To’
Structure + Use ExamplesI/you/he/she/it/we/you/they + ‘to be’ + used to + verb + ing+ object.Is used for expressing habits or things I am used to reading before going to sleep.which you are comfortable with or accustomed to.For expressing a point in the process of I have gotten used to walking to work.becoming accustomed to something.For expressing actions that were habitual I used to eat seafood, but now I prefer meat.in the past and implies that the action no longer takes place. In this sense it is used as a modal auxiliary.
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3Future The Near Future ‘be’ + –ing / Present Continuous for Future The present continuous for future indicates that a specific action will be taking place at a specific time in the future.
Structure Use Examples‘To be’ + verb-ing for the future What are you doing (tomorrow / next week) tomorrow evening?
I am (not) eating for fixed future I am staying at home.You are (not) eating arrangementsHe/she/it is (not) eatingWe are (not) eatingThey are (not) eating
The Future – ‘Will’We use ‘will’ for the future (tomorrow / next week etc.)
Subject + ‘will’ + infinitive (without to)
I/we/you/they will (‘ll) beHe/she/it will not (won’t) eat etc. winWill I/we/you/they be? He/she/it win? etc. eat?
Examples: I will be at home tomorrow. Will you be at home this evening?
We use ‘will’ when we make a decision in the moment of speaking.‘It’s cold in here.’ ‘I’ll close the window’‘What would you like to order?’ ‘I’ll have the beef please.’
I’m playing tennis tomorrow
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The Future Continuous – ‘Will be doing’
Structure Use Examples‘will’ + ‘be’ + gerund This is used to say you will be in The football games at 7:30 and the middle of doing something. ends at 9:15. At 8:15, Kevin will be watching the game. It is used to talk about complete Q: If you see Sally, can you ask her actions in the future. to call me? A: Sure, I’ll be seeing her this evening, so I’ll tell her then.
The Future – ‘Will’ vs. ‘To be going to’
Structure Use Examples‘Will’ + infinitive Indefinite future predictions Next year I think I will go to New York.I, you etc.+ ‘will’ + verb (infinitive without to) When we make a decision in the ‘It’s cold in here’.I, you etc.+ ‘will not’ (won’t) moment of speaking. ‘I’ll close the window’+ verb (infinitive without to)
‘To be’ + ‘going to’ + infinitive ‘I am (not) going to’ + verb Future plans and intention I am going to meet Jill for lunch today.(infinitive without to) (I’ve decided to do something, my intention is to do it) He is not going to finish the project on time.
We also use ‘to be going to’ when there is evidence in the present that something is going to happen in the future. It is clear now that it is sure to happen.
Example: There is a black cloud in the sky.It’s going to rain.
It’s goingto rain.
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The Future Perfect – ‘Will have done’
Structure Use Examples‘Will have’ + past participle To indicate that something will occur You will have perfected your before another action in the future. English by the time you come back from the USA.I, you etc.+ ‘will’ + ‘have’ To show that something will By Monday, Susan will have had+ past participle continue up until another action in my book for a month. the future.
The Future with ‘be’ + infinitive
Structure‘To be’ + infinitive with ‘to’This is used to express the idea of the future in the following situations:
Use Examples A planned or agreed action
Present: ‘To be’ (present) + infinitive with ‘to’ We’re to see them tomorrow.Past: ‘To be’ (past) + infinitive with ‘to’ I was to become a priest. (but I didn’t)(This is a planned or agreed action that was not done.) An action which should be done What’s to be done? An imposed action / a strict order You’re not to read that letter.
Instructions and directions for use The medicine is to be taken twice a day.‘To be’ + passive infinitive
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4Modals ‘Can’ – ability and likelihoodStructure Use ExamplesUse‘Can’ ability - to be able to do something. Example: He can carry the bag.‘Can’ likelihood / possibility Example: Sometimes when the weather is bad it can rain. ( It is possible that this happens.) It can’t be true. (I certainly is not true, there is no possibility that it is true.)
StructureI / we / you / they + can + verb he / she / it cannot (can’t)
QuestionCan + I / we / you / they + verb he / she / it Example: Can you swim?
30 Kg.
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‘Can’ - perception and knowledge
Use ‘Can’ ability / knowledge
- to know how to do somethingExample: I can play the guitar.
‘Can’ perception - with verbs of perception such as to hear, to see, to feel. Example: I can see Sarah coming.
StructureI / we / you / they + can + verb he / she / it cannot (can’t)
QuestionCan + I / we / you / they + verb he / she / it
Example: Can you swim?
I can playthe piano.
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‘Can’, ‘Could’, ‘To be able to’The modal ‘can’ has the following form
Present Can
I can speak 5 languages.
Can’t
He can’t sing very well.
Past Could
When I was a child I could play the piano.
Couldn’t
I couldn’t go to class yesterday because I was sick.
Infinitive To be able to
Ask Catherine about your problem. She
might be able to help you.
Future Will be able to
I will be able to meet with you later.
Will not (won’t) be able to They won’t be able to leave early because
they have to finish their homework.
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You shouldn´twatch TV so much
I, you, we, they + should (not) + infinitive without to he, she, it Examples: It’s a good film. You should go and see it. Tom shouldn’t go to bed so late.
I, you, we, they + ought (not) to + infinitive without to he, she, it Examples: Carol ought to buy some new clothes.You ought not to eat so much.
‘should’ or ‘ought to’ + ‘have’ + past participle=
to express regret or reproach
We should have gone to the mountains.They ought to have invited her.
‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: probability
Structure Use Example‘Should’ subject + ‘should’ + To show something that is The train should arrive soon.infinitive without ‘to’ desirable or probable
‘Ought to’subject + ‘ought to’ + Implies an expectation or assumption He is intelligent. He ought toinfinitive without ‘to’ pass the exam.
‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: adviceUseTo give adviceShould / ought to = It is a good thing to do; it is the right thing to do. Should not / ought not to = It is not a good thing to do.
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‘Must’ and ‘Have to’
Must = a need or obligation to do somethingStructure ExampleI, you, we, they + must + infinitive without to You must wash your hands before eating.He, she, it + must + infinitive without to
Mustn’t = an obligation to NOT do something. You must not do it.Must notStructure ExampleI, you, we, they + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You mustn’t smoke in the elevator.He, she, it + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’’
Have to = a need or obligation to do something. Structure ExampleI, you, we, they + have to + infinitive without to You have to finish the assignment by tomorrow.
Don’t have to = NO obligation to do something. It is optional.Doesn’t have to Structure ExampleI, you, we, they + don’t have to + infinitive You don’t have to do the homework if you don’t without ‘to’ want to.He, she, it + doesn’t have to + infinitive ( You can either do it or not; it is optional) without ‘to
NO SMOKING
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Using ‘must’ for obligation
Must =
a need or obligation to do something.
I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without ‘to’ You must wash your hands before eating.He, she, it + must + infinitive without ‘to’
Mustn’t =
an obligation NOT to do something.
I, you, we, they + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You mustn’t walk on the grass. He, she, it + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’
Please keepoff the grass
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Strong probability using ‘must’
Must =
strong probability or near certainty.
Structure Example Subject + must + verb (infinitive without ‘to’) You must be Mr. Brown. My sister has told me all about you.
Negative:Subject + cannot + verb (infinitive without ‘to’) You can’t be Maggie’s mother; you’re not old enough!Subject + can’t + verb (infinitive without ‘to’)
The past form is:
must + have + past participle
It expresses near certainty in the past.
Example: He must have gone out.
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Absence of necessityTo say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use ‘needn’t’ and ‘don’t have to’. It shows an absence of necessity.
Structure ExamplesSubject + needn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You needn’t bring your bike; it’s not that far.Subject + don’t / doesn’t need to + infinitive without ‘to’ You don’t need to bring your bike.This expresses the opinion of the speaker.
Subject + ‘don’t’ / ‘doesn’t have to’ + infinitive without ‘to’ You don’t have to do your homework.This can imply the speaker’s opinion or not.
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‘May’ and ‘Might’ To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use ‘needn’t’ and ‘don’t have to’. It shows an absence of necessity.
Use ExamplesMay I, you, etc. + may + verb (infinitive To say that something I may go to the cinema later. may not without ‘to’) is about 50% possible. He may call her.
Might I, you, etc. + might + verb (infinitive To say that something He might have a meeting. might not without to) is less than 50% possible. He might know.
The uses of ‘may’ and ‘might’ above are to talk about the present or future. These other structures are also possible.
may/might + be + verb –ing to talk about present or future
I may be working at that time. He might be having lunch.
may/might + have + past participle to talk about uncertain events in the past
She may have been asleep.She might have left it in the shop.
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‘Shall’ In British English, ‘shall’ can be used for ‘will’ to express the future. In American English, it is not often used.
Use ‘shall’ with I/ weI shall be late tomorrow. ( I will be late) Shall we go to the museum later?
Do NOT use ‘shall’ with you/they/he/she/it
Tom will be late. (not ‘Tom shall be’)
‘Shall’ can express obligation. This is stronger and more formal than other modals of obligation (‘must’, ‘have to’).It is used in legal texts and official rules.
Examples: 1. The insurance holder shall pay back the full amount within three years.2. Students shall not play loud music after 10PM.
‘Would like’: expressing wishes
‘Would like’ expresses a wish or desire.
‘Would like’ + infinitiveExample: I would like to go to the movies.
‘Would like’ + noun or noun phraseExample: I would like a drink.
Interrogative ‘would like’ more polite form of (do) wantExample: Would you like a coffee?
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Modal Auxiliaries A modal auxiliary is a verb used with other verbs to express mood or tense. When a modal is used, the following verb is in the infinitive minus ‘to’ form.
Modal Use ExampleCan Ability He can play the piano. Negative: cannot / can’t Past: could Future: will be able to Permission Can I leave the room?Could Possible actions now or in the future. When you go to New York you could (to make suggestions) stay with Jane. Permission Could I open the window?May To say that something is about I may go to the cinema later. 50% possible. Permission May I open the window?Might To say that something is less He might have a meeting. than 50% possible.Must Obligation You must go to the bank Negative: mustn’t You mustn’t go to the bank. You’ve been travelling all day, Deduction you must be tired. Negative: can’t You’ve been sleeping all day, you can’t be tired.
Could + have + past participle Possibility in the past. I could have studied Architecture Something you could have in university. done but did not do / did not attempt to do.May + have + past participle To say that it is possible that Polly’s very late. She may something happened or have missed her train. was true in the past.Might + have + past participle To say that it is possible that You were stupid to try climbing something happened or was up there. You might have true in the past. killed yourself. BUT did not happen.
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Near certainty in the past: ‘must have’ / ‘can’t have’When we are unsure of occurrences in the past, we can use these expressions to indicate an assumption of the event that probably took place in a past moment.
Structure Usesubject + must have + past participle Deduction Near certainty in the pastExample: John wasn’t in class yesterday. He must have been sick.
Structure Usesubject + can’t have + past participle A deduction about something that didn’t happen in the past. Example: I saw John in the pub. He can’t have been sick.
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5Questions
ExamplesThe Verb ‘to be’
‘To be’ + subject Are you married? Is John a policeman?Am I? Are you? Is he / she / it? Are we? Are they?
Present Simple
Do + subject + verb Does he study English? Does Do they have television?
Do you / we / they? Does he / she / it?
Questions without interrogative words
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Interrogative Words Interrogative words are used to ask very specific questions related to the person, place, reason, etc. that an action occurs.
Interrogative word Use Example
Who refers to people Who is he?
Who do you know?
Which refers to people or things Which do you prefer tea or coffee?
when there is a choice
What refers to things What sport do you play?
How refers to manner or means How do you spell your name? (manner)
How do you go to work? (means)
Why asks about reason Why don’t you like her?
Where refers to location Where is the museum?
When refers to time or date When does the store open?
When do you leave?
Whose refers to possession Whose pen is this?
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‘How long’
‘How long’ is used to ask
questions about duration.
Structure Example ‘How long’ + ‘to be’ ‘How long’ + ‘is’/’are’ + noun How long is your vacation? How long are the books?
‘How long’ + present simple ‘How long’ + ‘do’/’does’ + How long do you take to subject + verb eat breakfast? How long does it take to get to work?
Beginner level should only study the two structures above. Below are some examples of ‘how long’ with other tenses.
Structure Example‘How long’ + preterit (past simple) ‘How long + ‘did’ + subject + verb How long did you spend in Italy?
‘How long’ + present perfect ‘How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + How long have you had that car? subject + past participle
‘How long’ + present perfect How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + How long have you been continuous subject + ‘been’+ gerund studying English? ‘
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Past Interrogatives
The verb ‘to be’‘Was’ / ‘were’ + subject
was I? Where was Ann yesterday?
he? Was the weather good?
she?
it?
were we? Were they expensive?
you?
they?
The Preterit (Past Simple)
‘Did’ + subject + verb
I
you What did you do yesterday?
he Where did he go on holiday?
Did she watch? Did it rain on Saturday?
it
we
they
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Questions – TagsQuestion tags are ‘mini-questions’ placed at the end of a sentence.
A positive sentence A negative question tagA negative sentence A positive question tag
Examples
The verb ‘to be’You’re a doctor, aren’t you? He is not here today, is he?
Present SimpleThey work together, don’t they? She doesn’t eat meat, does she?
Present ContinuousHe is studying English, isn’t he? You’re not meeting Jim, are you?
Preterit/ Past Simple He went on vacation, didn’t he? They didn’t work yesterday, did they?
Question tags can be formed for all tenses. Your teacher will give you examples for the tenses you have learned so far.
Goes down
Goes up
You aren’t really asking a question; you are only inviting the listener to agree with you.Example: It’s a beautiful day, isn’t it? Yes, lovely.
You are asking a real question.Example: You didn’t see Mary, did you? No, I’m afraid not.
The meaning of a question tag depends on how you say it.
If your voice -
It’s a beautiful day, isn’t it?
Yes, lovely.
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‘Which’ / ‘What’
‘How long…..(for)’ / ‘Since when’
Structure Examples‘How long’ + ‘have’/’has’ + subject + Q: ‘How long have you been waiting for?’‘been’ + verb -ing + ‘for’? A: ‘I have been waiting for over an hour’.
We use ‘for’ when we say a period of time.(two hours, a week, 20 minutes, six months etc.)
‘Since when’ + ‘have’/‘has’ + subject + Q: ‘Since when has it been snowing?’‘been’+ verb –ing A: ‘It has been snowing since yesterday’.
We use ‘since when’ we say the start of a period of time.(8 o’clock, Monday, 12 May, 1990, lunchtime etc.)
Which, What =
both are used for choices. They are often used interchangeably.
What - a choice between or among things. What books do you prefer?(usually objects) What kind of services do you want?
Which – a choice between or among a Which do you prefer: romance novels orlimited number of things/possibilities science fiction?(usually objects and people) Which of these shirts is yours?
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Short QuestionsIn informal everyday and professional situations, you may use short questions.
Here are some examples:
Short Questions Possible complete form
Any thoughts? Do you have any thoughts on what I just said?Suggestions? Do you have any suggestions?Ideas? Can you give me some ideas?Any problems? Have you been having any problems?Objections? Does anyone have any objections to my proposal?Anything serious? Are the problems serious?Louder, please? Could you speak a bit louder, please?Sorry? Sorry? I didn’t hear what you said.
These are questions formed with
incomplete sentences.
You can only use them when the
context has been clearly established.
They ask for feedback, check understanding, ask for clarification, ask for
advice / suggestions, make requests and verify
agreement.
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6Articles and Nouns Definite and Indefinite ArticlesAn article is a word that is combined with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one. An indefinite article indicates that its noun is not yet a particular one.
Language Use ExampleThe indefinite article - one thing or person. He is a teacher. A - a noun in a general context.
The definite article - a noun in a specific context. He is the teacher. The
Language Use ExampleThe indefinite article is used before words that begin I am a man.A with consonants.
The indefinite article is used before words that begin This is an orange.An with vowels (a,e,i,o,u) or vowels sounds It’s an honor.
Exceptions: an hour (h is not pronounced: an (h)our) a university (pronounced yuniversity) a European country (pronounced yeuropean)
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The Plural
Plural rules ExamplesTo make a noun plural add – s a flower two flowers a book two books
For nouns ending in: –s / –sh / –ch / –x – es bus : buses dish : dishes box : boxes church : churches
Also: potato : potatoes tomato: tomatoes
For nouns ending in:
–y – ies baby : babies party : parties
but –ay / –ey / –oy – ys day : days monkey: monkeys
For nouns ending in:
–f / –fe – ves shelf : shelves wife: wives
Some nouns have irregular endings man men woman women foot feet child children person people
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Names of Countries: Capitals a university (pronounced yuniversity) a European country (pronounced yeuropean)
Names of countries have capital letters.
He’s a friend from France.
They live in Spain.
I am from the United States!
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Countable and Uncountable Nouns a university (pronounced yuniversity) A noun can be
orcountable uncountable
Countable nouns You can use one/two/three etc. + (a) car countable nouns. (you can count them) (a) man (a) house Countable nouns can be singular or plural. (an) idea
Examples I have a car. I have two cars.
Uncountable nouns You cannot say one/two/three etc. water rice Uncountable nouns only have one form. money You cannot use ‘a’/ ‘an’ + uncountable nouns. salt music Uncountable nouns are always singular.Examples I have money. I have some money.
Exclamations with ‘what a’
‘What a /an’ (+adjective) + singular countable noun What a rude man! What a nice dress!
‘What’ (+ adjective) + uncountable / plural noun What beautiful weather! What lovely flowers!
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Construction of Compound Nouns
A compound noun =
two nouns joined together.
One noun modifies the other.
Example:
tooth, paste: toothpaste
Compound nouns can be written in these ways:There are not many rules for joining compound nouns. You must check a dictionary for the correct form.1. The two words are joined together.Example: tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom
2. They are joined using a hyphen.Example: check-in
3. They appear as two separate words. Example: full moon
Other Examples:
ski boots, alarm clock , housework, great-grandfather
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The use and omission of ‘the’
Use ExamplesThe We use ‘the’ before plural nouns or Tom sat down on a chair. uncountable nouns when we are (perhaps one of many chairs) thinking of one particular thing. Tom sat on the chair nearest the door. (a particular chair)
No ‘the’ When we are talking about things or I’m afraid of dogs. (not the dogs) people in general, we do not use ‘the’. Children learn a lot from playing. (children in general)
No ‘the’ We do not use ‘the’ with names of people, I visited Europe last year. countries, continents, states, regions, (not the Europe) islands, cities, mountains.
The But we do use ‘the’ in names with I live in the USA. ‘Republic’, ‘Kingdom’, ‘States’, oceans, She is from the Republic of Ireland. seas, rivers and canals. The Atlantic Ocean is very big.
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Definite articles with geographical names
Use ExamplesNo ‘the’ Singular name of a country, continent or region. France, Great Britain, Spain Exceptions: the Sahara, the Congo, the South Pole.
The Plural name of a country. The British Isles, the West Indies, the Philippines
The But we do use ‘the’ in names with ‘Republic’, The United States, The Republic ‘Kingdom’, ‘States’. of Ireland, The United Kingdom
The Abbreviations of countries, continents and regions. The UK, the USA, the EU
No ‘the’ The names of streets, squares, monuments Carnaby Street, Hyde Park, and parks. ( generally) Wesminister Abbey
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Nouns without singular formsSome plural nouns have no singular forms.
Nouns referring to objects composed of Scissors, glasses, trousers, jeans, shorts, 2 symmetrical parts tights, pyjamas
When used as a countable noun, use‘pair of’
Some collective nouns Clothes, goods, people, cattle, police, savings
Negation of the indefinite article The negative form of the indefinite article is expressed like this:
Structure ExamplesWith a singular countable noun: I haven’t got a pen./ I don’t have a pen. ‘Not………..a’
With plural countable nouns and There aren’t any buses here.uncountable nouns It doesn’t require any equipment.‘Not………………any’
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Subject Pronouns
7Pronouns and Determiners
Subject Pronouns
IYou (singular)
HeSheItWeYou (plural)
They
Object Pronouns
Object Pronouns Examples Use(subject (object pronoun) pronoun)I me Ann knows me. We use:You you Ann knows you. a verb +He him Ann knows him. object pronounShe her Ann knows her.It it Ann knows it.We us Ann knows us.They them Ann knows them.
It’s nice.I Iike it.
They’re nice.I like them.
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Possessive Pronouns
(possessive pronoun)I my mineyou your yourshe his hisshe her herswe our oursthey their theirs
We use my/your etc. + a nounMy hands are cold.
We use mine/yours etc. without a noun Is this book mine or yours?
Possessive pronouns show possession and answer the question ‘whose’.
Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns Use ExamplesI myselfYou yourself I talk to myself when I am nervous.He himself We use reflexive pronounsShe herself when the subject and object of a We blame ourselves for the resultsIt itself sentence are the same person of the test.We ourselves or non-person.You yourselves It saw itself in the mirror.They themselves
Mine Ours Yours His Hers Theirs
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‘No’ / ‘None’
No Use Examples‘No’ + noun When we want to - We have no bread. exclude all possibilities. - There were no problems.
None Use Examples‘None’ When no part of - Do you have any more pie? something is left. No, sorry, I have none.
When none exists, not even - When she returned to the a group of people or a small amount office, none of us of something. recognized her with her new haircut.
The Possessive
To show possession for people, countries, groups and institutions we use –’s
Examples: It is John’s birthday. (not the birthday of John) It’s my mother’s umbrella. Chile’s economy is doing well.
friend’s and friends’
My friend’s house = one friend (=his house or her house)
(singular)
My friends’ house = 2 or more friends(= their house)
(plural)
My house Our house
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More uses of the Possessive
The possessive –’s can also
be used with dates, durations
and distances.
We add ’s to a singular noun
and an apostrophe (’) to a
plural noun, for example:
Dates Sunday’s weather Tomorrow’s flight Next year’s budget
Durations Three weeks’ vacation
Distances A hundred miles’ drive
The Indefinite Possessive
Use Structure Examples I met a friend of Lucy’s. We can’t usually put a possessive determiner + noun + of Have you heard this newbefore another determiner and a noun. + possessive idea of your boss’s?We can say ‘my friend’ but not (’s) ‘a my friend’. So we use these ( a, this = determiners)structures. determiner + noun + of How’s that brother of yours? + possessive (mine, yours, his, hers, Peter is a cousin of mine. ours, theirs) ( a, that = determiners)
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Use of the pronoun ‘one’
The pronoun ‘one’ or ‘ones ‘ is used after an adjective to replace: •a countable noun already expressed•a noun that hasn’t been expressed
Would you like one? =Would you like a chocolate?
One = a /an (a chocolate / an apple etc.)
One (singular)
Which one? = which hat?
Ones (plural)
Which ones? = which flowers?
Thesechocolates are niceWould you like one?
This oneWhich one
do you want?
Which one do you want?
The white ones
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Demonstrative Pronouns: ‘This’, ‘That’, ‘These’, ‘Those’
The demonstratives this, that, these, those show where an object or person is in relation to the speaker.
This (singular) Refers to an object or person near the speaker
These (plural) Examples:
Is this John’s house? This is a nice surprise!
That (singular) Refers to an object or person further away
Those (plural) Examples:
Who owns that house? That’s nothing to do with me.
Position Examples:
a) Before a noun. This car looks cleaner than that car.
b) Before the word one. This one is more expensive.
c) Before an adjective + noun. Do you remember that wonderful day in June?
d) Alone when the noun is understood. I’ll never forget this.
‘Here’ / ‘There’
‘Here’ is used for something that is near to us. Here is the money (in my hand).
‘There’ is used for something that is far from us. There is the bank, about 2 blocks away.
this that these those
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‘Some’ / ‘Any’
Use ‘some’ / ‘any’ to describe an undetermined quantity.
Use with both countable and uncountable nouns.
‘Some’: in positive sentences, offers and requests.
I have got some money.Would you like some water? (offer) Can I have some bread? (request)
‘Any’: in negative sentences and questions
I haven’t got any money.Do you have any information?
‘Any’: to express total permission, possibility, or restriction.
‘Any’: to express possibility or indifference.
Feel free to ask questions at any time.
Any of these designs are fine.
$ I have some money.
I don’t have any money.
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‘A lot of’, ‘Much’ / ‘Many’
Use ‘a lot of’ with mass and count nouns in Ann has a lot of meetings.positive sentences, negative sentences and questions. I have a lot of work to do.
Use ‘much’ with mass nouns in negative Ann doesn’t have much time to see New York.sentences and in questions. How much coffee did you drink?
Use ‘many’ with count nouns in negative I don’t have many classes today.sentences, positive sentences and in questions. Did many people come to the party?
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‘How much’ / ‘How many’
‘How much/many’ = to ask questions about quantity
‘How much’ + uncountable nouns How much money do you want? How much time do you have?
‘How many’ + plural countable nouns How many friends do you have? How many books are there?
‘As much as’ / ‘As many as’
To compare two things that are the same.‘as much as’ Use with: Examples:
singular, uncountable nouns You have as much money as I do. (= the same amount)
‘not as much as’ You don’t have as much money as I do.
‘as many as’ plural, countable nouns There are as many parks in Santiago as there are in Buenos Aires.‘not as many as’ There aren’t as many parks in Santiago as there are in Buenos Aires.
We can use ‘as much as’ + ‘as many as’ without a noun also.Here the comparative refers to the previous clause or an implied or previously stated noun.
It’s twice as much as the rent.(=It’s twice as much money as the rent)
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‘Some’ / ‘Any’: singular or plural?
‘Some’, ‘any’, ‘none’, ‘all’, ‘most’ Examples:
When they refer to a singular noun, Some of the meal was really good.the verb is singular. None of the presentation is interesting.
When they refer to a plural noun, the Some of the books are quite funny.verb is plural. None of the stories are interesting.
‘Either…or’
A negative clause must never contain more than one negation. So, we use ‘either’ after a negative verb.‘Either’ is always placed at the end of a clause. It means ‘too’ / ‘as well’
I’m not happy.I’m not happy either. (not ‘I’m not …too’)
I can’t cook.I can’t cook either. (not ‘I can’t …too’)
I’m not happy either.
I’m not happy.
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‘Either……. or’ / ‘Neither …….nor’
Use Example
‘Either…….or’ A choice between 2 things I want either fruit juice or coffee.
Either you come to class or you do the work at home.
‘Neither……..nor’ To exclude 2 things I can neither read nor write French. She’s neither nice nor helpful.
‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’
‘Everybody’ (everyone) singular Everybody needs friends.(all the people) All the people need friends.
‘Nobody’ (no one) singular Nobody is here.(no people) No people are here.
neither (not + either)
Either? or ?
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‘Everybody’ / ‘Somebody’ / ‘Nobody’ with question tags
Everybody, somebody, nobody are followed by singular verbs.
However, if they are followed by a question tag, the tag is in the plural.
Everybody (everyone) singular Everybody needs
friends, don’t they?
(all the people)
Somebody (someone) singular Somebody has to go
shopping, don’t they?
( a person but we don’t know who)
Nobody (no one) singular Nobody really knows, do
they?
(no people)
Nobody + verb in the positive form. Example: Nobody likes Mike.
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‘Each other’ / ‘One another’
‘Each other’ and ‘one another’ can be used interchangeably.They show a reciprocal relationship between the subjects in the sentence.
‘Each other’ and ‘one another’ can be used in the possessive.
They took each other’s hands.We often meet at one another’s places.
John and Paul looked at each other. (= John looked at Paul / Paul looked at John)
Formerly, it was said that ‘each other’ was used for a relationship between two subjects whereas one another was used for a relationship between more than two subjects. Today, however, most do not observe this distinction.
Maria and Jorge love each other. (Two subjects) The children are sitting opposite one another. (More than two subjects)
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Different meanings of ‘all
‘All’ = all of something limited.
It is used with uncountable or plural countable nouns.
‘All’ + noun All cities have the same problem.
‘All (of)’ + the All the children at this school are tall. this/that/these/those (demonstrative) All these books are mine. my/your etc. (possessive adjective) I have spent all my money.
Personal Pronounspersonal pronoun + ‘all’ Have you read these books? I’ve read them all.‘all of’ + personal pronoun I’ve read all of them.
with Subject PronounsSubject (pronoun) + ‘all’ + simple verb The girls all left.Subject (pronoun) + modal auxiliary / ‘to be’ + ‘all’ We will all have some juice. They are all ready to go.
With a singular countable noun = ‘every’
Every student in the class passed the exam.Every country has a national flag.
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‘A little’ / ‘A bit’‘A little’ / ‘A bit’ = a small quantity
Structure Use Examples‘A little’ Use with uncountable nouns. We want a little fresh air. It can also replace the noun to ‘Do you want some coffee?’ avoid repetition. ‘A little, please.’
‘A bit of’ Use with uncountable nouns. We want a bit of fresh air.
‘A little’ Adverb of degree. We’re a little busy today.
‘A little’ + adjective This tooth aches a little.
Verb + ‘a little’
Little Use with countable nouns. I have little time to finish the report.(negative connotation)
‘A bit’ Often replaces ‘ a little’ as an adverb. Can you drive a bit slower?
‘A few’ Use with countable nouns. I have a few books I can lend you. It can also replace the noun to avoid ‘How many science fiction novels repetition. do you have?’‘Few’ ‘A few.’ (negative connotation) Use with countable nouns. I am lonely. I have few friends.
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Use of ‘both’
‘Both’ = two elements
With nouns I want both books. Both shirts are good.
With determinersBefore a noun with a determiner (the, this, I want both (of) those books.my, your, those etc.) ‘both’ and ‘both Both (of) the books.of’ are possible.
With object pronouns(me, you, him, her, it, us, them) Both of them are my sisters.Use ‘both of’ before the pronoun. She has invited both of us.‘Both’ can be put after object pronouns. She has invited us both.
With verbsBoth goes after auxiliaries and before We have both gone to the beach.other verbs. We both want to go.
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8Relative Clauses and Dependent Clauses
Relative Pronouns and AdverbsRelative pronouns are used in relative clauses. A ‘clause’ is part of a sentence. A ‘relative clause’ tells us which person or thing the speaker means.
The woman who lives next door is a doctor. relative clause
A relative clause joins two sentences:
I met a woman. She speaks two languages. she who
I met a woman who speaks two languages.
WHO peopleI know a lot of people who live in London.
THAT things or peopleThe man that lives next door is very friendly.Barbara works for a company that makes computers.
WHICH thingsEmma lives in a house which is 500 years old.
WHOSE possession (instead of his/her/their etc.)A widow is a woman whose husband is dead.
WHERE a placeThat is the hotel where Tom got married.
WHOM people (but when it is the object of the verb in the relative clause) The woman whom I wanted to see was away on holiday. ( I wanted to see her)
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There are two types of relative clauses.
Defining Relative Clauses
The woman who lives next door is a doctor.
The relative clause tells you which person or thing the speaker means.
We do NOT use commas.
Non- defining Relative Clauses
My brother Jim, who lives in London, is a doctor.
The relative clause does not tell you which person or thing the speaker means. (We already know which thing or person is meant.) This is extra information about the person or thing.
We use commas.
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‘That’ and Dependent ClausesA dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It is usually attached to an independent clause.
When the main clause is in the preterit, the dependent clause (introduced by ‘that’ or a relative pronoun) is also in the preterit. If it is in the present, then the dependent clause is in the present also.
Reported SpeechWhen ‘that’ is used in reported speech, the dependent clause should follow the rule of agreement. (see reported speech)
Relative Clauses – (Omission of ‘that’)‘That’ is used as a relative pronoun in relative clauses. When the relative pronoun is an object pronoun it can be omitted in a defining relative clause*.
*see ‘relative pronouns and adverbs’ for an explanation on the difference between a defining and non-defining clauses.
Subject or Object Pronoun?
Subject Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a verb.
the apple that is laying on the table
Object Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun.
the apple (that) George laid on the table
Examples of when ‘that’ can/ cannot be omitted.
We stayed at the hotel (that) Ann recommended.‘that’ + noun (Ann) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.
This morning I met somebody (that) I hadn’t met for ages. ‘that’ + pronoun (I) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.
Barbara works for a company that makes washing machines.‘that’ + verb (makes) = subject pronoun.
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When ‘that’ may be left out‘That’ may be left out in the following situations:.
Reported speech After many reporting verbs ‘that’ can be James said (that) he was left out. feeling better. Examples: said, thought, suggested
However, ‘that’ cannot be dropped after James replied that he was certain verbs feeling better. Examples: replied, shouted, disagreed
After adjectives In ‘that’ clauses after some adjectives, I’m glad (that) you’re all right. ‘that’ can be left out.
Conjunctions ‘That’ can be left out in an informal style Come in quietly so (that) in some common two-word she doesn’t hear you. conjunctions such as: I was having such a nice ‘so that’ time (that) I didn’t want to ‘such…that’ leave. ‘now that’ ‘providing that’ ‘provided that’ ‘supposing that’ ‘considering that’ ‘assuming that’
Relative structures Leave out the relative pronoun ‘that’ Look! There are the when it is the object in a relative clause. people (that) we met in *See ‘that + dependent clauses’ Brighton
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‘To hope’ + Dependent Clause
Structuree Examples
‘To hope’ + future She hopes he’ll come.
I hope you won’t have any problems getting home.
‘To hope’ + present simple He hopes the traffic is all right.
(refers to the future) I hope the water is not too cold.
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9Adjectives and Adverbs Possessive Adjectives A possessive adjective is used with a noun to indicate possession, ownership or close relationship.
Possessive adjectives Examples Use(subject pronoun) We use:I my I like my job. possessive adjective + a nounYou your You like your job. to show possessionHe his He likes his jobShe her She likes her job.It its It likes its food. (The dog)We our We like our jobs.They their They like their jobs.
my hat our hats your hat
her hat their hats
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‘Too’ / ‘Too much’/ ‘Too many’
‘Too’ / ‘too much’ / ‘too many’ =
More than you want, more than is good.This is a negative concept.
Structure Examples‘Too’ + adjective/adverb The music is too loud.
‘Too much’ + uncountable nouns There is too much sugar in my tea.
‘Too many’ + plural countable nouns She has too many books.
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Placement of Enough
He can’t reach the shelf. He’s not tall enough.
‘Enough’ =
sufficient, adequate
Structure ExamplesAfter adjectives and adverbs I’m not tall enough. You drive fast enough.
Before nouns and noun phrases There isn’t enough time.
After verbs (including past participles) He doesn’t work enough. I’ve eaten enough.
‘Also’ / ‘As well’ / ‘Too’
Also As well Too Before a verb and after ‘to be’ At the end of a sentence At the end of a clause or for emphasis (with commas)
I also have a dog. I have a dog as well. I have a dog too. I, too, have a dog.
She also studies English. She studies English as well. She studies English too. She, too, studies English.
She is also tall. She is tall as well. She is tall too. She, too, is tall.
We are also Chinese. We are Chinese as well. We are Chinese too. We, too, are Chinese.
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Adverbs of Time / FrequencyAdverbs of time or frequency are adverbs that tell us ‘how often’ we do something.
How often do you go to the mall? I sometimes go to the mall.
Adverb placement ExamplesBefore a verb I never go to the mall. I always play basketball on the weekends. She often practices English.
After verb ‘to be’ I am always tired. She is usually late for English class.
neverseldom/rarely
sometimes*often
usuallyaways
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Adverbs An adverb modifies a verb. It helps to tell ‘how’, ‘when’ or ‘where’ the action took place.To make an adverb: Adjective + –ly Examples:Accidently QuicklyAngrily SafelyBadly
Exceptions and Irregular adverbs:These are some words that are adjectives and adverbs: hard, fast, late, early
Good (adjective) well (adverb)Your English is very good.You speak English very well.
Spelling Rules -If the adjective ends in /y/ add –ily Easy Easily, Heavy Heavily
-If the adjective ends in /e/, we keep /e/ before the /ly/ Polite Politely, Extreme Extremely
-If the adjective end in /le/, we do not keep the /e/ before the /ly/ Simply Simply, Terrible Terribly
*Sometimes can also go before the subject.
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The Adverb ‘that’
Structure Use Example‘That’ + adjective/ adverb To intensify the meaning Are you that afraid? of the adjective/ adverb I had no idea I was that far from home.
‘that’ as an adverb
Adverbs of MannerAdverbs of manner tell us how something happens or how somebody does something. They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object. Examples:The train stopped suddenly.I opened the door slowly.
Be careful with the differences between adjectives and adverbs:
Adjective Adverb-Sue is very quiet. -Sue speaks very quietly. (Not speaks very quiet)
-It was a bad game. (Describes the game -Our team played badly. (Describes how the team played)which is a noun)
-I am nervous. -I waited nervously.
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‘Yet’ / ‘Not yet’
‘Yet’ = until now
Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. They are still waiting for Bill.Bill hasn’t come yet.
Use ExamplesYet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane? She isn’t here yet.
‘Yet’ is usually at the end of a sentence. Are you ready to go yet? No, not yet..
Bill will behere soon.
Where’s Bill?He’s very late.
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‘Still’ / ‘Yet’ Still =
something is the same as before
An hour ago it was raining. It is still raining now.
Example: I had a lot to eat but I’m still hungry. (= I was hungry before and I’m hungry now)
Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. They are still waiting for Bill.Bill hasn’t come yet.
Yet =
until now
THE RAIN HASN´T STOPPED
Bill will behere soon.
Where’s Bill.He’s very late.
Use ExamplesYet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane? She isn’t here yet.
‘Yet’ is usually at the end of a sentence. Are you ready to go yet? Not yet.
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Compound Adjectives
A compound adjective is formed when two or more adjectives work together to modify the same noun.
The second part of the compound adjective may be:
An adjective ice-cold
A present participle heartbreaking
A past participle well-deserved
A noun + ed old-fashioned
Irregular(Do not follow the second-handstructures above)
HEART BREAKING
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Adjectives ending in –ing and –ed
Ending in –ing Use ExamplesSubject + verb ‘to be’ + When the adjective ends I hate snakes. They’re terrifying.adjective + –ing in –ing, it means that the particular person or thing causes a particular effect.
Ending in –ed Use ExamplesSubject + verb ‘to be’ + When the adjective ends in Snakes terrify me. I am alwaysadjective + –ed –ed, it means that the terrified when I see one. particular person or thing experiences a particular effect.
Adjectives ending in –ingSome adjectives are made by adding –ing to the verb.
Adjectives ending in –ing
Tells you about the situation
Examples: My job is boring.The news was shocking. It was surprising that he passed the exam.
Adjectives ending in –ed
Tells you how somebody feels.
Examples: I’m bored with my job.We were shocked when we heard the news.Everyone was surprised that he passed the exam.
Examples:
Disgust disgusting Bore boring Interest interesting Depress depressing Surprise surprising
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The past participle as an adjectiveSome past participles can be used as adjectives.
Regular Verbs add –ed or –d Examples: worked, finished, boiled
Irregular Verbs No general rules
Some common irregular past participlesbreak broken drive drivenwrite written eat eatenfall fallen forget forgottengive given see seentake taken know knownfly flown drink drunkswim swum throw thrown
Examples:That is a broken cup.We are visiting the forgotten city of the Incas.
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Adverbs of DegreeDescribe the strength or intensity of something that happens. Many adverbs are gradable, which means we can intensify them.
They answer these questions: ‘How much ..?’ or ‘How little...?’
Highest Intensity ++ Lowest Intensity totally somewhat hardly completely somehow scarcelyentirely fairly barelythoroughly ratherabsolutely kind of definitelypositively
+++ +almost slightly very a bitextremely a littlereallyquitepractically
Use / Structure ExamplePlace the adverb before the adjective or The water was extremely cold.adverb they are modifying
Place the adverb before the main verb She has almost finished.
Examples:I’m really enjoying working on this project. The exam was fairly easy.He has barely worked this year.
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Adverbs and Adjectives Adverbs are used to modify nouns, verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. This way we can indicate how things are done. Refer to the chart below for examples:
Adverb Adjective
Other uses
good well
difficult with difficulty
public publicly
deep deep (place)
deeply (feeling)
direct direct
directly (=soon)
hard hard
hardly (=seldom)
high high (place)
highly (figurative)
late late
lately (=recently)
most most
mostly (=usually)
near near
nearly (=almost)
pretty pretty (=rather)
prettily
short short
shortly (=soon)
The following adjectives are daily, enough, early, far, fast, hourly, little,
also used as adverbs long, low, monthly, much, straight,
(without modification) weekly, yearly, …
adverbs are also used to give extra information
about adjectives (or other adverbs).
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Uses of ‘so’
Structure + Examples
‘So’ + adjective or adverb = an exclamation You’re so kind!Don’t be so sensitive!
‘that’ clauses so…………thatIt was so cold that we stopped playing. (not It was very cold that we stopped playing)He was driving so fast that he went through a red light.
Substitute word‘So’ can be used in some structures instead of repeating an adjective or adverb.The weather is stormy and will remain so over the weekend.We thank you for flying with us and hope you’ll do so again.
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UseWe use ‘even’ to say that something is surprising or unusual.
Example Tina loves watching television. She has a TV set in every room of the house, even the bathroom.
Use We can use ‘even’ + a comparative (cheaper / more expensive)
Example I got up very early, but John got up even earlier.
Position of even
‘Even’ + nominal group* / pronoun + verb Even my sister will be there.Even you can come.
Auxiliary + ‘even’ + verbI don’t even know you. I have even invited John.
*A nominal group typically comprises a noun surrounded by other words that all in some way characterize that noun.
The placement of ‘even’
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‘Even though’ / ‘Even if’‘Even if’ and ‘even though’ mean basically the same thing: ‘although’. They have the following distinct meanings:
Structure Use Examples‘Even though’ Concession. Even though you’re my Describes a reality that friend, I can’t trust you. seems to contradict main clause. Even though she tried her best, she fell twice.
‘Even if’ Something hypothetical or theoretical. Even if you were my friend, A contradiction of some hypotheses. I wouldn’t trust you. All conditional forms can be used. He won’t transfer to Africa, even if they double his salary.
‘Quite’ / ‘Quite a few’
Use Examples‘Quite’ = less than ‘very’ but more than ‘a little’ It’s quite cold. You’d better put a coat on.
‘Quite’ goes before a/an Quite a nice day. (not a quite nice day)
‘Quite a few’ = modifies plural nouns to indicate large quantities. Example: I have quite a few letters for you.
Quite also means ‘completely’.Example: ‘Are you sure?’ ‘Yes, quite sure.’ (= completely sure)
With theses adjectives, ‘quite’ means ‘completely’:sure right true clear different incredible amazing certain wrong safe obvious unnecessary extraordinary impossible
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10 Comparatives and Superlatives
Comparing equals using ‘as…as’
Structure ‘as’ + adjective / adverb + ‘as’
Use To compare two people or things according to a common trait.
ExamplesMy brother is as tall as my dad.I’m as old as you are.
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Regular and Irregular Comparatives S
I’m 92.I’m 93.
Comparatives are used to compare two things. You can use sentences with ‘than’, or you can use a conjunction like ‘but’.
1 syllable adjectives add -er My brother is older than my sister.old older
2 syllable adjectives ending in ‘y’ add -ier English is easier than Russian.easy easier
2 or more syllables add more (before the adjective) Helen is more beautiful than Jane.beautiful more beautiful
old older
Spelling RulesWords with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end. (Double the consonant.)
Example: hot hotter big bigger fat fatter
Irregular Comparativesgood betterbad worsefar farther/furthermuch/many morelittle less
5040KGKG
heavy heavier
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Regular and Irregular Superlatives
Box A is bigger than Box B. Box A is bigger than all the other boxes. Box A is the biggest box.
Superlatives are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually use ‘the’, because there is only one superlative.
1 syllable adjectives add the -est My brother is the oldest of my siblings.
old the oldest
2 syllable adjectives ending in ‘y’ add the -iest English is the easiest language to learn.
easy the easiest
2 or more syllables add the most Helen is the most beautiful in her family. (before the adjective)beautiful the most beautiful
Spelling RulesWords with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end double the consonant.
Example: hot – hottest big – biggest fat – fattest
Irregular Superlativesgood the bestbad the worstfar the farthest/ the furthestmuch/many the mostlittle the least
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‘The more . . . the more’
Structure ‘the’ + comparative..............., ‘the’ + comparative
Parallel progression: we use comparatives with ‘the....the....’ to say things change or vary together.
ExamplesThe younger you are, the easier it is to learn a language. The more I learn, the more I know.The older I get, the happier I am.
A use of the comparative
Structure Examples‘the’ + comparative The younger generation (as opposed to ‘the older generation’)
Use Sometimes a comparative may express an This class is for the more intelligent studentsopposition between 2 elements without actually (as opposed to ‘the slower students’)stating both elements (the second element is implied)
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Prepositions of TimeA preposition of time connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a noun and the moment/day/time/date of the action.
Preposition Use ExampleAt Time I start work at 9 o’clock. I go to bed at midnight. The shops close at 5.30.
On Days of the week I have class on Tuesdays. Specific dates My birthday is on May 25 . New Year’s Day etc. I go home on Christmas Day.
In Months My birthday is in June. Seasons I take vacation in the summer. Years I was born in 1980.
By To show ending date or period. I need to finish the report by Friday. It will be ready by the summer.
Fixed expressions: in the morning, in the afternoon, in the eveningButon Monday morning, on Tuesday afternoon etc.
At the weekend (British) / On the weekend (American) At nightAt the moment
11 Prepositions
MT W TFSS
May
18152229
29162330
310172431
4111825
5121926
6132027
7142128
th
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Prepositions of Place A preposition of place connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a noun and the location/area/position/surface of an object.
At•General location
•Precise point in larger space
In•Inside of a place
•Country, city, district something is located in
On•Surface
at the cornerat the bus stopat the doorat the front desk
in the gardenin Londonin Francein a car
on the wallon the ceilingon the dooron a page
Here are some prepositions of place.
on above over in front of
behind under belowbeside
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A final preposition is a word which comes after the verb and requests the results between the action performed and the subject or object of the sentence.
Final Preposition
Verb + prepositionSome verbs are commonly followed by a preposition in order to indicate a common action.
Examples:
Listen to
Look at
Look for (search for, try to find)
Look after (take care of)
Talk about
Talk to
Worry about
Pay for
Depend on
Complain about
Go to
Go for
Go on
Go in
In some structures we put the preposition at the end of the sentence:
Interrogative questions (when the question word is the object of the preposition)
Relative clauses(when the relative pronoun is the object of the preposition)
Infinitive clauses
What are you looking at? What kind of music do you like to listen to?
This is the house that I am talking about.That’s what I’m worried about.
I’ve got lots of music to listen to.She has nothing to complain about.
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12 Conjunctions ConjunctionsA conjunction is a word that “joins” the words in a sentence to each other in order to send a logical message. It literally connects parts of a sentence.
Frequently Used Conjunctions: Examples:‘And’ - To suggest that one idea is chronologically Karen sent in her applications andsequential to another. waited by the phone for a response.
-To suggest that one idea is the result of Kevin heard the weather report andanother. packed his camping gear.
- To suggest that one idea is in contrast to Juan is brilliant, and Sandra has aanother. pleasant personality.
-To suggest an element of surprise. Melipilla is a beautiful town and suffers from severe pollution.
-To suggest that one clause is dependent Use your credit cards frequently, andupon another, conditionally. you’ll soon find yourself deep in debt.
-To suggest a kind of ‘comment’ on the My lazy friend Charlie failed the math test first clause. and that didn’t surprise anyone.
‘Yet’ -To suggest addition, more of something. She is a simple, yet very intelligent woman.
-Despite, even though The story is unbelievable, yet supposedly it’s all true.
-To indicate that something can ‘eventually’ occur. They may yet win the game.
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‘Nor’-Used with ‘neither’ for negative sentences. He is neither young nor ambitious.
-Used with other negative expressions. That is not what I meant, nor should you misinterpret my statement.
‘But’- To suggest a contrast that is unexpected based Joey lost his job last year, but he still on the first clause. seems able to live quite comfortably.
- To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first The students never studied for the test,part of the sentence implied in a negative way. but used their notes to work on the assignment in class.
- To use with the meaning of ‘with Everybody but Mark is trying out for the team.the exception of’.
‘Or’- To suggest that only one possibility can be You can study hard for this exam or youachieved, excluding one or the other. can fail. (= only one of these things can happen)
- To suggest the inclusive combination We can broil chicken on the grill tonight,of alternatives. or we can eat hamburgers.
- To suggest a refinement of the first Smart English is the best language center in the clause. country, or so it seems to most students at the UAI.
- To suggest a restatement or ‘correction’ There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon,of the first part of the sentence. or so our guide tells us.
- To suggest a negative condition. Either you participate in class or get a 1.0 grade for class participation.
- To suggest a negative alternative without They must like her style or they wouldn’t keep askingthe use of an imperative. her to design the uniforms each year.
‘For’Though used as a preposition, we can use ‘for’ John thought he had a good chance toas a conjunctive when we introduce the reason for get the job, for his father was on thethe preceding clause. company’s board of trustees.
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‘So’
- To connect two independent clauses together Steve has always been nervous in largewith a comma. gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids crowds when he is at the beach.
- To indicate ‘as well’ or ‘in addition’. John is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his uncle, sister, and his aunt Sally.
- At the beginning of a sentence, ‘so’ will act as a So, the sheriff promptly removed the childkind of summing up device or transition, and when it from the custody of his parents.does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma.
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Use of ‘so’ to express a goal
Examples: I’m saving money so I can travel in the summer.She gave him more time so he could finish the assignment.
‘So that’ + ‘may’ or ‘can’ Objectives are expressed using ‘so that’ followed by:
Structure Example
Present simple He’ll take a taxi so that he arrives on time.
‘May’ / ‘might’ ‘can’ / ‘could’ He stayed after school so that he could help me with my homework.
‘Will’ / ‘would’ I wrote it in my daily planner so that I wouldn’t forget.
In an informal style, ‘that’ is often dropped.
Example:I’ve come early so I can talk to you.
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Similarity: ‘like’ and ‘as’
UseWe can use ‘like’ or ‘as’ to say that things are similar.
Structure Example‘Like’ - is similar to a preposition •Like + noun / pronoun You look like your sister. He ran like the wind.
•We can use ‘like’ to give examples She’s good at scientific subjects, like chemistry.
‘As’- is a conjunction •‘As’ + clause (subject + verb) They did as they promised.
•‘As’ comes before nouns designating He worked as a taxi driver.tittles and functions
‘Like’ and ‘as’ can both be used as prepositions but have different meanings.
‘Like’ = ‘similar to’
‘As’ = ‘in the position of’, ‘in the form of’
Compare: ‘As’ – Brenda Casey is the manager of a company. As the manager, she has to make many
important decisions.
(‘As the manager’ = in her position as the manager)
‘Like’ – Mary Stone is the assistant manager. Like the manager (Brenda Casey), she also has to
make important decisions.
(‘Like the manager’ = similar to the manager)
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Gerunds and Infinitives
The infinitive (‘to’ + verb) is used:• To say why you do somethingI go to the gym to get some exercise.
• To say why something exists Here’s an example to help you.
• After ‘too’ and ‘enough’It’s too cold to go swimming. The gerund (verb ending in –ing) is used:• After prepositions (see below) He’s made a lot of friends by joining the tennis club.
• As non-count nounsClimbing is safer than it looks
PREPOSITIONS: after before by for on despite without since
13 Gerunds and Infinitives
If verbs are followed by another verb, that verb is either in the infinitive or the gerund form.
Verbs Followed by an InfinitiveShe agreed to speak before the game.
agree consent hope prepare tryaim continue hurry proceed useappear dare intend promise waitarrange decide leap propose wantask deserve leave refuse wishattempt expect long remember be able fail mean say beg forget neglect shoot begin get offer stop bother happen ought strive care have plan swearchoose hesitate prefer threaten
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Verbs Followed by an Object and an InfinitiveEveryone expected her to win.advise choose have order sendallow command hire pay teachask dare instruct permit tellbeg direct invite persuade urgebring encourage lead prepare wantbuild expect leave promise warnbuy forbid let remind challenge force motivate require Note: Some of these verbs are included in the list above and may be used without an object.
Verbs Followed by a GerundThey enjoyed working on the boat.admit delay get through practice riskadvise deny have quit spend (time)appreciate enjoy imagine recall suggestavoid escape mind report toleratecan’t help excuse miss resent waste (time)complete finish permit resist consider forbid postpone resume
Verbs Followed by a Preposition and a GerundWe concentrated on doing well.admit to depend on prevent (someone) fromapprove of disapprove of refrain fromargue about discourage from succeed inbelieve in dream about talk aboutcare about feel like think aboutcomplain about forget about worry aboutconcentrate on insist on confess to plan on
Expressions followed by the gerund It’s no good It’s not worth It’s no useIt’s a waste of time Can’t stand Can’t bearCan’t help
Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a gerundbegin love dislike prefercontinue like hate start
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‘Get used to’We use ‘get used to’ to say that an action or situation becomes less strange or new. We can use the expression in present simple, interrogative and present continuous forms.
Structure: ‘get used to’ + noun or gerund
It took them a long time to get used Have you got used to driving She is getting used to waking upto the new office. on the left side of the road yet? early for her new job.
‘Be used to’ We use the expression ‘be used to’ to say that we have already become familiar with something/someone which was in the past new or strange. We can use the expression in the present simple, negative and affirmative sentences, in question form and when the object involves a verb, we use the gerund form.
Structure: subject + be + used to + object.
Mary is used to horses. Are you used to horses? We are used to taking the bus.Kurt is not used to horses.
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Verbs: Reactions and PreferencesSome verbs that express reactions and preferences are followed by a verb in the gerund (verb ending in –ing). Some are followed by a verb in the infinitive (‘to’ + verb) or a gerund.
Followed by the gerund To enjoy To mind To resent To object to To miss Cannot stand
They enjoy dancing very much. I miss going to my English class.
Followed by gerund or infinitive To like To love To dislike To hate To loathe To prefer Cannot bear
I love eating. I love to eat.
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Verb + Infinitive ClauseVerbs that express a command, wish, preference and prohibition follow this structure.Verbs: allow, command, forbid, hate, instruct, like, love, need, oblige, recommend, want
verb + object + infinitive
Examples: He wants John to rent a car.They don’t allow people to smoke.
Many of these verbs can also be used in the passive structure.
Subject + passive verb + infinitive
Examples: We were advised to come early.We were instructed to put down our pens.
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Verbs expressing a wish to act Verbs expressing a wish to act may be followed by infinitives (‘to’ + verb) or gerunds (verbs ending in –ing).
To intend Infinitive or gerund* He intends to go to New York. He intends going to new York.*
To propose Infinitive or gerund What did he propose doing? What did he propose to do?
To try Infinitive I am trying to do this exercise.(attempt to do, make an effort to )
To try Gerund I wouldn’t try rafting; it is very (do something as an dangerous. experiment or test)
To agree Infinitive He agreed to help her.
To consent Infinitive She consented to go with her.
*A gerund with this verb is only used in British English.
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Verb + Preposition ‘at’ / ‘to’
Verb + ‘at’ Verb + ‘to’
Look / have a look / stare / glance AT. Talk / speak TOLaugh / smile AT Listen TOAim / point AT Write TO Invite (somebody) TO-Why are you looking at me? Explain (something) TO (someone)-I was laughing at his joke. Apologize TO (someone)
-Can I speak to Jane please? -I invited 200 people to my wedding. -I need to apologize to my friend because I shouted at her yesterday.
Some verbs can be followed by at or to, but there is a difference in meaning.
Shout AT somebody – when you are angry Shout TO somebody – so that they can hear you
Throw something AT somebody/something – in order to hit themThrow something TO somebody – for somebody to catch
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ConditionalsZero, First, and Second Conditionals (Sequence of tenses with ‘if’)*
* For ‘construction of the present conditional’, see ‘second’ in table below. For ‘sequence of tenses with if’ see ‘zero, first, second and third’ below.
14 Conditionals
Conditionals are used to talk about possibility.Conditional Structure Uses Examples
Zero ‘If’ + subject + present simple , subject + Used to describe something that is present simple generally or always true.
If water boils, it reaches 100 degrees.
First ‘If’ + subject+ present simple, subject + ‘will’ Used to describe a situation that is likely. + infinitive without ‘to’
‘If’ the weather is good, I will go to the beach.
Second ‘If’ + subject + past simple, subject + Used to describe a situation that (present) ‘would’ + infinitive without ‘to’ is not likely.
If’ I won a million pounds, I would buy a house. Describes a hypothetical situation in the present.
Third ‘If’ + subject + past perfect, subject + Used to describe a (perfect) ‘would’ + ‘have’ + past participle hypothetical situation in the past. It describes a situation that is If I had won the lottery, I would have impossible. bought a car.
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The Perfect Conditional / Third Conditional
‘If’ + subject + past perfect, subject + ‘would’ + ‘have’ + past participle
If I had seen you, I would have said hello.
Describes hypothetical situations in the past. These situations are in the past and therefore they are impossible and never happened.
Example:Last month Gary was in hospital for an operation. Liz didn’t know this, so she didn’t go to visit him. They met a few days ago. Liz said:
‘If I had known you were in hospital, I would have gone to visit you.’
What Liz said is hypothetical because the real situation is that she didn’t know he was in hospital.
The Perfect Conditional using ‘should’
Structure
‘Should’ + ‘have’ + past participle
Use Example
Regret or reproach (to blame someone) I should have studied harder. (regret)
You should have gotten up earlier. (reproach)
(unfulfilled) expectation or assumption You should have received my e-mail.regarding the past I sent it half an hour ago.
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15 Subjunctive and Wishes Present Subjunctive
FORMUse the simple form of the verb. The simple form is the infinitive without the ‘to’. The simple form of the verb ‘to go’ is ‘go’. The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses.
USEThe Subjunctive is used to emphasize urgency or importance. It is used after certain expressions (see below).Examples:• I suggest that he study. • Is it essential that we be there? • Don recommended that you join the committee.
NOTICE:The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. In the examples below, the Subjunctive is not noticeable in the you-form of the verb, but it is noticeable in the he/she-form of the verb.
Examples:YOU-FORM OF ‘TRY’: HE-FORM OF ‘TRY’:•You try to study often. •He tries to study often.
SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF ‘TRY’ LOOKS THE SAME: SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF ‘TRY’ IS NOTICEABLE:•It is important that you try to study often. •It is important that he try to study often.
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Verbs Followed by the SubjunctiveThe Subjunctive is used after the following verbs:to advise (that)to ask (that)to command (that)to demand (that)to desire (that)to insist (that)to propose (that)to recommend (that)to request (that)to suggest (that)to urge (that)
Examples•Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his research paper before the end of the month. •Donna requested Frank come to the party. •The teacher insists that her students be on time.
Expressions Followed by the SubjunctiveThe Subjunctive is used after the following expressions:It is best (that)It is crucial (that)It is desirable (that)It is essential (that)It is imperative (that)It is important (that)It is recommended (that)It is urgent (that)It is vital (that)It is a good idea (that)It is a bad idea (that)
Examples•It is crucial that you be there before Tom arrives. •It is important she attend the meeting. •It is recommended that he take a gallon of water with him if he wants to hike to the bottom of the Grand Canyon.
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Negative Forms of SubjunctiveThe Subjunctive can be used in negative, continuous and passive forms.Examples:•The boss insisted that Sam not be at the meeting. •The company asked that employees not accept personal phone calls during business hours. •I suggest that you not take the job without renegotiating the salary.
The Past Subjunctive
Past Forms of the Subjunctive
The past tense of the subjunctive has the same forms as the indicative.
Present: The President requests that they stop the invasion. Past: The President requested that they stop the invasion.
However, we usually use the subjunctive ‘were’ instead of ‘was’ after ‘if’ and other words with similar meanings. (‘was’ is often used informally in speech)
ExamplesHe wishes he were a better student.If I were seven feet tall, I’d be a great basketball player.* *This is also a second conditional. See below.
The past subjunctive is commonly used with these expressions ‘if only’, ‘I wish’, ‘suppose’, ‘as if’.
ExamplesIf only I had more money.I wish I were thinner.Suppose she were married. It’s not as if I were ugly.
Note: Some sentences combine a past subjunctive with a conditional. In this example, part 1 is a subjunctive and part 2 a conditional.
If only I had more money, I would buy a new car. 1 2
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Wishes and Regrets
Wishes in the present To make wishes about the present, use the past tense. For the verb ‘to be’, use ‘were’.
Situation: My sister is untidy. Wish: “I wish she were tidier.”
Wishes in the past (regret)To make wishes about the past, use the past perfect.
Situation: I didn’t go on a vacation this year. Wish: “I wish I had gone on a vacation this year.”
Wishes about ability To make wishes about ability use ‘could’.
Situation: I can’t play a musical instrument.Wish: “I wish I could play a musical instrument.”
Wishes about habit and free will To make wishes about habit and free will use ‘would’.
Situation: He sings in the office.Wish: “I wish he wouldn’t sing in the office.” (In this sentence you are stressing the fact he wants to sing and makes a habit of it.)
Wish =
To show you want a situation to be different
Regret=
To feel sorrow or remorse for something
you did/did not do.
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16 Passives The Passive Voice
Passive Voice = ‘To be’ + past participle
The passive exists in every tense.
We use an active verb to say what the subject does. We use a passive verb to say what happens to the subject.
When we use the passive, ‘who’ or ‘what’ causes the action is often unknown or unimportant.
If we want to say who does or what causes the action, we use ‘by…’
Tense Active PassivePresent Simple He cleans the room. The room is cleaned by him. Present Continuous He is cleaning the room. The room is being cleaned by him.Past Simple He cleaned the room. The room was cleaned by him.Past Continuous He was cleaning the room. The room was being cleaned by him.Future simple ‘will’ He will clean the room The room will be cleaned by him.‘To be going to’ future He is going to clean the room. The room is going to be cleaned by him.Present Perfect He has cleaned the room. The room has been cleaned by him.Past Perfect He had cleaned the room. The room had been cleaned by him.
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The Impersonal StructureAn impersonal structure is used to talk about people in general. Here are some different ways to form an impersonal structure.
Passive form without the agent We are expected at 7pm. (Somebody expects us)
The personal pronouns ‘we, you, they’ We drive on the left side of the road. (the speaker is included in the group of people in question)
You drink a lot of tea in Britain. (the listener is included)
They are very friendly in Ireland. (neither the speaker nor listener is included)
People (plural meaning) People in Ireland are very friendly.Somebody/someone (singular meaning) Someone is on the phone for you.
Other Impersonal Structures:
gerund + object + ‘to be’ conjugated + Reading English newspapers is often difficult.(adverb of frequency) + adjective Playing tennis is excellent exercise.
It + ‘to be’ conjugated + It is sometimes exciting to walk in the (adverb of frequency) + adjective pouring rain.+ infinitive It was strange to say that Russian is easier than English.
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17Reported Speech The Sequence of Tenses / Reported SpeechReported Speech is used to communicate what someone else said, but without using the exact words.
I’m feeling ill.
You want to tell someone else what Tom said. There are 2 ways of doing this:1. You can repeat Tom’s words (direct speech) Tom said, ‘I’m feeling ill’
2. You can use reported speech.Tom said that he was feeling ill.
Reported speech:-The main sentence of the verb is usually in the past tense. (said, told) -The rest of the sentence is usually in a past tense too. (each tense goes a step back in time)-‘That’ is optional.
Here are the changes in tense (sequence of tenses) in reported speech:
Direct speech Reported speechShe said “I watch TV every day.” She said (that) she watched TV every day.She said “I am watching.” She said she was watching TV. She said “I watched TV.” She said she had watched TV. She said “I have watched TV.” She said she had watched TV.She said “I will watch TV.” She said she would watch TV.She said “I am going to watch TV.” She said she was going to watch TV.She said “I can watch TV.” She said she could watch TV.She said “I may watch TV.” She said she might watch TV.She said “I must watch TV.” She said she had to watch TV.She said “I should watch TV.” She said she should watch TV.She said “I ought to watch TV.” She said she ought to watch TV.She said “Watch TV.” She told someone to watch TV. *
*The imperative changes to the infinitive. ‘Tell’ is usually used instead of ‘say’.
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General Guidelines for Reported Speech
1. This formal sequence of tenses is used both in speaking and writing.
2. However, sometimes in spoken English no change is made if the speaker is reporting something immediately after it was said.
Immediate Reporting: What did the teacher just say? He said he wants us to read Chapter Six.
Later Reporting: I didn’t go to the class yesterday. Did Mr. Jones give any assignments? He said he wanted us to read Chapter Six.
3. If the sentence is a general truth, sometimes the present tense is retained.
She said that Alaska is the largest state in the USA.
4. The past simple can stay the same in reported speech or you can change it to the past perfect.
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18Phrasal Verbs The Main Postpositions / Common Phrasal Verbs A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition or adverb that modifies or changes the meaning.
Here are some common phrasal verbs in English.
Preposition Use ExampleAway Estrangement: to go away All evidence of the crime was swept away. Disappearance: to sweep away
Back Backward movement: to stand back The student answered back to the teacher. Return to point of departure: to bring back Reply: to answer back
Down Downward movement: to go down Please turn down the radio; it is very loud. Writing: to write down Decrease: to turn down
In Inward movement: to get in I will drop in later and see how you are doing. Visit: to drop in
Off Averting: to put off I have put off my dental appointment. Departure: to go off / to take off because I have a class.
On Start: to turn on / switch on Can you turn on the fan please? Continuation: to go on
Out Outward movement: to move out I always eat out on Fridays. Outside: to eat out Distribution: to give out
Over Repetition: to say over I will have to think over your offer carefully. Action done with care: to think over
Up Upward movement: to climb up Speak up, I can’t hear you. Increased volume: to speak up
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Phrasal Verbs
Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. An intransitive verb cannot be followed by an object.Example: He suddenly showed up. SHOW UP cannot take an object.
Some phrasal verbs are transitive. A transitive verb can be followed by an object.Example: I made up the story. ‘Story’ is the object of ‘made up’.
Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between the verb and the preposition. Example: I talked my mother into letting me borrow the car. TALK INTO = PERSUADE
Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placed after the preposition.Example: I ran into an old friend yesterday. RUN INTO = MEET BY CHANCE
Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places.Example:I looked the number up in the phone book.I looked up the number in the phone book.
A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a meaning different from the original verb.Example: I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. RUN + INTO = MEETHe ran away when he was 15. RUN + AWAY = LEAVE HOME
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WARNING! Although many phrasal verbs can take an object in both places, you must put the object between the verb and the preposition if the object is a pronoun.
Example: I looked the number up in the phone book. CORRECTI looked up the number in the phone book. CORRECTI looked it up in the phone book. CORRECTI looked up it in the phone book. INCORRECT
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19Expressions ‘To get’ + Adjective
The verb ‘to get’ has many different ‘To get’ + adjective : Some adjectives used with ‘get’meanings such as: to become, show a change of state
To obtain get hungry To receive Examples: get thirsty To buy It gets dark early in winter. get tired To reach I’m getting tired of working get ready To arrive (at a place) such long hours. get serious To become It is getting warmer. get wet get better get prepared get dressed get bigger
Get dressed
‘To look forward to’‘To look forward to’ = To think of a future event with anticipation
Structure Verb ‘to be’ + ‘look forward to’ + noun
Example:I am looking forward to the vacation.
StructureVerb ‘to be’ + ‘look forward to’ + gerund
Examples:I look forward to hearing from you.He is looking forward to seeing you.
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‘Kind of’ followed by a noun
‘kind of (a/an)’ + noun
When you ask for a more precise definition What kind of (a) problem are you having?*or description of something. What kind of experience do you have?
* It is more informal to include ‘a’
To describe something in an approximate way, She’s kind of rude.not precise. It’s a kind of telephone but plays music as well.
‘Kind of like (/a/an)’ + noun To compare one thing to another in an It looks kind of like an earring, but is much bigger.approximate or partial way.
‘Kind of’ = sort of / type of What sort/type of computer is that? = What kind of computer is that?
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‘To be likely’
‘To be likely’ =
high probability of something happening.
Present ‘To be likely’ + infinitive He is likely to pass the exam. The meeting is likely to be very long.
Past ‘To be (was/were) likely’ + infinitive The meeting was likely to be very long.
Negative‘To be unlikely’ + infinitive He is unlikely to come.
Related expression ‘It is likely that’ It’s likely that it will rain. It’s unlikely that it is very cold there.
‘To be likely’ + ‘to have’ + past participle He is likely to have forgotten about the appointment.= an opinion about a past event. They are likely to have finished early.
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‘To be left’ / ‘To have left’
‘To be left’ /‘to have left’ = remaining, not used, still there
Structure Example‘to be left’ This is a passive structure.
Subject + ‘be left’ The weather was bad. Few people were left on the streets.
to have left This is an active structure.
Subject + ‘have’ + direct object + ‘left’ Do you have any rooms left? Yes, we have some rooms left.
‘For the sake of’
‘For the sake of’ = in the interests of
Structure Examples‘For’ + noun / noun phrase +’ -’s sake’ For John’s sake For the children’s sake
‘For’ + possessive adjective + ‘sake’ For his sake For their sake
‘For the sake of’ + noun / noun phrase / gerund For the sake of the children For the sake of saving
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Expressions with ‘to have’
Use Examples
Here are some fixed expressions with the
verb ‘to have’
To have a bath Did you have a bath yesterday?
To have lunch We will have lunch later.
To have a rest I’d like to have a rest before going out.
To have a look Have a look at this!
‘To have reason to’ + infinitive We have reason to hope for continued success.
( to analyze causes and consequences)
‘To have to do with something’ The report has to do with our financial
( to say what the topic is) results for the last quarter.
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Baseball ExpressionsBaseball is an important part of American culture. Its influence is so strong that it has become the source of many expressions that are used in informal and busi-ness contexts.
Expression ExampleTouch base It’s good to touch base with clients regularly.
Playing field Now that more companies have made offers, we’re dealing with a bigger playing field.
On the ball Our new attorney seems to be on the ball.
Ballpark figure I can only give you a ballpark figure.
In the ballpark The offer isn’t in the ballpark yet.
Big league We’ll move into the big league if we secure this deal.
To cover one’s bases This is a complicated transaction; make sure to cover your bases.
Home run Jenny hit a home run with that deal.
Play hard ball We’re going to have to play hard ball if we want to get this deal.
Right off the bat Dan started criticizing right off the bat.
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‘To be at stake’
Structure Use Example‘To be’ + ‘at stake’ To be threatened or endangered. If we don’t respond to this This may be used to talk about threats crisis now, our financial to someone or something’s well-being stability will be at stake. or reputation. The firm’s reputation is at stake following the recall of its latest product.
These expressions are similar in meaning ‘to be at stake’:‘to be in jeopardy’, ‘to be on the line’, ‘to be at risk’
Expressions of IncreaseThere are several different words and expressions to describe increase.
Use Expression ExampleTo describe increase in a To rise Share values rose steadily last quarter.general way. To climb Next year, productivity should climb sharply.
To talk about slow or To creep up Stocks crept up last quarter.gradual increase. To edge up To inch up Prices are inching up due to inflation.
To describe sharp and To take off The company is only two years old,sudden increase. To skyrocket but it has really taken off. To shoot up To soar Stocks are skyrocketing following To go through the roof economic recovery.
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20 Other ‘There is’ / ‘There are’
Affirmative Negative Question Singular: There is There is not Is there…….? There isn’t There’s not
Plural: There are There are not Are there…..? There aren’t
Examples:
STATION
There’s a man on the roof. There’s a train in the station.
MT W TFSS
May
18152229
29162330
310172431
4111825
5121926
6132027
7142128
There are seven days in a week.
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Dates
First 1st, Second 2nd, Third 3rd
Ordinal Numbers Fourth 4th, Fifth 5th, Sixth 6th, Seventh 7th, Eighth 8th, Ninth 9th, Tenth 10th…
20th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd …. 30th, 31st, 32nd, 33rd….
Days
Years Up until the year 2000, years are pronounced 1998 = nineteen ninety-eightin two parts: 2010 = two thousand (and) ten (‘twenty ten’ is also becoming popular)1925 = 19
part1 25
part2 =
‘Nineteen1 twenty-five
2’
1: American format = July 2, 2010 month / day / year = 07/02/2010Date (written form) 2: British format = 2 July 2010 day / month / year = 02/07/2010
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Weekly CalendarWeek of_______________
Saturday
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Time
What time………? = what time of day? What time is it? What time do you get up?
O’clock The time + o’clock = indicates an exact hour.It’s six o’clock.
British EnglishTo express a time after the hour we use ‘past’.
12 12
3
4
56
78
9
1011 12 1
2
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12 12
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12 12
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It’s twenty past four. It’s quarter past three It’s half past twelve.
To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use ‘to’.
It’s ten to two. It’s quarter to five.
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American EnglishTo express a time after the hour we use ‘after’. (except for the half hour)
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It’s twenty after four. It’s quarter after three. It’s twelve thirty.
To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use ‘to’.
It’s ten to two. It’s quarter to five.
In both British and American English
You can also tell the time by reading the hour and then the minutes.
6:05 It’s six o five.6:10 It’s six ten. 6:15 It’s six fifteen.6:20 It’s six twenty.6:30 It’s six thirty. 6:45 It’s six forty-five.6:55 It’s six fifty-five.
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Use Structure ExampleTo cause someone to to ‘have’ or ‘make’ + I had him service my car.do something direct object + infinitive without ‘to’ He made me laugh so much.
To cause something ‘to have’ + direct object + He had his car repaired.to be done past participle She had her hair cut.
‘Have or ‘Make’ without ‘to’
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‘To Let’
‘Let’ + object + infinitive without ‘to’
Example: Please allow me to buy you a drink.Please let me buy you a drink.
Example: My parents don’t allow me to go out at night. My parents don’t let me go out at night.
Remember, in the third person present we use ‘lets’ but inthe past simple we use ‘let’.
Conjugation of ‘to let’The present The past simple
I let I letYou let You letHe/She/It lets He/She/It letWe let We letThey let They let
‘Let’ means the same as ‘to allow’ or ‘to permit’ but is more informal.
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‘When’ / ‘While’ + presentWith conjunctions of time, like ‘when’ and ‘while’, we use the present tense.
Structure ‘Will’ + verb, conjunction of time + present simple
Examples:They will eat when they arrive.While I am in Santiago, I’ll call you.
Conjunctions of timeafter onceas soon as untilas long as whenas much as whenever before whereverwhile
‘How’ + Adjective or Adverb
Structure Use Examples‘How’ + adjective or Forms an open question. How tall are you? adverb (you can’t answer yes or no) I am very tall. / I’m 1.60m
How high is Mt Everest? It is extremely high. / It’s 8848m
How often do you go to the cinema? I hardly ever go.
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‘Had better’ / ‘Would rather’
Structure Use Examples‘Had better’Subject + ‘had better’ + infinitive -A firm suggestion You had better tell her thewithout ‘to’ bad news.Subject + ‘had better’ + not -An order You had better not finish the cake!+ infinitive without ‘to’
‘Would rather’
Subject + ‘would rather’ + -To show preference I would rather go for a swim.infinitive without ‘to’
Subject + ‘would rather’ + not I would rather not go for a swim.+ infinitive without ‘to’
‘Would’ + subject + ‘rather’ Would you rather go for a swim?+ infinitive without ‘to’
Expression of PreferenceThese expressions are used to talk about preference.
Structure Examples‘Would prefer’ I’d prefer to talk to someone else. Would you prefer to stay at home? Subject + ‘would prefer’ + infinitive with ‘to’ (‘d)
‘Would rather’ He’d rather be on the beach.Subject + ‘would rather’ + infinitive without ‘to’ Would you rather stay here or go away? (‘d)
Used mainly in speech.
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Words ending in ‘ever’The words whoever, whatever, whichever, however, whenever, wherever mean it doesn’t matter who/ what / which etc. (‘any person who’, ‘any thing that’ etc. or ‘the unknown person who’, ‘the unknown thing that’)
Word ending in ever ExamplesWhoever Whoever comes to the door, tell them I’m out.
Whatever Whatever you do, I’ll always love you.
Whichever Choose whichever book you like.
However However you travel, it will take you at least 3 days.
Whenever Whenever I go to London, I try to see Vicky. Wherever Wherever you go, you’ll find Coca- Cola.
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The differences between ‘whether’ and ‘if’:
If WhetherFor situations with only one condition. To discuss two or more alternatives.
You can have dessert if you eat your I don’t know whether we should invest right now or not.vegetables. (the son having dessert depends on consumption of dessert, so this is conditional)
Use ‘whether’ after prepositions.
I am uncertain whether we should go to the dinner party.
Use ‘whether’ with infinitives that come after ‘to’.
Jenny doesn’t know whether to study for her test or go to a movie with friends.
Answer yes or no questions with ‘whether’ or ‘if’.Sally asks: ‘Can you go shopping with me tonight?’I’m not sure if I can go shopping with you tonight. ORI’m not sure whether I can go shopping with you tonight.
It’s becoming increasingly popular to use ‘whether’ and ‘if’ interchangeably in certain situations. Although this might be acceptable in casual conversation, it is not considered grammatically correct to interchange them.
‘Whether’
‘Whether’ =
to talk about choices or alternatives. Like ‘if’ it expresses uncertainty.
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Emphatic ‘do’For emphasis we can put do in an affirmative clause.
Use ExamplesInsistence on speaker’s point of view. She does look pretty.
Confirmation of what precedes. He said it would rain and it did rain.
Contradiction He didn’t come to the party yesterday. He did come, but he didn’t stay long.
Persuasion using the imperative ‘I can’t do it! It’s too difficult!’ ‘Do try again!’
Verbs expressing impressions and feelings Verbs that express impressions and feelings are: to look, to sound, to smell, to taste, to feel etc.
They may be followed by:
Structure Examplesthe preposition ‘like’ He looks like his father.
It sounds like you’re angry.
‘as if’ / ‘as though’ You look as if you don’t understand me. It sounds as though you aren’t listening to me.
an adjective He looks happy. This ice cream tastes good.
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‘I am told’
The present sometimes stands in for the present perfect, as in:
Structure Examples‘I am told’ (= I understand ) I am told that you are in charge of theInstead of ‘I’ve been told’ sales department.
‘I forget’ (= I can’t remember) What time is the match tonight?Instead of ‘I’ve forgotten’ I forget.
‘I hear’Instead of ‘I’ve heard’ I hear you have been promoted.
