accent

acronym

active

addressee

adjective

adverb

affix

Glossary of Linguistic Terms

Often used to refer to distinctive pronuncia­tions which differ from that of Received Pronunciation

It differs from dialect which includes syn­tax and vocabulary as well A word formed from the initial letters of the words which make up a name, e.g. NATO (from North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) A clause in which the subject is the actor of the verb; in a passive clause the actor is not the grammatical subject; seep. 14 The person being addressed or spoken to in any form of discourse In traditional grammar a word which de­scribes a noun, as happy in 'the happy man'; an adjective phrase is a group of one or more words fulfilling the function of an adjective; seep. 11 In t:r:aditional grammar a word which de­scribes a verb; in 'he ran slowly', slowly describes how he ran

An adverb phrase is a group of one or more words fulfilling the function of an adverb; see p. 11 A morpheme which is attached to another word as an inflection or for derivation

Affixes include prefixes at the beginning of a word and suffixes at the end of a word, e.g. un-god-ly with prefix un- and suffix -ly

A derivational affix is used to form a new word, e.g. the suffix -less with hope gives the new word hopeless; an inflectional affix marks grammatical relations, in comes, the -s marks third person singular present indicative

159

160

alliteration

alveolar

analogy

article

assimilation

auxiliary

bilabial

bilingual

clause

Glossary

The repetition of the same sound at the beginning of two or more words in close proximity, e.g. 'time and tide' In phonetics the sounds formed by the tongue closing the air passage at the alveolar ridge (immediately behind the front top teeth)

Such sounds in English include ltl, ldl, and lnl The tendency to make all examples of a particular feature follow a regular pattern; thus since most nouns in English form their plural by adding -s, the tendency is for nouns which do not form their plural in this way to change by analogy to this plural, e.g. formulas compared with older formulae In traditional grammar the name given to a or an (indefinite article) and to the (definite article) The process whereby two adjacent sounds become more alike in pronunciation because one of them discards those sound elements which are different from the elements found in the other; see pp. 33-4 A verb which is part of the verb phrase, but is not the head of the verb phrase except through elision; examples include do, can, may, must, shall; see p. 8 In phonetics the sounds, such as I pI and lb I, caused by closing both lips and then opening them quickly Proficiency in two languages, usually as a native speaker A clause normally consists of a subject and a verb, though it may have other elements as well

Clauses can be linked together through co­ordination, i.e. when they are of the same status, or subordination, i.e. when one is of higher rank than the other; see pp. 15-17

code switching

collocation command

complement

complex sentence

compound

compound sentence

conjunction

connotation

Glossary 161

The change from one language or variety of language to another\within a conversation

A speaker in Belgium might change from French to Flemish and back again depending on the subject matter and the other partici­pants in the conversation The habitual co-occurrence of two words A type of sentence which is an order, e.g. 'Go away'; also known as an imperative

Such sentences normally have no subject; seep. 19 An adjective, noun phrase or a clause acting as a noun phrase which is dependent on a stative verb

In 'He is happy', the adjective happy is the complement A sentence consisting of at least one subordi­nate clause in addition to the main clause, i.e. the clause which can stand on its own; see p. 18 A word consisting of at least two free mor­phemes, i.e. two elements which are them­selves words as in freewheel, where free and wheel are both words A sentence of at least two main clauses joined together through co-ordination, as 'He sat down and the seat collapsed'. see pp. 17-18 A conjunction can be either co-ordinate or subordinate

A co-ordinate conjunction joins together elements of equal rank, as the two adjectives in 'a rare and auspicious event' are joined by and

A subordinate conjunction usually joins a subordinate clause to a main clause, e.g. if, when, although; seep. 10 and pp. 17-19 The associations attached to a word in addi­tion to its dictionary definition; e.g. in addi­tion to its colour meaning, white has the connotation of purity

162

co-ordination

correlative

creole

determiner

dialect

diphthong

diglossia

discourse

dynamic

ellipsis

euphemism

Glossary

The joining together of two linguistic ele­ments of equal weight; see conjunction Two clauses linked together by two conjunc­tions or adverbs which function as a pair to reinforce the logical relationship between them, as in 'Though she is beautiful, never­theless she is not proud' A pidgin which has been adopted as the mother tongue of some people A word that occurs before the head, or premonifiers if any, in a noun phrase, such as the or my; only one determiner can appear before a premodifier or head; see pp. 9-10 A variety of language associated with a particular speech community, either geogra­phically to give a regional dialect or socially to give a class dialect A vowel sound in which there is a change of quality during its articulation and is repre­sented graphically by the first and last point of articulation to suggest that it contains two vowel sounds, e.g. I ai/. A situation in which two significantly differ­ent states of a single language are both used by a speech community The organisation of language beyond the sentence A verb which expresses an action rather than a state and can take forms in -ing as part of the progressive, e.g. come, is coming The omission of some part of the sentence which can be understood from the context

In the answer 'Yes, he is' to the question 'Is he coming?', the present participle is coming is reduced through ellipsis to is A term regarded as more acceptable socially which has replaced another term which has become tainted by the unfavourable associa­tions of the concept it refers to

Hence to spend a penny is a euphemism

Glossary 163

exclamation A sentence which expresses surprise, amaze­ment, etc. and is usually followed by an exclamation mark, as in 'What a wonderful day!' see p. 19

finite A term used to describe those parts of the verb which are marked for tense, person and number; see p. 13

fricative In phonetics a term used of consonants which are produced through constricting some part of the air passage, e.g. /f/ and /s/.

grammaticalisation The process whereby what had been an optional feature in a language becomes a regular feature of its grammar

In English questions it used to be possible to say either Came he? or Did he come? (i.e. with or without a part of the verb to do), but today the do form has been grammaticalised and questions now include the do auxiliary reg­ularly

head The obligatory element of a phrase on which all the other elements depend. In the noun phrase 'the happy man', man is the head and both the and happy are dependent on it

homonym Two words which are identical in speech and writing

infinitive Equivalent to the base form of a verb which is entered in dictionaries as the headword; it can also be used with to: (to) come; (to) enter

inflection The marking of grammatical categories like case or tense through the use of an affix or some other linguistic mechanism

interjection A word in traditional grammar which stands outside the normal grammar of a sentence, e.g. 'Damn! she's not coming', seep. 11

inversion Reversing the order of two elements, as for example the order of the subject and verb is reversed to form a question so that He did come becomes Did he come?

language contact The situation in which two or more languages come into contact with one another on a regular basis and force their speakers to

164

lexis

liquid

modal

morpheme

morphology nasal

non-finite

noun

noun phrase

object

onomatopoeia

palatal

Glossary

adopt some strategy such as the development of a pidgin to enable communication to take place The term used to describe the vocabulary of a language In phonetics referring to lrl and Ill, but often taken to include I w I and I j I sounds as well A closed class of verbs which are part of the auxiliary verbs and express such features as obligation and necessity; they include can, may and shall and are used with a lexical verb; see p. 8 The smallest distinctive unit of meaning in grammar

A free morpheme can stand by itself as a word, e.g. boy, but a bound morpheme must be attached to another morpheme, e.g. the -s in boys; see affix, and pp. 3-5 The study of morphemes In phonetics the term used of sounds which are produced by air coming both through the mouth and the nasal passage, e.g. lnl. Those parts of the verb which are not marked for tense, person or number such as the infinitive and participle

A non-finite verb cannot act by itself as a predicator; see p. 13 In traditional grammar the name given to a person, place or thing; see pp. 5-6 A phrase that acts like a noun and can fulfil the role of subject or object A noun phrase which suffers the action of a transitive verb and usually follows the verb in order The term used to refer to those words which are said to replicate natural sounds, e.g. woof­woof as the noise made by a dog In phonetics the sounds made when the central part of the tongue is raised to touch the hard palate, e.g. ljl.

participle

passive phoneme

phonetic alphabet

phonetics

phonology phrase

pidgin

plosive

postmodifier

Glossary 165

A non-finite part of the verb used as an adjective or in the verb phrase after auxili­aries

Present participles end in -ing, e.g. coming, and past participles end in -en or -(e)d/t, e.g. given, learned/learnt see active The minimal unit in the sound system of a language which can be tested through sub­stitution: if the sound changes the meaning of a word when it replaces another sound, then both are phonemes. Thus I £1 and I cl are phonemes because fat and cat have different meanings As the Roman alphabet does not contain enough letters, a special alphabet has been developed to represent the sounds of any language

The standard form of this alphabet is known as the International Phonetic Alpha­bet. The characters used to represent English sounds are listed on pp. 20-1 The study of the sounds which can be made by humans The study of the sounds of a single language A group of one or more words, usually without a finite verb; see pp. 11-14 A means of communication developed through language contact which is usually a simplified linguistic system of a single lan­guage with inputs from one or more other languages

It is no one's mother tongue In phonetics the sounds made when the air passage is completely blocked for a moment (usually by the lips); when unblocked the air escapes as though with an 'explosive' sound; examples are I pI and lb I. Those parts of the noun phrase which come after the head; in English most usually a relative clause or prepositional phrase: in

166

predicator

prefix premodifier

preposition

progressive

pronoun

psycholinguistics

question

rankshift

Received Pronunciation

Glossary

'the boy with the big head', with the big head is the postmodifier which comes after boy (head); see pp. 11-12 The verb phrase which is an obligatory constituent of a clause; see p. 12 see affix Those parts of the noun phrase which come after the determiner and before the head; in 'the beautiful red house', beautiful red comes after the (determiner) and before house (head); seep. 11 A word such as in, on or by which comes before a noun phrase to express the relation­ship of that phrase to the rest of the clause; in the prepositional phrase 'on the table', on is the preposition and the table is the noun phrase; see p. 10 A form of the verb formed by a part of the auxiliary to be and the present participle of a lexical verb to express an action which is continuing as in 'he is coming'; see pp. 13-14 In traditional grammar a term used of a dosed class of words that can stand in place of a noun; see pp. 6-7 The study of the relation between linguistic behaviour and the psychological processes such as mind or memory which are assumed to determine it A type of sentence which asks a question and is sometimes referred to as an interrogative; in English questions normally have inversion of subject and (auxiliary) verb; e.g. 'Is he coming?' see pp. 18-19 A term describing the process whereby a linguistic unit is used lower down the gram­matical hierarchy. Hence a word like free can be used as a morpheme in freewheel, and a clause like he is coming can be used as a phrase in I think he is coming The prestige variety of speech associated with education and high social status

Glossary 167

register A variety of language which is employed in relation to the social environment in which it is used, e.g. formal or informal

rhetoric The way of organising an utterance or speech to achieve the effect on the listener one intends which was promoted and codified in the past; nowadays it is particularly asso­ciated with figures of speech such as meta­phor and simile

sentence In traditional grammar a unit of language consisting of one or more clauses and in writing marked off by a capital letter at the beginning and a fullstop at the end; see pp. 17-19

slang Colourful colloquial usage often associated with particular groups of people, though the slang of one age may become accepted as standard in the next

sociolinguistics The study of the relation between linguistic usage and social situations and structures

standard language That variety of language which cuts across regional differences and has become institu­tionalised as the status variety to be used in writing, education, government, etc.; see p. xi

statement A type of sentence which makes a statement and is also referred to as declarative

It is often regarded as the normative sen­tence in a language and in English has the order subject-verb-object/ complement; see p. 18

stative A verb which expresses a state rather than an action, e.g. 'I am happy'.

subject A noun phrase which is normally the actor of the verb and precedes the verb in statements; seep. 15

subjunctive No longer an important mood in English, but traditionally it represented something hy­pothetical such as a wish

In the present tense it is recognised by the absence of final -s in the third person singu­lar, e.g. 'Long live the Queen'; it is today more

168 Glossary

usually expressed through modal auxiliaries, e.g. 'I wish he would come'.

subordinate clause A clause which cannot stand alone as it is dependent on another clause and is usually introduced by a subordinate conjunction

suffix syntax

token

transitive

type

velar

verb

voice

In the sentence 'When he comes I will tell him', When he comes cannot make a complete sentence; see p. 18 see affix The study of the grammatical relations of a language, which in English are principally expressed through word order In vocabulary this refers to the number of times a lexical item or type occurs A verb which requires an object; its opposite is intransitive In vocabulary this refers to the different lexical items which may be counted

We refer to 'lexical items' rather than 'words', because sing and sings, although different words, are the same lexical item In phonetics the sounds produced when the back of the tongue is in contact with the soft palate or velum A lexical verb differs from an auxiliary in having meaning in itself

A verb like sing is a lexical verb because it means something by itself, whereas an aux­iliary like shall is used in conjunction with a lexical verb A sound is said to be voiced if the vocal cords vibrate as it is pronounced; it is otherwise unvoiced

If you place a finger on your Adam's apple you will feel the vibration for /z/ (voiced), but not for /s/ (unvoiced).

word

Glossary 169

Words can be divided into two types lexical and grammatical

Lexical words are usually nouns, adjec­tives, adverbs and verbs and contain signifi­cant meaning in themselves, whereas grammatical words such as prepositions and articles are important in the organisation and structure of a sentence

Suggestions for Further Reading

For further information about grammar the following books are useful: N .F. Blake, Traditional English Grammar and Beyond (London: Macmillan, 1988); Geoffrey Leech, Margaret Deuchar and Robert Hoogenraad, English Grammar for Today: A New Introduction (Lon­don: Macmillan, 1982) and Dennis Freeborn, A Course Book in English Grammar (London: Macmillan, 1987). A book which includes phonology is Barbara Strang, Modern English Structure, 2nd edn (London: Arnold, 1968). A book on phonology is Charles W. Kreidler, The Pronunciation of English: A Course Book in Phonology (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989).

An entertaining introduction to child language is David Crystal, Listen to your Child: A Parent's Guide to Children's Language (London: Penguin, 1986). See also Jerome Bruner, Child's Talk, Learning to Use Language (London: Oxford University Press, 1983), Jill and Peter de Villiers, Language Acquisition (Cambridge MA: Havard University Press, 1978) and Gordon Wells, The Meaning Makers (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1987).

On language change see Jean Aitchison, Language Change: Progress or Decay? (London: Fontana, 1981). For histories of English see A.C. Baugh and T. Cable, A History of the English Language, 3rd edn (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978), Dick Leith, A Social History of English (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983), and David Burnley, The History of the English Language: A Source Book (London: Longman, 1992).

The number of books on language variety and the social context is enormous, and the recommendations here are very selective. On standard language see J. and L. Milroy, Authority in Language: Investigating Language Prescription and Standardisation, 2nd edn (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1989) and Sidney Greenbaum, Good English and the Grammarian (London: Longman, 1988). General books include Dennis Freeborn with David Langford and Peter French, Varieties of English: An Introduction to the Study of Language (London: Macmillan, 1986), W.R. O'Donnell and Loreto Todd, Variety in Contemporary English, 2nd edn (London: Allen & Unwin, 1989), and Randolph Quirk and Gabriele Stein, English in Use (London: Longman, 1990). See also E. Ryan and H. Giles, Attitudes

170

Further Reading 171

towards Language Variation (London: Arnold 1982), P. Trudgill, Sociolinguistics: An Introduction, (HannonHsworth: Penguin, 1974), and Lesley Milroy, Language and Social Networks 2nd edn (Oxford: Blackwell, 1987).

A book which explores some of the attitudes linked with accent is John Honey, Does Accent Matter? (London: Faber, 1989).

On language and styles see D. Crystal and D. Davy, Investigating English Style (London: Longman, 1969), M. Stubbs, Discourse Analysis (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), N.F. Blake, An Introduction to the Language of Literature (London: Macmillan, 1990) and Ronald Carter and Walter Nash, Seeing through Language: A Guide to Styles of English Writing (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990).

For help with your project you can consult Christine McDonald, English Language Project Work (London: Macmillan, 1992).

For a general book on language see David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

The recently published The Oxford Companion to the English Language, edited by Tom McArthur (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992) contains a wealth of information and ideas, some of which could be followed up as projects.

Dwight Bolinger, Language, the Loaded Weapon: the Use and Abuse of Language Today (London: Longman, 1980) discusses the influence of language on thinking and behaviour.

Index

abbreviations 60, 65, 72, 103, 107-8, 130

Academie Fran~aise 84 accent 90, 92, 105, 159 acronym 103, 159 action 8-9, 12-14, 122 active 14, 27, 118, 159 Adelmann, Mr 127 addressee 159 adjectival phrase 11, 122 adjective 4-5, 8-9, 11, 17, 38, 41-2,

47, 50, 62, 68, 70, 73, 80, 96, 101, 118, 137, 159, 161, 165; comparative 9, 42; superlative 9

adverb(ial) 5, 9, 11-12, 15-18, 27, 43-4,50,67-8,73-4,100,107 110, 116-18, 122, 138, 159, 162; of manner 9; of place 9, 15, 43, 68; of time 9, 116, 138

adverbial phrase 11, 68, 159 advertisement 113-15 advertising 19 affix 159, 163-4, 166 affricate 22-4 Age of Reason 57 agent 45, 47, 51 alliteration 115, 118, 138, 160 alveolar 22, 32, 160 Alzheimer's 128, 130-1 America(n) 35, 39, 59, 83, 90, 92,95 ampersand 65, 72 analogy 42, 54, 160 Anglo-Saxons 82 antonym 116 apostrophe 6 archaism 63, 66, 70 article 9, 67, 160 articulation 22-4, 33 aspect 12-14 assimilation 33-4, 160 audience xii, 107-8, 110, 119, 123,

126-9, 131-2 Austin, Frances 71

Austin Allegro Owners Workshop Manual 110

Australian 90-1 auxiliary 8, 12-14, 18-19, 26, 44-5,

47-8, 50, 69, 74, 96, 160, 165-6, 168; modal 8, 12-13, 26, 61, 109-10, 125, 127, 138, 164, 168; primary 8,12-13,15,26

Bangladeshi 91 Beano 151 Belgium 161 Bernstein, Basil 95 bilabial 22, 31, 34, 160 bilingualism 93-4, 160 Birmingham 87 Black English Vernacular

(BEV) 95-7 Blake, N.F. 157 Bodmin (Cornwall) 71 Bolinger, Dwight 103 borrowing 6, 57, 63, 70 brackets 60 Britain 116, 128 British Empire 58, 79

Canterbury Tales, The 64, 82 capital letter 5, 17, 19, 60, 65, 67,

118 Caxton, W. 64-71, 73, 75 Chalmers-Hunt, B. L. 110 Chaucer, Geoffrey 64-71, 82 China 93 Christ 70 Clare, Professor Anthony 128-32 clause 2-3, 11, 15-18,26,42,45, 50,

60-1,66-9,80,107-8,110, 121-2, 160-2, 166-8; main 10, 74, 161; relative 7, 28, 117, 165; subordinate 18, 75, 161, 168; superordinate 126, 138

Clift, Elizabeth 71-3; Robert 71; William 71~

172

Index 173

Clift Family Correspondence 1792-1846, The 71

Cockney 85, 88-9, 104 code, language as a 92-4;

restricted and elaborated 95--6

code switching 92-7, 161 collocation 122, 124-5, 134, 138,

161 colloquialism 62, 94, 118, 130, 137 colon 60 comma 65,73 command 18-19, 44, 50, 86-7,

108-10, 121-2, 161 complement 17-19, 27, 161 compound 62,69,161 compounding 63 conjunction 5, 10, 17-18,38, 45, 61,

69, 74, 161-2, 168; co­ordinating 10, 17, 28, 126, 161 subordinating 10, 18, 45, 161

connotation 102, 127, 133, 161 consonant 20-4, 31-4, 59, 65;

cluster 31, 34; syllabic 32-3 Continent 126 contraction 106, 122, 137 Cooking for Special Occasions, by Mrs

Cozens 120 correctness 1-2,38, 40,56-8,60, 62,

82-5 correlative 162 Cozens, Mrs 122 creole 88, 162 Cumbria 57

dash 60,73 declarative see statement Delia Smith's Cookery Course 121 denotation 107, 110, 124 dental 22 Department of Health 127 determiner 5, 9-11, 43, 48, 75, 115,

121, 162, 166 dialect 33, 56, 63, 82, 8(r..90, 94-5,

97-8, 118, 162 dialectology 92, 97-8 Dickens, Charles 85 diglossia 93-4

diphthong 20-1, 25-6, 162; closing 25; centring 25

discourse xii, 3, 46, 105-6, 153, 162; field of 105-7

Edgar (King Lear) 84 Elizabethan 57, 84 ellipsis 162 England 56, 71, 79, 81, 84, 88, 90,

92, 102, 104, 126, 136, 138-9 enjambement 137 euphemism 81, 86, 102, 113, 162 Europe 116 exclamation 18-19, 162-3;

mark 11, 19, 60, 113

finite 12-13, 15, 17-18, 26, 28, 163, 165

finiteness 12-13 Flemish 161 form of address 51 formality 1 French 1, 32, 57, 63, 66, 68-9,

79-80, 161 fricative 22-4,31-2,163 frictionless continuant 23-4 full stop 17, 19, 65, 73 functional shift 26, 63

GCSE 107 gender 7, 99, 101, 104;

differences 101-2 genre xii, 55-6, 64, 70, 72, 75, 117 German 1, 80, 94-5, 123, 127; Swiss

German 94-5 Germany 94 Gilbert, Mr and Mrs 72-3 glide 32 glottal 22 God 97, 133-4 Going, Going 135-9 Golding, William 112, 133 grammar ix-x, 1, 19, 57, 73, 79-80,

83-4,86,123,127,139,154 traditional x, 16, 159-60, 16(r..7

grammaticalisation 163 Greece 111 Greeks x

174 Index

Guardian 113

Hardy, Thomas 89, 152 Hart, John 7&-7 Haynes, J. M. 110 head(word) 6, 10-11, 28, 51,

115-16, 124, 160, 162-6 hierarchy 2, 5, 11, 17 Hindi 93 Hindu 93 homonym 163 Housman, A. E. 145 Hunter, John 71 Hunterian Museum 71

imperative see command Independent, The 100, 102, 123,

139-40 Indian 91, 93 Industrial Revolution 89 infinitive 8, 13, 115, 163 inflections 4, 7, 61, 66, 163 intensifier 9, 11 intention 13 interjection 5, 11, 163 International Phonetic Alphabet

(IPA) 21, 55, 85, 151, 165 interrogative see question intonation 25-7, 105, falling 26;

rising 26 intransitive 16, 27, 83 inversion 45, 50, 74, 96, 163, 166 Irish 88, 90 irony 118, 138 italics 118

Jacobean 84 jargon 103 Johnson, Dr Samuel 72, 77-9

Kilbride, Don 100 King Lear 84

labio-dental 22 Labour Party 116 Labov, William 95-6,98-100 language acquisition x-xi, 29-54,

149, 152-3 language, arbitrary nature of 80-2

language change x-xi, 2, 55-79, 153

language contact 88, 94, 163 language corruption 55 Language in the Inner City 96 language project 26, 89, 147-58;

descriptive 152-4, 156; theoretical 152-4

language topic 151-4 language variety xi, 1-2, 55,

80-104 Larkin, Philip 13&-9 lateral 22-4 Latin 1, 57, 63, 65-6, 69-70, 75, 96,

103 Lenin, V.I. 35 lexis see vocabulary linguistic variable 97-100 Linkinhorn 72 liquid 32, 164 literary texts, analysis of 132-9 Lithuania(n) 102-3 Liverpudlian 88-9 Llandudno 100, 102 London 57,71-3,82,91 Loneliness of the Long Distance

Runner, The 142 Lord of the Flies 112 Lyrical Ballads 57

macron 65 marking 14 meaning 5-8, 35-41, 118, 134, 139,

154, 157; change of 20, 63, 70 Mental Health Foundation 128-9 Merchant of Venice, The 61 metaphor 111-12, 115, 118, 130,

134, 139, 167 Midlands 88 Mirror 123 modal see auxiliary modality 12, 14 monomorphemic 4, 9 morpheme 2-6, 19,44,66, 159,161,

164, 166; bound 4-6, 102, 164; derivational 4-5, 9, 159; free 4-5, 102, 164; inflectional 4, 61, 159

Index 175

morphology 3, 5-8, 12, 41-2, 44, 48,55,61,66, 72,88, 100,164

mother tongue 1 Muslim 93

nasal 22-4, 164 National Association of Probation

Officers 100 National Curriculum in

English 107 National Kidney Research

Fund 127 nationalism 57 negation 44-5,53,62,96 negative 14, 27,44-5,47, 61, 69, 74;

concord 96, 100 Nelson, Katherine 46 New Zealand 91 Newcastle 89 newspaper 123-7 non-finite 12-15, 26, 5Q-1, 122,

164-5 non-standard English

(language) ix-xi, 1-2, 4, 27, 57-8, 60, 79, 95, 113, 153-5

Norwich 100, 102 noun 4-6, 9, 11, 38, 41, 43, 47, 49,

51, 61-2, 66, 70, 76, 80, 96, 101, 110, 118, 121, 137, 154, 164, 166; abstract S-6, 118, 131, 133; common 5; concrete 5-6 49 118, 133, count 6; non- ' ' count 6; proper 5; possessive 4, 6-7, 43

noun phrase 6, 1Q-12, 15-19, 26-8, 51, 61, 108, 110, 115-16, 118, 121, 124-6, 138, 167-7

number 100, 163 numeral 10

object 6-7, 12, 15-19, 28, 43, 48, 108, 110, 115, 121-2, 164; direct 16, 43, 68; indirect 16 43, 68 I

obligation 13 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 4, 7,

66,70 On Wenlock Edge 145

onomatopoeia 81, 118, 164 Orthographie 77

Pakistani 91 palatal 22, 32, 164 palato-alveolar 22, 32 paragraph 3, 108, 110, 113, 117,

122, 126, 129-31 participle, past 8, 13-14, 50, 61, 73,

96, 122, 165; present 8, 13-14, 48, 96, 165-6

passive 14, 27, 51, 69, 109-10 118 165 I

1

pathetic fallacy 134 patterning 115-16 Penzance (Cornwall) 72 Pepys's Diary 156 perfective 14, 27 person 7, 101, 118 130, 163 personification 111-12, 131, 138 Peugeot205 113-15 phoneme 20, 25, 165 phonetic alphabet see

International Phonetic Alphabet

phonetics 165 phonic level 87 phonology 19, 26, 32, 39, 165 phrase 2-3, 11-15, 42, 61, 64, 66,

80, 115, 165-6 pidgin 88,94, 162,164-5 plosive 22-4, 32, 165 plural 4, 6-7, 42, 44, 48, 61, 65, 101,

160 poetry 134-9 positive 14, 27, 44 possibility 13 postdeterminer 10 postmodification 1Q-11, 18, 28,

108, 110, 116-18, 121, 126 postmodifier 12, 44, 51, 67-8,

165-6 predeterminer 10 predicator 166 prefix 4,62,69, 159,166 premodification 9-11,28,110, 116

118, 121, 124-6 I

premodifier 44, 68, 115 124 162 166 I I 1

176 Index

preposition 5, 10-12, 38, 44, 48, 61, 68-9, 121, 166

prepositional complement 6, 12, 116

prepositional phrase 6, 10, 12, 15-16, 51, 116-17, 121-2, 165-6

prescriptivism 82-5 pre-speech developments 30-1 printing 56 Problems of Mathematics, The 144 progressive 13-14, 27, 166 pronoun 5-7, 11, 43, 48,50-1,66-7,

73, 101, 118, 121, 130, 166; demonstrative 6-7, 9; indefinite 6; interrogative 6; personal 6-7, 9, 101-2, 130; possessive 6-7; reflexive 6-7; relative 6-7, 62, 68, 75

pronunciation ix, 66, 85-6, 88-90, 151

prose 132-4 prosodic features 25-6 proverb 115 psycholinguistics 29, 166 pun 112-13, 138 punctuation 55, 60, 65, 73, 106, 150 Puritanism 57 Pygmalion 83

quantifier 9, 28, 121 question 18-19, 26, 44-5, 53, 61,

86-7, 166;mark 60

radio 127-32; Radio 4 127, 129 rank 2-3 rankshift 3, 12, 166 Rap-1 141 Rastifarian 91 Received Pronunciation (RP) 58,

60,85,90,94,99, 153,166 recipe 119-23 records of achievement 107-8 reduplication 34 regional variety (dialect) 1, 56, 82,

89 register 63-4, 83, 86, 92, 124, 154,

167;variationin 92,100-3 Renaissance 111 rhetoric 57, 60, 111, 117, 131, 167

rhetorical question 113, 137 rhyme 118 Roman x, 165 Romantic Revolution 57 Royal College of Surgeons 71 RoyalS<Kiety 79 Russia(n) 35, 103

Scotland 89, 94 Scots 88-90, 94, 104 semantics 133, 154 semi-colon 60, 73 sentence ix-xii, 2-19, 26-7, 48,

50-1,60,66-7,73-4,96,108, 113, 115, 117, 122, 125, 130, 133-4, 137, 153, 161, 167; complex 3, 17-18, 26, 45, 48, 108, 161; compound 17-18, 26, 28, 107, 110, 121, 161; minor 19, 116; simple 17, 26-7, 50, 108, 110, 121

sexism, 100-1, 104 Shakespeare, William 61,84 Shaw, Bernard 83 Sillitoe, Alan 142 simile 111-12,167 slang 63, 75, 154, 118, 167 slash 60, 65, 67 Smith, Delia 121, 123 sociolinguistics 29, 97-100, 103,

153, 167 . Somerset 87, 89 sound x-xi, 19-26,31-5,55, 60,

65-6, 86-8, 98, 111, 118, 165; substitution 32-3

South Africa(n) 91, 102, 104 Soviet 102; Union 104 speech, organs of 22; see also

spoken language spelling ix, xi, 55, 59-60, 65, 72,

76-8, 82, 84-5, 118, 150; reform 76-7

Spire, The 133 spoken language (speech) 1-2, 27,

42,55-6,81,84-5,91,94,105-6, 128, 137, 147

Sri Lankan 91 Standard English (language) ix-xi,

1-2,27,56,58-9,62,67, 71-3,

Index 177

79, 82, 85, 94-6, 100, 104, 118, 153, 155, 167

standardisation 56-7, 73, 82-5 stanza 136-8 state 8-9, 14 statement 18, 26, 45, 50-1, 86-7,

121, 167 statistics 128, 131, 151 stative see verb stereotyping 87, 89-91 Stewart, J. 144 stress 25--6, 34, 87 stress-timed 25 style 14, 18, 28, 57, 61, 63, 66,

68-71,105,108,117,124-6, 153; formal 58, 61, 65-6, 72-3, 75-6,85,94,98-9,106,122,154, informal 56, 58-9, 63, 74-5, 85; poetic 62, 95, 98-9, 154; pompous 61, 64-5, 69, 75,138; to inform 107-8; to instruct 108-10; to persuade 111-17; to entertain 111-17

subject 6-7, 13-15, 17-19, 27-8, 44, 47, 51, 68-9, 74, 96, 100, 107-8, 134, 160-1, 164, 166-7; dummy 68,96

subjunctive 73, 167 suffix 62-3, 69, 159, 168 Switzerland 94 syllable 4, 9, 25, 31, 34, 59, 137 Sylvester, J.J. 144 syntactic function 5, 7 syntax 3, 10, 16-18, 41--{), 55-6,

61-2, 70, 73, 83, 88, 100, 115, 150-1, 155, 168

taboo 81 tense 12-13, 41, 163;

compound 13; past 4, 8, 12-14, 27, 42, 138; present 8, 12-14, 27, 48, 61, 66, 138, 159, 167

text analysis 26, 117-39 texts, language study of 105-46 TGAT 107 three-word utterance 44 token see word token

transitive 16, 27, 83, 108-10, 115, 121-2, 168

two-word utterance 42-5, 53 Tudor 57 type see word type

Uganda 91 United Kingdom 90-2 unvoiced 33-4, 168; see also

voiceless Urdu 93,95

variant 56, 59--{)0 variation 65, 84; use-related 86-

8, 92-7, 105; user-related 86-92, 105

varieties, 58, 81, 86, 88-9,91-2, 94-6; class 55, 57; regional 55-7

velar 22, 32-3, 168 verb 5, 8-19, 27, 38, 41-3, 47-8, 50,

61-2, 66, 70, 96, 100, 107, 112, 118, 131, 134, 138, 160, 163, 165, 167-8; base form of 4, 8, 13, 19, 48, 50, 112, 115, 154, 163; dynamic 14, 27, 112, 118, 134; lexical 8, 12-15, 26, 96, 110, 164, 168; phrasal 50, 62, 154; stative 14, 27, 118, 167

verb phrase 8-9, 12-14, 26-7, 44, 76, 109-10, 121, 125, 160, 166

Vietnam 93 vocabulary (lexis) ix, 35-41, 47,

49-50, 55-61, 63-4, 69, 73, 75, 82, 86, 102-3, 107-8, 113, 118, 121-2, 124, 126-7, 133, 139, 150, 152--{), 164, 168; active 40; learned 65; passive 40; technical 110, 127; see also word

vocal cords 33, 168 vocalisation 32-3 voice 12, 14, 168 voiced 22, 24, 33, 168 voiceless 22, 24; see also unvoiced vowel 20-5, 31-4,59, 65; back 23,

25; centre 23; close 23, 25; front 23, 25; neutralisation 32; open 23, 25

178 Index

Wales 100, 102 Wells, Gordon 48, 50-1 Welsh 88 West Country 104 West Indies 91 Westminster 64 willingness 13 Woman's Institute 123 word 2-5, 11, 19, 26, 35-41, 47-9,

53,63-4,66,69-70,75,81,102, 115, 134, 137, 154-5, 161, 168--9; closed class 5, 11, 165-6; grammatical/structural 5, 38,

41-2, 44, 47, 61, 168; learned 69-70; lexical 5, 38, 42, 168; new 4, 63, 69-70, 83, 154, 156-7; open class 5, 165-6; polysyllabic 57; token 40, 47, 53, 168; type 40, 47, 53, 168; see also vocabulary

word formation 4, 55, 62, 69, 154 word order 4, 51, 61, 66-8, 74, 80,

107

Your Talking Cat 146