glossary
TRANSCRIPT
United States Office of Research and EPA/600/R-02/003Environmental Protection Development February 2002Agency Washington, D.C. 20460 www.epa.gov/ncea
Research and Development
A Lexicon of Cave and KarstTerminology with SpecialReference to EnvironmentalKarst Hydrology
(Supercedes EPA/600/R-99/006, 1/’99)
Digital VersionCourtesy of the author& The Karst Waters Institute
K A R S T W A T E R S
I N S T I T U T E
EPA/600/R-02/003February 2002
A LEXICON OF CAVE AND KARST TERMINOLOGY
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO ENVIRONMENTAL KARST HYDROLOGY
(Supercedes EPA/600/R-99/006, 1/’99)
National Center for Environmental Assessment–Washington OfficeOffice of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyWashington, DC 20460
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DISCLAIMER
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy
and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
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CONTENTS
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
AUTHOR AND REVIEWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
Release of the first edition of this lexicon was well received and resulted in two printings. The
first edition is again in short supply, but rather than going through a third printing, an updated edition
was deemed appropriate. Since the release of the first edition, additional definitions related to
biospeleology, courtesy of Dr. William R. Elliott of the Natural History Division of the Missouri
Department of Conservation, have been added. Additional definitions obtained from the Australian
Speleological Federation also have been added.
Researchers and the general public alike will find these additions useful as they work their way
through the published literature. For this second edition, the literature search is current to 2002. To be
sure, this updated lexicon is far from complete and will more than likely be updated in a few years.
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
The National Center for Environmental Assessment–Washington Office (NCEA–W) has
prepared this document for the benefit of the regional offices and public in general due to the need to
understand the terminology common to the field of karst. It is a glossary of most terms that have
some relationship to the field of environmental karst as well as specific karst terms. It includes many
foreign terms because much of the karst research is conducted in foreign countries and published
using local terminology. In many instances, common environmental terms are defined in such a way
as to specifically reference karstic phenomena.
The purpose of this document is to serve as a technical guide to regional offices and the public
in general who must read the karst literature or who must hold discussions with karst researchers. It is
intended that this document remove much of the confusion surrounding many of the karst terms.
The literature search supporting this lexicon is current to 1998.
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AUTHOR AND REVIEWERS
The National Center for Environmental Assessment–Washington Office within the Office of
Research and Development was responsible for the preparation of this document and provided overall
direction and coordination during the production effort.
AUTHOR/COMPILER
Malcolm S. Field, Ph.D.U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyNational Center for Environmental Assessment–Washington OfficeWashington, DC
REVIEWERS
Stephen R. Kraemer, Ph.D.U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyNational Exposure Research LaboratoryEcosystems Research DivisionAthens, GA
Arthur N. Palmer, Ph.D.Department of Earth SciencesState University of New YorkOneonta, NY
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INTRODUCTION
Several attempts to classify karst terminology in an organized manner have been attempted in
the past. The last few glossaries of karst terminology were organized in the late 1960s and published
in the early 1970s. Since that time, many new terms related to karst in general have come into use
throughout the world while other older karst terms are seldom used nowadays. In the mid 1990s the
British Cave Research Association (BCRA) published and updated a dictionary that covers the general
area of karst and caves, but did not focus on environmental issues.
Many of the more recent karst terms are related to the upsurge in environmentalism and the
recognition among karst cognoscenti that karst terranes are much more sensitive to man-induced
effects on the environment than are other types of landscapes. In an attempt to be as broad as possible
in this glossary, terms related to general hydrology and hydrogeology, common karst rock and mineral
types, and many of the descriptive terms used in speleology even where they relate to specific
localities, have been included. No attempt was made to exclude foreign karst terms although many
are no doubt, missing. This has led to a much larger manuscript than was originally intended when
this project was initiated, but it has provided for a more comprehensive document.
Because many non-karst professionals, whether working on basic research or on
environmental problems, need to have a general working knowledge of karst terminology, this
glossary was developed to provide an up-to-date reference for more modern definitions of karst terms
both currently in usage and now defunct. As with any undertaking of this sort, numerous omissions
will be shown to be evident. In other instances, disagreements regarding definitions will arise. In the
event that readers of this glossary find various omissions or incorrect definitions, it would be greatly
appreciated if the necessary corrections be forwarded to the author so that the glossary may be updated
in the future.
As a final note, it should be pointed out that a list of references for the definitions are included
at the back of this glossary and citations are provided when appropriate. In many instances,
duplication of definitions from previous glossaries were employed to avoid changing the original
definitions. However, efforts were not always attempted to cite the exact source for each definition as
this would have greatly lengthened this already excessively long manuscript; secondary citations have
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been provided. Exact citations would also have resulted in confusion where several definitions were
utilized in the writing of a single clear definition for any particular term. In no instance was it
intended that the work of others be appropriated, only that this glossary be as comprehensive and clear
as possible while avoiding excessive clutter. Also, where definitions were deemed to be incorrect or
poorly worded, alternatives have been written.
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
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A
abîme. (French.) 1. An abyss. 2. A wide,deep shaft, in limestone, the walls of whichare vertical or overhanging[10].
ablation. The wearing away of ice or snowthrough the process of evaporation[16].
abney level. Type of clinometer with abubble tube used in cave survey todetermine vertical angles[25].
abris sous roche. (French.) See rockshelter.
abseil. 1. (n.) A controlled descent of arope using friction obtained by eitherwrapping the rope around the body in aparticular way or passing the rope througha carabiner or passing the rope through adescender[25]. 2. (v.) To do an abseil[25]. Synonym: rappel.
absorption. The process by whichsubstances in gaseous, liquid or solidform dissolve or mix with othersubstances[22].
abyss. Extremely great depth[16].
accelerated corrosion. A localizedconcentration of solution intensity,produced by factors favoring greateraggressivity of the water in certain partsof the karstland creating differentialsolution rates and thereby a markedunevenness in the overall erosion of thekarstland[19]. See also corrosion; alluvialcorrosion.
accessory mineral. Mineral constituents ofa rock occurring in very small amounts[16].
accidental An animal accidentally living ina cave[25].
acclivity. Ascending a slope[16].
accretion. Land addition by sedimentdeposition of a stream[16].
accumulation. Building of new land byaddition of sedimentary deposits[16].
acetylene. An inflammable hydrocarbongas, C2H2, produced by water reactingwith calcium carbide. When burned,yields carbon dioxide as well as light[25].
acid. Any chemical compound containinghydrogen capable of being replaced bypositive elements or radicals to form salts. In terms of dissociation theory, it is acompound which, on dissociation insolution, yields excess hydrogen ions. Acids lower the pH. Examples of acidsor acidic substances are hydrochloric acid,tannic acid, and sodium acidpyrophosphate[6].
acidity. The property of water having a pHbelow 4.5 that is caused by the presenceof mineral acids. Usually expressed inequivalent amounts of calciumcarbonate[16]. See also alkalinity; pH.
acid mine drainage. Acid watersoriginating from surface or undergroundmine workings[16].
acoustic log. Geophysical borehole logmeasuring the speed of sound in rocks todetermine porosity[16].
acoustic resistance. The product of wavevelocity and rock density indicating the
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reflective power of a boundary between twostrata[16].
activated charcoal, activated carbon. Agranular material usually produced by theroasting of cellulose base substances,such as wood or coconut shells, in theabsence of air. It has an extremely porousstructure and is used in waterconditioning as an adsorbent for organicmatter and certain dissolved gases[6]. It isespecially useful for adsorbing tracerdyes.
active cave. 1. Cave containing a runningstream. 2. Cave in which speleothems aregrowing. (Less common and lessdesirable usage.) Compare live cave[10].
active glacier. Glacier in the stage ofactively enlarging and moving as a resultof accumulation of precipitation thatexceeds the rate of ablation.
active water. Water with corrosiveproperties[16].
adaptation. An inherited structural,functional, or behavioral characteristicthat improves an organism's chances forsurvival in a particular habitat[23]. Seealso mutation.
adiabatic. The property of thermodynamicprocess with no heat exchange[16].
adjusted stream. Stream flowing parallelto the strike of underlying beds[16].
adsorption. Adherence of gas molecules,ions, or molecules in solution to thesurface of solids[22].
adsorption isotherm. A graphicalrepresentation of the relationship betweenthe bulk activity of adsorbate and theamount adsorbed at constanttemperature[22].
advection. 1. The process whereby solutesare transported by the bulk mass offlowing fluid[6]. 2. Phenomenon of coolair mass intruding and interruptingevaporation and causing condensation dueto heat loss[16]. See also convectivetransport.
aeolianite. See eolian calcarenite.
aeration. The process of bringing air intointimate contact with water, usually bybubbling air through the water to removedissolved gases like carbon dioxide andhydrogen sulfide or to oxidize dissolvedmaterials like iron compounds[6].
aeration, zone of. See zone of aeration.
aerial photograph. Photograph of thelandscape taken from an airplane. Synonym air photo. See also stereo aerialphotographs.
aerobic. A property of aquatic life formsthat can exist only in the presence ofoxygen. See also anaerobic.
age of caves. The ages of individual cavesmay vary enormously. In most regionsthe youngest cave passages have reachedtheir present dimensions during the last10,000 years, or since the last Pleistoceneglacial retreat. In higher latitudes mostcaves can be related to erosion during thelater Pleistocene climatic variations of thelast million years, and older caves have
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largely been removed by continuing surfacelowering. In tropical regions less interruptederosion conditions have encouraged survivalof older caves; the Mulu caves of Sarawakinclude large passages at least two millionyears old. Relict caves hundreds of millionsof years old may survive in some buriedlimestones, but are commonly filled withyounger sediments (see neptunian deposits),minerals or, very rarely, igneous rocks. These fill materials may themselves bedateable, either on the basis of containedfossil material (including pollen), bycomparison with similar rock types thatoccur at the surface or by isotopic agedetermination methods identical to thoseapplied to suitable surface rock materials. See also dating of cave sediments[9].
aggradation. Land addition throughsediment deposition[16].
aggrading river. River that is activelyelevating its bed by deposition ofsediments[16].
aggregate. Grain mixture loosely heldtogether[16].
aggregation. The formation of aggregates. In drilling fluids, aggregation results inthe stacking of the clay platelets face toface; as a result, viscosity and gel strengthdecrease[6].
aggressive. Referring to water which is stillcapable of dissolving more limestone,other karst rock, or speleothems[25].
aggressive water. 1. Water having theability to dissolve rocks. In the context oflimestone and dolomite, this term refersespecially to water containing dissolved
carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid or,rarely, other acids. 2. Quality of watersthat attack metals and concrete chemicallyby dissolution[10].
aggressiveness. A measure of the relativecapacity of water to dissolve rockmaterial. In the context of karstificationand speleogenesis this usually concernsthe dissolution of limestone or dolomiteby the action of dissolved carbon dioxide(carbonic acid), though other acids mayalso be involved[9].
aguada. (Spanish for watering place.) InYucatán, shallow depression generallycovering several hectares used for watersupply[10].
A-horizon. The topmost eluviated horizonof a soil profile[16].
aîle. See aisle.
air pocket, air bell. 1. An enclosed airspace between the water surface and theroof of a cave[10]. 2. Part of a floodedpassage where the ceiling rises above thewater level to create an air pocket isolatedfrom the rest of the cave[9].
air separating tank. A tank in whichdesorbed gases are separated from aliquid and evacuated by pumping[16].
air-space ratio. The ratio of (a) the volumeof water that can be drained from asaturated soil or rock under the action offorce of gravity to (b) the total volume ofvoids[22].
aisle. An elongated high narrow traversablepassage in a cave[10]. See also crawl,
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crawlway; corridor; passage. Synonyms:(French.) aisle, aîle; (German.) Kluft;(Greek.) farangothes ipoyios thiavasis;(Russian.) hod; (Spanish.) laminadorvertical; (Turkish.) dar geçit; (Yugoslavian.) nis #a.
albedo. The ratio of reflected radiation tototal radiation on a natural surface[16].
algal limestone. Type of limestone formedby calcium secreting algae[16].
alkali flat. A salt covered or heavily salinedepression in an arid environment[16].
alkaline. Any of various soluble mineralsalts found in natural water and arid soilshaving a pH greater than 7. In wateranalysis, it represents the carbonates,bicarbonates, hydroxides, andoccasionally the borates, silicates, andphosphates in the water[6].
alkalinity. The property of water toneutralize acids. Usually expressed interms of calcium carbonate equivalents[16]. See also acidity; pH.
allochthonous. Said of material originatingfrom a different locality than the one inwhich it has been deposited[16]. See alsoautochthonous.
allochthonous drainage. Less commonsynonym for allogenic drainage[9].
allogene stream. A surface-water courseflowing over a karst terrane, but fed by aspring (or springs) issuing from a non-karst terrane[20]. Synonyms: (French.)rivière allogène (cours d’eau); (German.)allochthoner Fluss (all. Waßerlauf);
(Greek.) allothigenes ryax, or potamos;(Italian.) corso d’acqua allogeno;(Spanish.) río alóctono; (Turkish.) karstdisi kökenli akarsu; (Yugoslavian.)alogena rijeka, alogena reka.
allogenic. Formed or generated elsewhere,usually at a distant place[1]. See alsoautogenic; recharge, allogenic; recharge,autogenic.
allogenic drainage. Underground karstdrainage that is derived entirely fromsurface run-off that originates on adjacentnon-karstic, generally impermeable,rocks. Also allochthonous drainage. Seealso autogenic drainage[9].
allogenic valley. A karst valley incised by awatercourse originating on imperviousrock with a volume sufficient for it totraverse a limestone area on the surface. The valley is incised from the limestonecontact and with the passage of time theriver is increasingly likely to passunderground as the waters enlarge joints. Occasionally such a valley may representthe large-scale collapse of the cavernsystem along a subterranean stream or theenlarging of a series of karst windows[19].
alluvial. Pertaining to or composed ofalluvium or deposited by a stream orrunning water[6]. Also applies to materiallining the floor of a cave and deposits atthe mouth of a spring.
alluvial apron. A fan-like plain from thedeposition of glacial outwash[16].
alluvial channel. River or stream channelbed composed of unconsolidated alluvialmaterial[16].
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alluvial corrosion. Greater intensity ofsolution, caused by the passage of waterthrough unconsolidated deposits rich incarbon dioxide, thus increasingaggressivity[19]. See also corrosion,accelerated corrosion.
alluvial fan. A fan-like deposit of detritalmaterial from steep mountain slopes[16].
alluvial plain. A plain formed by thedeposition of water borne sediments[16].
alluvial veneer. A very thin cover of waterborne sediments[16].
alluvium. A general term for clay, silt,sand, gravel, or similar unconsolidatedmaterial deposited during comparativelyrecent geologic time by a stream or otherbody of running water as a sorted or semi-sorted sediment in the bed of the streamor on its floodplain or delta or as a coneor fan at the base of a mountain slope[6].
alpine karst. 1. Karst formed at highlatitude, or in polar regions regardless ofaltitude. 2. Almost synonymous withglaciokarst but restricted to areas of highaltitude and relief[9]. Synonyms:glaciokarst; nival karst.
alternative. Adjective used to designate anintake or resurgence operating onlyduring rainy seasons; in some areasreversible; equivalent to intermittent. Also used as a noun[10].
alveolar. 1. Consisting of a honeycombshape[16]. 2. A specific erosional patternresulting in a cellular structure[16]. Seealso alveolization.
alveolization. (From the Latin word‘alveolatus,’ meaning hollowed out.)Pitting of a rock surface produced bywind loaded with sand, by water chargedwith carbonic acid, or by plant roots[10]. See also alveolar. Synonyms: (French.)alvéolisation; (German.) Aeolisation ?Wabenverwitterung; (Greek.) kypselothisepiphania; (Italian.) alveolizzazione;(Spanish.) alveolizacion; (Turkish.)çukurlaÕma; (Yugoslavian.) alveolizacija.
ammeter. A meter used to measure theflow of water in a stream channel. Synonym: current meter[16].
amorphous silica. Silica with no definitecrystalline structure[16].
analysis, chemical. Laboratory procedurein water quality determination to identifychemical constituents[16].
analysis, complete chemical analysis. Chemical analysis of a water sample forphysical, chemical, and bacteriologicalconstituents[16].
analysis, core. Petrophysical analysis of arock core acquired through the process ofboring a hole in rock with the intention ofproducing a core of rock as opposed tochips[16].
analysis, morphometric. A geodetic andgeometric description of basin, streamnetwork, or sinkhole plain, the purpose ofwhich is to determine the frequency andhierarchy of occurrences[16].
analysis, sieve. Mechanical grain sizeanalysis by sieving an unconsolidatedmaterial through a series of sieves[16].
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anastomosis. 1. The development of anetwork of branching, intersecting, andrejoining channels in a two dimensionalsystem. Anastomosing tubes, or caveanastomoses, which are generally formeddue to dissolution by slow, poorlydirected, phreatic flow along a bedding-plane parting or fracture in limestone,represent an important element in theearly stages of cave development. Individual anastomoses most commonlyhave a diameter of approximately 100mm and networks may contain hundredsof tubes. Most anastomoses areabandoned when one channel offerspreferential flow conditions so that itincreases in size at the expense of others. Such abandoned or relict anastomoses arecommonly only exposed by subsequentwall or roof collapse[32]. 2. A network oftubular passages or holes in a cave or in acave or solution-sculptured rock. Acomplex of many irregular and repeatedlyconnected passages[9, 21]. Synonym:labyrinth; (French.) anastomose;(German.) Labyrinth; (Greek.)anastomosis; (Italian.) anastomosi;(Russian.) labirint; (Spanish.)anastomosís; (Turkish.) geçit Õebekesi;(Yugoslavian.) splet kanala.
anastomotic cave pattern. A type of mazecave consisting of tubular passages orholes in a cave or in a solution-sculpturedrock. A complex of many irregular andrepeatedly connected passages. Synonym: labyrinth.
anchor. A fixed object used to secure aman whilst operating a safety rope or forattaching equipment such as ladders orropes[25].
anchor ice, ground ice. Ice that istemporarily attached to the bottom of ariver[16].
anemolite. A helictite in which theeccentricity is ascribed to the action of aircurrents[10]. The word is derived fromwind-control theory of helictiteformation[9].
anemometer. A device used to measurewind speeds[16].
angle of contact, wetting angle. The anglebetween the liquid phase and solidboundary measured through the liquidphase[16].
angle of repose. The natural slope ofunsupported granular material[16].
anglesite. A cave mineral — PbSO4[11].
angular. The property of unconsolidatedgrains with sharp edges[16].
angular unconformity. A geologicalunconformity with marked difference indip of the superimposed series[16].
anhydride. Anhydrous calcium sulfate,CaSO4
[16].
anion. A negatively charged ion thatmigrates to an anode, as in electrolysis[6].
anion exchange. Ion exchange process inwhich anions in solution are exchangedfor other anions from an ion exchanger[6].
anisotropic. The property of aquifersystems displaying different hydrological
10
properties in different directions[16]. Seealso anisotropy; anisotropic mass.
anisotropic mass. A mass having differentproperties in different directions at anygiven point[22].
anisotropic steering. Anisotropicstructures (anisotropies) in the rock likeschistosity, inclusions and fractures whichcan deviate or ‘steer’ the direction offractures subsequently developed.
anisotropy. The condition of havingdifferent properties in differentdirections[22].
annual frost zone. The top layer of groundsubject to annual freezing and thawing[16].
annual mean. The mean value taken overall events that have occurred during a yearsuch as precipitation, river stages, water-table levels[16].
annulus. The annular space between drillpipe and casing or between casing and theborehole wall[16].
anomaly. The deviation from normallyexpected findings, especially inexploration geophysics indicating achange in subsurface environmentalconditions[16].
antecedent precipitation index. Aprecipitation index that is based on theamount of previous precipitations[16].
antecedent-soil moisture. The degree ofwater saturation in the soil prior to aprecipitation event[16].
antecedent stream. A stream havingestablished its course before occurrenceof orogenic events that would later alterthe general drainage pattern[16].
antenna (plural antennae). A feeler; anappendage, sensory in function, thatoccurs in pairs on the heads ofcrustaceans, insects, and certain otheranimals[23].
anthodite. 1. Radiating crystals ofaragonite, mostly sharp needles 1–20 mmlong. They occur sporadically in somecaves but they may also be spectacularlyabundant, with clean white crystalsgrowing all over the rock and calcitesurfaces. Carlsbad Caverns (USA) andGrotte de Moulis (France) have fineanthodite displays[9]. 2. A cave formationcomposed of feathery or radiating massesof long needlelike crystals of gypsum oraragonite, which radiate outward from acommon base[10]. See also cave flower.
anthropocentric definitions. Definitions ofcaves or parts of caves that includeaccessibility by human explorers as one oftheir limiting conditions. Most wellknown among these is the definitionpublished by the InternationalSpeleological Union, that ‘A cave is anatural underground opening in rock thatis large enough for human entry’ (seeproto-caves)[9].
anticlinal valley. A valley that isestablished along the axis of an erodedanticline[16].
anticline. Upfolded stratum[16].
11
aphthitalite. A cave mineral —(K,Na)3Na(SO4)2
[11].
apparent ground-water velocity. Seespecific discharge.
appendage. An arm or other limb thatbranches from an animal's body[23].
approach segment. That part of ahydrograph curve before onset ofprecipitation[16]. See also hydrograph.
apron. A smooth bulging mass offlowstone covering sloping projectionsfrom walls of caves or limestone cliffs[10].
aquatic. Living in water. Aquatic caveanimals include amphipods, isopods,crayfish, planarians, fish, and blindsalamanders[23]. See also terrestrial;marine.
aqueduct. A conduit to convey water,usually above ground[16].
aquiclude. A formation which, althoughporous and capable of storing water, doesnot transmit it at rates sufficient to furnishan appreciable supply for a well or spring. See also confining unit[22].
aquifer. 1. A formation, group offormations, or part of a formation thatcontains sufficient saturated permeablematerial to yield significant quantities ofwater to wells and springs[6]. 2. Aground-water reservoir. 3. Pervious rockthat is completely saturated and will yieldwater to a well or spring. Historically theterm has been applied to beds favoringearly cave development, probably
synonymous with some inceptionhorizons[18].
aquifer, artesian. A confined aquiferwhere the potentiometric surface risesabove the top of the aquifer bed[16].
aquifer, coastal. An aquifer in a coastalregion open to salt-water intrusions[16].
aquifer, flowing artesian. An artesianaquifer in which the water, underhydrostatic pressure rises above the landsurface.
aquifer, karst. An aquifer in which theflow of water is or can be appreciablethrough one or more of the following:joints, faults, bedding-plane partings, andcavities — any or all of which have beenenlarged by dissolution[18].
aquifer, leaky. An aquifer overlain orunderlain by semipermeable strata fromor into which water will flow[16].
aquifer stimulation. A type ofdevelopment that is done insemiconsolidated and completelyconsolidated formations to alter theformation physically to improve itshydraulic properties[6].
aquifer storage. Gas storage in anaquifer[16].
aquifer system. A body of permeable andpoorly permeable material that functionsregionally as a water-yielding unit; itcomprises two or more permeable bedsseparated at least locally by confiningbeds that impede ground-water movementbut do not greatly affect the regional
12
hydraulic continuity of the system; includesboth saturated and unsaturated parts ofpermeable material[22].
aquifer test. A test to determine hydrologicproperties of the aquifer involving thewithdrawal of measured quantities ofwater from or addition of water to a welland the measurement of resulting changesin head in the aquifer both during andafter the period of discharge oradditions[6].
aquifere epikarstique. See epikarst zone.
aquifuge. A formation which has nointerconnected openings or interstices andtherefore neither stores nor transmitswater[22]. See also confining unit.
aquitard. A confining bed that retards butdoes not prevent the flow of water to orfrom an adjacent aquifer; a leakyconfining bed. It does not readily yieldwater to wells or springs, but may serveas a storage unit for ground water[22]. Seealso confining unit.
aragonite. 1. A relatively rare form ofcalcium carbonate (CaCO3), chemicallyidentical to the more common calcite butof orthorhombic crystal form. Its pureform is metastable in the caveenvironment, where calcite formspreferentially. It is relatively abundant insome caves due to the presence ofimpurities, notably strontium, that distortthe carbonate lattice and favor aragonitegrowth. The commonest form seen incaves as small radiating crystals(anthodites) that develop in humid caves,where surfaces are covered by a moisturefilm but not by flowing water. 2. A
mineral composed of calcium carbonate,CaCO3, like calcite but differing in crystalform[10]. 3. An unstable orthorhombiccarbonate mineral, CaCO3
[16].
ardealite. A cave mineral —Ca2(SO4)(HPO4)"4H2O[11].
area of influence of a well. The areasurrounding a pumping or recharging wellwithin which the potentiometric surfacehas been changed[22].
arête and pinnacle karst. A landscape ofnaked reticulated raw-topped ridgeshaving almost vertical slopes and a reliefof as much as 120 meters. The ridges riseabove forest- covered corridors anddepressions. Found in New Guinea atelevations of 2,000 meters and more[10]. Both pinnacle karst and arête karst arevarieties of limestone landscape formedunder equatorial rain forest cover. Theyare characterized by vertical sided bladesof bare rock fretted by dissolution[9].
argillaceous. The property of rockscontaining clay in non-negligibleproportions[16].
argillaceous limestone. Limestonecontaining considerable amounts ofclay[16].
arid. The property of dry climates andregions with a net deficiency ofmoisture[16].
arrival time. 1. The time of arrival insubsurface flow tracing for the first tracerpulse to arrive at a discharge location. 2.The time of arrival in geophysics for the
13
first seismic wave to arrive at ageophone[16].
artefact. A product of human manufactureor art, e.g. tools of bone, stone, etc.,paintings, engravings. In caves, tools areoften buried in sediment. (Scientificattention should be drawn to the findingof artefacts in caves[25].)
artesian. Synonymous with confined.
artesian aquifer. Synonymous withconfined aquifer. See aquifer, artesian.
artesian flow. Flow through a confinedaquifer where the elevation of theoverlying aquiclude is locally depressedso that the entire aquifer is saturated andthe flow is under hydrostatic pressure. Some maze cave development incavernous limestones may be due toartesian flow, which is commonly relatedto synclinal fold structures[9].
artesian spring. See spring, artesian.
artesian well. A well deriving its waterfrom a confined aquifer in which thewater level stands above the groundsurface[6]. Synonym: flowing artesianwell.
arthropods. Animals with jointed legs andbard external skeletons (exoskeletons). The group includes insects, crustaceans,spiders, millipedes, and several othertypes of animals commonly found incaves[23].
artificial discharge. The discharge ofground water by pumping wells[16].
artificial recharge. Recharge at a rategreater than natural, resulting fromdeliberate or incidental humanactivities[6].
ascender. A mechanical device used bycavers who are either ascending or aredescending through a vertical opening ina cave (e.g. vadose shaft) that uses a camto grip a rope while downward pressure isbeing applied to the device[13]. See alsomechanical ascender; prusiking; prusikknot.
association. A relatively stable communityof different species living in acharacteristic habitat[25].
atmometer. An instrument used to measureevaporation intensities[16].
atmosphere. A gaseous envelope of theearth that contains and transports air andwater in vapor and condensed form[16].
attapulgite clay. A colloidal, viscosity-building clay consisting of hydrousmagnesium aluminum silicates and usedprincipally in salt-water drilling fluids[6].
attrition. The wearing away of rocks byfriction[16].
auger. A rotary drilling device where thedry cuttings are removed continuously byhelical grooves on the drill pipe[16].
aurichalcite. A cave mineral —(Zn,Cu)5(CO3)2(OH)6.
autochthonous. Property pertaining tosedimentary material originating and
14
deposited at about the same location[16]. See also allochthonous.
autochthonous drainage. Less commonsynonym for autogenic drainage[9].
autogenic, authigenic. Formed orgenerated in place[1]. See also allogenic;recharge, autogenic; recharge, allogenic.
autogenic drainage. Underground karstdrainage that is derived entirely byabsorption of meteoric water into thekarst rock surface[9]. Synonym:autochthonous drainage. See alsoallogenic drainage.
available water. The water available toplants in the soil zone as defined by theinterval between field capacity andwilting point[16].
aven. 1. A hole in the roof of a cavepassage that may be either a rather largeblind roof pocket or a tributary inlet shaftinto the cave system. A feature describedas an aven when seen from below mayequally be described as shaft when seenfrom above, and the naming of such afeature commonly depends purely uponthe direction of exploration. Many avensclose upwards to impenetrable fissuresbut may still be important hydrologicalroutes; few caves are without them. Inparts of France, aven is equivalent to theBritish term, pothole[9]. 2. (French.) Avertical or highly inclined shaft inlimestone, extending upward from a cavepassage, generally to the surface; smallerthan an abîme. Commonly related toenlarged vertical joints. Compare cenote;natural well; pothole. 3. (British.) Avertical extension from a shaft in a
passage or chamber roof that tapersupward rather like a very elongatecone[10]. Compare dome pit.
average interstitial velocity. See velocity,average interstitial.
azimuth. The true bearing of a survey line,determined by measurement from anaccurate survey or by observations of sunor stars[25].
azonal soil. Soils without distinct layeringin horizons[16].
azurite. A cave mineral —Cu(CO3)2(OH)2
[11].
15
B
backflooding. 1. Temporarily rising waterlevel in a cave caused by downstreampassage being too small to pass anabnormally high discharge. Theexcavation and reexcavation of somecaves is ascribed to the enlargement of apassage at or near the water table bygravity flow alternating with periods ofcalcite precipitation[10]. 2. Flooding dueto backup of excess flow behind aconstriction in a major conduit. Waterthat is ponded in tributary passages andproto-caves upstream of the constrictionmay contribute to the enlargement ofmaze caves[9].
background noise. The level of intensity ofsignals due to normal activities other thanthe specific signal emission[16].
backwater. The accumulated water abovethe normal level of a water course due toimpoundment at a point downstream[16].
backwater curve. Water surface profile ina stream or channel above a constrictionor impoundment[16].
bacon. Thin, elongated, translucentflowstone having parallel colored bandson or projecting from roofs and walls ofsome caves[10]. See also blanket; curtain;drapery.
bacteria. Simple, colorless one-cell plants,most of which are unable to manufacturetheir own food using sunlight Bacteriaare possibly important in caves assynthesizers of food materials fromminerals. They are also important asdecomposers[23].
bactericide. A substance used to destroybacteria (e.g. iron bacteria)[6].
bailer. 1. A cylindrical container used towithdraw a sample of water from a well. 2. A cylindrical container with a bottomvalve for the clearing of drill cuttingsfrom the bottom of a borehole[16].
bailing line. Cable operating a bailer[16]. Synonym: sand line.
balcony. Any projection on the wall of acave large enough to support one or morepersons[10].
bank. Ascending slope bordering a river[16].
bank erosion. Erosion of a river bank[16].
bank storage. 1. Subsurface conduit waterthat has been driven back up into older,higher karst levels and into thesurrounding rock matrix during a highflow period. 2. River water that hasinfiltrated river banks during a high flowperiod and being retained in temporarystorage[16].
barbels. Fleshy threadlike sensorystructures hanging like whiskers near themouths of certain fish, such as catfish[23].
bare karst. A type of karst landscapelacking soil cover and where dissolutionof carbonate rocks to form karstlandforms occurs primarily on theexposed bedrock surface[9]. See nakedkarst.
barite. 1. A cave mineral — BaSO4. 2. Anatural finely ground barium sulfate used
16
for increasing the density of drillingfluids[6].
barograph. A pressure recorder[16].
barometer. An indicator of barometricpressure[16].
barometric efficiency. The ratio of waterlevel change to atmospheric pressurechange in a well[16].
barrier. A geological formation or part of aformation having become impervious toground-water flow due to a facieschange[16].
barrier, freshwater. Barrier of freshwaterinjected into an aquifer to stop the inflowof seawater into a coastal aquifer[16].
barrier, hydrologic. Lithologic formationpreventing horizontal movement ofground water[16].
barrier, permeability. A geologic orpetrographic feature in a bed obstructingfree flow[16].
barrier spring. See spring, barrier.
base exchange. The displacement of acation bound to a site on the surface of asolid, as in silica-alumina clay-mineralpackets, by a cation solution[6].
base flow. 1. That part of the streamdischarge that is not attributable to directrunoff from precipitation or meltingsnow; it is usually sustained byground-water discharge[22]. 2. Sustainedfair weather runoff[16].
base level. Lowest level of erosion by astream[16].
base level of erosion. The lowesttheoretical level of surface to be achievedby erosion[16].
base level, karst. See karst base level.
base line. 1. An arbitrary line from whichdeflections of self potential are read[16]. 2.Shale line[16].
baseline monitoring. The establishmentand operation of a designed surveillancesystem for continuous or periodicmeasurements and recording of existingand changing conditions that will becompared with future observations[22].
base of karstification. Level below whichkarstification has not occurred. See alsokarst base level.
base width. The width of the hydrograph asdetermined by a line parallel to the timeaxis cutting through the points where therising limb starts and where the recessioncurve ends[16].
basin. Hydrogeographic unit receivingprecipitation and discharging runoff inone point[16].
basin characteristics. The physiographic,geologic, and ecologic characteristics of abasin[16].
basin, closed. Drainage basin with nosurface flow outlet[16].
17
basin, drainage. The area contributing torunoff which sustains streamflow[16]. Seealso drainage basin.
basin, experimental. A basin chosen forthe thorough study of hydrologicalphenomena[16].
basin, ground-water. The area throughoutwhich ground water drains towards thesame point. It can be larger than theassociated drainage basin if permeablelayers extend outside of the topographicaldivide[16]. In karst terranes, the ground-water basin often does not resemble thedrainage basin.
basin, infiltration. Basin in which water isspread for recharge[16].
basin, intermontane. A basin lyingbetween two mountain ranges[16].
basin method. A recharge method in whichwater is spread in shallow basins[16].
basin mouth. The point at which runoffleaves a basin[16].
basin perimeter. The circumference of abasin following the divide[16].
basin relief, maximum. The elevationdifference between basin mouth and thehighest point within a basin perimeter[16].
basin, settling. A basin used for the settlingout of solids from suspension[16].
bat. A member of the order Chiroptera, theonly mammals capable of true flight asthey have membranes between the toes oftheir forefeet[25].
bathybenthic. Of the bottom of the trulydeep areas of the sea, where the "rain" oforganic material produces a deposit offood[23].
bathypelagic. Of the deep sea. Refers tothe depths between roughly 3000 feetbelow the surface and the bottom of thesea. No food accumulates in thesewaters[23].
bathyphreatic. Referring to water movingwith some speed through downwardlooping passages in the phreatic zone[25]. See bathyphreatic zone, ground water,phreas.
bathyphreatic zone. See bathyphreatic,ground water, phreas.
bathometer. An instrument for measuringwater depths in wells[16].
beach. A shore consisting of sand or graveldeposits[16].
beachrock. 1. Rock composed of sandgrains and/or sand-sized shell fragmentscemented by calcium carbonate,commonly formed very rapidly on somebeaches in tropical and sub-tropical areas. Beachrock generally occurs as thin bedsbetween bedding planes that dip seawardsat angles similar to those of the beachslope[9]. 2. A friable to indurated rockconsisting of sand grains of variousminerals cemented by calcium carbonate;occurs in thin beds dipping seaward atless than 15N. Also known as beachsandstone[10].
bearing. The angle measured clockwisethat a line makes with the north line.
18
True, magnetic and grid bearings aremeasured respectively from true,magnetic and grid north[25].
bed. 1. A layer in sedimentary rocks; astratum[10]. 2. A sedimentary deposit ofrelatively small thickness and great arealextent, separated by bedding planes fromover- and underlying deposits[16].
bed load. See bedload.
bed, lower confining. An impermeable bedunderlying an aquifer[16].
bed, marker. Bed with characteristicfeatures that can be followed over largeareas for identification purposes[16].
bed, mortar. Secondary calcium carbonatecementations in the lower part of a soilprofile[16]. Synonym: hardpan.
bed, river. The channel of a river coveredby water[16].
bed roughness. The roughness of a channelor river bed[16].
bed, stream. The bottom of a streamcovered by water[16].
bed, upper confining. Impermeable bedoverlying an aquifer[16].
bedding. Applies to rocks resulting fromconsolidation of sediments and exhibitingsurfaces of separation (bedding planes)between layers of the same or differentmaterials (e.g., shale, sandstone,limestone, etc.).
bedding cave. See bedding-plane cave.
bedding grike. Term used to describe theoccurrence of the dissolution andwidening (similar to that which occurs injoints) of nearly vertical bedding in karstterranes[8]. Synonym: (German.)Schichtfugenkarren.
bedding joint. A joint in rocks that runsparallel to or on a bedding plane[16].
bedding plane. 1. A primary depositionallamination in sedimentary rocks that maybe preserved, though possibly withdifferent properties, in metamorphicrocks. These laminations may be clearlyvisible where lithologies change or wheredepositional cycles werecompleted/initiated, or they may beeffectively invisible to the naked eye,marking subtle changes in depositionalconditions. Most bedding planes wereoriginally horizontal or very slightlyinclined, but more steeply inclinedbedding planes developed in rocksdeposited in deltaic or sand duneenvironments or in marine reefs. Whenrocks are folded the bedding planesprovide an indication of the degree ofdeformation. Bedding planes play acrucial role in the inception and ongoingdevelopment of most caves and manysurface karst features[3]. 2. A plane thatseparates two strata of differingcharacteristics[10]. See also parting.
bedding-plane cave. 1. Bedding planes arewidespread and very significant featureswithin most carbonate rocks, and cavepassages are commonly guided by them. Their structure, their distribution and thechemical contrasts that some beddingplanes provide may be the majorinfluence during the earliest phases of
19
development of a cave system. The termbedding-plane cave is strictly applied to apassage that has not enlarged by growthinto a major tube or canyon, but hasremained almost entirely on the beddingplane. A famous example is Hensler’sPassage, in Gaping Gill, Yorkshire, whichis over 400 m long, nearly over 5 m wideand nowhere higher than 1 m[9]. 2. Apassage formed along a bedding plane,especially when there is a difference insusceptibility to corrosion in the twobeds[10]. 3. A cave whose location iscontrolled by the bedding of the enclosingformation or formations[20]. Synonyms:(French.) grotte de stratification;(German.) schichtgebundene Höhle;(Greek.) strosigenes speleon; (Italian.)grotta di interstrato; (Russian.) pescera vploakosti naplastovanija; (Spanish.) cuevaadaptada a planos de estratificación;(Turkish.) tabakalanma ma™aras2;(Yugoslavian.) slojna peƒina.
bedding-plane parting. See bedding planeand parting.
bedeckter karst. See covered karst.
bedload. The part of the total stream loadthat is moved on or immediately abovethe stream bed, such as the larger orheavier particles (boulders, pebbles,gravel) transported by traction or saltationalong the bottom; the part of the load thatis not continuously in suspension orsolution[6].
bedrock. Solid rock underlyingunconsolidated material[16].
bench mark. A relatively permanent mark,natural or artificial, furnishing a survey
point at a known elevation in relation toan adopted datum[16]. Bench marks, ormarked points, connected by preciseleveling, constitute the control of land-surface settlement in subsidencestudies[21].
bend. Curve in a water course[16].
bentonite. A colloidal clay, largely made upof the mineral sodium montmorillonite, ahydrated aluminum silicate[6].
B-horizon. Illuvial horizon in whichsoluble material from the overlying A-horizon has been deposited[16].
belay. A safety rope tied around a caver thatis played out or taken in by a secondperson as the caver moves. The purposeof the belay is to prevent the caver fromfalling more than a few feet[13].
beudantite. A cave mineral —PbFe3(AsO4)(SO4)(OH)6
[11].
bicarbonate. A salt containing the radicalHCO3
–1, such as Ca(HCO3)2[10].
bifurcation. The forklike separation of awater course into two arms[16].
bifurcation ratio. The ratio of the numberof stream segments of a given order to thenumber of segments of next higherorder[16].
biological clock. An inherited time-measuring process within a living thing,which governs its responses to certainexternal events[23].
20
biomass. The total weight of living matter,whether in an entire community, at aparticular trophic level, or of a particularkind of organism in the community. Thuswe may refer to the biomass of a pondcommunity, of herbivores in the pond, orof copepods in the pond[23].
biomicrite. A microscopic-texturedlimestone composed of skeletal grains ina matrix of micrite; micrite is a finelycrystalline carbonate sediment with theupper crystalline diameter being 4microns[20]. Synonyms: (French.)biomicrite; (German.) Biomicrite; (Greek.)micrite; (Italian.) biomicrite; (Spanish.)biomicrita; (Turkish.) biyomikrit;(Yugoslavian.) biomikrit. See alsomicrite; peloid.
biospeleology. 1. The study of subterraneanliving organisms, particularly in karstcaves and other openings in rockformations[9, 21]. 2. The scientific study ofcave animal life, or the biology of caves,karst, and groundwater. A biologist whospecializes in this study is called abiospeleologist[23]. Synonyms: (French.)biospéléologie, biospéologie; (German.)Biospeläologie; (Greek.) biospeleology;(Italian.) biospeleogia; (Russian.)biospeleologija; (Spanish.)biospeleología; (Turkish.) biyospeleoloji,ma™ara canl2lar2 bilimi; (Yugoslavian.)biospeleologija.
biphosphammite. A cave mineral —NH4H2PO4
[11].
birnessite. A cave mineral —(Na,Ca)Mn7O14"3H2O[11].
blade. In a cave, a thin sharp projectionjutting out from roof, wall, or floor, ofwhich it is an integral part; generally theremains of a partition or bridge[10].
blanket. A thick layer of dripstone, nottranslucent[10]. See also bacon; curtain;drapery.
blind chimney. See chimney.
blind shaft. A vertical extension upwardsfrom part of a cave, but not reaching thesurface; small in area in relation to itsheight[25].
blind valley. 1. A karst valley abruptlyterminated by the passage underground ofthe watercourse which has hithertoresisted the karst processes and remainedat the surface. An intermediate type, thehalf-blind valley, exists in which thevalley form continues downstream fromthe sinkhole used under conditions ofnormal river flow. The watercourse onlyflows here intermittently and the valleymay (except for its use as a flood conduit)be fossil in that it represents the sectionabandoned by the river as it soughtprogressively higher swallow holes[19]. 2.A karst valley with no evidentdownstream continuation, and one inwhich the water drains and disappearsunderground into one or more ponors[20]. 3. A valley that terminates abruptly at apoint where its stream sinks, or oncesank, underground. As sinks develophigher up the blind valley, the originalvalley termination may be dry under mostflow conditions[9]. Related to marginalpolje. Synonyms: (French.) valléeaveugle; (German.) Blindtal, (Kesseltal);(Greek.) kliste karstike kilas; (Italian.)
21
valle cieca, valle chiusa; (Russian.)slepaja dolina; (Spanish.) valle ciego;(Turkish.) kör vadi; (Yugoslavian.) slijepadolina, sepa dolina. See also half-blindvalley; marginal polje.
bloedite. A cave mineral —Na2Mg(SO4)2"4H2)[11].
blowhole. 1. Opening in the roof of a caveor cavern through which air is expelledvigorously. In coastal areas thephenomenon is usually due tocompression of air within the cave byincoming tides or waves[20]. 2. Cliff topentrance to a sea cave, also known as ageo, gloop, or gloup[9]. 3. (Australian.) Asmall hole in the surface of the NullarborPlain through which air blows in and outwith observable force, sometimesaudibly[10]. Related to breathing hole. Synonyms: (French.) trou souffleur;(German.) Windhöhle; (Greek.) opeekphysosa; (Italian.) bocca soffiante;(Spanish.) soplador; (Turkish.) üflenmea™z2; (Yugoslavian.) vjetrenica, veternica,puhaljka, pihalnik, dihalnik. See alsosteam hole.
blowing cave. A cave out of which or intowhich a current of air flowsintermittently[10].
blowing well. A well or borehole intowhich air is sucked and from which air isblown (often with considerable velocity)due to changes in barometric pressure orin water level. The phenomenonindicates that the well or borehole is incommunication with an underground air-filled cavity. Synonyms: (French.) puitssouffleur; (German.) Windkamin; (Greek.)ekphysosa ope; (Italian.) pozzo soffiante;
(Russian.) dujuÑcij kolokec; (Spanish.)sondeo soplador; (Turkish.) üfleç kuyu. See also steam hole.
blowout. An uncontrolled escape of drillingfluid, gas, oil, or water from a well causedby the formation pressure being greaterthan the hydrostatic head of the fluid inthe hole[6].
blue hole. 1. Deep resurgence pool, notablyin Jamaica and Florida, that may have ablue color due to the presence of algae. Also a deep submarine cave of theBahamas. The latter type are largeflooded shafts cut into the limestones ofthe shallow reefs and lagoon floors. Many are 100 m in diameter and some are100 m deep. Opening from the shafts areflooded cave passages at various depths,some of which have been exploredsubhorizontally for more than 1 km. Their origins are complex. Extensivestalagmite deposits show that large oldcaves were drained when sea-levels werelow during the Pleistocene (when waterwas held in the ice sheets). They are nowbeing modified by marine dissolution,notably at the interface between fresh andsalt waters (sea littoral zone) and bypowerful tidal flows between connectedholes[9]. 2. (Jamaican.) A major emer-gence where water (artesian spring) risesfrom below without great turbulence. 3.(Bahamas.) A drowned solutionsinkhole[10]. 4. Caribbean expression for amajor quiet up-welling karst spring inlandor along the coast. The blue color is dueto the scattering of sunlight by watermolecules, although in some cases it maybe attributed to the presence of calcareousalgae[20]. Synonyms: (French.) sourcebleue (Jura), bleu-fon (South of France);
22
(German.) Blaue Grotto; (Greek.) galapospeleo. See also boiling spring.
bobbin. A decender that opens to enclosethe rope around two fixed pulleys. Mayhave a handle ("STOP") which must besqueezed to allow descent[25].
Bodenbedeckter karst. See subsoil karst.
bog. Swamp[16].
bogaz. 1. (Slavic.) An elongated depressionin limestone or karst terrain; thus itembraces a defile, a blind valley or aravine leading to a ponor. It can beconsidered as a giant grike. This meaningis based on the Serbian use[20]. 2. Avariable-discharge artesian spring inwhich hydrostatic pressure is greatenough to cause a turbulent or evenfountain-like discharge. 3. A long narrowchasm enlarged by solution of thelimestone[10]. 4. Large linear fissure orbox valley through a karst block. Effectively a giant grike, perhaps 50 mdeep and 1 km long, formed bydissolution on a fault or joint in verymassive limestone[9]. Synonyms:(French.) défilé, bogaz; (German.) Doline,Karstgaße, Blindtal, Zangön; (Greek.)faragothis doline; (Spanish.) zanjón;(Turkish.) bog #az; (Yugoslavia.) bogaz. See also canyon; gorge; grike; corridor;struga; zanjón.
boiling spring. See spring, boiling.
bollard. A projection of rock over whichrope, tape or wire can be placed to createan anchor[25].
bolt. A high tensile steel bolt used as ananchor; either a conical bolt screwed intoa metal holder in a hole drilled in rock,causing expansion for grip, or a bolt withpartially filed thread hammered into aslightly smaller hole[25].
bone-breccia. 1. Cave breccia includingmuch bone[10]. 2. A breccia containingmany bone fragments. (Scientificattention should be drawn to the findingof such in caves[25].)
bone cave. A cave recognized particularlyfor its contained deposits of animal bones. The bones may be the remains of animalsthat fell into the cave, as in the JointMitnor Cave, Devon, or in many otherpitfall or fissure sites. Alternatively thebones may be of animals that originallylived in the cave — and these mayinclude man, as at Niah Cave, Sarawak,or at Russell Cave, USA. A third, andmost important, type of bone cave is theancient animal den, into which scavengerssuch as hyaenas dragged the remains ofmany other animals, as for example atKirkdale Cave in North Yorkshire[3].
borehole. 1. Boring into unconsolidatedand consolidated materials for thepurpose of subsurface hydrogeologicalinvestigations. 2. Synonym for a welldeveloped phreatic tube passage[9].
botryoid, botryoidal speleothem. 1.Generally sub-spherical or globularcalcium carbonate deposits ranging insize between tiny beads and masses up to1 m across. Botryoidal describes a formresembling a bunch of grapes[9]. 2. Agrape-like deposit of calcium carbonategenerally found on walls of caves[10].
23
Synonyms: clusterite; grape formation. See coralloid speleothem.
bottom hole. The lowest part of a drilledhole where the drilling bit cuts into therock[16].
bottomland. A lowland along an alluvialriver plain[16].
boulder clay. See glacial till.
boundary spring. See spring, boundary.
bourne. (British.) 1. A stream that appearsin a normally dry valley, particularly onthe Chalk outcrop in southern England,during wet conditions[9]. 2. Intermittentstream in a normally dry valley in chalkcountry[10].
boxwork. 1. A three-dimensional networkof thin sheets of mineral projecting from acave wall. The boxwork is vein fillingsetched from the cave wall by dissolutionof the host limestone and consists mostlyof calcite and quartz. It is not common,but spectacular displays occur in IndCave, South Dakota, USA[9]. 2. Networkof thin blades of calcite or gypsum etchedout in relief on the limestone walls andceiling of a cave[10].
brackish water. Water containing from1000 to 10,000 ppm of total dissolvedsolids[16].
braided stream. A stream that divides intoor follows an interlacing or tanglednetwork of several small branching andreuniting shallow channels separatedfrom each other by branch islands or
channel bars, resembling in plan thestrands of a complex braid[6].
brake bar. A round bar approximately 2½× ¾ inches that is placed on rappel racksor carabiners so that rope can be threadedthrough the rack or carabiners forrappelling[13].
branchwork cave pattern. 1. A cavesystem that has been formed by theintersection of tubular or canyon-likeconduits as tributaries in the down-flowdirection. 2. A dendritic cave system ofsubterranean watercourses having manyincoming branches and no visibleoutgoing ones[10].
breakdown. See cave breakdown.
breakthrough. A quantum jump inerosional activity that is associated withthe transition from dominantly laminar todominantly turbulent flow conditions[9]. See turbulent threshold.
breakthrough curve. 1. A plot of relativeconcentration versus time, where relativeconcentration is defined as C/Co with Cas the concentration at a point in theground-water flow domain, and Co as thesource concentration[22]. 2. A plot oftracer concentration, C, versus time, t, fora ground-water tracing study in karstconduit for the purpose of quantitativelydetermining how much tracer mass wasrecovered, mean time of travel, meantracer flow velocity, and related hydraulicflow and geometric parameters. Synonyms: recovery curve; tracer-breakthrough curve; tracer-recoverycurve.
24
breakthrough time. The time required todevelop a conduit large enough (usually5–10 mm in diameter) to supportturbulent flow[9].
breathing cave. Air movement through acave is described as breathing when itreverses more frequently than theseasonal reversal of a through-draught ina cave with higher and lower entrances. Slow breathing occurs in response tobarometric pressure changes, when thevolume of cave air is forced to change. Itis notoriously strong in large caves of theAustralian Nullarbor Plain. More rapidwind reversals or oscillations, as inBreathing Cave, Virginia, are a resonancephenomenon, similar to the effectproduced by air passing over the neck of abottle. In the cave environment theresonant frequency is relatively low andperiodic air flow reversals occur, ratherthan the sound waves observed at thehigher frequencies met in the bottle neckexample[9].
breathing hole. Opening in the roof of acave, cavern or other underground voidthrough which air is sucked in andexpelled in a rhythmic manner similar toinhalation and exhalation of breath[20]. Related to blow hole and steam hole. Synonyms: (French.) trou souffleur;(German.) Luftloch, (Greek.) anapnéousaopí spiléou; (Spanish.) respirador;(Turkish.) esintili delik.
breccia. 1. Angular fragments of rock,commonly, but not inevitably, cementedby finer-grained materials includingsilica, iron minerals, and calcite to form anew rock. Many fault planes are markedby zones of broken rock, either loose or
re-cemented, forming a fault breccia[9]. 2.Rock composed of angular fragments[16].
bridge. 1. May be a natural bridge ofbedrock normally formed outside a caveentrance by partial collapse leaving anisolated roof segment, as in the famousexamples of Rakov Škocjan, Slovenia. Rock bridges may also occur inside cavesdue either surrounding phreaticdissolution or collapse betweensuperimposed passages. Anothercommon type inside a cave is a span offalse floor where sediment is washedfrom below, as at The Bridge in GBCavern in the Mendip Hills[9]. 2. In acave, a residual rock span across apassage[10]. 3. In water wells, anobstruction in the drill hole or annulus. Abridge is usually formed by caving of thewall of the well bore, by the intrusion of alarge boulder, or by filter pack materialsduring well completion. Bridging canalso occur in the formation during welldevelopment[16]. See also natural bridge.
bridging effect. The forming of arches in apacking of materials[16].
brine. Water containing more than 100,000ppm of total dissolved solids[16].
brittle deformation. The sudden failure ofa rock with complete loss of cohesionacross a plane.
brochantite. A cave mineral —Cu4(SO4)(OH)6
[11].
brushite. A cave mineral —CaHPO4"2H2O[11].
25
bubble gage. A stage recorder based on theprinciple of equating a gas pressure towater level[16].
bucket. A measuring reservoir in liquidgaging instruments[16].
buffered solution. A solution that resistschanges in the pH value upon addition ofacids or bases[16].
buildup. The vertical distance the watertable or potentiometric surface is raised,or the increase of the pressure head due tothe addition of water[22].
buried karst. Karst topography entirelyburied by relatively younger post-rock orsediments and not part of thecontemporary landscape[17]. Synonyms:fossil karst; (French.) karst couvert, karstfossile, paleokarst; (German.) bedeckterKarst, Urkarst; (Greek.) kaymenopaleokarst; (Italian.) carso sepolto;(Spanish.) karst soterrado; (Turkish.)gömülü karst; (Yugoslavian.) pokriveni krs#. See also covered karst; paleokarst; subsoilkarst.
buried valley. An ancient valley buried byrecent, often glacial deposits[16].
burst. 1. Periods of heavy rainfall[16]. 2. Anexplosive breaking of brittle rock material(e.g., rock burst in a deep mine tunnel).
26
C
caballing. The mixing of two water massesto produce a blend that sinks because of itis denser than its original components. This occurs when two water masses havethe same density but differenttemperatures and salinities.
cable ladder. A ladder used in verticalcaving that is made of two parallel cableswith metal rungs held in place on thecables with metal tubes crimped to thecables[13].
cable way. A cable stretched across a riverfrom which a cable car is suspended toallow for stream dischargemeasurements[16].
caisson. A protective chamber for theexcavation of water submergedunconsolidated sediments[16].
calanque. (French.) 1. Cove or small bay. 2. A valley excavated in limestone orformed by collapse of the roof of a caveand subsequently submerged by a rise insea level[10].
calc-. Prefix meaning limy; containingcalcium carbonate[10].
calcarenite. 1. Limestone or dolomitecomposed of coral or shell sand or ofgrains derived from the disintegration anderosion of older limestones. Size ofparticles ranges from 1/16 to 2millimeters[10]. 2. A carbonate rock thatconsists predominantly (>50%) of sand-sized calcite (or dolomite) particles. Many of the particles are the angular ordegraded fragments of fossil shells[9].
calcareous. 1. Containing calciumcarbonate[10]. 2. Descriptive of a rock thatcontains calcium carbonate[9].
calcareous tufa. See sinter.
calcification. Replacement of the originalhard parts of an animal or plant bycalcium carbonate[10].
calcilutite. 1. Clastic limestone or dolomitein which the grains have an averagediameter of less than 1/16 millimeter;calcareous mudstone[10]. 2. A carbonaterock that consists predominantly (>50%)of silt and/or clay size calcite (ordolomite) particles[9].
calcirudite. A fragmental limestone inwhich the particles are generally largerthan 2 millimeters[10].
calcite. 1. The commoner, more stable,mineral form of calcium carbonate,CaCO3. It is the dominant component ofall limestones and, due to its dissolutionand reprecipitation by natural waters atnormal temperatures, it is also thedominant mineral of chemical cavedeposits including stalactites andstalagmites. It is white or colorless whenpure but may be stained, most commonlyto yellows and browns, by includedimpurities such as iron oxides. Itsuninterrupted growth in a pool may allowdevelopment of good crystals, shaped aselongate scalenohedral pyramids oftrigonal habit. Growth in stalactites andstalagmites is either in masses of fineparallel or radiating needles, or in amosaic of larger rhombic crystals, easilyidentified by their well developedcleavage surfaces. Calcite is also the
27
dominant vein mineral in limestones[9]. 2.A mineral composed of calciumcarbonate (CaCO3) like aragonite butdiffering in crystal form; the principalconstituent of limestone and otherspeleothems[10].
calcite bubble. A hollow sphere formed bythe deposition of calcite around a gasbubble; the interior is smooth, and theexterior consists of small jaggedcrystals[10].
calcite flottante. (French.) See floe calcite.
calcite raft. A veneer of reprecipitatedcalcite forming a sheet over all or part ofthe surface of a static cave pool inconditions favoring the release of carbondioxide[19].
calc-sinter. See sinter.
calcium carbonate. Naturally occurringcompound with the chemical formulaCaCO3. It occurs commonly as themineral calcite and less commonly asaragonite, and is the major component ofcarbonate rocks including limestone andmarble. It also forms the matrix orcement that holds together manysandstones and other sedimentary rocks[9]. See also dolomite.
calcrete. (South African.) See caliche.
calibration. The experimental evaluation ofthe scale readings of an instrumentagainst an absolute standard[16].
caliche. 1. (Chilean and Peruvian.) Anatural deposit of nitrates and other saltsprecipitated at the soil surface. 2.
(Mexico and Southwestern UnitedStates.) Indurated calcium carbonate andother salts found in the soil at the surfacein arid and semiarid regions, generallyformed by evaporation of lime-bearingwaters drawn to the surface by capillaryaction. 3. In some areas, refers to hardpanresulting from concentration of carbonatein the soil by downward leaching andreprecipitation[10]. 4. A deposit ofprecipitated minerals, mainly calcite orgypsum or both, formed in the soil ornear-surface layers in arid and semi-aridzones at the horizon where ascendantcapillary water evaporates and salts heldin solution are deposited. 5. A similardeposit, formed by precipitation of saltsleached from near-surface material andreprecipitated at shallow depths fromdownward moving waters[20]. Synonyms:(French.) croûte; (German.) Kalkkruste,Ca-Horizont; (Greek.) apóthema oriktónaláton; (Italian.) caliche; (Spanish.)caliche; (Turkish.) kaliçi. See alsohardpan; havara; kafkalla; kankar;kunkar; nari; calcrete.
callow. (English.) Top or rubble bed of aquarry.
canal seepage loss. Water lost to thesubsurface by seepage through thechannel bottom or walls[16].
canale. (Italian.) Long drowned valley onthe Dalmatian coast. Some canali may bedrowned poljes[10].
cáno. (Spanish.) Stream. See also stream.
canopy. 1. Overhanging flowstone thatprojects from a cave wall. It may be aremnant of a once continuous false floor
28
or a mass of flowstone that has builtsteadily outwards to create its ownoverhang[9]. 2. A compound caveformation consisting of flowstonehanging from a sloping wall projectionand forming a fringe of shawls orstalactites on the outer edge[10].
canyon. 1. A steep-walled chasm, gorge, orravine cut by running water. 2. A chasmthat has been formed by a cave stream. 3.A valley formed by collapse of the roof ofa long fairly straight cave; a karstvalley[10]. Related to corridor. Synonyms: (French.) canyon, gorge,can#on; (German.) Schlucht, Canyon;(Greek.) pharangi; (Italian.) forra, gola,orrido, canyon; (Russian.) kanjon;(Spanish.) cañón;, garganta; (Turkish.)bo™az; (Yugoslavian.) klanac, sutjeska,soteska, vintgar. See also bogaz; chasm;gorge; ravine.
canyon passage. 1. A tubular passage(cave) that is formed by undergroundstreams following gently tilted bedding-plane partings or fractures and are erodingchannels downward through the rock. Their ceiling heights are greater than theirwidths. They are similar to surfacecanyons, but they possess roofs and aregenerally the same distance apart at thetop as they are at the bottom. InMammoth Cave, most are narrow andwinding and may achieve dimensions of50 feet wide by 100 feet high. If a canyonpassage begins forming on an old tubepassage, then a keyhole passage mayresult[15]. 2. Also known as vadosecanyons, these are cave passages, mostcommonly formed by continued floorentrenchment or incision, by a freeflowing vadose stream. The passage
width at any particular level is determinedby the flow of the formative stream, therate of its downcutting and the effects ofany subsequent collapse. Canyon heightreflects the stream’s downcutting history. It depends upon the vertical distanceavailable for erosional descent to the localbase level and the time that erosionaldowncutting has been active, as well asupon the more obvious but less importantinfluences of flow rate and erosionalcapacity. Vadose canyons commonlytwist and meander sharply, whilemaintaining roughly parallel verticalsides. In contrast to some meanders insurface streams, underground meandersmust generally be imprinted on a beddingplane before entrenchment of the canyonbegins. Narrow canyon passages,commonly less than 1 m wide and morethan 20 m high, are a particular feature ofdeep alpine caves. Perhaps the largestcanyon passage in the world is that inŠkocjanske Jama, Slovenia, which is over100 m high and 50 m wide[9]. Seeparagenetic cave. See also keyholepassage; passage; tubular passage;vertical shafts.
capacity. The property to contain a certainvolume or mass[16].
capacity, carrying. The capacity of awatercourse to transport solids[16].
capacity curve. A graphic presentation ofthe rate of discharge in a pipe or conduitor through porous material[16].
capacity, entrance. The property of a soilto let water infiltrate[16].
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capacity, field; field-carrying; capillary. Soil moisture retained by capillarity andnot removable by gravity drainage[16]. Synonym: specific retention.
capacity, ground-water. 1. The ability ofsoil or rock materials to hold water. Theyield of a pump, well, or reservoir.
capacity, hydraulic. The ability of acurrent of water or wind to transportdetritus, as shown by the amountmeasured at a point per unit of time.
capacity, infiltration. The maximum rateat which a soil can absorb precipitationfor given conditions[16].
capacity, self-cleaning. The capacity of ariver to clean its water from pollutantsover a given length of water course[16].
capacity, specific. The ratio of welldischarge to corresponding discharge[16].
capacity, storage. 1. The ability of anaquifer to store water[16]. 2. The capacityof rivers to store water in their ownchannels[16].
capacity, total. The maximum rate of yieldof a well[16].
capacity, transmission. The property of aporous medium to conduct fluid[16].
capacity, well. The rate at which a well willyield water[16].
capillarity. The action by which a fluid,such as water, is drawn up (or depressed)in small interstices or tubes as a result ofsurface tension.
capillary action. The movement of water inthe interstices of a porous medium due tocapillary forces[22]. Synonymous withcapillarity, capillary flow, and capillarymigration.
capillary attraction. The adhesive forcebetween a liquid and a solid in capillarity.
capillary condensation. The formation ofrings of pendular water around pointcontacts of grains, and, when the ringsaround adjacent contacts become largeenough to touch.
capillary conductivity. 1. The property ofan unsaturated porous medium to transmitliquid[22]. 2. Coefficient which expressesthe extent to which an unsaturatedpermeable medium allows flow of waterthrough its interstices, under a unitgradient of capillary potential[22].
capillary fringe. The lower subdivision ofthe unsaturated zone immediately abovethe water table in which the interstices arefilled with water under pressure less thanthat of the atmosphere, being continuouswith the water below the water table butheld above it by capillary forces[22].
capillary fringe zone. The zone above thefree water elevation in which water isheld by capillary action.
capillary head. The potential, expressed inhead of water, that causes the water toflow by capillary action[22].
capillary interstice. An interstice smallenough to hold water by surface tension atan appreciable height above a free watersurface, yet large enough to prevent
30
molecular attraction from extendingacross the entire opening.
capillary migration. See capillary action.
capillary movement. The rise of water inthe subsoil above the water table bycapillarity.
capillary percolation. See imbibition.
capillary potential. The scalar quantity thatrepresents the work required to move aunit mass of water from the soil to achosen reference location and energystate[22].
capillary pressure. The difference inpressure across the interface between twoimmiscible fluid phases jointly occupyingthe interstices of a porous medium causedby interfacial tension between the twophases[22].
capillary rise. The height above a freewater surface to which water will rise bycapillary action[22]. Synonymous withheight of capillary rise.
capillary stalagmite. Hollow stalagmiteformed by saturated karst water pushedup through capillaries and small cracks ina sinter crust covering permeable fluvialdeposits on the floor of a cave; firstreported from Cuba, where suchstalagmites are composed of aragonite[10].
capillary tension. See moisture tension.
capillary water. 1. Water held in the soilabove the phreatic surface by capillaryforces[22]. 2. Soil water above
hydroscopic moisture and below the fieldcapacity[22].
carabiner. An oval of steel or aluminumwith a movable spring-loaded gate on oneside. A locking carabiner is one wherethe gate is threaded and has a ring that canbe threaded over the gate opening toprevent it from opening[13]. Synonyms:karabiner; krab.
carbide, calcium carbide. A compound(CaC2) of grayish color that reacts withwater to produce acetylene gas andcalcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2][13]. Commonly used by cavers and minersearlier in this century as a means ofproviding light in caves or mines. Somecavers still prefer carbide lights overelectric lights. See also carbide lamp.
carbide lamp. A carbide lamp, also knownas a miners’ carbide lamp or acetylenelamp was introduced into mine use atabout 1897. It consists of two chambers,a water tank above and a removablecarbide canister below with a connectionvalve to permit controlled seepage ofwater into the calcium carbide. Thecarbide and water react to generatecalcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] andacetylene gas. The gas is passed througha filter into a tube and through a tinyburner-tip orifice designed for theoptimum mixture of air and acetylene. Once ignited, it burns with a brilliantyellow-white flame produced by theincandescence of tiny carbon particles. Areflector concentrates the light in aparticular direction[13].
carbonate. 1. A salt or ester of carbonicacid; a compound containing the radical
31
CO3–2, such as calcium carbonate, CaCO3.
2. A rock consisting mainly of carbonateminerals, such as limestone ordolomite[10].
carbonate-fluorapatite. A cave mineral —Ca5(PO4,CO3)3F[11].
carbonate hardness. Hardness of waterdue to presence of dissolved bicarbonatesof calcium and magnesium which can beremoved by boiling and hence the term‘temporary hardness.’ Synonyms:(French.) dureté temporaire; (German.)temporäre Härte, Carbonathärte; (Greek.)parothiki sklipotis anthrakiki sklirotis;(Italian.) durezza temporanea; (Russian.)karbonatnaja zestkostj; (Spanish.) durezatemporal; (Turkish.) karbonat sertli™i;(Yugoslavian.) turdoóa, trdota.
carbonate-hydroxylapatite. A cavemineral — Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(OH)[11].
carbonate rock. A rock that consists of oneor more carbonate minerals. Carbonaterock successions (or sequences) are thosein which carbonate rock is dominant, butwhich also contain rocks of otherlithology[9].
carbonic acid dissolution. Dissolution ofcalcium carbonate by carbon dioxide inaqueous solution, loosely termedcarbonic acid, is the dominant reaction inkarst processes, including speleogenesis. The reaction can be considered in severalways but it is most simply represented as:
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O º Ca(HCO3)2
The reaction is reversible. The solutioncontaining the dissolved reaction product,
usually termed calcium bicarbonate, can losecarbon dioxide to the atmosphere andprecipitate calcium carbonate. This processis responsible for the development ofspeleothems underground and tufa ortravertine at the surface[9].
carnivore. An animal that lives by eatingthe flesh of other animals[23]. See alsoherbivore; insectivore; omnivore.
cascading water. In reference to wells,ground water which trickles or poursdown the casing or uncased boreholeabove the water level in the well throughcracks or perforations[22].
casing. Permanent liner of a well[16].
casing joint. Welded or threadedconnection for tubular casing[16].
casing, surface. That part of a well casingthat extends above land surface[16].
catch basin. 1. A reservoir or basin intowhich surface water may drain. 2. Abasin to collect and retain material from astreet gutter that would not readily passthrough a sewer system.
catchment. (Great Britain.) 1. An area intowhich surface water may drain. 2. Adepression that collects rainwater (e.g.,reservoir).
cation. An ion having a positive chargeand, in electrolytes, characteristicallymoving towards a negative electrode[6].
cation exchange. Ion exchange process inwhich cations in solution are exchangedfor other cations from an ion exchanger[6].
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cation exchange capacity. The sum total ofexchangeable cations that a porousmedium can absorb. Expressed in molesof ion charge per kilogram of soil (or ofother exchanges such as clay)[22].
causse. (French.) A limestone plateau in thesoutheastern part of the central massif ofFrance characterized by closeddepressions, caves, and avens (jamas); anumber of such plateaus in and aroundthe basin of the river Tarn constitute LesGrandes Causses. This region wasconsidered by Cvijiƒ to exemplify karstdevelopment intermediate betweenholokarst and merokarst[10]. Synonym:(French.) causse; (German.) (KalksteinPlateau), Cauße; (Greek.) karstikónoropédion; (Italian.) altopiano carsico;(Russian.) izvestnjakovoje karstovojeplato; (Spanish.) altiplano carstico;(Turkish.) kireçtaÕi düzlügü;(Yugoslavian.) krs #ki plato, kras #ki plato.
cave. 1. ‘A natural home in the ground,large enough for human entry’ is probablythe most useful definition. This coversthe enormous variety of caves that dooccur but eliminates the many artificialtunnels and galleries incorrectly namedcaves. The size criterion is arbitrary andsubjective, but practical, as it eliminatesnarrow openings irrelevant to explorersbut very significant hydrologically, thatmay be better referred to as proto-caves,sub-conduits or fissures. A cave may be asingle, short length of accessible passage,or an extensive and complex network oftunnels as long as the hundreds ofkilometers in the Flint Mammoth CaveSystem. Most caves are formed bydissolution in limestone but sandstonecaves, lava caves, glacier caves and
tectonic caves also occur. Marginalcandidates for use of the name caveinclude riverbank undercuts and rockshelters of various origins. In somecountries a cave is regarded as being ahorizontal opening, as opposed to apothole, which is a vertical opening. Thisusage is common in England but is notubiquitous[9]. 2. A natural openingformed in the rocks below the surface ofthe ground large enough for a man toenter. It may consist of a singleconnected opening or a series of small orlarge chambers connected by galleries[20]. 3. A similar artificial opening[10]. Relatedto cavern. Synonyms: (French.) grotte,caverne; (German.) Höhle, Grotte;(Greek.) speleon; (Italian.) caverna,grotta; (Russian.) pescera; (Spanish.)cueva; (Turkish.) ma™ara; (Yugoslavian.)pec #ina. pec #, pes #tera, spilja, zijjalka, jama. See also active cave; bedding cave; cavesystem; grotto; sea cave.
cave balloon. See cave blister.
cave blister. 1. A small pimplelike caveformation, roughly oval in shape, gener-ally loose, and having a core of mud[10]. 2. A partly or completely hollowhemispherical to nearly sphericalspeleothem, usually of gypsum orhydromagnesite, attached to a cave wall. Synonym: cave balloon.
cave breakdown. 1. Enlargement of partsof a cave system by fall of rock massesfrom walls and ceiling. 2. Heaps of rockthat have collapsed from the walls andceiling of a cave, generally called cavebreccia[10]. 3. Synonym for the collapse ofcaves, or, in American usage, for thedebris produced by collapse[18].
33
cave breathing. A resonance phenomenonin which air currents throb back and forththrough constricted passages in a cavewith periodicity of a few seconds to a fewminutes. Synonyms: (French.) passagerespirant; (German.) Grotte mit Resonanz;(Greek.) anapneousa ope; (Italian.) grottaa soffio alterno; (Spanish.) grutaresonante; (Turkish.) ma™ara esintisi. Seealso blowing cave.
cave breccia. Angular fragments of rockforming a fill in a cave, either cementedtogether by dripstone or in a matrix ofcave earth[10]. See also solution breccia.
cave bubble. A nonattached hollow sphere,usually of calcite, that has formed arounda gas bubble on the surface of a cavepool.
cave coral. A rough, knobby growth of cal-cite resembling coral in shape, generallysmall; found on floor, walls, or ceiling ofa cave[10]. Synonym: botryoid; coral for-mation; cave popcorn. See alsoknobstone.
cave cotton. Thin flexible filaments ofgypsum or epsomite projecting from acave wall. Synonym: gypsum cotton. See also gypsum flower.
cave development. The inception of cavedevelopment in carbonate rocks begins ifwater can move through the bedrock andcommence dissolution. The earliestwater movement may be due tomechanisms (including ground-waterpumping and ionic diffusion effects)unrelated to those dominating laterdevelopment. Similarly, inception mayinclude physical and chemical dissolution
(involving removal of carbonates andmineral impurities by water and by strongacids), as well as by the carbonic aciddissolution that dominates later cavegrowth. Initial water movement can bealong primary pores in the rock (in coarseraffle limestones, oolites or chalk), alongrelatively thin non-carbonate beds withinthe succession, or along incipient or openfissures (joints, faults and beddingplanes). These potential water routes areinitially very narrow and water movement is severely restricted and laminar,allowing only very slow dissolutionalgrowth (see gestation), until enlargementbeyond the turbulent threshold(breakthrough) permits faster flow andaccelerated cave growth. Afterestablishment of turbulent flowconditions the effects of dissolution areaugmented by mechanical abrasion andcollapse, which expose new rock. Duringthe early development stages a network ofnarrow openings is formed. Subsequently, geological factors guide thepreferential expansion of favorableroutes, which capture more of the localflow and enlarge, at the expense of lessfavorable openings, to form caves. Theless favorable fissures are relegated to asubordinate role in transmittingpercolation water or, more rarely, incarrying elements of overflow waterduring floods. Also during the earlystages, all voids are water filled but aspermeability increases and true hydraulicflow conditions are established, the uppervoids drain freely, forming a water table. Almost all caves therefore originate underphreatic conditions but the overallpassage morphology is modified duringlater growth into vadose or phreatic caves,enlarged from the original phreatic
34
imprint, above or below the water table. Ultimately, cave development evolvestowards efficient drainage close to the watertable. Passage enlargement then becomesregressive as collapse increases. The stage ofa cavernous karst collapsing extensively isrelatively rarely achieved, being overtaken athigh latitudes and high altitudes by surfacelowering, but such collapse can contribute tothe chaotic land forms of tropical karst[9].
cave earth, cave fill. Insoluble deposits ofclay, silt, sand, or gravel flooring or fill-ing a cave passage. In a more restrictedsense, cave earth includes only the finerfractions: clay, silt, and fine sanddeposits[10]. Synonym: cave soil.
cave ecology. The study of the interactionbetween cave organisms and theirenvironment, e.g. energy input fromsurface, climatic influences[25].
cave fill. Transported materials such as silt,clay, sand and gravel which cover thebedrock floor or partially or wholly blocksome part of a cave[25].
cave flower. An elongate curved deposit ofgypsum or epsomite on a cave wall inwhich growth occurs at the attachedend[10]. Synonyms: gypsum flower;oulopholite. See also anthodite; cavecotton.
cave formations. 1. Secondary mineral de-posits formed by the accumulation, drip-ping, or flowing of water in a cave[10]. 2.Unsatisfactory term used to include allvarieties of calcite, gypsum and other,rarer, mineral cave deposits; therefore asynonym for the equally unwieldly
speleothem or the colloquial term‘stall’[9]. See also sinter; speleothem.
cave group. A number of caves or cavesystems, not interconnected but geo-graphically associated in some relieffeature or particular geological outcrop[10]. See also cave series.
cave guano. Accumulations of dung incaves, generally from bats; in some placespartially mineralized[10].
cave ice. Ice formed in a cave by naturalfreezing of water. Loosely but incorrectlyapplied to calcium carbonate dripstoneand flowstone[10].
cave-in. 1. The collapse of the ceiling orside walls of a cave or of the land surfaceinto a subterranean passage as a result ofundermining or of pressure from above[10]. 2. The partial or complete collapse ofearth material into a large undergroundopening, such as an excavation or a mine. 3. The sudden slumping of wall materialinto a pit. 4. A place where material hascollapsed or fallen in or down.
cave-in lake. A shallow body of waterwhose basin is produced by collapse ofthe ground following thawing of groundice in regions underlain by permafrost. Synonym: thermokarst lake.
cave lake. Any underground lake. Thewater can be in a partially drainedphreatic cave, and may then be theentrance to a sump, or it can be open overits entire surface. In vadose caves lakesare most commonly formed by pondingbehind banks of sediment or, in rarercases, behind very large gour barriers[9].
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cave marble. Banded deposit of calcite oraragonite capable of taking a highpolish[10]. See also flowstone; onyxmarble.
cave of debouchure. Outflow cave.
cave onyx. See onyx marble.
cave pearl. 1. Carbonate concretion,usually of calcite, that is spherical orirregular in shape, with an internalstructure of concentric banding round acentral grain. Pearls form in pools ofsaturated water disturbed by drippingwater, so that they are commonly foundbeneath high avens. Individual pearlsmay be lmm or many centimeters indiameter. Movement of the larger onesmay become impossible and they can thenbecome cemented to the pool floor. Some caves contain spectacular displaysof cave pearls; in Jackson’s Bay Cave,Jamaica, they cover large areas of passagefloor behind low gour barriers[9]. 2. Smallconcretion of calcite or aragonite formedby concentric precipitation around anucleus[10]. Synonyms: pisolite; pisolith;(French.) perle des cavernes; (German.)Höhlenperlen; (Greek.) speleomargarites;(Italian.) perle di grotta; (Russian.)pescernij zemcug; (Spanish.) perla decaverna; (Turkish.) ma™ara incisi;(Yugoslavian.) peƒinski biseri, jamskibiseri.
cave pisolite. See cave pearl.
cave popcorn. See cave coral.
cave postule. A white, hemispherical walland roof deposit of calcite[25].
cave raft. A thin mineral film, usually ofcalcite, floating on a cave pool.
Cave Research Foundation (CRF.) Anorganization of cavers united primarilyfor scientific exploration and study ofcaves[13].
cave spring. See spring, cave.
caver. (American.) 1. A slang term for onewho engages in the hobby of caveexploration, or caving[9, 21]. 2. A personwho explores caves in a safe mannerwhile showing respect for the cave (allaspects of the cave), other cavers, and theland above the cave[13]. Synonym:spelunker; (British.) potholer. See alsospeleologist.
cavern. 1. Underground opening in solublerock similar to a cave. When used as anoun, it refers to large openings, but whenused as an adjective it tends to refer torock texture and so to small openings. However, in some countries (e.g., Russia)cavern refers to small openings in arock[20]. 2. A synonym of cave with theimplication of large size. 3. A system orseries of caves or cave chambers. 4. Acave, often used poetically or to connotelarger-than-average size[10]. Synonyms:(French.) caverne; (German.) Höhle,Kaverne; (Greek.) speleon; (Italian.)caverna, grotta; (Russian.) kaverna;(Spanish.) caverna, cueva; (Turkish.)kovuk; (Yugoslavian.) kaverna. See alsocave.
cavern breakdown. The process of caveenlargement which depends upon themechanical failure and eventual collapse
36
of sections of the cavern walls andceiling[22].
cavern flow. Movement, often turbulent, ofground-water flow through caves, coarsesorted gravel, or large open conduits,either by gravity or under pressure.
cavernicole. An animal which normallylives in caves for the whole or part of itslife cycle[25].
cavernous. Adjective used to describe arock texture in which the rock containsopenings generally of a small size[20]. Synonyms: (French.) caverneux;(German.) kavernös; (Greek.) speleothes;(Italian.) con grotte; (Russian.)kavernoznij; (Spanish.) cavernoso;(Turkish.) kovuklu; (Yugoslavian.)kavernozan. See also cavern.
cavernous karren. Pitted, rubbly limestonemost commonly found in relatively recent and Tertiary limestones of the humidtropics[3]. See also covered karren;karren.
cavernous permeability. See conduitpermeability.
cavernous rock. Any rock that has manycavities, cells, or large interstices (e.g., acliff face pitted with shallow holesresulting from cavernous weathering).
cavernous weathering. Chemical andmechanical weathering on a cliff face, inwhich grains and flakes of rock areloosened so as to enlarge hollows andrecesses.
cavern porosity. A pore system havinglarge, cavernous openings. The lowersize limit, for field analysis, is practicallyset at approximately the smallest openingthat an adult person may enter.
cavern system. See cave system.
cave series. A group of caves of similarmorphology in a particular district[10]. Seealso cave group.
cave shield. A semicircular plate ofreprecipitated calcite located beneathjoints in a cavern ceiling and believed tobe formed by the seepage of hydrostaticwater along the joint. Two shields formbeneath one joint, descending from eachside of the opening[22].
cave soil. See cave earth.
cave spring. See spring, cave.
cave system. 1. An underground network ofpassages, chambers, or other cavities. 2.The caves in a given area related to eachother hydrologically, whether continuousor discontinuous from a single opening[10]. Synonyms: (French.) réseau souterrain;(German.) Höhlensystem; (Greek.)speleothes systema, thiction; (Italian.)sistema carsico sotterraneo; (Russian.)sistema podzemnih pescer; (Spanish.)sistema de cavidades; (Turkish.) ma™arasistemi, serisi; (Yugoslavian.) peƒinski(spiljski) sistem, amski sistem. See alsocave; cave group; cave series; cavern.
caving. The sport of exploring caves. Synonyms: (British.) potholing;spelunking. 2. A method of mining inwhich the ore is allowed to cave or fall[10].
37
cavings. Rock fragments that fall from thewalls of a borehole and contaminate thewell cuttings or block the hole. Thesefragments must be removed by drilling orcirculation of drilling fluids before theborehole can be deepened.
cavitation. 1. The collapse of bubbles in afluid, caused by static pressure being lessthan the fluid vapor pressure. 2. Aphenomena of cavity formation, orformation and collapse, especially inregard to pumps, when the absolutepressure within the water reaches vaporpressure causing the formation of vaporpockets[6].
cavity. A solutional hollow in a limestonecave.
cavity dweller. A coelobitic organism.
ceiling block. Roughly cubical joint-bounded large block, which has fallenfrom the ceiling of a cave[10]. See alsocave breakdown; ceiling slab.
ceiling cavity. Solutional concavity in theceiling of a cave. The orientation isdetermined by joints or a beddingplane[10].
ceiling channel. Sinuous channeldeveloped in the ceiling of a cave,presumably during the phreatic phase ofcave development[10].
ceiling meander. A winding upside-downchannel in a cave ceiling[10].
ceiling pocket. See pocket.
ceiling slab, roof slab. A thin but extensivepiece of rock that has fallen from theceiling of a cave in roughly horizontallimestone[10]. See also cave breakdown;ceiling block.
ceiling tube. A half tube remaining in theceiling of a cave[10].
celestite. A cave mineral — SrSO4[11].
cement. A microscopic textured nonskeletalvoid-filling material precipitated on anintragranular or intrasedimentary freesurface that holds the material together[20]. Synonyms: (French.) ciment; (German.)Zement; (Greek.) tsiménto; (Italian.)cemento; (Spanish.) cemento; (Turkish.)çimento; (Yugoslavian.) vezivo cement.
cementation. The process of bindinggranular material together by depositionof cementing material at contact points ofgrains[16].
cement grout. Cement slurry of pumpableconsistency[16].
cement slurry. Liquid cementsuspension[16].
cementing. See grouting.
cenote. (Spanish. after Mayan tzonet ordzonot.) 1. Steep-walled natural well thatextends below the water table; generallycaused by collapse of a cave roof. Termused only for features in Yucatán[10]. 2.Steep or vertical sided collapse dolinefloored by a lake whose surface is at theregional water table. The term originatesfrom the many cenotes in the low karstplateau of Mexico’s Yucatan, but has
38
been applied to flooded dolines in Floridaand elsewhere. Probably the most famouscenote is the sacred well of Chichen Itza,Yucatan; it has vertical sides and is 60m indiameter, 30m deep and half full of water[9].Synonyms: (French.) cenote; (German.)cenote; (Greek.) voulismeno speleven. Seealso jama; natural well.
centrifuge moisture equivalent. Seemoisture equivalent.
cerussite. A cave mineral — PbCO3[11].
chain gage. Water level measuringdevice[16].
chalk. 1. Used as a proper noun chalkdescribes a rock unit of Cretaceous age,that consists predominately of relativelysoft, white, porous limestone with beds ofmarl and bands or nodules of flint. Theterm is used without its initial capital todescribe any rock with similar appearanceand properties. Generally chalk has arelatively high primary permeability andso rarely develops caves of explorablesize, though conduit-water flow doesoccur. Some harder chalks in northernFrance and south-eastern England holdexplorable active and relict caves, whichextend for many hundreds of meters[9]. 2.Soft poorly indurated limestone, generallylight in color; commonly composed of thetests of floating microorganisms in amatrix of very finely crystalline calcite[10].
chalcanthite. A cave mineral —CuSO4"5H2O[11].
chamber. (American.) 1. An enlargementin a cave passage or system, commonlyformed at a junction of passages, or
locally in a single passage, where erosion has been enhanced by collapse exposingmore rock to dissolution. Maximumchamber size is controlled by the strengthand shape of the limestone ceiling. Thelargest chamber currently known,Sarawak Chamber in Lubang NasibBagus, at Mulu, Sarawak, is over 700mlong, up to 400m wide and nowhere lessthan 70m high. It has formed where alarge stream eroded sideways as it cutobliquely across the included bedding inunusually massive limestone. It isdoubtful whether a much larger chambercould exist without collapse of its roof[9]. 2. The largest order of cavity in a cave orcave system; it has considerable lengthand breadth but not necessarily greatheight. 3. (British.) A room in a cave[10]. Synonyms: (French.) salle; (german.)Halle, Kammer, Dom; (Greek.) ypoyiosaethousa; (Italian.) sala; (Russian.) zal;(Spanish.) sala, salón; (Turkish.) oda;(Yugoslavian.) dvorana. See also room;passage.
chandelier. Large variety of gypsumflower, with branching crystal structurethat may hang many meters from a caveceiling. Very rare, except in LechuguillaCave of New Mexico[9].
channel. Natural or artificial watercoursebounded by banks[16].
channel characteristics. Hydraulicproperties of stream channel[16].
chasm. 1. A deep, fairly narrow breach inthe earth’s surface; an abyss; a gorge; adeep canyon. 2. A deep, wide, elongatedgap in the floor of a cave[10]. Related tocanyon, corridor. Synonyms: (French.)
39
gouffre, fracture ouverte; (German.) Kluft;(Greek.) chasma; (Italian.) fattura beante,canyon; (Spanish.) cañon, taso; (Turkish.)derin yar2nt2; (Yugoslavian.) provalija. See also ravine.
chemical carbonate rock. Carbonate rockform by the precipitation of mineralmatter in situ by chemical or biologicalprocesses.
chemical deposit. A sediment precipitatedout of solution by chemical action[16].
chemical erosion. Processes partiallysynonymous with chemical dissolution,but including any other form of rockbreakdown accelerated by chemicalchanges of the constituent minerals[9].
chemical equivalent. The expression ofwater characteristics such as hardness oralkalinity resulting from several ions insolution in terms of only one equivalentconcentration[16].
chemical mobility. The tendency of anelement to move in a givenhydrogeochemical environment[16].
chemical oxygen demand (COD.) Themeasure of readily available oxidizablematerial contained in a water sample[16].
chert, chert nodule. 1. Black, brown orgrey rock, consisting of very fine-grainedsilica, that occurs as horizons of nodulesand discontinuous bands, generally lessthan 200mm thick, within manylimestones. It is very hard and almostinsoluble in water, so commonly itprojects from cave walls where it formspassage or shaft ledges and waterfall
lips[9]. 2. Light-cream or gray to blackrock composed of silica, found occurringas nodules or layers in limestone, or as areplacement of limestone[10].
Chézy equation. An equation used tocompute the velocity of uniform flow inan open channel: mean velocity of flow(V) equals the Chézy coefficient © timesthe square root of the product of hydraulicradius in feet (R) times the slope of thechannel[1]. See also Froude number;Manning equation; Reynolds number.
chimney. 1. Nearly circular shaft risingupwards from the ceiling of a cavetowards the surface of the ground; if itdoes not reach the surface it is termed ablind chimney. If the chimney is formedmainly by solution, it is related to a dome-pit; if formed mainly by collapse of theroof along bedding planes, it is related tocenote[20]. 2. A narrow vertical shaft inthe roof of a cave, generally smaller thanan aven; a dome pit[10]. Synonyms:(French.) cheminée (aven); (German.)Schlot, Kamin; (Greek.) kapnothochos;(Italian.) camino; (Russian.) truba;(Spanish.) chimenea; (Turkish.) baca;(Yugoslavian.) dimnjak.
chimneying. Ascending or descending bymeans of opposed body and/or limbpressures against two facing walls[25].
chlorophyll. A group of pigmentsproducing the green color of plants;essential to photosynthesis[23].
chock. A block of metal for use as achockstone[25].
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chockstone. A rock wedged between thewalls of a cave passage[10].
choke. 1. A blockage of inwashed mud,sand or boulders in a cave passage. Mostboulder chockes are formed by collapseof a passage roof and may have an openchamber or shaft above them; others areformed by collapse and inwashed debriswhere a large old passage is cut by ahillside. A passable route through achoke may be opened by excavation, andthereby lead to discovery of new passage— as was done so successfully in OgofAgen Allwedd[9]. 2. Rock debris or cavefill completely blocking a passage[10].
C-horizon. Zone of weathered parentmaterial in a soil profile[16].
chute. An inclined channel or trough in acave[10].
ciénaga. (Spanish.) Wetland. See alsowetland.
cimolite. A cave mineral —Al4(SiO2)9(OH)12
[11].
cistern. A small water reservoir used tocollect surface and rain water[16].
classical karst. Originally the region calledKras in Slovenia, which gave its name tothe karst landscape. Used in this senseabout 95% of the classical karst lies inSlovenia, with the remaining 5%extending to Italy. A slightly differentarea was covered by descriptions of earlyinvestigations or karst phenomena, whenthe name classical karst was applied to aregion between Ljubljana, Gorizia and
Rijeka, mainly in Slovenia with someparts in Italy and Croatia[9].
clastic. Pertaining to a rock or sedimentcomposed principally of brokenfragments that are derived from pre-existing rocks or minerals and that havebeen transported some distance from theirplaces of origin[6].
clastic carbonate rock. Carbonate rock thatis made up of carbonate grains (e.g.,shells, shell fragments, oolites).
clastic rock; detrital rock. A sedimentaryrock derived from fragmentated otherpreexisting rock or organic structures[16].
clastokarst. Karst phenomena in clasticrocks composed of detrital carbonatematerial[20]. Synonyms: (French.)clastokarst; (German.) Klastokarst?;(Greek.) clastokarst; (Italian.) carsismoclastico; (Russian.) klastokarst; (Spanish.)clastokarst; (Turkish.) klastik karst;(Yugoslavian.) klastokrs#, klastokras,klastokarst.
claustrophobia. An irrational fear of beingin a closed space[25].
clay. 1. A rock or mineral fragment or adetrital particle of any compositionsmaller than a very fine silt grain, havinga diameter less than 1/256 mm (4microns, or 0.00016 in., or 8 phi units.)This size is approximately the upper limitof size of particle that can show colloidalproperties. 2. A loose, earthy, extremelyfine-grained natural sediment or soft rockcomposed primarily of clay-size orcolloidal particles and characterized by aconsiderable content of clay minerals and
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subordinate amounts of finely dividedquartz, decomposed feldspar, carbonates,ferruginous matter, and other impurities. Itforms a plastic, moldable mass when finelyground and mixed with water, but retains itsshape on drying, and becomes firm,rocklike, and permanently hard on heating orfiring. 3. A term that is commonly appliedto any soft, adhesive, fine-grained deposit(such as loam or siliceous silt) and to earthymaterial, particularly when wet (such asmud). 4. A term used by the InternationalSociety of Soil Science for a rock or mineralparticle in the soil, having a diameter lessthan 0.002 mm (2 microns).
clay ball, clayball. A chunk of clayreleased by erosion of a clayey bank androunded by wave action.
clay boil. A mud circle that suggests awelling-up or heaving of the central core.
clay colloid. 1. A clay particle having adiameter less than 1 micron (0.001 mm.)2. A colloidal substance consisting ofclay-size particles.
clay fill. Dry or wet clay that fills a cavepassage[10].
clay filling. Time interval between end ofphreatic solution of a cave and beginningor deposition of flowstone[10].
clayey sand. 1. An unconsolidatedsediment containing 50–90% sand andhaving a ratio of silt or clay less than 1:2.2. An unconsolidated sand containing40–75% sand, 12.5–50% clay, and 0–20%silt.
clayey silt. 1. An unconsolidated sedimentcontaining 40–75% silt, 12.5–50% clay,and 0–20% sand. 2. An unconsolidatedsediment containing more particles of siltsize than of clay size, more than 10%clay, and less than 10% of all othercoarser sizes.
clay loam. A soil containing 27–40% clay,20–45% sand, and the remainder silt.
clay marl. 1. A whitish, smooth, chalkyclay. 2. A marl in which claypredominates.
clay mineral. One of a complex and looselydefined group of finely crystalline,metacolloidal, or amorphous hydroussilicates, essentially of aluminum.
claypan. A dense, heavy, relativelyimpervious subsurface soil layer thatowes its hardness to a relatively higherclay content than that of the overlyingmaterial from which it is separated by asharply defined boundary.
clay parting. 1. Clayey material between avein and its wall. 2. A seam of hardenedcarbonaceous clay between or in beds ofcoal, or a thin layer of clay betweenrelatively thick beds of some other rock(e.g., sandstone).
clay plug. Fine flood deposits in a cut offriver meander[16].
clean sand. Sand with little or no claycontent[16].
cleavage. The tendency to cleave or splitalong definite parallel planes, which maybe highly inclined to the bedding. It is a
42
secondary structure and is ordinarilyaccompanied by at least somerecrystallinization of the rock.
climate. The average weather conditions ofan area, including temperature, rainfall,humidity, wind, and hours of sunlight,based on records kept for many years[23].
climatic factor. A factor influencinghydrologic parameters due to the localclimate[16].
clinometer. An instrument for measuringvertical angles or angles of dip[25].
clint. (British.) 1. Flat or sloping barelimestone outcrops (limestonepavements) weathered into straight-sidedor furrowed blocks and ridges oflimestone which are separated by deepclefts or solutionally widened joints(grikes) that often crisscross[20]. 2. Slabsof limestone, parallel to the bedding,forming a pavement. Widened joints, orgrikes, isolate individual clints[10]. Synonym: (French.) lapiaz; (German.)Flachkarren, Karrenfeld; (Greek.) pethionamaxotrochion thactyloglyphon; (Italian.)campo carreggiato; (Russian.) karrovoepole; (Spanish.) campo de lapiaz, lenar;(Turkish.) pürtüklü, oluklu;(Yugoslavian.) škrapari, škraplje. Seealso grikes; karrenfeld; lapies; limestonepavement.
clog, to. The action of blocking fluid flowpaths, especially around a well bore[16].
clogger. A type of ascender without ahandle; used with a karabiner to keep itsecurely on the rope[25].
closed depression, closed basin. 1. Anykarst hollow with internal drainage,including dolines, uvalas, poljes, cockpitsand all varieties of blind karst valleys, ofboth small and large scales[9]. 2. Ageneral term for any enclosed topographicbasin having no external drainage,regardless of origin or size[10].
closed karst. A karst terrane that is coveredby sediments. Synonyms: (Russian.)skryty0 karst or zakryty0 karst. See alsoburied karst; interstratal karst; mantledkarst.
closed traverse. A traverse which beginsand ends at survey points with knownco-ordinates and orientation or at thesame point[25].
cloud. Large masses of coralloid orbotryoidal calcite, deposited under water,with each mass reaching 200–800mm indiameter. Famous examples hang abovethe Lake of the Clouds in CarlsbadCavens, New Mexico[9].
clusterite. See botryoid.
coarse. Composed of or constitutingrelatively large particles.
coarse sand. 1. A geologic term for a sandparticle having a diameter in the range of0.5–1 mm (500–1000 microns, or 1 tozero phi units.) 2. An engineering termfor a sand particle having a diameter inthe range of 2 mm. 3. A soil term used inthe U.S. for a sand particle having adiameter in the range of 0.5–1 mm (thediameter range recognized by theInternational Society of Soil Science is0.2–2 mm).
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coarse silt. A geologic term for a siltparticle having a diameter in the range of1/32 to 1/16 mm (31–62 microns, or 5 to4 phi units).
cockpit. (Jamaican.) 1. Any closeddepression having steep sides. 2. Astar-shaped depression having a conicalor a lightly concave floor. Thesurrounding hill slopes are steep andconvex. Cockpits are the common typeof closed depressions in a kegelkarst[10].
cockpit karst. (Jamaican.) 1. Termdescribing an area containing numerousscattered, yet closely spaced dolines;generally a tropical karst land form. Thecorresponding Yugoslav term may moreaccurately be translated as ‘pock-marked’karst. 2. Tropical karst topographycontaining many closed depressionssurrounded by steep-sided conical hills. Divided by French and Germangeographers into several types dependingon shape of hills[10]. Synonyms: (French.)karst cockpit; (German.) Turmkarst,Kegelkarst; (Greek.) dolinovrithes karst;(Italian.) campo carsico a doline;(Spanish.) karst esponja; (Turkish.)düdenli karst; (Yugoslavian) boginjavikrÑ, kozavi kras. See also cone karst;Halbkugelkarst; Kegelkarst;Spitzkegelkarst; tower karst.
coefficient of compressibility. Compressibility is the aptitude of the soilto be deformed. It is expressed by meansof a coefficient which is the ratio betweena void ratio decrease from e0 to e and anincrease in effective stress. The value av= e0–e)p represents the coefficient ofcompressibility for the range p0 to p0 + p.
Units are usually cm2/kg[21]. See alsocoefficient of volume compressibility.
coefficient of permeability. An obsoleteterm that has been replaced by the termhydraulic conductivity[6].
coefficient of storage. See storagecoefficient.
coefficient of transmissivity; coefficient oftransmissibility. An obsolete termreplaced by the term transmissivity.
coefficient of volume compressibility. Thecompression of a clay (aquitard) per unitthickness, due to a unit increase ofeffective stress, in the load rangeexceeding preconsolidation stress. It isexpressed by the equation
in which e0 is the initial void ratio. Unitsare usually cm2/kg[21]. See also coefficientof compressibility.
cohesion. Shear resistance at zero normalstress. An equivalent term in rockmechanics is intrinsic shear strength.
coliform organism. A microorganism, theconcentration of which is used as anindication of the degree of biologicalpollution of water[16].
collapse breccia. A mass of rock composedof angular to rounded fragments oflimestone or dolomite that has formed asthe result of the collapse of the roof of acave, of an underlying cave, or of an
44
overhanging ledge[10]. See also solutionbreccia.
collapse chamber. An undergroundchamber containing notable quantities ofcollapsed material. The term iscommonly abused in describing the originof cave chambers floored by collapsedebris. Though wall and roof collapse arecommon modifying processes in largerchambers, it is important to rememberthat such collapse cannot form a chamber,as it can only take place into a pre-existing cavity[9].
collapse sink; collapse sinkhole. 1. Avariety of closed depression that forms bycollapse of the rock above an existingcave passage or chamber[9]. 2. A closeddepression formed by the collapse of theroof of a cave[10]. See also doline.
collapse of caves. Collapse and breakdownof cave walls and ceilings are continuingaspects of cave development andmodification. Massive unfracturedlimestone can easily span a void of over100m, but thinly bedded, closely jointed,faulted or poorly lithified limestone maycollapse into very small passages. Collapse is a significant component ofcave erosion. As well as simple falls ofunsupported rock forming connectionsbetween passages, the collapse processexposes more rock surface area forpotential dissolution. As rates of collapseare measured on a geological time scalecollapse in natural caves offers anegligible threat to explorers, incomparison to the dangers of roofcollapse in mines[9].
collector well. A central well withhorizontal sections of screened collectorpipe arranged radially to increase yield[16].
colloid. Extremely small solid particles,0.0001 to 1 micron in size, which will notsettle out of solution. It is intermediatebetween a true dissolved particle and asuspended solid which will settle out ofsolution[6].
column. 1. A subsurface dripstoneformation produced by the union of astalactite and a stalagmite in a cave[20]. 2.A flowstone formation, generallycylindrical, formed by the union of astalactite and stalagmite[10]. Not to beconfused with pillar. Synonyms:(French.) colonne, pillier stalamitique;(German.) Tropfstein-Säule; (Greek.)stalaktitike stele; (Italian.) colonna(stalagmitica o stalattitica) (Russian.)kolonna; (Spanish.) columna; (Turkish.)sütun; (Yugoslavian.) stup, steber, stolpic#. See also pillar.
comminution. The reduction of a substanceto a fine powder; pulverization;trituration.
community. All the plants and animals thatlive in a particular habitat and are boundtogether by food chains and otherinterrelations[23].
compaction. A decrease in the volume of amass of sediments from any cause. Ingeneral, compaction may be regarded asthe decrease in the thickness ofsediments, as a result of an increase invertical compressive stress, and issynonymous with ‘one-dimensionalconsolidation,’ as used by engineers. The
45
term compaction is applied both to theprocess and to the measured change inthickness. In thick fine-grained beds,compaction is a delayed process involvingthe slow escape of pore water and thegradual transfer of stress from neutral toeffective. Until sufficient time has passedfor excess pore pressure to decrease to zero,measured values of compaction aretransient[21]. See also compaction, residual;compaction, specific.
compaction, residual. Compaction thatwould occur ultimately if a given increasein applied stress were maintained untilsteady-state pore pressures were achieved,but had not occurred as of a specifiedtime because excess pore pressures stillexisted in beds of low diffusivity in thecompacting system. It can also beregarded as the difference between (1) theamount of compaction that will occurultimately for a given increase in appliedstress, and (2) that which has occurred ata specified time[21]. See also compaction;compaction, specific.
compaction, specific. The decrease inthickness of deposits, per unit of increasein applied stress, during a specific periodof time[21]. See also compaction;compaction, residual.
compass. An instrument with a magneticneedle which is free to point to magneticnorth. For survey the needle is eitherattached to a graduated card or can beread against a graduated circle to measurethe angle in degrees from the northclockwise[25].
competition. The struggle betweenindividuals or groups of living things for
common necessities, such as food orliving space[23].
complete well penetration, fullypenetrating. 1. The property of a wellthat penetrates an aquifer completely fromthe upper confining bed or water table tothe lower confining bed[16]. 2. A well thatis completed over the whole thickness ofthe aquifer to allow radial production overits entire completed length[16].
compressibility. The relative change involume with pressure of water or aquifermatrix[16].
compressive stress. Normal stress tendingto shorten the body in the direction inwhich it acts.
compromise boundary. 1. A planeinterface between two crystals whichevolved by mutual interference of theirrespective growing faces. This interfaceis a face of neither crystal. 2. Amicroscopic texture[20].
concentration gradient. The change insolute concentration per unit distance insolute. Concentration gradients causeFickian diffusion (spreading) of solutesfrom regions of highest to regions oflowest concentrations. In slowingmoving ground water, this is thedominant mixing process[22].
concretion. The localized deposition ofmineral matter going out of solution insediments or tuffs, usually nodular orirregular in shape[16].
condensation. The transition from vapor toliquid state[16].
46
condensation nucleus. A small solidparticle around which condensationoccurs[16].
condensation water. Atmospheric moisturedeposited inside caves when the surfacetemperature of the exposed rock fallsbelow the dew point of circulating air[19].
conduit; karst conduit. Relatively largedissolutional voids, including enlargedfissures and tubular tunnels; in someusage the term is restricted to voids thatare water-filled. Conduits may include allvoids greater than 10mm in diameter, butanother classification scheme places thembetween arbitrary limits of 100mm to10m. Whichever value is accepted in aparticular context, smaller voids arecommonly termed sub-conduits[9]. Synonyms: (French.) conduite forcée;(German.) Druckleitung (Leitung);(Greek.) siphon; (Italian.) condottaforzata; (Spanish.) conducto saturado;(Turkish.) yeralt2su yolu, mecra. See alsopressure flow tube; stream tube; siphon.
conduit flow; karst conduit flow. Underground water flow within conduits. Conduit flow is generally turbulent, butcan also be laminar[9].
conduit permeability. Sometimes referredto as cavernous permeability, this is ameasure of the efficiency with which aparticular aquifer transmits water throughconduits (see permeability)[9].
conduit porosity. That part of the porositywithin an aquifer (usually a karst aquifer)that is a function of the presence ofconduits [9].
cone of depression. A depression of thepotentiometric surface in the shape of aninverted cone that develops around a wellthat is being pumped. It defines the areaof influence[6]. Synonym: cone ofpressure relief (applied to artesianaquifers only).
cone of impression. A rise of thepotentiometric surface in the shape of acone that develops around an injectionwell[22].
cone karst. 1. A karst landscape dominatedby low conical (or hemispherical) hillsthat forms only in wet tropical climates. The type example is Gunung Sewu inJava. Individual hills are remarkablyuniform, each some few hundred metersin diameter and around 50m high. Between them lie broken valleys, dolinesor cockpits, draining into sinkholes. Erosion that seems to be initiated invalley systems develops in such a waythat the valleys break up into dolines, butthe mechanisms leading to uniformshaping of the hills are not fullyunderstood. The widespread cone karst inChina is mostly known as fengcong, andits hills are generally more conical thanhemispherical in profile[9]. 2. A type ofkarst topography, common in the tropics,characterized by star-shaped depressionsor dolines at the feet of many steep-sidedcone-shaped hills; narrow steeply-walledvalleys may be present[10, 20]. A variety ofKegelkarst. Synonyms: (French.) karst àpitons; (German.) Kegelkarst, Turmkarst;(Greek.) konoethes karst; (Italian.) carsodi torri, carsismo con forme residualiconiche; (Russian.) karst s koniceskimiostancami; (Spanish.) karst de conos;(Turkish.) konili karst; (Yugoslavia.)
47
stoñasti krš, …okasti kras stoñ…sti, kras. See also cockpit karst. Compare: cupolakarst, pinnacle karst, and tower karst.
confined. A modifier which describes acondition in which the potentiometricsurface is above the top of the aquifer[22]. Synonymous with artesian.
confined aquifer. 1. An aquifer boundedabove and below by confining units ofdistinctly lower permeability than that ofthe aquifer itself. 2. An aquifercontaining confined ground water. Generally, a confined aquifer is subject topressure greater than atmospheric[6].
confined water. Water separated from theatmosphere by impermeable rockstratum[16].
confining bed. A body of impermeable ordistinctly less permeable materialstratigraphically adjacent to one or moreaquifers[22]. Synonymous with confiningunit.
confining unit. 1. A hydrogeologic unit ofimpermeable or distinctly less permeablematerial bounding one or more aquifersand is a general term that replacesaquitard, aquifuge, aquiclude[22]. 2.Means a body of impermeable ordistinctly less permeable materialstratigraphically adjacent to one or moreaquifers[22]. Synonymous with confiningbed.
confining zone. A geological formation,group of formations, or part of aformation that is capable of limiting fluidmovement above an injection zone[22]. See confining unit.
confluence. Junction point of streams[16].
conformal mapping. The transposition andsolution of plane flow problems in acomplex plane[16].
conglomerate. Rock consisting of largewell rounded waterworn particles[16].
conical wall niche. See meander niche.
conjugate joints or faults. Two sets ofjoints or faults that are formed under thesame stress conditions (usually shearpairs).
conjunctive use. The use of both surfacewater and ground water[16].
connate water. Water entrapped in theinterstices of a sedimentary or extrusiveigneous rock at the time of itsdeposition[22].
consequent river. A river flowing downthe original slope of geologic beds orgeneral slope of topography[16].
conservation. The use of natural resourcesin a way that assures their continuingavailability to future generations; the wiseuse of natural resources.
consolidation. 1. The binding of grains bycementing material to solid matrix[16]. 2.The gradual reduction in the watercontent (void ratio) of a saturated soil, asa result of an increase in the pressureacting on it, because of the addition ofoverlying sediments or the application ofan external load. A laboratory testcommonly known as a one-dimensionalconsolidation test (odometric test), is
48
performed on soil samples to evaluateconsolidation. From such a test, thecoefficient of consolidation, cv usuallyexpressed in cm2/sec, is calculated as theratio
where K is the hydraulic conductivity, mvis the coefficient of volumecompressibility, and (w is the unit weightof water. The theory of consolidationleads to a relation between degree ofconsolidation and time:
In this expression U is the degree ofconsolidation or the percentage of totalconsolidation occurring in some time t; cvis the coefficient of consolidation; and His half of the sample’s thickness when theodometric test is performed[21].
consolidated rock. Rock that has becomehard and coherent through compressionand lithification[16].
constant-temperature zone. The area of acave where air temperature is unchangingthroughout the year and approximates theaverage annual temperatureaboveground[23]. See also zonation.
constructive waterfall. A large rimstonedam on a surface stream[10]. See rimstonedam. Synonyms: (French.) chuteincrustante; (German.) Waßerfall,inkrustierender?, Sinter...?, Sinterbecken;(Greek.) katarráktis; (Italian.) (vasched’incrostazione); (Spanish.) dique
travertínico; (Turkish.) düÕüm;(Yugoslavian.) slap, prec #aga.
consumer. Any living thing that is unableto manufacture food from nonlivingsubstances, but depends instead on theenergy stored in other living things[23]. See also carnivore; decomposers; foodchain; herbivore; omnivore; producers.
consumptive use. The quantity of waterused annually by crops or naturalvegetation due to transpiration, tissuebuilding, and evaporation from adjacentsoil[16].
contact load. The solid material in slidingor rolling contact with a stream bed[16].
contact spring. See spring, contact.
contaminant. 1. An undesirable substancenot normally present or an unusually highconcentration of a naturally occurringsubstance in water or soil[22]. 2. Anyphysical, chemical, biological, orradiological substance or matter inwater[22]. See also pollutant.
contaminant plume. An elongated body ofground water containing contaminants,emanating and migrating from a pointsource within a hydrogeologic unit(s)[22].
contaminate. To introduce a substance thatwould cause (a) the concentration of thatsubstance in the around water to exceedthe maximum contaminant levels; or (b)an increase in the concentration of thatsubstance in the ground water where theexisting concentration of that substanceexceeds the maximum contaminantlevels[22]. See also pollutant.
49
contamination. The addition to water of
any substance or property preventing theuse or reducing the usability of the water. There is no specific limits, since thedegree of permissible contaminationdepends upon the intended end use, oruses, of the water[6]. Sometimesconsidered synonymous with pollution.
continuous stream. A stream that iscontinuous in space from source todischarge point[16].
contributing region. That region whichcontributes to well discharge in inclinedwater-table flow[16].
control. The combined effect of channelcharacteristics (area, shape, slope,roughness) on rating curve[16].
conulite. A hollow, cone-shaped speleo-them formed when a conical depression isdrilled in cave mud by falling water. Subsequent erosion may remove the mud,isolating the calcite lining of thedepression[10].
convective diffusion. See mechanicaldispersion, coefficient.
convective transport. The component ofmovement of heat or mass induced bythermal gradients in ground water[22]. Seealso advection.
convection. The process whereby heat iscarried along with the flowing groundwater[22].
convergence. Net horizontal inflow ofmoisture per unit area[16].
cooling water. Water used only for coolingpurposes[16].
cool spring. Spring water temperaturebelow mean annual surfacetemperature[16].
coprolite. The fossilized excrement ofvertebrates such as fishes, reptiles, anmammals, larger than a fecal pellet,measuring up to 20 cm in length,characterized by an ovoid to elongateform, a surface marked by annularconvolutions, and a brown or black color,and often composed largely of calciumphosphate; petrified excrement[1].
coprophage. A scavenger which feeds onanimal dung, including guano[25].
coquina. Porous limestone composed ofbroken shell fragments[16].
coralloid speleothem. Any variety ofmicrocrystalline, coralloid or botryoidalcalcite deposit that is distinguished bycurved outer surfaces and curved internalstructures. Large examples, includingclouds, are formed under water. Smallervarieties, also known as cave coral andcave popcorn, are splash deposits, or areprecipitated onto cave passage walls frommists or thin surface films of saturatedwater[9].
corrasion. Mechanical erosion performedby such moving agents as water, ice, andwind, especially when armed with rockfragments[10]. See also corrosion.
corridor. 1. Long, narrow chasm enlargedby action of water and into which surfacerunoff or stream may flow; may be
50
located along a fault plane, fissure, jointor between two beds. Struga (Slavic)refers to such a corridor along a beddingplane in a carbonate formation[20]. 2.Relatively narrow passageway permittingtravel between two larger areas. 3. Afairly level and straight passage that linkstwo or more rooms or chambers in a cave. 4. Intersecting linear depressions on thesurface of the land, related to joints ordikes[10]. See also bogaz; struga; zanjón. Related to chasm; bogaz. Synonyms:(French.) gouffre absorbant; (German.)Karstgaße; (Greek.) apocheteftikoskarstikos agogos; (Italian.) dolinaallongata; (Russian.) coridor, hod;(Spanish.) callejón; (Turkish.) koridor;(Yugoslavian.) struga, bogaz.
corrasion. Abrasion of the rock floor andwalls of a stream channel by rock debriscarried in the water[9].
corrosion. 1. Chemical action of watercontaining carbonic acid (also humidic,nitric, and other acids) on limestones anddolomites causing partial solution andrelated chemical changes in the rocks[20]. 2. Erosion by solution or chemicalaction[10]. 3. The act or process ofdissolving or wearing away metals[6]. Seealso accelerated corrosion; alluvialcorrosion; corrasion; solution. Compareaggressive water. Synonyms: (French.)corrosion; (German.) Korrosion; (Greek.)chemeke thiavroses; (Italian.) dissoluzione,corrosione; (Russian.) korrozija;(Spanish.) corrosión; (Turkish.) eritme,yenme, kemirilme; (Yugoslavian.)korozija.
corrosive. Property of aggressive water.
coupole. (French.) Cupola or hemispherichill[10].
cove. (Southern Appalachians.) Narrowsteep-sided karst valley flankinglimestone plateaus[10].
covered karren. Any karren that is coveredby soil. Draining water is oversaturatedwith respect to CO2 so that corrosion isextensive[3]. See also wave karren; rootkarren; cavernous karren.
covered karst. 1. A fossil or currentlydeveloping karst in karst limestone whichunderlies superficial deposits or otherrock, and which may produce landformsat the surface which reflect subsurfacekarstification[19]; contrasted with nakedkarst, which is soil free. See also buriedkarst; interstratal karst; mantled karst;subsoil karst; sulfate-reduction karst. 2.A generally subdued karst landscapedeveloped where carbonate rocks areaffected by dissolutional processesbeneath a soil cover (see bare karst)[9].Synonyms: (French.) karst couvert;(German.) Bedeckter karst; (Greek.)kekalymenon karst; (Italian.) carsocoperto; (Russian.) pokryty0 karst, pokritijkarst; (Spanish.) karst cubierto; (Turkish.)örtülü karst; (Yugoslavian.) pokriveni krš,pokriti kras.
cow’s tail. A length of rope used as a safetywhen crossing a rebelay[25].
crack. 1. Tight joint[16]. 2. A small fracture(i.e. small with respect to the scale of thefeature in which it occurs).
crandallite. A cave mineral —CaAl3(PO4)2(OH)5"H2O[11].
51
crawl, crawlway. A cave passage that islarge enough to be negotiated on handsand knees[10] or so small as to require acaver to squeeze through on his/her backor belly[13].
creek, brook. Watercourse of lesservolume than a river.
crescentic wall niche. See meander niche.
crest line. Line connecting crests[16].
crest segment. The top part of ahydrograph[16].
crest-stage indicator. A mechanical gagethat preserves the indication of highestwater level rise[16].
crevice. Opening in a rock formation orglacier[16].
crevice karst. An intricate irregular crevicesystem that has formed by solutionwidening of closely spaced joints. Crevices may be as much as 6 metersacross and 20 meters deep. Especiallywell developed near rivers in lowlandNew Guinea[10].
critical depth. The depth of flow in openchannels when specific energy isminimum[16].
critical depth flume. Venturi or Parshallflume for discharge measurements[16].
critical flow. Open channel flow withFroude Number equal to unity[16]. Seealso Froude Number.
crooked hole. Borehole deflected from thevertical[16].
cross bedding. Oblique deposition of thinbeds with respect to the main planes ofstratification[16].
cross fault. A geologic fault that is obliqueor at right angles to the strike direction ofthe beds.
cross section. 1. Vertical section of ageologic profile[16]. 2. A section of a cavepassage or a chamber across its width[25].
crust stone. A fragile layer of flowstonecovering portions of walls of caves; lookslike a flaky crust. Found in someKentucky caves[10].
crustaceans. The large class of animals thatincludes lobsters, crayfish, amphipods,isopods, and many similar forms. Crustaceans typically live in water andhave many jointed appendages,segmented bodies, and hardexoskeletons[23].
cryokarst. 1. A non-karstic term. Landsurface with closed depression (usuallysmall and shallow) formed by alternatefreezing and thawing of permafrost orground-ice overlying different rock,including limestone. The term ‘cryokarst’is more common in Europe while the term‘thermokarst’ is used in America[20]. 2. Akarst-like periglacial, or formerlyperiglacial, landscape superimposed uponunconsolidated, superficial deposits. Cryokarst is characterized by smalldepressions or pits that develop due tosettlement of overlying deposits intovoids formed by the melting of entrapped
52
ice. Also known as thermokarst[9]. Synonyms: (French.) cryokarst,thermokarst; (German.) Thermokarst,Cryokarst; (Greek.) thermokarst; (Italian.)criocarsismo; (Russian.) temokarst,criokarst; (Spanish.) criokarst,thermokarst; (Turkish.) don karst2;(Yugoslavian.) toplotni krs#, temokarst.
cryptokarst. A karst term used to describe(a) the result of subsurface removal oflimestone taking place beneath permeableloess resulting in a loss of limestone andsubsequent slow subsidence of the loesswithout noticeable surface expression, (b)the initial effects of intergranular solutionof rock when there is practically nomovement of water from microcavity tomicrocavity, (c) the karst that develops inchalk beneath a mantle of its residual clayand chert, and (d) pockets in limestonewhich are filled with terra rossa or otherresidual material and which may beactively forming, arrested indevelopment, or ‘inherited’. Because thisterm has been used for at least fourdifferent meanings, it is recommendedthat it be abandoned[17].
cryptozoa. The assemblage of smallterrestrial animals found living indarkness beneath stones, logs, bark, etc.Potential colonizers of caves[25].
crystal cave. A cave in which much of thesurface of the roof, walls, and floor iscovered with well-formed mineralcrystals[10].
crystal pool. In caves a pool, generallyhaving little or no overflow, containingcrystals[10].
cuesta, hogback. A nonsymetrical ridgedue to a gently dipping stratum[16].
cueva. (Spanish.) Cave, especially one thatis horizontal or nearly so[10].
cul-de-sac; dead end. A subterranean pas-sage having only one entry[10].
cumulative production. The sum total ofvolumetric discharge of a well sinceproduction began[16].
cupola. A hemispheric hill of limestone[10]. See also cone karst; cupola karst; mogote;pinnacle karst; tower karst. Synonyms:(French.) cupole; (German.) Halbkugel.
cupola karst. A type of karst topographycommon in the tropics in which theresidual hills rise in hemispherical ordome-capped mounds from interveningdepressions or sinkholes[20]. See alsocone karst; cupola; pinnacle karst; towerkarst. Synonyms: (French.) karst àcupules, coupole; (German.) Kegelkarst;(Greek.) konoidhes karst; (Italian.)carsismo con forme residuali a cupola;(Spanish.) karst de cupulas; (Turkish.)kubbeli karst; (Yugoslavian.) kupolni krs#(kras).
cupula (plural cupulae). A jellylike rodprojecting into the water from aneuromast, part of a fish's or amphibian'slateral line system. Vibrations in thewater cause the cupula to move, thussetting off nervous impulses that enablethe animal to detect nearby movements inthe water[23]. [Not to be confused withcupola.]
53
current marking. Shallow asymmetricalhollows, caused by turbulent waterflow,that are distributed in rather regularfashion over limestone surfaces[10]. Seealso scallop.
current meter, current counter. A deviceused to measure the current velocitydirectly at a given point[16]. Synonym:ammeter.
curtain. 1. Sinuous, thin sheet (or sheets) ofdripstone formed on the roof or walls of acave or behind a waterfall[20]. 2. A wavyor folded sheet of flowstone hanging fromthe roof or projecting from the wall of acave; often translucent and resonant[10]. See also bacon; blanket; drapery. Relatedto helictite and speleothem. Synonyms:(French.) draperie stalagmitique;(German.) Sinterfahne; (Greek.)parapetasma stalaktitikon; (Italian.)cortina stalattitica; (Russian.) zanavesj;(Spanish.) bandera, cortina; (Turkish.)perde; (Yugoslavian.) sigasta zavjesa,sigasta zavesa.
curve, backwater. A water surface profilein a stream or channel above aconstriction or impoundment[16].
curve, concentration. The rising limb on ahydrograph curve[16].
curve, desorption. Curve of moisturecontent verses soil moisture tension[16].
curve, drawdown. A plot of drawdownwith radial distance from a well[16].
curve fitting. The fitting of experimentaldata points to a theoretical type curve[16].
cutter. 1. (Tennessee.) Solution crevice inlimestone underlying residual phosphatedeposits. 2. A karren-like groove formedbeneath the soil, more commonly referredto as subsoil karren[10]. See also karren.
cuttings. Rock chips loosened from thebottom of a borehole by drilling[16].
cyanotrichite. A cave mineral —Cu4Al2(SO4)(OH)12"2H2O[11].
cycle. Regular periodic occurrence of anevent[16].
54
D
dam. A structure across a watercourse thatimpounds water; may be natural orartificial[16].
damping. The process of graduallyreducing amplitude of a periodic eventsuch as acoustic oscillations in velocitylogging[16].
dar geçit. See aisle.
Darcian velocity; seepage velocity. Seespecific discharge.
Darcy’s law. An empirical law given as
which states that the average volumetricdischarge of flow through a porousmedium is directly proportional to thehydraulic gradient assuming that the flowis laminar and inertia can be neglected. Note: Q=discharge, K=hydraulicconductivity, A=cross-sectional area,dh/dL=gradient, and a minus sign isattached as a convention to indicate thatflow occurs in the direction of decreasinghead[5].
Darcy unit. A practical unit for the measureof intrinsic permeability[16].
Darcy-Weisbach equation. An empiricalequation given as
which states that in contrast to laminarflow, the average volumetric discharge offlow is directly proportional to the squareroot of the driving force and that thefriction loss is equal to the hydraulichead[5]. Note: Q=discharge, A=cross-sectional area, R=hydraulic radius of theconduit, g=gravitational acceleration,f=some friction factor, dh/dL=gradient,and I have attached a negative sign toindicate that ground-water flow occurs inthe direction of decreasing head. In mostinstances, a negative sign is not includedbecause it is not possible to take thesquare root of a negative number.
dark adaptation. A change in the retina ofthe eye sensitizing it to dim light (the eye“becomes accustomed to the dark”)[25]. Compare light adaptation.
dark zone. The part of a cave whichdaylight does not reach[25].
dating of cave sediments. Determinationof the age of development of caves isnormally impossible. Only the sedimentsthey contain can be dated, and these mustnecessarily be younger than thecontaining passage. Geomorphologicalcorrelations may allow more accuratedating of the cave erosion. The mostuseful dating method in current use isbased upon a knowledge of the rates ofdecay of radioactive isotopes of uraniumto thorium in stalagmites. This techniqueallows measurement of ages in materialup to 350,000 years old. Dating ofstalagmites has confirmed that many caveages lie beyond this range. Electron spinresonance (ESR) measures the cumulativeeffects of radiation that are partly afunction of time and can give stalagmite
55
ages back to about 900,000 years. Palaeomagnetism may recognize eventsup to 2 million years old, but a sequenceof palaeomagnetically dated sediments isrequired to allow identification of theactual ages[9].
datum plane. A reference level to whichtopographic or water levels in wells arerelated[16].
daylight hole. A hole in the roof of a cave,reaching the surface[10].
dead cave. A dry cave in which all solutionand precipitation has ceased[10].
dead end. See cul-de-sac.
dead water. Standing, stagnant water[16].
debris. 1. Any material found to have beenwashed into a cave from some otherlocality. 2. Coarse rock fragmentsresulting from erosion and disintegrationof bedrock[16].
debris karren. These are pinnacles thatform in limestones with a thin sheetstructure that soon fall into smallerfragments[3]. See also pinnacles.
decalcification. Removal by solution of thecalcium carbonate constituents from arock or sediment, leaving a residuum ofnoncalcareous material[9, 21]. Synonyms:(French.) décalcification; (German.)Lösungsrückstand (Entkalkung); (Greek.)exasvestoses; (Italian.) decalcificazione;(Russian.) dekaljcifikacija; (Spanish.)decalcificación; (Turkish.) karbonat2n2giderme; (Yugoslavian.) dekalcifikacijâ.
Deckenkarren. (German.) Solutionalpendant features in cave ceilings[10].
declination. The angle from true (or grid)north to magnetic north for a given timeand place[25].
declogging. The cleaning of clogged wellsurface or screens[16].
decomposers. Living things, chieflybacteria and fungi, that live by extractingenergy from the decaying tissues of deadplants and animals. In the process, theyalso release simple chemical compoundsstored in the dead bodies and make themavailable once again for use by greenplants[23].
decoration. Cave features due to secondaryprecipitation of calcite, aragonite,gypsum, and other rarer minerals.
deep percolation. The drainage of soilwater downward by gravity below themaximum effective depth of the root zonetoward storage in subsurface strata[22].
deflocculation. The breakup of flocs of gelstructures by use of a thinner[6].
deformation. Changing of form, volume,and relative position of rock masses[16].
degradation. 1. Geological action ofwearing down a surface[16]. 2. the processof degrading water quality in an aquiferby the addition of contaminants, eithernaturally or artificially. 3. The process bywhich various chemicals are altered toform new chemicals; breakdown.
56
degree of cementation. The degree towhich a rock has been solidified due tocementation[16].
degree of karstification. The ratio of thevolume of openings to the total volume ofa soluble massif, expressed as apercentage. It is the sum of the activityindices from the initiation ofkarstification, and so is normally appliedonly to carbonate rocks with little or noprimary porosity[20]. Related to corrosionand solution. Synonyms: (French.) tauxde karstification; (German.) Ausmaß(Grad) der Verkarstung; (Greek.) vathmoskarstikiiseos; (Italian.) grado dicarsificazione; (Spanish.) grado dekarstificación; (Turkish.) karstlaÕmaderecesi; (Yugoslavian.) stupanj krs #kogprocesa, stopnja zakrasevanja, stepenkarstifikacijé.
degree of saturation. See percentsaturation.
delay. The lapse time between signalemission and signal reception in seismiclogging[16].
delta. A triangular deposit of sediments atthe inflow of a river into an ocean orlake[16].
demand. The rate of draft from an aquiferor reservoir to meet a certain demand[16].
demineralization. The removal of mineralmatter from water[16].
dendritic. Tree-like pattern[16].
dendritic drainage pattern. A drainagepattern in which the streams branch
randomly in all directions and at almostany angle, resembling in plan thebranching habit of certain trees. It isproduced where a consequent streamreceives several tributaries which in turnare fed by smaller tributaries. It is anindicative of insequent streams flowingacross horizontal and homogeneous strataor complex crystalline rocks offeringuniform resistance to erosion. Thispattern may form on top of the landsurface or below the land surface in karstaquifers with anastomoses forming thesmaller tributaries.
density. The mass of water per unit volume,usually stated in grams per cubiccentimeter (gm/cm3), but may also bemeasured in pounds per gallon (lb/gal),pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3), andkilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3.)Density of fresh water is taken to be 1.0.
density current. A gravity-induced flow ofone current through, over, or underanother, owing to density differences. Factors affecting density differencesinclude temperature, salinity, andconcentration of suspended particles.
denudation. The wearing away ofoverlying loose rock to top of bedrock[16].
denuded karst. Subsoil karst or interstratalkarst which has been exposed by erosionof its cover[17]. See also exposed karst;interstratal karst; subsoil karst. Synonyms: (French.) karst dénudé;(German.) nackter Karst, oberflächlicherKarst; (Greek.) apogymnomenon karst;(Italian.) carso denudato, carso nudo;(Russian.) golij karst, otkritij karst;(Spanish.) karst denudado; (Turkish.)
57
belirgin karst; (Yugoslavian.) ogoljeli krs#(krãs), goli krs# (krãs), razkriti kras.
depletion. The withdrawal of water at agreater rate than replenishment[16].
deposition factor. The factor that describesthe settling of suspended solids withinpore space[16].
depression. A small hollow in a surface[16].
depression spring. See spring, depression.
depth gage. 1. Any device used to measuredepths such as water level in wells[16]. 2.Specific gage for measuring river stage[16].
depth of penetration. In electricalresistivity surveys, it is the depth to whichan electrical field penetrates into thesubsurface as a function of electrodespacing[16].
desalinization. The process of saltremoval[16].
desander. A device used to separate sandfrom well water[16].
descender. A mechanical device fordescending ropes[25].
desert. 1. Region where precipitation is lessthan 10 inches per year. 2. Region wherethe net moisture inflow is too small tosupport vegetation[16].
desiccation. The removal of moisture byevaporation or drying[16].
desiccation crack. A crack formed in soilas a result of shrinkage to a dryingvolume[16].
desorption. The reverse process ofsorption[22]. See also sorption.
detritus. Loose material originating fromdisintegrated and weathered rock[16].
developed section. The result ofstraightening out a section composed ofseveral parts with differing directions intoone common plane. Usually the plane isvertical and the length of the sectionequals the plan lengths of the passagesand chambers comprising[25].
development. The act of repairing damageto the formation caused by drillingprocedures and increasing the porosityand permeability of the materialssurrounding the intake portion of thewell[6].
deviation. 1. Deflection of a recording froma base line (e.g., the deviation fromvertical of a borehole)[16]. 2. Usually asling of rope or tape attached to a naturalanchor at one end and clipped to the ropewith a karabiner at the other. Used toavoid rub points on pitches[25]. Synonym:redirection.
dew-point. The point at which dewformation starts for given temperature andhumidity conditions[16].
D-horizon. The zone of bedrock in a soilhorizon[16].
diagenesis. Post depositional physical andchemical changes in sediment[16].
58
diatomaceous earth. A light-colored, soft,siliceous earth composed of the shells ofdiatoms, a form of algae. Some depositsare of lake origin but the largest aremarine[6].
differential water capacity. The absolutevalue of the rate of change of watercontent with soil water pressure. Thewater capacity at a given water contentwill depend on the particular desorptionor adsorption curve employed. Distinction should be made betweenvolumetric and specific water capacity[22].
diffuse circulation; diffuse flow. Circulation of ground water in karstaquifers (or other aquifers) under condi-tions in which all, or almost all, openings(primary and secondary) in the karstifiedrock intercommunicate and are full ofwater but have not been selectivelyenlarged in specific zones by dissolution,and so thus no concentration of groundwater occurs in restricted conduits[9, 21]. The ground-water flow is generally slow-moving, may be laminar, and have auniform discharge and slow response tostorms. It is being replaced by the term,slow flow, because significant confusionregarding its usage especially whenthought of as in terms of porous-mediaflow. Synonyms: (French.) circulationdiffuse; (German.) DiffuseGrundwaßerbewegung; (Greek.)thiacheomenon ydhor; (Italian.)circolazione carsica diffusa; (Spanish.)circulación saturada difusa; (Turkish.)yayg2n dolaÕ2m; (Yugoslavian.) difuznote…enje.
diffusion. Process whereby ionic ormolecular constituents move under the
influence of their kinetic activity in thedirection of their concentrationgradient[22].
diffusion coefficient. See moleculardiffusion, coefficient.
diffusion, convective. See mechanicaldispersion, coefficient.
diffusivity, soil water. The hydraulicconductivity divided by the differentialwater capacity (care being taken to beconsistent with units), or the flux of waterper unit gradient of moisture content inthe absence of other force fields[22].
diffusivity, hydraulic. The ratio oftransmissivity divided by the storagecoefficient or the hydraulic conductivitydivided by the specific storage[22].
dig. An excavation made to discover orextend a cave or to uncover artefacts oranimal bones[25].
dike. 1. A wall or embankment protectinglowlands from being flooded[16]. 2. Asubsurface sheet-like igneous intrusioninto bedrock fractures[16].
Dinaric Karst. The extensive expanse ofkarst landscape stretching from Italy,across the whole of southern Slovenia andCroatia, into parts of south-west Bosniaand across Montenegro, ultimatelyextending into Albania and Greece[9].
dip. 1. The angle between an inclinedbedding plane in a rock sequence and thehorizontal. The dip value includes aninclination and a direction and the twocomponents are generally quoted in this
59
order and in the format l0° ENE or 10°towards 025° magnetic (etc.). The dipdirection is down the slope. True dip isthe maximum dip value of a givenbedding plane; other, lesser values,obliquely down the same bedding plane,referred to as apparent dips. Thedirection at right-angles to the true dip,where the dip value is zero, is known asthe strike[9]. 2. Maximum plunge ofsloping planar features (e.g bedding,fractures) within a geological formationmeasured perpendicularly to the strike ofthe features. See also strike; hade.
dipmeter survey. A geophysical boreholelogging method where the dip of thepenetrated strata is measured[16].
diphenyl brilliant flavine 7GFF, directyellow 96. A yellowish dye initiallydeveloped to color tennis balls andsubsequently shown to be useful inenvironmental tracing studies. Dye type:Stilbene. See also fluorescent dyes.
discharge. The volumetric flow of waterthrough a given cross section[16].
discharge area. An area in which groundwater is discharged to the land surface,surface water, or atmosphere[22].
discharge, evaporation. The directdischarge of ground water to theatmosphere by evaporation[16].
discharge, hydraulic. The discharge ofground water through springs or wells[16].
discharge, maximum. The maximumdischarge of a river or spring during highflow conditions[16].
discharge, natural. The discharge of waterinto surface water bodies or springflow[16].
discharge hydrograph. A graph showingthe discharge of water as a function oftime[16].
discharge pipe. A pipe through which apump discharges[16].
discharge pressure. The pressure at whicha certain discharge takes place[16].
discharge velocity. The rate of discharge ofwater through a porous medium per unitof total area perpendicular to the directionof flow.
disconformity. A geological unconformitybetween parallel beds, often with someseries missing[16].
discontinuity. 1. A point where amathematical function becomesnondefined[16]. 2. An unconformity inwhich the bedding planes above andbelow the break are basically parallel,indicating a significant hiatus in theorderly sequence of sedimentary rocks. 3.A surface at which seismic-wavevelocities abruptly change.
discontinuity surface. Any surface acrosswhich some property for a rock mass isdiscontinuous. This includes fracturesurfaces, weakness planes, and beddingplanes but the term should not berestricted only to mechanical continuity.
dispersion. The spreading and mixing ofchemical constituents in ground watercaused by diffusion and mixing due to
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microscopic variations in velocitieswithin and between pores[6].
dispersion coefficient. 1. A measure of thespreading of a flowing substance due tothe nature of the porous medium, with itsinterconnected channels distributed atrandom in all directions[22]. 2. The sum ofthe coefficients of mechanical dispersionand molecular diffusion in a porousmedium[22].
dispersion, longitudinal. Process wherebysome of the water molecules and solutemolecules travel more rapidly than theaverage linear velocity and some travelmore slowly which results in spreading ofthe solute in the direction of the bulkflow[22].
dispersion, mechanical. See mechanicaldispersion.
dispersion, transverse. Spreading of thesolute in directions perpendicular to thebulk flow[22].
dispersion zone. A zone of intermixing inmiscible flow or in sea waterencroachment. See also transitionzone[16].
dispersivity. A geometric property of aporous medium which determines thedispersion characteristics of the mediumby relating the components of porevelocity to the dispersion coefficient[22].
displacement. 1. The process of replacingone fluid in a porous medium byanother[16]. 2. A change in position of amaterial point. See also miscibledisplacement.
disposal well. A well used for the disposalof waste into a subsurface stratum. Seealso injection well[22].
dissociation. A chemical process thatcauses a molecule to split into simplergroups of atoms, or ions. For example,the water molecule (H2O) breaks downspontaneously into H+ and OH– ions[6].
dissolution. See solution.
dissolution of limestone. The solubility ofcalcite (and hence of limestone) in purewater is very low, but is vastly increasedin the presence of carbon dioxide. Thisgas, dissolved in the water to producecarbonic acid, permits dissociation ofcalcium carbonate, and dissolution ratesand loads are therefore directly related tocarbon dioxide content. This accounts forthe importance to limestone dissolution ofplant growth; soil water contains greatlymore carbon dioxide than stream waters. Further dissolution occurs due to mixingof saturated waters of different carbondioxide content (seeMischungskorrosion), because of a non-linear relationship between carbonatesaturation and carbon dioxide content. This process is of major significance tocontinued dissolution within the phreas. Cold water can dissolve more carbondioxide but, with respect to cavedevelopment, this climatic factor isoverwhelmed by the higher organicactivity producing more carbon dioxide inwarmer environments. Loss of carbondioxide, by diffusion into open air, causeswater to precipitate calcite asspeleothems. Limestone dissolution mayalso be achieved by organic acids or bystrong acids, particularly sulphuric acid,
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though such effects are normally far lessthan that of carbon dioxide. Strong aciddissolution is probably involved in theinception of most underground drainage. Dissolution by sulphuric acid formed byoxidation of sulfide minerals or gasesmay be a major cave-forming process insome regions, and was largely responsiblefor the enlargement of Carlsbad Cavernsand Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico[9].
dissolution zone. A laterally extensive zonewhere extensive dissolution of bedrockhas occurred.
distortion. A change in shape of a solidbody.
distribution coefficient. The quantity ofthe solute, chemical, or radionuclidesorbed by the solid per unit weight ofsolid divided by the quantity dissolved inthe water per unit volume of water[22].
distribution, frequency. Distribution of thenumber of occurrences of a variate.
disturbance. In geology, any change of theoriginal position of rocks by folding[16].
disturbed sample. A sample disturbed withrespect to its original mode of packingand sedimentation (e.g., a drill core)[16].
divide. 1. A line connecting the highesttopographic elevations or ground-watercrests that separate one drainage basinfrom another[16]. 2. A ridge in the watertable or potentiometric surface fromwhich the ground water represented bythat surface moves away in bothdirections. Water in other aquifers aboveor below, and even in the lower part of
the same aquifer, may have apotentiometric surface lacking the ridge,and so may flow past the divide. See alsoground-water divide; water-table divide. Synonyms: ground-water divide; ground-water ridge; water-table divide. 3. (a) Theline of separation, or the ridge, summit, ornarrow tract of high ground, marking theboundary between two adjacent drainagebasins or dividing the surface waters thatflow naturally in one direction from thosethat flow in the opposite direction; theline forming the rim of or enclosing adrainage basin; a line across which nowater flows. 3. (b) A tract of relativelyhigh ground between two streams; a linethat follows the summit of an interfluve[1]. See also drainage divide.
DNAPL. Abbreviation for densenonaqueous phase liquid. Liquids fallinginto this category have specific gravitiesgreater than water (the specific gravity forwater is usually taken to be one), arerelatively immiscible with water, and tendto migrate downwards through the vadoseand phreatic zones in a relativelyunimpeded manner. See also LNAPL;immiscible; NAPL.
dog-tooth crystal; dog-tooth spar. Avariety of calcite in the form of sharp-pointed crystals[10].
doline; sinkhole. A basin- or funnel-shapedhollow in limestone, ranging in diameterfrom a few meters up to a kilometer andin depth from a few to several hundredmeters. Some dolines are gentle grassyhollows; others are rocky cliff-boundedbasins. A distinction may be made bydirect solution of the limestone surfacezone, (solution dolines), and those formed
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by collapse over a cave, (collapsedolines), but it is generally not possible toestablish the origin of individualexamples[10]. Solutional enlargement iseither circular in plan, if there is onedominant vertical joint, or otherwiseirregular if there are several and canachieve dimensions of up to 1,000 metersin diameter and 100 meters deep. Wherea karst bedrock is covered by superficialdeposits, solutional enlargement permitsthe latter to subside into vertical fissures,creating subsidence cones or alluvialdolines, whose slopes are unstablebecause of the unconsolidated nature ofthe surface material. The bedrockremains covered in the first instance. Dolines are also formed by the large-scalesubsidence caused by cave roof-collapseof near-surface caverns; in this instance,the collapse doline, the sides are cliff-likeand the floor composed of the irregularblocks from the fragmented roof. Caveroof-collapse is considered a relativelyrare phenomenon. Closed depressionsreceiving a stream are known as swallowholes or stream sinks. A doline which islargely dependent upon snow forsolution-enlargement is known as a kotlicior Schneedoline[19]. In America mostdolines are referred to as sinks orsinkholes. See also jama; pit; ponor;sink, sinkhole; stream sink; swallet;swallow hole; sumidero. Synonyms:(French.) doline; (German.) Dolinen,Karsttrichter; (Greek.) tholene; (Italian.)dolina, pozzo naturale; (Russian.)karstovaja voronka, karstovaja kotlovina;(Spanish.) dolina; (Turkish.) düden,kokurdan, huni; (Yugoslavian.) vrta…a,ponikva, dolac, do, duliba, kotli…, konta.
doline karst. Karst dominated by closeddepressions, chiefly dolines, perforating asimple surface[25].
doline lake. A small karst lake occupying adoline or closed depression in limestone. The term implies that the doline is at ornear the ground-water table and inhydrological continuity with it, or that thebase of the doline is sealed with animpermeable layer such as clay[20]. Seealso sinkhole pond. Synonyms: (French.)lac de doline; (German.) Dolinensee;(Greek.) limni dholina; (Italian.) lago didolina, lago carsico; (Russian.) karstovoeozero; (Spanish.) dolina laguna, torcalaguna; (Turkish.) obruk gölü;(Yugoslavian.) krs #ko jezero, kras #ko jezero.
dolomite. 1. The pure mineral dolomite hasthe composition CaMg(CO3)2 and hasproperties very similar to those of calcite. The rock dolomite consists mainly of themineral dolomite, with subordinatecalcite, and has properties very similar tothose of limestone. The naturaldissolution of dolomite is generallyslower than that of limestone. Hence,dolomite karst is generally less welldeveloped than limestone karst, thoughexceptions do occur in areas such asnorth-west Canada. Large, deep cavescan form in dolomite, as in the Rand ofSouth Africa[9]. 2. A mineral composedof calcium magnesium carbonate,CaMg(CO3)2. 2. Rock chiefly composedof the mineral dolomite[10]. Also calleddolostone.
dolomitic limestone. A limestonecontaining a significant proportion of themineral dolomite but in which calcite ismore abundant (e.g. 10–45% dolomite,
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90–55% calcite). Many dolomiticlimestones originate as calcite limestone thatis subsequently affected by magnesium-richwater that replaces part of the calcite withdolomite[9].
dolomitic flour (sand). A loose mealy rockor residuum, produced by thedisintegration of dolomitic limestonesunder the processes of karstification[20]. Synonyms: (French.) sable dolomitique;(German.) Dolomitsand, Dolomitasche;(Greek.) dholomitikon alevron; (Spanish.)arena dolomítica; (Turkish.) dolomitkumu; (Yugoslavian.) dolomitni pijesak, d.pesak, d. pesek.
dolomitization. The process wherebylimestone becomes dolomite by the sub-stitution of magnesium carbonate for partof the original calcium carbonate[10].
domain. A biological region of the earth'scrust[25].
dome. 1. A high shaft in a room or passageformed by solution[13]. 2. A largehemispheroidal hollow in the roof of acave,formed by the breakdown and/or saltweathering, generally in mechanicallyweak rocks, which prevents bedding andjoints dominating the form[25]. See alsodome pit.
dome pit. 1. American term defined byDavis (1930) ‘Mammoth Cave possessesseveral extraordinary vertical cavities ofwhich the arched tops are called domesand the deep bottoms are called pits. Thecombined name, dome pits, is here usedfor them’. 2. A deep shaft in a cave,intersected by a passage at or near itsmid-section[20]. See aven. Synonyms:
(French.) évorsion, marmite inversée;(German.) Deckenkolk; (Greek.) vathíslákkos me thólon; (Italian.) marmittainversa; (Spanish.) marmita inversa;(Turkish.) kemerli obruk.
donga. In the Nullarbor Plain, Australia, ashallow, closed depression, several metersdeep and hundreds of meters across, witha flat clay-loam floor and very gentleslopes[25].
double brake bars. A rappel device usedby cavers that consists of two carabinerswith a brake bar on each and connectedtogether with another carabiner or a metalring[13].
downwarping. A down bending of stratumto form a depression or syncline[16].
drag. The resistance force of flowing fluidon a solid boundary[16].
drainage area. A horizontal projection ofan area drained by a particular riversystem[16].
drainage basin. The land area from whichsurface runoff drains into a streamchannel or system of stream channels, orto a lake, reservoir, or other body ofwater[6]. In a karst setting, subsurfacedrainage (internal drainage) may haveboundaries defined on the basis ofcomprehensive ground-water tracingstudies. See also ground-water basin.
drainage density. A ratio of total channelsegments lengths cumulated for all ordersto basin area[16].
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drainage ditch. A small channel throughwhich surface water can drain[16].
drainage divide. The rim of a drainagebasin[16]. See also divide; ground-waterdivide; water-table divide.
drainage network. A system of streamsand rivers draining a given basin[16].
drainage pattern. A geometricarrangement of stream segments in adrainage system[16].
drainage ratio. A ratio of runoff toprecipitation[16].
drainage system. A network of streams andtributaries[16].
drainage well. 1. A well installed to drainsurface water, storm water, or treatedwaste water into underground strata[22]. 2.A water well constructed to removesubsurface water or to reduce ahydrogeologic unit’s potentiometricsurface[22].
drain tile; french drain. A porous pipeused for collection of excess groundwater[16].
drapery. A thin sheet of dripstone, equiv-alent to curtain[10]. See also bacon;blanket; curtain.
draw. A natural depression or smallvalley[16].
drawdown. 1. The vertical distance thewater elevation is lowered or thereduction of the pressure head due to theremoval of water[22]. 2. The decline in
potentiometric surface at a point causedby the withdrawal of water from ahydrogeologic unit[22].
drawdown curve. A plot of drawdownwith radial distance from a well[16].
driphole. 1. Hole in rock or clay producedby fast-dripping water. 2. Hollow spacesurrounded by precipitated material, suchas the bottom of a stalactite[10].
dripline. A line on the ground at a caveentrance formed by drips from the rockabove. Useful in cave survey to definethe beginning of the cave[25].
dripstone. Calcium carbonate depositedfrom water dripping from the ceiling orwall of a cave or from the overhangingedge of a rock shelter; commonly refers tothe rock in stalactites, stalagmites, andother similar speleothems; in some placescomposed of aragonite or gypsum[10]. Synonyms: (French.) concrétions;(German.) Tropfstein, Stalagmit, Stalaktit;(Greek.) stalaktitis, stalagmitis; (Italian.)concrezione; (Russian.) kapeljnik;(Spanish.) concreción (estalagmitjca oestalactítica); (Turkish.) damlataÕ2;(Yugoslavian.) sige, smugori. See alsoflowstone.
drowned karst. Karst topography that issubmerged by a change in sea level orlake level. Synonym: karst noyé. Seealso subaqueous karst.
drowned spring. See spring, drowned.
drought. A period of moisture deficiencyand absence of water for plant growth[16].
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dry cave. A cave without a runningstream[10]. See also dead cave.
dry hole. A hole not obtaining anyproduction. A non-producing well[16].
dry valley. 1. Valley that lacks a permanentsurface stream. Dry valleys are commonon carbonate rocks with good primarypermeability and occur on otherpermeable rocks such as sandstone. Dryvalleys on cavernous limestone wereformed when streams flowed on thesurface, either before secondarypermeability and cave systems developed,or when caves were blocked by groundice in periglacial climates. The valleysbecame dry when underground drainsformed or were re-opened, capturing firstpart and then all of the surface drainage[9]. 2. A valley that lacks a surface waterchannel; common in the chalk of southernEngland[10]. 3. Elongated recesses andvalleys at the bottom of which aredolines, jamas and caves. 4. A valleyform of fluvial or periglacial origin inwhich surface drainage is intermittent ortotally absent. Fossil, usually with steepscree slopes, it is variously identifiable asa product of nival processes or higherwater tables subsequently lowered byallogenic valley[19]. Synonyms: (French.)vallée sèche; (German.) Trockental;(Greek.) xera kilas; (Italian.) valle morta,valle asciutta; (Russian.) suhaja dolina;(Spanish.) valle seco; (Turkish.) kuruvadi; (Yugoslavian.) suha dolina.
duck; duck-under. 1. A place where waterreaches the cave roof for a short distanceand can be passed by quick submergencewithout swimming. 2. In cave diving, alonger stretch of passage where the water
is so close to the roof that crawling orswimming beneath the water surface isneeded to pass[10].
dug well. A hand excavated well[16].
dune limestone. (Australian.) See eoliancalcarenite.
Dupuit’s assumption. A simplifyingassumption for the solution of a freesurface well flow problem[16] (e.g. awater-table aquifer.) It is based on theassumption that the slope of the phreaticsurface is negligibly small so that theequipotential lines are vertical and flow isessentially horizontal.
duration curve. A cumulative frequencycurve of a continuous time series ofhydrologic parameters[16].
Durchgangshöhle. (German.) See throughcave.
dye gaging. See tracer gaging.
dye test. Determination of direction andrate of flow of streams by marking themwith dye at the infiltration area and thenidentifying and timing the reappearanceof color at lower-lying springs, in riverbeds and elsewhere in a cave system[20]. Synonyms: (French.) coloration;(German.) Färbung, Färbversuch;(Greek.) chrostike ichnithetesis; (Italian.)tracciamento con colorante; (Russian.)method krasjascih, indikatorov; (Spanish.)coloración; (Turkish.) boya deneyi;(Yugoslavian.) bojenje, barvanje. Seealso tracer.
dynamic phreas. See phreas, dynamic.
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dynamic similarity. A scaling procedure ofmodel and prototype where therelationship of dynamic parameters isretained[16].
dynamometer. A device used to measurethe momentum force of a streamvelocity[16].
67
E
Easting. 1. The distance of a point east ofthe point of origin of the grid of a map orsome abbreviation of it[25]. 2. Thewest-east component of a survey leg, orof a series of legs or of a completetraverse; east is positive and west isnegative[25].
ebb-and-flow spring; ebbing-and-flowingwell. See spring, ebb-and-flow.
eccentric. Adjective or noun implyingabnormal shape in speleothems, such ashelictites[10].
eccentric well. A well that is not in thecenter of the radius of influence[16].
ecology. The scientific study of therelationships of living things to oneanother and to their environment. Ascientist who studies these relationships isan ecologist[23].
eddy. A non-laminar circulation of fluid atboundaries of flow separation[16].
effective abstractions. The differencebetween total precipitation and effectiveprecipitation[16].
effective diameter. A 10 percentile size(i.e. 10% diameter smaller than thisdiameter)[16].
effective hydraulic conductivity. Seehydraulic conductivity, effective.
effective porosity. See porosity, effective.
effective precipitation. That part ofprecipitation that contributes entirely todirect runoff.
effective rainfall. Effective precipitationwhen only rainfall is involved[16].
effective size. The 90%-retained size of asediment as determined from a grain-sizeanalysis; therefore, 10% of the sedimentis finer and 90% coarser[6].
effluent. 1. The discharge of water or otherfluids from a spring. 2. A waste liquiddischarge from a manufacturing ortreatment process, in its natural state orpartially or completely treated, thatdischarges into the environment[6].
effluent cave. See outflow cave.
effluent stream. See gaining stream.
elastic limit. The point on a stress/straincurve at which transition from elastic toinelastic behavior takes place.
elastic properties. The propertiesdescribing deformation of a solid[16].
elasticity. The property of a material thatallows the material to return to its originalform or condition after the applied forcehas been removed.
electric lamp. As used in caving, generallya helmet-mounted headpiece (bulb,reflector, and lens) with a wire running toa battery carried elsewhere on theperson[13].
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electro-chemical gaging. Flowmeasurement based on electric detectionof electrolyte tracer flow[16].
electrolyte. A chemical which dissociatesinto positive and negative ions whendissolved in water, increasing theelectrical conductivity[6].
elutriation. A washing process bydecantation with water[16].
embankment. A natural or artificial lateralboundary of a river[16].
embryo. A developing individual before itsbirth or hatching[23].
emergence. A general term for theoutflowing water, for the opening or forthe area of outflow of a karst spring;includes exsurgence and resurgence[20]. Synonyms: (French.) émergence;(German.) Ausflu$telle, Karstquelle;(Greek.) pigházon ýthor (or kephalari);(Italian.) risorgenza; (Russian.) vihodkarstovih vod; (Spanish.) fuente,manantial, surgencia; (Turkish.) yüzeyeeriÕim; (Yugoslavian.) krško vrelo, krs #kiizvor, obrh. See also exsurgence;resurgence; rise.
encroachment. 1. The landwardadvancement of saline waters into coastalaquifers[16]. 2. The displacement of cleanwater by pollutants[16].
end effect. A disturbance introduced by theinflow and outflow sections in a flowexperiment[16].
endellite. A cave mineral —Al2Si2O5(OH)4"2H2O[11].
endogean. Pertaining to the domainimmediately beneath the ground surface,i.e., in the soil or plant litter[25]. See alsoendogenic, epigean, hypogean.
endogenic. 1. Pertaining to, or living in, thezone immediately beneath the earth’ssurface[9]. 2. Pertaining to geologicalprocess originating within the earth[16]. See also endogean, epigean, hypogean.
endokarst. The part of a vertically layeredkarst system that is beneath the surface. Endokarst includes the full spectrum ofunderground voids and the dissolutionalfeatures that are present on the rocksurfaces surrounding them[9]. See alsoexokarst.
energy head. Hydraulic head plus velocityhead[16].
enthalpy. Heat content[16].
entrance capacity. The property of a soil toallow water to infiltrate (the maximumvalue of this property)[16].
entrenchment. Erosion of an existing cavefloor by a freely flowing stream to form acanyon passage that is commonlynarrower than the original passage. Where the stream entrenches anoriginally tubular phreatic passage acharacteristic keyhole shaped profiledevelops. Also known as vadoseentrenchment or incision[9].
entropy. The degree of thermodynamicdisorder[16].
environment. All the external conditionssurrounding a living thing[23].
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eolian calcarenite. A terrestrial limestoneformed by the cementation by carbonatesof calcareous coastal dune sand. Oftenshorted to eolianite. Synonym:dune-limestone; aeolianite. Comparebeachrock.
eolian deposit. Sediment material depositedby wind action[16].
ephemeral stream. A stream flowing onlyin direct response to precipitation[16].
epigean. Pertaining to, or living on, thesurface of the earth. See endogean andhypogean.
epigeum. The surface environment[23].
epikarst; epikarst zone. A relatively thick(the thickness may vary significantly, but15 to 30 meters thick is a goodgeneralization) portion of bedrock thatextends from the base of the soil zone andis characterized by extreme fracturing andenhanced solution. It is separated fromthe phreatic zone by an inactive, relativelywaterless interval of bedrock that islocally breached by vadose percolation. Significant water storage and transportare known to occur in this zone. Synonym: subcutaneous zone.
epikarstic flow. See subcutaneous flow.
epilimnion. Upper layer of stratifiedwater[16].
epiphreas, epiphreatic zone. The zone in acave system, immediately above thephreatic zone, affected morphologicallyand hydrologically by floods too large forthe cave to absorb at once[10].
epsomite. A cave mineral —MgSO4"7H2O[11].
equation of hydrologic equilibrium. Amass balance for a ground-water basin[16].
equipotential line or surface. 1. A contourline on the potentiometric surface alongwhich the pressure head of ground waterin the aquifer is the same. Fluid flow isnormal to these lines in the direction ofdecreasing fluid potential[6]. 2. Line (orsurface) along which the potential isconstant[22].
equivalent per million. The number ofequivalent weights in a million parts perweight solution[16].
erodible. Susceptible to erosion[16].
erosion. 1. The general process or group ofprocesses whereby the materials of theEarth’s crust are moved from one place toanother by running water (includingrainfall), waves and currents, glacier ice,or wind[6]. 2. The sequence of processesof disintegration and transportation ofrock material[16].
erosion surface. The land surface resultingfrom the action of erosion[16].
erosiveness. The capacity to erode[16].
escarpment. A steep slope, often the resultof faulting[16].
estavelle. (French.) An intermittentresurgence or exsurgence, active only inwet seasons. May act alternatively as aswallow hole and as a rising according toground-water conditions[10]. Opening in
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karstic terrane which acts as a dischargespring during high potentiometric surfaceand as a swallet during lowpotentiometric surface. Sea estavelles areknown to exist[20]. Synonyms: (French.)estavelle; (German.) Estavelle; (Greek.)estavella; (Italian.) estavella; (Russian.)estavella; (Spanish.) estavela; (Turkish.)su batar ç2kar2; (Yugoslavian.) estavela,ponor-rigalo.
esker. A stratified fluvio-glacial deposit inthe form of a winding ridge[16].
etched pothole. See solution pan.
estuary. The lower course of a riverdischarging into the sea and subject totidal currents[16].
evaporate. A sedimentary rock formed byevaporation and precipitation of salinewaters[16].
evaporation. The changing or water fromthe liquid or solid states into the gaseousstate through heat exchange[16].
evaporation loss. The loss of precipitatedwater that is discharged to the atmosphereby evaporation[16].
evaporation opportunity. The amount ofwater made available for discharge intothe atmosphere[16].
evaporation pan. An open tank used tomeasure evaporation[16].
evaporation reduction. The rate control ofescape of water vapor from an opensurface[16].
evaporation suppression. The completeprevention of evaporation by mechanicalor physico-chemical means (e.g.,monomolecular layer)[16].
evaporite. Rock formed by precipitation ofminerals from evaporating water, usuallyfrom sea water. As sea water evaporatesthe least soluble mineral contentsprecipitate first; these include calciumcarbonate that is deposited as fine-grainedlimestone. If evaporation continues, firstgypsum, then halite and finally a numberof other sulfates and chlorides aredeposited[9].
evaporativity. Evaporative power[16].
evapotranspiration. 1. The combined lossof water from a given area and during aspecified period of time, by evaporationfrom the land and transpiration fromplants[22]. 2. The return of water in vaporform to the atmosphere through thecombined actions of evaporation, planttranspiration, and sublimation[16].
evolution. The process of naturalconsecutive modification in the inheritedmakeup of living things; the process. bywhich modern plants and animals havearisen from forms that lived in the past[23]. See also mutation.
evorsion. Mechanical erosion by whirlingwater that may carry sand and gravel;pothole erosion[10]. Mechanical erosionby rotating or whirling water carryingsand, gravel, cobbles, or boulders insuspension or as bedload[20]. Synonyms:(French.) évorsion; (German.)(Auswaschung), Auskolkung; (Greek.)mihanikí diávrosis; (Italian.) evorsione;
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(Spanish.) evorsión; (Turkish.) dev kazan2aÕ2nd2rmas2; (Yugoslavian.) vrtloñnaerozija.
exchange capacity. 1. The amount ofexchangeable ions measured in moles ofion change per kilogram of solid materialat a given pH. Synonymous with ionexchange capacity[22]. 2. The total ioniccharge of the adsorption complex activein the adsorption of ions[22]. See alsocation-exchange capacity.
exhumed karst. A karstic outcrop whichhas been exposed by the erosion of anallochthonous cover; there is animplication that karstification (partial orcomplete) had preceded the removal ofthe cover[20]. Mantled karst or buriedkarst which has been divested of itscover. It is the re-exposed portion of aformer landscape[17]. See also buriedkarst; exposed karst; mantled karst. Synonyms: (French.) karst dénudé;(German.) wiederaufgedeckter Karst;(Greek.) gymnothen karst; (Italian.) carsoriesumato; (Spanish.) karst exhumado;(Turkish.) aç2k karst; (Yugoslavian.)ogoljeli krš (kras).
exogenic. Pertaining to processes on or nearthe surface of the earth[16].
exokarst. All features that may be found ona surface karst landscape, ranging in sizebetween tiny karren forms and extensiveprojes, belong to the exokarst[9]. See alsoendokarst.
exoskeleton. An external skeleton. Thehard body covering or shell of mostinvertebrate animals, including insects,crayfish, and millipedes[23].
experimental basin. A basin chosen for thethorough study of hydrologicalphenomena[16].
exposed karst. A general term for barekarstic rocks outcropping at the surface ofthe ground. It embraces karst areaswithout any initial cover (naked karst) orexposed by erosion of the residuum andsoil (denuded karst) or of theallochthonous cover (exhumed karst)[20]. Karst topography in which cover isabsent[17]. Synonyms: (French.) karstexposé; (German.) nackter Karst,oberflächlicher Karst, wiederaufgedeckterKarst; (Greek.) akalypton karst; (Italian.)carso denudato; (Russian.) golij karst,otkritij karst; (Spanish.) karst subaéro;(Turkish.) belirgin karst; (Yugoslavian.)ljuti krš. See also denuded karst;exhumed karst; naked karst.
extensometer. An instrument used formeasuring vertical deformation of fine-grained beds in the subsoil under stress. Vertical extensometers commonly areinstalled when land subsidence followsground-water withdrawal. Extensometersalso are used to measure small horizontaldisplacements[21].
external loads. External loads causingwater level fluctuations in wells.
exsurgence. 1. A term used to explain there-emergence at the surface, as a stream,of meteoric water which has fallenentirely upon and percolated through acalcareous massif[19]. 2. A spring or seepin karstic terrane not clearly connectedwith swallets a higher level. Synonyms:(French.) exsurgence; (German.)Karstquelle, Austrittßtelle; (Greek.)
72
karstiki pighi; (Italian.) risorgentecarsica; (Russian.) karstovij istoƒnik;(Spanish.) exsurgencia; (Turkish.)yüzeyde blirme; (Yugoslavian.) vrelo,obrh. See also emergence; resurgence.
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F
fabric. The orientation in space of theelements composing a rock substance.
facet. See scallop.
facies. The lithologic appearance of arock[16].
facies change. The change in appearancethat occurs when one lithologic unit endsand a new one is encountered.
failure. In rocks, failure means exceedingof the maximum strength of a rock orexceeding the stress or strain requirementof a specific design.
fall. The gross slope of a river[16].
false floor. A remnant of a sheet offlowstone, originally deposited on clasticsediments that were subsequently washedout from beneath. False floors maysurvive as a complete bridge betweenpassage walls or just as projecting ledges. They may be thin and easily broken orthick and very strong[9].
farangothes ipoyios thiavasis. See aisle.
fathometer. A water depth measuringdevice[16].
fault. 1. A fracture in the earth’s crust,across which relative rock movement hastaken place, or continues to take place. Fault planes commonly guide vertical orsub-vertical shafts in caves, as well asguiding sub-horizontal or obliquepassages within the confines of the faultplane[9]. 2. A fracture or fracture zone
along which there has been displacementof the two sides relative to one anotherparallel to the fracture[6]. Thisdisplacement may be of a few centimetersor many kilometers. See also joint faultset; joint fault system.
fault breccia. The assemblage of brokenrock fragments frequently found alongfaults. The fragments may vary in sizefrom inches to feet.
fault cave. A cave developed along a faultor fault zone[10].
fault gouge. A clay-like material occurringbetween the walls of a fault as a result ofthe movement along the fault surfaces.
fault line. The intersection of a fault withthe surface of the earth or any other planeof reference[16].
fault plane. A plane on which dislocationand relative movement has taken place[16].
fault scarp. An elevation formed bymovement of blocks along a faultplane[16].
fault zone. A zone with numerous smallparallel faults[16].
feeding tube. In karst terrane, a more orless straight and waterbearingunderground gallery of regular cross-section. Synonyms: (French.) tunnel;(German.) Stro 4mungsrohr, Karstgerinne;(Greek.) karstikos ypoyios agogos;(Spanish.) tubo; (Turkish.) akarsumecras2; (Yugoslavian.) vodonosni rov. See also stream tube.
74
feldspars. A very common group of rockforming minerals[16].
fengcong; fengcong karst. (Chinese.) 1. Akarst, conspicuous in China, that isidentified by its clustered limestone hills. Fengcong (pronounced ‘fungston’), whichtranslates as ‘peak cluster’, is a maturekarst normally developed during longuninterrupted periods of rapid dissolutionin wet tropical environments with highlevels of biogenic soil carbon dioxide. The Chinese classify karst by the hill orpeak density, in contrast to the Westernclassification by hill shape. Fencong isalmost the equivalent of cone karst; itsclosely packed hills are conical ratherthan hemispherical, with interveningdolines and disjointed valleys. The majoroccurrences are in Guizhou and Guangxi,in southern China. Some cones inGuangxi are so steep that they have beentermed fengcong tower karst, but thisconcept is best avoided[9]. 2. Tower karstcharacterized as peak cluster because theindividual karst towers appear to begrouped together in clusters. Closeddepression among the peaks arecommon[4]. See also fenglin; fungling;mogote; tower karst.
fenglin; fenglin karst. (Chinese.) 1. Akarst, conspicuous in China, that isidentified by its isolated limestone hills. Fenglin (pronounced ‘funglin’) translatesfrom Chinese as ‘peak forest’, and isdistinguished from fengcong. Bothfenglin and fengcong are mature karstnormally only developed by longuninterrupted periods of rapid dissolutionin wet tropical environments with highlevels of biogenic soil carbon dioxide. The Chinese classify karst by the hill or
peak density, in contrast to the Westernclassification by hill shape. Fenglin istherefore almost the equivalent of towerkarst; its hills have very steep or verticalwalls, and may have a height/width ratiogreater than four. The limestone hills riseabove level, alluviated plains, and thefinest fenglin karst around Yangshuo,Guangxi, in southern China, is one of theworld’s most dramatic landscapes. Theclassification by hill density means thatlow residual cones scattered across a plainare also referred to as fenglin by theChinese[9]. 2. Tower karst characterizedas peak forest because the individualtowers appear as isolated groups on aplain. Dry valley networks separateindividual towers[4]. See also fengcong;fungling; mogote; tower karst.
ferghanite. A cave mineral —U3(VO4)2"6H2O[11].
ferric oxide. Rust; hematite (Fe2O3)[16].
ferrito zone. Zone of iron oxideaccumulation in soil under humid climateconditions[16].
Fickian diffusion. The spreading of solutesfrom regions of highest to regions oflower concentrations caused by theconcentration gradient. In slow movingground water, this is the dominant mixingprocess[22].
fissure. Any discontinuity within the rockmass that is either initially open orcapable of being opened by dissolution toprovide a route for water movement. Fissures in this sense, applied generally inkarst, therefore include the primarysedimentary bedding planes as well as
75
tectonic faults and joints. Morespecifically, the term has been used todescribe voids with average dimensionsfrom 10 to 100mm[9]. See also conduit;fracture.
field capacity; field moisture capacity. See specific retention.
field survey. Measurements taken in thefield[16].
field test. A test run in the field undernormal field conditions[16].
field velocity of ground water. Actualinterstitial velocity of ground water[16].
fill terrace. An elevated valley surfaceformed by aggregation[16].
fine gravel. Rock aggregates of 1–2 mmdiameter[16].
fine sand. A silicon dioxide material with agrain diameter of 0.1– 0.25 mm[16].
finite difference method. A numericalmethod used to approximate the solutionof partial differential equations[16].
finite element method. A numericalmethod used to approximate the solutionof partial differential equations.
firn. Compacted granular snow[16].
firstkarren. (Austrian.) See Rillenkarren.
fissure. An open joint or crack in rocks[16].
fissure cave. A narrow vertical cave or cavepassage along a fissure. Fissures widen
out to become wells or vertical shafts[10]. See also vertical shaft.
Flachkarren. (German.) See clint.
flank. A limb of a fold[16].
flash flood. A relatively short but veryintense flood[16].
flattener. A cave passage, which thoughwide, is so low that movement is onlypossible in a prone position[10]. See alsocrawl.
flexure. A bend in a stratum with one flankor limb only[16].
flint. A concretionary form of silica, similarto chert, that occurs in chalk as tabularsheets and layers of irregularly shapednodules. Being very hard and relativelyinsoluble, flint tends to stand out fromchalk cliffs. Flint-rich horizons may alsoinfluencer the inception of bedding-related dissoluational conduits in chalk[9].
float gage. A device that indicates orrecords water levels with a float[16].
floating pan. An evaporation pan floatingin a water body with drum floats[16].
floe calcite. Very thin film of pure calciumcarbonate floating on the surface of asubterranean pool of very calm water[10].
flood. A high river flow overtopping banks.
flood crest. The peak of a flood wave[16].
flooding method. A recharge method byflooding a recharge area[16].
76
floodmarks. The marks left on fixedobjects by flood waters[16].
flood plain. The surface or strip ofrelatively smooth land adjacent to a riverchannel, constructed by the present riverand covered with water when the riveroverflows its banks. It is built ofalluvium carried by the river duringfloods and deposited in the sluggish waterbeyond the influence of the swiftestcurrent[6].
flood profile. A continuous linerepresenting the water surface for a givenrate of flow[16].
flood water. Water that has overflowed itsconfines; the water of a flood[1].
flood-water zone. See epiphreas.
flood wave. A rise in the stage of a streamthat culminates in a crest beforereceding[1].
floor pocket. See pocket.
flow, base. See base flow.
flow, creep. Flow with a creeping motionwhere inertial terms have beendropped[16].
flow, critical. See critical flow.
flow duration curve. A curve ofcumulative streamflow versus thecorresponding per cent of time[16].
flow gage. A gage used to measure flowrate[16]. See also gage.
flow-mass curve. 1. A mass curve withrunoff discharge as a hydrologicquantity[16]. 2. The integral of the curveof a hydrograph[16].
flow line. The general path that a particle ofwater follows under laminar flowconditions[22]. Flow lines are usuallydrawn perpendicular to equipotentiallines. See also equipotential lines.
flow net. 1. A graphical representation offlow lines and equipotential lines fortwo-dimensional, steady-stateground-water flow[22]. 2. A net oforthogonal streamlines and equipotentiallines applied in the graphical solution ofLaplace’s equation[16].
flow path. The subsurface course a watermolecule or solute would follow in agiven ground-water velocity field.
flow rate. Volumetric rate of flow[16].
flow, steady. A characteristic of a flowsystem where the magnitude and directionof specific discharge are constant in timeat any point[22]. See also flow, unsteady.
flow, uniform. A characteristic of a flowsystem where specific discharge has thesame magnitude and direction at anypoint[22].
flow, unsteady. A characteristic of a flowsystem where the magnitude and/ordirection of the specific dischargechanges with time. Synonymous withnonsteady flow. See also flow, steady.
flow velocity. See specific discharge.
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flower. A cave flower is a group of crystals,commonly of gypsum or mirabilite, thatgrow by accretion at their bases on a cavewall. As the crystals grow, curve andsplay, their form mimics that of aflower[9].
flowing artesian well. A well with itspotentiometric surface above the groundsurface[16].
flowmeter. An instrument for measuringvolumetric flowrate[16].
flowstone. Deposits of calcium carbonate,gypsum, and other mineral matter whichhave accumulated on the walls or floorsof caves at places where water trickles orflows over the rock[10]. Layered depositsof calcium carbonate precipitated onrocks from water trickling over them[20]. (French.) coulée stalagmitique;(German.) Sinterfall, Sinter; (Greek.)asvestolithikon epiphlioma; (Italian.)colata stalagmitica, deposito,concrezione, stalagmite; (Russian.)nateki; (Spanish.) colada estalagmítica;(Turkish.) akmataÕ2; (Yugoslavian.)kaskade. See also dripstone.
fluid potential. The mechanical energy perunit mass of a fluid at any given point inspace and time with regard to an arbitrarystate and datum[22].
fluorapatite. A cave mineral —Ca5(PO4)3F[11].
fluorite. A cave mineral — CaF2[11].
flume. A channel supported on or aboveground[16].
fluorescein. A reddish-yellow crystallinecompound that imparts a brilliant greenfluorescent color to water in very dilutesolutions; used to label undergroundwater for identification of anemergence[10]. Also commonly known asuranine. Dye type: Xanthene.
fluorescent dyes. Material used inenvironmental tracing studies that may bedetected and measured in smallconcentrations (.10–12 mg/L), areinexpensive, relatively nontoxic, and arerelatively miscible with the water beingtraced.
fluorometer, filter fluorometer. A highlysensitive instrument used for measuringthe fluorescence of water. It is commonlyused in water tracing and tracer gaging. Selected filters are used to control theexcitation and emission ranges forspecific fluorescent dyes of interest. Seealso scanning spectrofluorophotometer.
flushed zone. In geophysical well logging,the zone around the well bore completelyinvaded by the mud filtrate[16].
flute. See scallop.
fluviokarst. 1. A karst landscape where thedominant landforms are valleys cut bysurface rivers. Such original surface flowmay relate either to low initialpermeability before caves (and henceunderground drains) had developed, or toreduced permeability due to groundfreezing in a periglacial environment. Inboth cases the valleys become dry as karstdevelopment improves undergrounddrainage[9]. 2. Mixed terranescharacterized by both shallow karst and
78
erosional landscape[20]. 3. Apredominantly karst landscape in whichthere is much evidence of past or presentfluvial activity[10]. Synonyms: (French.)fluviokarst; (German.) Fluviokarst;(Greek.) fluviokarst; (Italian.)fluviocarsimo; (Spanish.) fluviokarst;(Turkish.) akarsu karst2; (Yugoslavian.)fluviokrš, fluviokras, fluviokarst.
flux. See specific discharge.
foaming agent. See surfactant.
foiba. (Italian.) 1. A deep wide verticalcavity or the swallow point of a river atthe beginning of its underground course. 2. A natural vertical shaft in soluble rock,tending toward cylindrical shape; it mayor may not reach the surface. A domepit[10].
fold. A bend in a geologic stratum with twoflanks, often in anticlinal and synclinalsequence.
food chain. A series of plants and animalslinked by their food relationships; thepassage of energy and materials fromproducer through a succession ofconsumers. Green plants, plant- eatinginsects, and an insect-eating bat wouldform a simple food chain[23]. See alsofood web.
food pyramid. The normally diminishingnumber of individuals and amount oforganic material produced at eachsuccessive level along a food chain. Thedeclining productivity at each levelresults from the constant loss of energy inmetabolism as the energy passes along thechain[23]. See also trophic level.
food web. An interlocking system of foodchains. Since few animals rely on asingle food source and since no foodsource is consumed exclusively by asingle species of animal, the separate foodchains in any natural community interlockand form a web[23].
forestry compass. A lightweight, compactinstrument to be mounted on a tripod,which functions as a compass and aclinometer, and has a telescopic sight.Some types facilitate measurement ofhorizontal angles as well as bearings[25].
formation. The fundamental unit inrock-stratigraphic classification,consisting of a distinctive mappable bodyof rock[10]. See also cave formation;speleothem.
formation temperature. The prevailingtemperature in a given subsurfaceformation[16].
formation stabilizer. A sand or gravelplaced in the annulus of the well betweenthe borehole wall and the well screen toprovide temporary or long-term supportfor the borehole[6].
form factor. A factor indicating the shapeand form of mineral aggregatesinfluencing their hydrodynamicproperties[16].
fossil. Any remains or traces of animals orplants that lived in the prehistoric past,whether bone, cast, track, imprint, pollen,or any other evidence of theirexistence[23].
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fossil cave. A fossil cave is an undergroundcavity that formed when a carbonatesuccession was undegoing karstificationbut subsequently buried. Most fossilcaves have been infilled by youngersediments. See neptunian deposits,palaeokarst, and relict cave.
fossil karst. See paleokarst.
fossile karst. (French.) See buried karst.
fouling. The process in which undesirableforeign matter accumulates in a bed offilter media or ion exchanger, cloggingpores and coating surfaces and thusinhibiting or retarding the properoperation of the bed[6].
fountain. A free-flowing well or spring[16]. See also artesian well; spring, artesian.
fracture. 1. A break or secondarydiscontinuity in the rock mass, whether ornot there has been relative movementacross it. Faults, thrusts, and joints are allfractures, but bedding planes, which areprimary features, are not. In a morestrictly hydrogeological context the termhas been used to classify voids in the sizerange 0.1 to 10mm[9]. 2. Breakage of rockstrata[16]. 3. The general term for anymechanical discontinuity in the rock; it is,therefore, the collective term for joints,faults, cracks, etc. See also conduit;fissure.
fracture pattern. The spacial arrangementof a group of fracture surfaces.
fracture spring. See spring, fracture.
fracturing. A formation of breaks in a rockdue to folding or faulting[16].
francoanellite. A cave mineral —H6K3Al5(PO4)8"13H2O[11].
free pitch. Where a rope or ladder hangsvertically and free of the walls[25].
free-surface stream. In a cave, a streamthat does not completely fill itspassage[10].
free water. See gravitational water.
free-water elevation. See water table.
freezing point. The point at which a liquidsolidifies[16].
fresco. A half-section of a stalactite on thewall of a cave.
fresh water. Water that contains less than1,000 milligrams per liter (mg/L) ofdissolved solids; generally more than 500mg/L is undesirable for drinking andmany industrial uses[22].
freshwater lens. 1. Body of fresh groundwater found typically beneath permeablelimestone islands or peninsular landmasses in the tropics. The lens-shapedwater body is bounded above by a watertable and below by a mixing zonebetween fresh and saline ground wateralong the halocline. In the center of thelens freshwater extends below sea-level,and another set of springs exists wheredissolutional conduits associated with thelower limit of the lens intersect the rocksurface below sea-level[9]. 2. A lenticular
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form of a freshwater body under oceaniccoasts[16].
friction head. Head loss due to energydissipation by friction[16].
friend. A mechanical camming device usedfor anchors[25].
Froude number. A dimensionlessnumerical quantity used as an index tocharacterize the type of flow in ahydraulic structure that has the force ofgravity (as the only force producingmotion) in conjunction with the resistingforce of inertia. It is the ratio of inertiaforces to gravity forces, and is equal tothe square of a characteristic velocity(mean, surface, or maximum velocity) ofthe system divided by the product of acharacteristic linear dimension (e.g.diameter or depth) and the gravityconstant, acceleration due to gravity, allof which are expressed in consistent unitsin order that the combinations will bedimensionless. The number is used inopen-channel flow studies or where thefree surface plays an essential role ininfluencing motion[1] such as in karstconduits that are not necessarily flowingat pipe-full conditions. See also Chézyequation; Manning equation; Reynoldsnumber.
fullflow spring. See spring, fullflow.
fungling; fungling karst. (Chinese.)Isolated limestone hill in alluvial plain,probably similar to mogote[10]. See alsofencong; fenglin; mogote; tower karst.
funicular regime. The distribution ofcontinuous liquid phase along pore wallswith gaseous phase at the pore center[16].
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G
gage well. A stilling well in which stagemeasurements are performed[16].
gage station. The point at which stagemeasurements are performed[16].
gaining stream. A stream or reach of astream whose flow is being increased byinflow of ground water[22].
galena. A cave mineral — PbS[11].
gallery. A rather large, nearly horizontalpassage in a cave[10].
galvanometer. A sensitive current meter[16].
gardening. Clearing stones or other loosematerial from a route, usually a pitch,which might otherwise be dangerous to acaver continuing[25].
gas-expansion method. The measurementof porosity based on the Boyle-Mariotte’sgas laws[16].
geo. See blowhole.
geode. Hollow globular bodies varying insize from a few centimeters to severaldecimeters, coated on the interior withcrystals[10].
geochemistry. The science of thequalitative and quantitative identificationof the elements and their distribution inthe earth[16].
geodesy. The science of measuring thegeometrical properties of the earth[16].
geohydrologic system. The geohydrologicunits within a geologic setting, includingany recharge, discharge, interconnectionsbetween units, and any natural onman-induced processes or events thatcould affect ground-water flow within oramong those units[22]. See also ground-water system.
geohydrologic unit. An aquifer, aconfining unit or a combination ofaquifers and confining units comprising aframework for a reasonably distinctgeohydrologic system[22].
geohydrology. The branch of hydrologyrelating to the quantitative treatment ofground-water occurrence and flow[16].
geological column. A vertical cross sectionthrough a sequence of formations[16].
geological map. A map on which isrecorded geologic information, such asthe distribution, nature, and agerelationships of rock units (surficialdeposits may or may not be mappedseparately), and the occurrence ofstructural features (folds, faults, joints),mineral deposits, and fossil localities. Itmay indicate geologic structure by meansof formational outcrop patterns, byconventional symbols giving the directionand amount of dip at certain points, or bystructure-contour lines[1].
geological organ. A cylindrical or funnel-shaped cavity in relatively solublebedrock which typically has a verticalorientation and is partly or wholly filledwith material similar to the overlyingsediment cover. They are produced bysolution of bedrock and concomitant
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subsidence of its sedimentary cover. Most have a diameter of 25 cm to 7 mand a depth of 2 to 30 m, but some maybe much larger. A depth/diameter ratio of5 to 20 may be considered representative. In actuality, geological organs are a typeof subsidence doline that develops undera cover of younger rock or sediment[17]. Synonyms: (French.) Orgue géologigue,poche de dissolution, puits naturel;(Belgian.) abannet, cavité de dissolution;(German.) geologische Orgel, Orgel,unterirdische Doline, Verwitterungssacke,naturlicher Schacht, Erdorgel, Erdpfeife,Riesentoph, Bodenkarren, (British.) sandpipe, sand-gall, gravel-pipe, pipe, pocketdeposit, gull; (Italian.) organo geologico;(Roumanian.) orgile geologice; (Czech.)geologické varhany; (Polish.) organygeologiczne; (Russian.) organ truba,kamin; (Serbo-Croatian.) geološkeorgulje; (Slavic) geološke orglje, zapolvjejaški; (Dutch.) geologische orgelpijp,aardpijp.
geological section. A vertical sectionthrough a sequence of rock masses orstrata[16].
geologic control. The influence of geologicfactors on hydrogeologic features[16].
geologic correlation. The correlation ofgeologic formations as shown in geologiclogs over a given area[16].
geologic hazard. A naturally occurring orman-made geologic condition orphenomenon that presents a risk or is apotential danger to life and property. Examples include landsliding, flooding,earthquakes, ground subsidence, coastaland beach erosion, faulting, dam leakage
and failure, mining disasters, pollutionand waste disposal, and seawaterintrusion[1].
geologic log. A vertical cross section of thelithologic column indicating geologic andpetrographic data[16].
geologic similarity. A model-prototypelength ratio[16].
geology. The study of the planet Earth—thematerials of which it is made, theprocesses that act on these materials, theproducts formed, and the history of theplanet and its life forms since its origin. Geology considers the physical forces thatact on the Earth, the chemistry of itsconstituent materials, and the biology ofits past inhabitants as revealed by fossils. Clues on the origin of the planet aresought in a study of the Moon and otherextraterrestrial bodies. The knowledgethus obtained is placed in the service ofman—to aid in discovery of minerals andfuels of value in the Earth’s crust, toidentify geologically stable sites for majorstructures, and to provide foreknowledgeof some of the dangers associated withthe mobile forces of a dynamic Earth[1].
geomorphic process. The processresponsible for the formation andalteration of the earth’s surface[16].
geomorphology. The science of the originand evolution of land forms[16].
gestation. The gestation phase ofspeleogenesis follows the inceptionphase, and the two in combination areessentially equivalent to the morecommonly used term ‘initiation’. The
83
transition from inception to gestation maycorrespond to the establishment ofgravitational laminar flow conditions, andgestation is complete when turbulent flowis achieved[9].
Ghyben-Herzberg conditions. Equilibriumcondition at the interface of immisciblefreshwater bodies and saltwater bodies incoastal aquifers[16].
gibbs. An ascender with its cam operatedby the weight of the caver[25].
glacial deposit. Sedimentary deposits dueto transport by glaciers[16].
glacial drift. Sediment material contained,transported, and deposited by glaciers[16].
glacial groove. A groove cut into bedrockby rock fragments at the bottom of amoving glacier[16].
glacial till. An unassorted mixture ofglacial drift[16]. Synonym: boulder clay;till.
glaciation. A covering of the land surfaceby glacier ice[16].
glacier. An extensive body of ice coveringthe land surface[16].
glacier cave. 1. A cave carved out of the iceinside a glacier, not to be confused withan ice cave. Passages are formed bymeltwater descending from the glaciersurface via crevasses, or by melting onthe glacier base. Through caves mayconnect sinkholes (sometimes calledmoulins) to glacier snout resurgences, butdue to ice movement most glacier caves
are ephemeral. The most extensivelyexplored glacier caves were the ParadiseCaves on Mount Rainier, USA, whosepassages extended for many kilometers,before the glacier wasted away and thecaves were destroyed[9]. 2. Cave in iceformed within or at the base of aglacier[10].
glaciofluvial. Pertaining to the meltwaterstreams flowing from wasting glacier iceand especially to the deposits andlandforms produced by such streams[6].
glaciokarst. 1. A karst landscape that wasglaciated during the cold periods of thePleistocene and displays major landformsof relict glacial origin. Bare rock scars,locally with glacial striations, andlimestone pavements are characteristic,due to the lack of rapid soil formation onthe limestones since glacial stripping. Dolines within a glaciokarst are mostlysmall and immature, as are caves, exceptwhere pre-glacial passages areintercepted. Glaciokarst is almostsynonymous with alpine karst, and someof the finest is developed on the highplateaus of the Calcareous Alps, south ofSalzburg, Austria[9]. 2. A glaciatedlimestone region possessing both glacialand karst characteristics[10]. (French.)karst glaciaire; (German.) Gebiet mitkarst und Glazial-Formen; (Greek.)pagheto-karst; (Spanish.) glaciokarst;(Turkish.) buzul karst2; (Yugoslavian.)glaciokrs#, glaciokras, glaciokarst. Seealso alpine karst; nival karst.
glade. 1. (Jamaican.) An elongatedepression, having steep sides, in which agenerally flat floor is divided into smallbasins separated by low divides. 2.
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(Tennessee.) Limestone pavement havingextensive growth of cedar trees[10]. See alsouvala.
globularite. Small crystals of calcite tippedwith spheres composed of radiatingfibers[10].
gloop. Synonym for blow hole. Alsospelled gloup.
goethite. A cave mineral — FeO(OH)[11].
goly0000 karst. (Russian.) See naked karst.
gooseneck. The part of a winding valleyresembling in plan the curved neck of agoose. Normally found as part of anentrenched meander[1].
gorge. A narrow passage or canyon in amountain system[16]. See also canyon.
gour. Flowstone deposit, normally ofcalcite, built up along the edge of a pooldue to precipitation from a thin film ofoverflow water. Once initiated, bycalcite-saturated water overflowing fromfloor hollows, development is self-enhancing, and the gours can grow intolarge dams many meters high and wide. Inside the gour pool, more calcite may beprecipitated as crystals or pearls. Largeflights of gours occur in many caves, withspectacular and well known examplesaround the Hall of Thirteen in the GouffreBerger, France. Large travertine, gourscan form in the open air, as at Band-i-Amir, Afghanistan[9]. See also rimstonebarrage; rimstone barrier; rimstone dam.
graben. A depression formed by a faultblock moving downward on the twobounding faults[16].
gradation. The leveling of a surface to acommon level[16].
grade. 1. Inclination or slope[16]. 2. Theclass of a cave survey on the basis of theprecision of the instruments and theaccuracy of the methods[25].
graded. An engineering term pertaining to asoil or an unconsolidated sedimentconsisting of particles of several or manysizes or having a uniform or equabledistribution of particles from coarse tofine[6].
gradient. The change in hydraulic headover some given distance (dh/dL) withground-water flow usually occurring inthe direction of decreasing hydraulic headwhich requires by convention, theattaching of a minus sign to any equationutilizing a gradient for flow. Themaximum value of the directionalderivative[16].
grain packing. The spatial arrangement ofgrains forming porous medium[16].
grain per gallon (gpg.) A common basis forreporting water analyses in the water-treatment industry in the United Statesand Canada. One grain per U.S. gallonequals 17.12 milligrams per liter[6].
grain shape. The geometrical aspect ofgrains[16].
granular. Of structure clearly showinggrain shape[16].
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granule. Small rounded grain or rockfragment[16].
grape formation. See botryoid.
gravel. Waterworn rounded rock grains andfragments[16].
gravimetric moisture content. The ratio ofwater weight to the weight of solidparticles[16].
gravitational head. The component of totalhydraulic head related to the position of agiven mass of water relative to anarbitrary datum[22].
gravitational water. Water which movesinto, through, or out of the soil or rockmass under the influence of gravity[22].
gravity component. The component actingin the direction of gravitation[16].
gravity drainage. The flow of watertowards a well under its own weight[16].
gravity spring. See spring, gravity.
grid north. The direction of a north-southgrid line on a map. Except for thenorth-south grid line through the point oforigin of the grid, it will differ slightlyfrom true north[25].
grike. (British.) 1. A solutionally enlargedvertical or steeply inclined joint in thesurface of a karstland, extending for up toa few meters into the limestone[10]. 2. Avertical or sub-vertical cleft in alimestone pavement developed bysolution along a joint or system ofcrisscrossing joints[20]. Grikes separate
clints from one another. Synonyms:(British.) gryke; (French.) lapiaz;(German.) Kluftkarren. See also clint;bogaz; limestone pavement.
grotto. 1. Hole in small cave or cavernwhich has eroded in the wall of a maincave. 2. Widely open and shallow cavewithin a vaulted roof. 3. A cave orchamber preceded by a narrowerpassage[20]. 4. A small cave, natural orartificial. 5. A room, in a cave system, ofmoderate dimensions but richlydecorated[10]. A grotto is often intricatelydecorated, and may occur above, at, orbelow sea-level[20]. Synonyms: (French.)grotte, baume, balme; (German.) Höhle,Grotte; (Greek.) speleon; (Italian.) grotta;(Russian.) grot; (Spanish.) gruta;(Turkish.) ma™arauk; (Yugoslavian.) nis#a.
ground air. See soil air.
ground slope. The inclination of the landsurface with the horizontal[16].
ground water, phreatic water. 1. The partof the subsurface water that is in thephreatic zone[10]. Its lower limits are thezone of rock flowage or the lowest fullyconfining bed; its upper limits are theuppermost fully confining bed or thewater table[16]. 2. Used loosely andincorrectly by some to refer to any waterbeneath the surface. See also phreas;phreatic water; phreatic zone.
ground-water artery. A tubular body ofpermeable water-filled materialsurrounded by confining beds[16].
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ground-water barrier. Rock or artificialmaterial which has a relatively lowpermeability and which occurs below theland surface where it impedes themovement of ground water andconsequently causes a pronounceddifference in the potentiometric surfaceon opposite sides of it[22].
ground-water basin. 1. A general termused to define a ground-water flowsystem that has defined boundaries andmay include permeable materials that arecapable of storing or furnishing asignificant water supply; the basinincludes both the surface area and thepermeable materials beneath it[22]. 2. Thearea throughout which ground waterdrains towards the same point; it can belarger than the accompanying surfacewater drainage basin if permeable layersextend outside of the topographicdivide[16]. See also drainage basin.
ground-water cascade. The flow of groundwater over a subsurface barrier[16].
ground-water cement. A cementingmaterial precipitating at the watertable[16].
ground water, confined. Ground waterunder pressure significantly greater thanatmospheric and whose upper limit is thebottom of a confining unit[22]. See alsoconfined; confining unit; confinedaquifer.
ground-water dam. A geological stratumserving as a subsurface dam[16].
ground-water discharge. 1. Flow of waterfrom the zone of saturation[22]. 2. The
water released from the zone ofsaturation[22].
ground-water divide. 1. A ridge in thewater table or other potentiometricsurface from which ground water movesaway in both directions normal to theridge line[22]. 2. A dividing line betweentwo ground-water basins. 3. In wellhydraulics, the streamline with no flowrepresenting the boundary of the aquiferregion contributing to well discharge[16]. See also divide. Synonyms: divide;water-table divide.
ground-water flow. The movement ofwater in the zone of saturation[22].
ground-water flux. The rate ofground-water flow per unit area of porousor fractured media measuredperpendicular to the direction of flow[22]. See also specific discharge.
ground-water inventory. The completequantitative accounting for all volumes ofground water[16].
ground-water mound. A raised area in awater table or other potentiometricsurface created by ground-waterrecharge[22].
ground water, perched. Unconfinedground water separated from anunderlying body of ground water by anunsaturated zone. Its water table is aperched water table. Perched groundwater is held up by a perching bed whosepermeability is so low that waterpercolating downward through it is notable to bring water in the underlying
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unsaturated zone above atmosphericpressure[22]. See also perched ground water.
ground-water pumping. 1. Directed oroscillatory ground-water movement,along incipient fissures in the rock, thatoccurs due to very small but significantrelative movements of the rocksthemselves, maybe as a diurnal, tidalprocess. It may be one of the drivingmechanisms of earliest, inception, phaseof speleogenesis[9]. The pumping of awater well to provide water for drinking,irrigation, and manufacturing. but mayalso be conducted for dewateringpurposes.
ground-water recharge. The process ofwater addition to the saturated zone or thevolume of water added by this process[22].
ground-water reservoir. A reservoir in thevoid space beneath the water table[16].
ground-water system. A ground-waterreservoir and its contained water. Also,the collective hydrodynamical andgeochemical processes at work in thereservoir[22].
ground-water table. The surface betweenthe zone of saturation and the zone ofaeration. Also, the surface of anunconfined aquifer[6]. Synonym: watertable.
ground-water travel time. 1. Thetime-required for ground water to travelbetween two locations[22]. 2. The timerequired for a unit volume of groundwater to travel between two locations. The travel time is the length of the flowpath divided by the velocity, where
velocity is the average ground-water fluxpassing through the cross-sectional areaof the geologic medium through whichflow occurs, perpendicular to the flowdirection, divided by the effectiveporosity along the flow path. If discretesegments of the flow path have differenthydrologic properties, the total travel timewill be the sum of the travel times foreach discrete segment[22].
ground water, unconfined. Water in anaquifer that has a water table. Synonymous with phreatic groundwater[22].
grout. A fluid mixture of cement and water(neat cement) of a consistency that can beforced through a pipe and placed whererequired. Various additives, such as sand,bentonite, and hydrated lime may beincluded in the mixture to meet certainrequirements. Bentonite and water aresometimes used for grout[6].
grout curtain. The filling of void spaces inrocks to prevent the flow of water intoand through the rock; most commonlyassociated with dams.
grouting. The operation by which grout isplaced between the casing and the sides ofa well bore to a predetermined heightabove the bottom of the well. Thissecures the casing in place and excludeswater and other fluids from the wellbore[6].
grünkarst. See subsoil karst.
gryke. See grike.
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guano. An accumulated deposit of animalexcrement. In caves it is most commonlyassociated with bat colonies, but cavedwelling birds such as swifts may alsocontribute. Guano is only abundant intropical regions and may be dry andpowdery, or a foul, wet, sludge — as inthe Niah Caves of Sarawak. It is a vitalfood source for many troglobites. Consisting mainly of phosphates andnitrate it is valued as a fertilizer or aningredient of explosives and hascommonly been mined. Over 100,000tons of bat guano have been extractedfrom Carlsbad Caverns, USA[9]. See alsocave guano.
guano cave. A cave containing largeamounts of guano[13]. See also caveguano.
guanobia. An animal association feedingon guano. Not considered truecavernicoles as guano is not confined tocaves.
gulf. Steep-walled closed depression havinga flat alluviated bottom; in some gulfs astream flows across the bottom[10].
gull. A widened fissure formed by landslipping along valley sides, generallywhere massive beds such as limestoneoverlie weaker rocks[9]. See also tectoniccave; windypit.
gully. A deep erosional channel[16].
gushing spring. See spring, vauclusian.
gypsum. 1. White or colorless mineral orrock composed of the hydrated calciumsulfate, CaSO4.2H2O. Gypsum rock is an
evaporite precipitated from sea water andis therefore soluble in water and maycontain dissolutional caves. Mineralgypsum is formed in some caves byreactions between the host limestone andsulfates (including sulphuric acid) derivedfrom oxidized sulfide minerals (seepyrite). Gypsum, also referred to asselenite, commonly occurs as transparentcrystals, blades, needles or fibres in caveclay deposits. A more spectacular form isas fibrous or curved crystals that maydevelop into cave flowers on cave wallsand ceilings, as for example in parts ofthe Flint Mammoth Cave System, USA,or grow into large, hanging chandeliers,as in Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico[9]. 2.A mineral composed of hydrous calciumsulfate[10], CaSO4"2H20.
gypsum cave. Both vadose and phreaticcaves can form in gypsum, which is verysoluble in water, but they are uncommonbecause gypsum rock rarely survives totaldissolution in the near-surfaceenvironments associated with explorablecaves. Gypsum caves certainly exist atdepth within buried evaporate sequences. In areas of wet climate gypsum caves aregenerally seen only if encountered byman-made excavations. In contrast,gypsum caves are more common andmore extensive in areas that haveexperienced a long period of dominantlyarid climate. The most spectaculargypsum caves are in the Podolie region ofthe Ukraine, where joint guided maze-cave systems are very extensive —Optimisticeskaja has around 180km ofpasssage[9].
gypsum flower. See cave flower.
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gypsum karst. A karst landscape developedon, or perhaps above, gypsum or similarevaporite rock sequences. Dissolution ofgypsum by ground water in buried,interstratal, situations is common and theeffects of such dissolution may beexpressed at the land surface in the formof subsidence depressions. There areextensive areas of gypsum karst in NorthAmerica and the Ukraine but Britishexamples are limited to rare caves,exposed by quarrying, and subsidencedepressions above dissolved gypsumbeds, such as those around Ripon,Yorkshire[9].
90
H
habitat. The immediate surroundings(living place) of a plant or animal;everything necessary to life in a particularlocation except the organism itself[23].
hade. The angle of inclination of a fault (orjoint) plane measured relative to thevertical[9]. See also dip.
Halbhöhle. (German.) See rock shelter.
Halbkugelkarst. (German.) Tropical karsttopography containing dome-shapedresidual hills surrounding depressions, akind of Kegelkarst. Also calledKugelkarst[10].
half-exposed karren. These are patches ofsoil on otherwise bare limestone thatattack the rock by means of biogenicCO2
[3].
half-blind valley. Blind valley in which thestream overflows in floodtime when theswallow hole can not accept all thewater[10].
half tube; half-tube. 1. An invertedchannel with semi-circular cross sectionseen in cave-passage ceilings, mostclearly where the ceiling is an unerodedbedding surface. The half tube originatesas part of a phreatic tube guided by thebedding plane, and the lower half issubsequently removed by vadoseenlargement. The presence of half tubesprovides important evidence of earlyphreatic-cave development[9]. 2. Trace of
a tube remaining in the roof or wall of acave[10]. See also tube.
Hagen-Poiseuille equation. The equationused to define the laminar flow of waterin either fractures or tubes and is given as
for laminar flow in fractures
and
for laminar flow in tubes
which states that the average volumetricdischarge of flow through either type ofopening is directly proportional to thetype, shape, and dimensions of aparticular pore and the hydraulicgradient[5]. Note: Q=discharge, w=widthof the fissure, b=open portion of the longdimension of the fissure, r=radius of thetube, ( and µ are the specific weight anddynamic viscosity of water respectively,dh/dL=gradient, and a minus sign isattached to the equations to indicate thatflow occurs in the direction of deceasinghydraulic head.
halite. The mineral form of sodium chloride(NaC1), or rock salt. Halite occurs,sometimes to considerable thicknesses, inmany buried-rock successions, fromwhich it has been extracted both bymining and by redissolving it in waterpumped from and back to the surface. The existence of brine springs indicatesthat natural water movement occurs
91
through buried halite sequences,presumably through voids that could bethought of as caves. Although distinctivehalite (or salt) karst features are known insome arid areas, a range of featuresanalogous to those found on karstic rockssuch as limestone are unlikely to form,and less likely to be preserved, due tohalite’s relative weakness and very highsolubility. In Britain expressions of saltkarstification are limited to relativelysubdued surface features. The “flashes”of the Cheshire area, are hollows,sometimes transformed into water-filledmeres, formed by subsidence of overlyingrocks and superficial deposits where salthas been dissolved from buried halitebeds of Triassic age[9].
hall. In a cave, a lofty chamber which ismuch longer than it is wide[10]. See alsogallery.
halocline. A locally steep salinity gradientalong the interface between fresh ground-water and saline ground-water, such as isfound at the base of the freshwater lenscommon beneath many limestone islandsin the tropics. Water mixing andmicrobial activity are importantinfluences on dissolution along thehalocline, as shown for instance in blueholes[9].
halomorphic soil. Saline and alkali soils.
hanging blade. A blade projecting downfrom the ceiling[10]. See also blade.
hannayite. A cave mineral —(NH4)2Mg3H4(PO4)4"8H2O[11].
hardening. The process of induration[16].
hardness. 1. Property of water that preventslathering because of the presence ofcations, mainly calcium and magnesium,which form insoluble soaps[10]. 2. Thesum of calcium and magnesium ionsexpressed as the equivalent amount ofcalcium carbonate (CaCO3)[16]. 3. Theproperty to form insoluble salts of fattyacid (soap)[16].
hardpan. This develops when there aresecondary calcium carbonatecementations in the lower part of the soilprofile[16]. Synonym: mortar bed. Seealso caliche; havara; nari.
harness. An arrangement of tape forattaching the lower body (seat harness) orthe upper (chest harness) to ascenders ordescenders[25].
havara. Name given in Cyprus to a softporous carbonate formation, up to severalmeters thick, found capping manyformations and containing fragments andminerals derived from older rocks; it isprobably a type of hardpan or caliche[20]. See also caliche; kafkalla.
haystack hill. (Puerto Rican.) In thetropics, rounded conical hill of limestonedeveloped as a result of solution. Termreplaced by mogote[10]. Synonyms:(French.) mogote; (German.) Mogote;(Italian.) mogote, rilievo carsico residuo;(Spanish.) mogote; (Turkish.) konikkireçtaÕ2 tepesi; (Yugoslavian.) hum. Seealso mogote.
head. The energy contained in a watermass, produced by elevation, pressure, orvelocity[6].
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head loss. That part of head energy which islost because of friction as water flows[6].
head, static. The height above a standarddatum of the surface of a column of water(or other liquid) that can be supported bythe static pressure at a given point. Thestatic head is the sum of the elevationhead and the pressure head[22].
head, total. The total head of a liquid at agiven point is the sum of threecomponents: (a) the elevation head,which is equal to the elevation of thepoint above a datum, (b) the pressurehead, which is the height of a column ofstatic water that can be supported by thestatic pressure at the point, and (c) thevelocity head, which is the height towhich the kinetic energy of the liquid iscapable of lifting the liquid[22].
head water. The upper reach of a stream[16].
heat of condensation. The heat released intransforming a substance from its vaporto its liquid state[16].
heat of vaporization. The heat necessary tochange water from the liquid to thegaseous state[16].
heel-print karren. See Trittkarren.
helictite. 1. Generally small variety ofstalactitic calcite growth that is twistedand contorted with no apparent regard forgravity. Helictites form on cave walls,ceilings, and on stalactites. The growthdevelops as seepage water loses carbondioxide from near its tip, having beensupplied to that point by capillary actionthrough a fine central canal. The helictite
shape is created by crystal latticedistortion and crystal form changes withinthe calcite, but what causes these isuncertain. Impurities may plan a role, andrare groups of parallel growing helictitesmay be wind-guided[9]. 2. Irregular, twig-like, crystalline growths with varyingorientations but often in crystalcontinuity, formed in caves byprecipitation from bicarbonatesolutions[20]. 3. A curved or angulartwiglike lateral projection of calciumcarbonate having a tiny central canal,found in caves[10]. Also known aseccentric anemolite[20]; eccentricstalactite. Synonyms: (French.)excentrique; (German.) exzentrischgekrümmter, Tropfstein, Excentriques;(Greek.) stalaktits akanonistos; (Italian.)stalattiti anomale, eccentiche; (Spanish.)estalactita excentrica; (Turkish.)düzensiz sark2t; (Yugoslavian.) heliktit. Related to curtain, dripstone, speleothem.
heligmite. An eccentric growing upwardfrom a cave floor or from a shelf in acave. A curved or angular thin stalag-mite[10].
helmet. A miner's, climber's or other kindof non-metallic, protective helmet used incaving.
hematite. A cave mineral — Fe2O3[11].
hemimorphite. A cave mineral —Zn4Si2O7(OH)2"H2O[11].
herbivore. An animal that eats plants, thusmaking the energy stored in plantsavailable to carnivores[23]. See alsocarnivore; insectivore; omnivore.
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heterogeneity. A characteristic of amedium in which material properties varyfrom point to point[22].
heterogeneous. The unequal spacialdistribution of aquifer properties[16].
hexahydrite. A cave mineral —MgSO4"6H2O[11].
hibbenite. A cave mineral —Zn7(PO4)4(OH)2"7H2O[11].
hibernation. A prolonged dormancy orsleeplike state in which animal bodyprocesses such as heartbeat and breathingslow down drastically and the animalneither eats nor drinks. Nearly allcold-blooded animals and a fewwarm-blooded animals hibernate duringthe winter in cold climates. Extremelylarge aggregations of bats, crickets, andspiders hibernate in some caves[23].
histo, histoplasmosis. The disease causedby the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum,found in bird and bat guano, especially inthe southern USA and the tropics. Anoccupational disease of cavers, aviary andpoultry workers, guano miners, andmaintenance workers. Infection is usuallycaused by breathing the microscopicspores, which infect the lungs, orsometimes the eye. Flu-like symptomsaccompanied by low-grade fever,breathing difficulties and pain, andmiasma may start about 14 days afterexposure and continue for weeks, months,or rarely until death, usually fromcomplications. Treatable with variousanti-fungals, such as itroconazole. Oftenmisdiagnosed, as the standard tests maygive a false negative[23].
hod. See aisle.
holokarst. 1. Karst area with little or nosurface runoff or streams; it is underlainby thick carbonate rocks and ischaracterized by well developed karstsurface topography from karren to poljes,extensive subsurface karst features likecaves, caverns, galleries, chimneys, etc[20]. 2. Cvijiƒ’s term for a karst area like thatof the Dinaric Karst of Slovenia. Suchareas have bare surfaces on thick depositsof limestone that extend below sea level,well developed karren, dolines, uvalas,poljes, deep ponors, and extensive cavesystems; they have little or no surfacedrainage[10]. Synonyms: (French.)holokarst; (German.) Holokarst; (Greek.)holokarst; (Italian.) olocarsismo,carsismo, maturo; (Spanish.) holokarst;(Turkish.) tam karst; (Yugoslavian.)potpuni krs# (kras), holokarst. Contrastcausse, merokarst.
homogeneity. A characteristic of a mediumin which material properties are identicaleverywhere[22].
homogeneous. The even spacialdistribution of aquifer properties[16].
homogeneous fluid. A fluid that occurs in asingle phase[16].
hook gage. A gage for the precise positionmeasurement of liquid levels[16].
hopeite. A cave mineral —Zn3(PO4)2"4H2O[11].
horizontal angle. The difference indirection of two survey lines measuredclockwise in a horizontal plane[25].
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horst. A block having been uplifted alongits boundary faults[16].
Horton number. Expresses the relativeintensity of erosion process in a drainagebasin[16].
hot-seat rappel. A method of rappelling ina cave with the rope running under oneleg, up across the opposite shoulder andcontrolled with a hand. The friction ofthe rope on the body creates a lot of heat,hence its name[13].
hoya, hoyo. (Spanish.) A very large closeddepression. Used in Puerto Rico fordoline, in Cuba for polje[10].
hum. 1. Karst inselberg. Residual hill oflimestone on a fairly level floor, such asthe isolated hills of limestone in poljes. In some tropical areas, used loosely assynonym for mogote[10]. 2. Yugoslavianterm for an isolated residual hill on thebottom of a polje[20]. Synonyms:(French.) butte témoin; (German.)(Karstinselberg), Hum; (Greek.) karstikimartyree lophi; (Italian.) testimonicarsici; (Russian.) karstovij ostanec;(Spanish.) hum; (Turkish.) karstadatepesi; (Yugoslavian.) hum. See alsokarst inselberg; mogote.
humidity, absolute. The moisture contentby weight per unit volume of air[16].
humidity, relative. The ratio, expressed asa percentage, of the amount of watervapor actually present in air of a giventemperature, as compared with thegreatest possible amount of water vaporthat could be present in air at thattemperature. Calculation of relative
humidity can be done from tables, specialslide rules or calculators, graphs, orcomplex equations[23]. See alsohygrometer; psychrometer.
humus-water grooves. This is a specialtype of meandering karren or wall karrenin which the water originated in humuscovering. Water originating from ahumus cover has an excess of CO2 and istherefore, very aggressive and candissolve large amounts of limestone. Thus humus-water grooves can be verydeep but after approximately 2–3 meters,the grooves flatten out and continue asnormal meanders or wall karren[3]. Seealso meander karren; wall karren.
huntite. A cave mineral —CaMg3(CO3)4
[11].
hydration. The act by which a substancetakes up water by absorption and/oradsorption[6].
hydraulic barrier. A general term referringto modifications of a ground-water flowsystem to restrict or impede movement ofcontaminants[22].
hydraulic conductivity. 1. Aproportionality constant relating hydraulicgradient to specific discharge which foran isotropic medium and homogeneousfluid, equals the volume of water at theexisting kinematic viscosity that willmove in unit time under a unit hydraulicgradient through a unit area measured atright angles to the direction of flow[22]. 2.The volume of water that will movethrough a medium in a unit of time undera unit hydraulic gradient through a unitarea measured perpendicular to the
95
direction of flow[22]. 3. The ability of arock unit to conduct water under specifiedconditions[10]. It is typically expressed asgpd/ft2, ft/day, or m/day.
hydraulic conductivity, effective. The rateof flow of water through a porousmedium that contains more than onefluid, such as water and air in theunsaturated zone, and which should bespecified in terms of both the fluid typeand content and the existing pressure.
hydraulic diffusivity. See diffusivity,hydraulic.
hydraulic discharge. The discharge ofground water through springs or wells[16].
hydraulic fracturing. The formation ofartificial fractures in rock systems arounda well by high pressure fluid injections[16].
hydraulic gradient. 1. The change in statichead per unit of distance in a givendirection. If not specified, the directiongenerally is understood to be that of themaximum rate of decrease in head[22]. 2.Slope of the water table or potentiometricsurface[22]. 3. A chance in the staticpressure of ground water expressed interms of the height of water above adatum, per unit of distance in a givendirection[22].
hydraulic head. The height above a datumplane (such as sea level) of the column ofwater that can be supported by thehydraulic pressure at a given-point in aground-water system. For a well, thehydraulic head is equal. to the distancebetween the water level in the well andthe datum plane[22].
hydraulic jump. 1. A standing surge ofwater passing from below critical depth inopen channel flow[16]; often occurs incaves. 2. An abrupt depth variation inrapidly varying channel flow[16].
hydraulic profile. A vertical section of thepotentiometric surface[16].
hydraulic radius. The ratio of the filledcross-sectional area to wettedperimeter[16].
hydrochemical facies. Distinct zones thathave cation and anion concentrations ofdiagnostic chemical character of watersolutions in hydrologic systems which isdescribable within defined compositioncategories[22].
hydrocompaction. The process of volumedecrease and density increase that occurswhen moisture-deficient deposits compactas they are wetted for the first time sinceburial[21]. Synonym: shallow subsidence.
hydrogeologic. Those factors that deal withsubsurface waters and related geologicaspects of surface waters.
hydrograph, characteristic. A hydrographbased on the unit step process.
hydrodynamic dispersion. 1. Thespreading (at the macroscopic level) ofthe solute front during transport resultingfrom both mechanical dispersion andmolecular diffusion[22]. 2. The dynamicdispersion of fluid particles in flowthrough a porous medium due to velocitychanges in the pore channels[16].
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hydrodynamic dispersion, coefficient of. See dispersion coefficient.
hydrogeochemistry. The geochemistry ofwater as related to the occurrence ofsubsurface water[16].
hydrogeologic. Those factors that deal withsubsurface waters and related geologicaspects of surface waters[6].
hydrogeologic unit. 1. Any soil or rockunit or zone which by virtue of itshydraulic properties has a distinctinfluence on the storage or movement ofground water[22]. 2. Means a soil or rockunit or zone which by virtue of itsporosity or permeability, or lack thereof,has a distinct influence on the storage ormovement of ground water[22].
hydrogeology. The study of subsurfacewaters in their geological context[16].
hydrograph. 1. A graph relating stage,flow, velocity, or other characteristics ofwater with respect to time[22]. 2. A timerecord of stream discharge at a givencross section of the stream or of thestream surface elevation at a givenpoint[16].
hydrograph separation. The separation ofa hydrograph into its differentcomponents to analyze flowcontributions[16].
hydrography. The geographical descriptionof water bodies on the earth’s surface[16].
hydrologic barrier. See barrier,hydrologic.
hydrologic budget. The quantitativeaccounting of all water volumes and theirchanges over time for a given basin orprovince[16].
hydrologic properties. Those properties ofa rock that govern the entrance of waterand the capacity to hold transmit, anddeliver water, such as porosity, effectiveporosity, specific retention, permeability,and the directions of maximum andminimum permeabilities[22].
hydrology. The study of atmospheric,surface, and subsurface waters and theirconnection with the water cycle[16].
hydromagnesite. A cave mineral —Mg5(CO3)4(OH)2"4H2O[11].
hydrometeorology. Meteorology dealingwith water in the atmosphere[16].
hydrometric station. A station at whichthere usually are a number of hydrometricmeasurements being performed[16].
hydrometry. The science of watermeasurements[16].
hydrophilic. Having a great affinity forwater[16].
hydrophobic. The repelling of water[16].
hydrophyte. A plant requiring largeamounts of moisture for growth[16].
hydrosphere. That part of the earth thatcontains liquid or solid water[16].
hydrostatic pressure. The pressure due to acolumn of water[25].
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hydrostratigraphic unit. Seehydrogeologic unit.
hydroxylapatite. A cave mineral —Ca5(PO4)3(OH)[11].
hydrozincite. A cave mineral —Zn(CO3)2(OH)6
[11].
hyetograph. A graph of rainfall intensityagainst time[16].
hygrometer. 1. An instrument that readsthe humidity in the air directly; some arebased on a hair's ability to shrink orexpand with humidity, or on certainelectronic chips. Generally, apsychrometer is more accurate at higherhumidities (above 95%)[23]. 2. Apparatusfor the direct measurement of the relativehumidity in the atmosphere[16]. See alsopsychrometer.
hygroscopic nucleus. Small solid particlesaround which water condensates (cloudformation)[16].
hydroscopic water. Condensed water at asolid surface[16].
hypogeum. The subterraneanenvironment[23].
hypolimnion. A deep layer in stratifiedwater[16].
hydroscopic coefficient. The amount ofabsorbed water on the surface of soilparticles in an atmosphere of 50% relativehumidity at 25°C[16].
hypogean. Pertaining to, or living in,regions deeper than the endogean zone. See also epigean.
98
I
ice. Crystallized water formed below thefreezing point (H2O)[16].
ice cave. 1. Any cave in rock that is partlyfilled with ice. The term should not beapplied to glacier caves. The ice mayform in massive icicles and flows, whenpercolation water from unfrozen rockseeps into a cave containing freezing airdrawn in from outside. This is a seasonalsituation in many alpine caves, and ifwinter freezing exceeds summer meltingthe ice may become permanent, as inAustria’s Dachstein and Eisriesenweltcaves. Alternately water vapor maycrystallize out as hoar frost, commonlyforming large hexagonal ice crystals thatline the walls of a freezing cave, as inGrotte Valerie, northern Canada[9]. 2. Acave, generally in lava or limestone, inwhich the average temperature is below0°C., and which ordinarily containsperennial ice. Ice may have the form ofstalactites, stalagmites, or flowstone[10]. (French.) glacière; (German.) ‘Eishöhle’;(Greek.) paghoménon spíleon; (Italian.)ghiacciata naturale, grotta ghiacciata;(Russian.) ledjanaja pescera; (Spanish.)cueva helada, cueva de hielo; (Turkish.)buz ma™aras2; (Yugoslavian.) ledenapeƒina, ledenjac#a, ledena jama. Seeglacier cave.
illite. A clay mineral.
imbibition. 1. The absorption of a fluid,usually water, by a granular rock or otherporous material, under the force ofcapillary attraction, and in the presence ofpressure. 2. Fluid displacement in porousmedia as a result of capillary forces
only[16]. 3. Absorption of water by plants. Synonym: capillary percolation.
immiscible. 1. Two or more liquids that arenot readily soluble[22]. 2. The chemicalproperty of two or more phases that, atmutual equilibrium, cannot dissolvecompletely in one another, e.g., oil andwater[22]. 3. The quality of liquidsexhibiting a clear interface where they arein contact; not miscible[16].
impermeable. A characteristic of somegeologic material that limits their abilityto transmit significant quantities of waterunder the pressure differences ordinarilyfound in the subsurface[22].
impervious. Not permitting the flow ofwater[16].
impervious lens. An impermeable, lens-shaped body of sediment in an otherwisepermeable aquifer[16].
imported water. Water coming fromoutside the ground-water basin underconsideration[16].
impound. The collecting of water bydamming[16].
inception. The earliest stage ofspeleogenesis. The start of the inceptionphase marks the transition from ‘rockwith no caves’ (in the widest sense) to‘rock with caves’, and extends throughwhatever time interval is required forgravitational laminar flow conditions tobe established in a given situation (seegestation and initiation)[9].
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inception horizon. A part of a rocksuccession that is particularly susceptibleto the effects of the earliest cave formingprocesses and hence is critical to theorigin of most non-tectonic caves. Byvirtue of physical, lithological orchemical deviation from the predominantcarbonate facies within the sequence, itpassively or actively favors the localizedinception of dissolutional activity[9]. Seealso inception.
incision. See entrenchment.
initiation. The early parts of speleogenesis,generally up to the point of breakthroughfrom laminar to turbulent flow, at anaverage conduit diameter of 10mm. Initiation includes, but is not the same as,inception[9].
inclinometer. An instrument to measure theinclination of surfaces[16].
incoherent material. Unconsolidatedmaterial[16].
incrustation. 1. Deposition of a crust (ofcalcite, etc.) upon an object byprecipitation from water oversaturatedwith salts (calcium bicarbonate, etc.)[20]. 2. The deposition of mineral matter bywater[16]. Synonyms: (French.)incrustation; (German.) Krustenbildung;(Greek.) epiphlioma; (Italian.)incrostazione; (Russian.) obrazovanienatecnih kor; (Spanish.) incrustción;(Turkish.) kabuk ba™lama, kabuklaÕma;(Yugoslavian.) inkrustacija.
induced activity. The activity or responseof a system that has been subjected to anartificial excitation[16].
induced infiltration. An increase ininfiltration from a surface water body bythe lowering of the original water table[16].
induced recharge. A method ofwithdrawing ground water at strategicpoints to induce natural recharge[16].
indurated rock. A rock that has beenhardened and solidified by diageneticprocesses[16].
infiltrability. The ease of infiltration[16].
infiltration. The downward entry of waterinto the soil or rock[22].
infiltration basin. A basin in which wateris spread for recharge.
infiltration capacity. The maximum rate atwhich a soil or rock is capable ofabsorbing water or limiting infiltration[22].
infiltration gallery. A horizontal conduitfor the purpose of intercepting groundwater[16].
infiltration index. The average rate ofinfiltration throughout a given rainstorm[16].
infiltration rate. 1. The rate at which a soilor rock under specified conditionsabsorbs falling rain, melting snow, orsurface water expressed in depth of waterper unit time[22]. 2. A characteristicdescribing the maximum rate at whichwater can enter the soil or rock, underspecified conditions, including thepresence of an excess of water. It has thedimensions of velocity[22].
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infiltrometer. Apparatus for measuring theamount of infiltration[16].
inflow cave, influent cave. Cave intowhich a stream flows or formerlyentered[10].
influent stream. See losing stream.
infrared light. Light not visible to thehuman eye, with wavelengths longer thanthose of visible red light and shorter thanthose of radio waves[23].
initial abstraction. The maximum amountof rainfall absorbed without producingrunoff[16].
inject, to. 1. The introduction ofpressurized fluids into a poroussubsurface formation[16]. 2. Theintroduction of tracer materials (e.g.fluorescent dyes) into the subsurface.
injection head. A swivel head connectorthrough which drilling fluid is injectedinto the drill pipe[16].
injection well. Well used for emplacingfluids into the subsurface[22].
injection zone. A geological ‘formation,’group of formations, or part of aformation receiving fluids through a well.
injectivity. The capacity of a well orformation to accommodate pumped inliquid[16].
inlet cave. A cave developed beneath aswallow hole where a surface watercoursefirst passes underground in karstlimestone[19].
input point. Points where water enters anunderground drainage route or aquifer. An obvious type of input point is asurface sink or swallow hole, whereallogenic drainage has direct access to aconduit system within a carbonateaquifer. Less obvious are points wheredrainage enters a potential carbonateconduit-system from adjacent non-carbonate strata (such as a poroussandstone aquifer) or where water utilizesa fracture system to pass throughotherwise relatively impermeable bedsand into the carbonate aquifer[9].
insectivore. An animal that feeds oninsects. Almost all species of NorthAmerican bats are insectivores[23]. Seealso carnivore; herbivore; omnivore.
in-situ density. The density of watermeasured at its actual depth[22]. See alsopotential density.
insulated stream. A stream neitherreceiving nor abstracting water from aground-water body because of animpermeable bed[16].
insurgence. A term proposed to describe apoint of inflow for surface water intosubsurface conduits. It has not gainedwide usage and is not recommended foruse. Diffuse insurgence may be used todescribe the slow percolation of waterthrough overburden and tight pores in therock. Confluent insurgence may beapplied to water entering the rock viaidentifiable streams sinking into thesubsurface while a confluent insurgencecomplex would apply to a cluster ofinsurgences. Abandoned insurgences isthe term applied to inflow points no
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longer used by infiltrating water. Anoverflow insurgence is the term used todescribe insurgences utilized only duringperiods of high flow[12].
intake area, recharge area. The surfacearea in which water is absorbed into anaquifer eventually to reach the zone ofsaturation[10].
interaquifer flow. The flow that occursbetween aquifers through fractureopenings or through the wellbore[16].
interbedded. Pertaining to beds orsedimentary material intercalated in aparallel fashion into a main stratum[16].
interbedding. A bed between layers ofdifferent material[16].
interception. The abstraction of directrainfall on vegetation cover[16].
interception loss. That part of rainfallretained by the aerial portion ofvegetative cover[16].
interdigitation. The lateral interlocking ofsedimentary series[16].
interface. 1. The contact zone between twomaterials of different chemical orphysical composition[22]. 2. The contactplane of two immiscible liquids[16].
interference. The condition occurring whenthe area of influence of a water wellcomes into contact with or overlaps thatof a neighboring well, as when two wellsare pumping from the same aquifer or arelocated near each other[6].
interflow. Subsurface runoff[16].
intergranular stress. The stress betweengrains in a solid matrix[16].
intergranular voids. Generally primary orsecondarily enhanced voids within rocks,with average dimensions of 0.00l to0.lmm. Such voids, or pores, mayprovide interconnected porosity in manykarst rocks and allow early watermovement under laminar flowconditions[9].
intermittent spring. See spring,intermittent.
intermittent stream, intermittent river. 1.A stream or river which flows only indirect response to precipitation or tointermittent discharge of a spring; notconfined to karst areas, but notuncommon in them[20]. 2. A stream orriver that flows at irregular intervals[16]. Synonyms: (French.) cours d’eauintermittent; (German.) intermittierenderFluß, episodischer periodischer Fluß;(Greek.) dialípon potamós; (Italian.)torrente intermittente; (Spanish.)corriente intermitente; (Turkish.) kesintiliakarsu; (Yugoslavian.) sus #ica, suvaja. Contrast with interrupted river.
intermontane basin. A basin lying betweentwo mountain ranges[16].
internal drainage. Drainage in a closedbasin and not reaching the sea[16]. It iscommon in maturely karsted terraneswhere surface water bodies are relativelynonexistent.
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interstice. 1. An opening in a rock or soilthat is not occupied by solid matter[22]. 2.An opening or space which may beoccupied by air, water, or other gaseousor liquid material[22]. Synonymous withvoid, pore. See also pore; pore space;porosity; porosity, effective; porosity,primary; porosity, secondary.
interstitial ice. Ice occurring below thesurface in soil pores[16].
interstitial medium. Spaces between grainsof sand or fine gravel filled with waterwhich contains phreatobia[25].
interstitial water. Water held in smallwedge like interstices at grain contact[16].
interstratal karst; interstratalkarstification. 1. Features formed by thedissolutional removal of all or part of aburied rock unit. Interstratal-karstfeatures are common within highlysoluble evaporite rocks such as gypsumand halite, and may be equally common,but less readily recognized, within thepreserved remnants of carbonatesuccessions. Interstratal karst should notbe confused with buried karst. The finestinterstratal karst in Britain is theextensive cave development in thelimestones beneath the NamurianMillstone Grit plateaux of South Wales,where the large collapse dolines in theMillstone Grit are interstratal-karstlandforms[9]. 2. The process ofkarstification of highly soluble rocks(e.g., gypsum, anhydrate, and salt) thatare overlain by less soluble rocks (e.g.,shales), but are still selectively dissolvedby circulating ground water[10].
interstratal karst. Karst topography that iscovered by and developed beneath pre-karst rock or sediment and may or maynot be part of the contemporarylandscape. It is younger than its coverand is formed by the solution of solublerock in the subsurface, most commonlybeneath relatively insoluble rock such assandstone or chert. The term refers toareal solution rather than to cavedevelopment but is also applicable torejuvenated mantled karst and rejuvenatedburied karst. Subsoil karst is transitionalto interstratal karst[17]. Synonyms:(French.) karst sous-jacent; (German.)unterirdisches Karstphänomen; (Greek.)kalyménon karst; (Italian.) carso coperto;(Spanish.) karst interstradal; (Turkish.)tabakalar aras2 karst. See also buriedkarst; denuded karst; covered karst.
inter-permafrost karst. See permafrostkarst; sub-permafrost karst.
interrupted river, interrupted stream. 1.A river which flows for part of its courseon the surface, and part underground incaves[20]. 2. A stream interrupted overspace[16]. 3. A discontinuous stream[16]. Synonyms: (French.) rivière interrompue;(German.) periodischer Fluß ?, Karstfluß,versickernder Fluß; (Greek.)thiakekoménos potamós; (Russian.)peresihauchaj reka, syhaja reka;(Spanish.) rio sumente; (Turkish.) yer yerakan nehir; (Yugoslavian.) sus #ica,suvaja, periodiƒka rijeka (reka). Seealso lost river; intermittent stream.
intrinsic permeability. See permeability,intrinsic.
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inundation. The covering of an area byflood waters[16].
invaded zone. In geophysical well logging,the zone in which an appreciable amountof mud filtrate has penetrated[16].
invasion. In geophysical well logging, thepenetration of a fluid into the porousmedium[16].
invasion depth. The depth to which drillingmud filtrate penetrates into aformation[16].
invertebrate. An animal, such as aplanarian, snail, or crayfish, without abackbone[23]. See also vertebrate.
inverted siphon. See water trap.
ion. An element or compound that hasgained or lost an electron so that it is nolonger neutral electrically and now carriesa charge[6].
ion mobility. The ease with which ionsmove in an electrolytical solution[16].
irreducible saturation. The lowest watersaturation obtainable by mechanicalreduction methods[16].
irrigation. The artificial watering of fieldsfor crop production[16].
irrigation requirement. The water neededfor crop production exclusive ofprecipitation[16].
irrigation return flow. The part ofartificially applied water that is notconsumed by evapotranspiration and that
migrates to an aquifer or surface waterbody[22].
irrotation flow. Potential flow or flow withno rotational component[16].
isobath. A line of equal depth[16].
isochrone. A line connecting water levelsin observation wells for a given instant intime[16].
isohyet. A line of equal rainfall[16].
isopiestic line. A contour on a piezometricsurface connecting points of equal staticlevel[16].
isopleth. A line of equal distance from thepoint of outflow of a basin[16].
isopotal line. A line of equal infiltrationcapacity[16].
isotherm. A line of equal temperatures[16].
isotope tracer. Tracer which is an isotopeof an element present in the water; it maybe artificial (added to water) or natural(present in the water)[20]. Synonyms:(French.) traceur isotopique; (German.)Markierung durch radioaktive Isotopen;(Greek.) isotopicos ichnithetis; (Italian.)tracciante isotopico; (Russian.) izotopnijindikator; (Spanish.) trazador isotópico;(Turkish.) izotop izleyicisi;(Yugoslavian.) izotopni traser.
isotropic. Equal properties in all directions.
isotropic mass. A mass having the sameproperty or properties in all directions[22].
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isotropy. The condition in which theproperty or properties of interest are thesame in all directions[22].
izdan. A general Yugoslavian term for aground-water reservoir from whichground water may readily be extracted; itis not specifically a karst term[20].
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J
jama. 1. (Slavic.) Vertical or steeply in-clined shaft in limestone, known as abîmeor aven in France and as pothole inEngland. 2. Any cave[10]. Synonyms:(French.) jama; (German.) Abgrund,Schacht, Schlund; (Greek.) karstikonphrear; (Italian.) abisso, foiba, pozzo,voragine; (Russian.) karstovij kolodec,karstovaja sahta; (Spanish.) sima, pozo,avenc; (Turkish.) obruk; (Yugoslavian.)bezdan, japaga, zvekara, pekel, brezno,prepad, propast. Related to cenote,doline, obruk, pit, shaft, shake hole.
jarosite. A cave mineral —KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6
[11].
joint. 1. A break of geological origin in thecontinuity of a body of rock occurringeither singly, or more frequently in a setor system, but not attended by a visiblemovement parallel to the surface of thediscontinuity. 2. A junction orconnection of mechanical elements suchas drill pipe[16]. See also fracture.
joint diagram. A diagram constructed byaccurately plotting the strike and dip ofjoints to illustrate the geometricalrelationship of the joints within aspecified area of geologic investigation.
joint or fault set. A group of more or lessparallel joints or faults.
joint or fault system. A system consistingof two or more joint or fault sets or anygroup of joints or faults with acharacteristic pattern (e.g., radiating,concentric, etc.).
joint pattern. A group of joints which forma characteristic geometrical relationship,and which can vary considerably fromone location to another within the samegeologic formation.
joint-plane cave. A cavity high in relationto width developed along steeply dippingjoint planes[10].
jumar. An ascender with a simplefinger-operated safety catch, a handle andseveral attachment points[25].
juvenile water. Water that has not beenpart of the hydrosphere before and isderived from the earth’s interior[16].
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K
kafkalla. A term used in Cyprus for thehardened upper portion of crust ofhavara[20]. See also caliche; havara.
kame. A stratified glacial sand and graveldeposit forming a small, conical hill[16].
Kamenica, Kamenitza. (German, possiblyof Slavic origin; plural, Kamenice.) Asmall depression (a few meters indiameter and several centimeters deep) ina level calcareous surface, enlarged by thesolution effect of water collectingbetween slight undulations. It isdeveloped vertically at first by stagnantwater; the steep sides thus evolved theninduce the flow of water which flutes theslope and so eventually widens the basin. Sediments and low orders of plant lifefrequently collect on the even floor, thelatter aiding further solution byreactivating the pH of the water[19]. Synonyms: (French.) kamenice;(German.) Opferkeßel; (Greek.) lakouva,ythrolakkos; (Russian.) bljudoe;(Spanish.) cuenco, tinajita; (Turkish.)erime tavas2; (Yugoslavian.) kamenica,skalne kotlice, scalba, skalnica. See alsosolution pan; water pot.
kankar; kunkar. (Australian.) See caliche.
Kannelierungen. (German.) SeeRillenkarren.
kaolin. A common clay mineral[16].
karabiner. See carabiner.
Karren. (German.) Channels or furrows,caused by solution on massive bare
limestone surfaces; they vary in depthfrom a few millimeters to more than ameter and are separated by ridges. Inmodern usage, the terms are general,describing the total complex of superficialsolution forms found on compact purelimestone. Classified into several kinds,the most common of which are:Rillenkarren — shallow channels sepa-rated by sharp ridges 2-3 centimetersapart; Rinnenkarren — flat-bottomedgrooves several centimeters apart;Kluftkarren — joints enlarged by solu-tion; Spitzkarren — large deep groovesextending down from steep spires orpinnacles; meandering karren(Mäanderkarren) — small winding ormeandering channels; round karren(Rundkarren) — karren having roundedchannels and intervening rounded ridges,probably reexhumed after formationunder soil or peat; Flachkarren — equiv-alent to the English clint; Bodenkarren —karren formed beneath the soil[10]. Synonyms: (French.) lapiés; (German.)Karren, Schratten; (Greek.)thaktyloglyphae, amaxotrochiae; (Italian.)campo solcato; (Russian.) karri;(Spanish.) lapiaz; (Turkish.) erime olu™u;(Yugoslavian.) škrape, škripovi, griñine,ñlebici, s #kraplje.
Karren, free. (German.) Bare karst; waterflows unhindered over the limestonesurface[3].
Karrenfeld; Karren field. (German.) Anarea of limestone dominated by karren[10]. These appear as bare karst and consist ofthe sum of exposed and half-exposedkarren, occasionally also of coveredkarren which have become exposed. They range in size from a few hectares to
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a few hundred square kilometers[3]. Synonym: (Turkish.) erime olu™u alan2. See also clint; grike.
karst. (Internationally used term, originallythe German form of the Slavic word krasor krš, meaning a bleak waterless place; itis the German name for a district east ofTrieste having such terrane.) A terrane,generally underlain by limestone ordolomite, in which the topography ischiefly formed by the dissolving of rock,and which may be characterized bysinkholes, sinking streams, closed depres-sions, subterranean drainage, andcaves[10]. The term karst unites specificmorphological and hydrological featuresin soluble (mostly carbonate) rocks. Morphological features include karren,dolinas (sinkholes), jamas, ponors,uvalas, poljes, caves, caverns, etc. Hydrological features include basins ofclosed drainage, lost rivers, estavelles,vauclusian springs, submarine springs,more or less individualized undergroundstreams and incongruity of surface andunderground divides. Karst is understoodto be the result of natural processes in andon the earth’s crust cause by solution andleaching of limestones, dolomites,gypsum, halite, and other soluble rocks[20]. Synonyms: (French.) karst; (German.)Karst; (Greek.) karst; (Italian.) carso,carsismo; (Russian.) karst; (Spanish.)karst; (Turkish.) karst; (Yugoslavian.)krš, kras. See also buried karst; conekarst; covered karst; exhumed karst;Halbkugelkarst; Holokarst; Kegelkarst;Merokarst; microkarst; naked karst;paleokarst; pseudokarst; relict karst;Spitzkegelkarst; subjacent karst;syngenetic karst; thermokarst; towerkarst.
karst aquifer. See aquifer, karst.
karst barré. (French.) 1. A karst terrane oflimited area completely surrounded byrocks of low permeability[10]. 2. Term forkarst areas whose lower part is enclosedand bordered by more or less imperviousrocks which impedes ground-water flowout of the karst area. Synonyms:(French.) karst barré; (German.)Riegelkarst; (Greek.) phragmenon karst;(Spanish.) karst cerrado; (Turkish.) setlikarst; (Yugoslavian.) zagaceni krs# (kras),zajezeni kras.
karst base level. Level below whichkarstification does not or has not takenplace[10]. Synonyms: base level ofkarstification[20]; (French.) niveau de basekarstique; (German.) Korrosionsniveau;(Greek.) basis apokarstoseos, or better‘patoma apokarstoseos’; (Italian.) livellodi base della attività carsica; (Spanish.)nivel de base kárstico; (Turkish.)karstlaÕma tabani; (Russian.) bazis karsta;(Yugoslavian.) baza krškog procesa, bazakarstifikacije, baza zakrasevanja.
karst breccia. See collapse breccia;solution breccia.
karst bridge. A natural bridge or arch inlimestone[10].
karst couvert. (French.) See covered karst.
karst fens. 1. Marshes developed insinkhole terrain; swampy solution fens[10]. 2. Marsh or swamp formed by plantsovergrowing a karst lake or seepage. Synonyms: (French.) marais karstique;(German.) Karstsumpf ?; (Greek.)karstikon elos; (Italian.) palude o
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acquitrinio carsico; (Russian.) karstovojeboloto; (Spanish.) laguna karstica;(Turkish.) karst batakl2™2; (Yugoslavian.)lokva, kal.
karst fenster. See karst window.
karst fossile. (French.) See buried karst.
karst hydrology. 1. The branch ofhydrology dealing with hydrologicalphenomena on and in regions and areascomposed totally or in part of rockswhich are soluble in water, such aslimestones, dolomites, gypsum, andhalite[20]. 2. The drainage phenomena ofkarstified limestones, dolomites, andother slowly soluble rocks[10]. Synonyms:(French.) hydrologie karstique;(German.) Hydrologie des Karsts;(Greek.) karstike hydrologia; (Italian.)idrologia carsica; (Russian.) gidrologijakarsta; (Spanish.) hidrología kárstica;(Turkish.) karst hidrolojisi;(Yugoslavian.).
karst inselberg. A residual hill of solublerock in a polje[20]. Synonyms: (French.)inselberg karstique; (German.)Karstinselberg (Hum, Mogote); (Greek.)karstiki martyres lophi; (Italian.) rilievocarsico residuo; (Russian.) karstovijostanec; (Spanish.) relieve kásticoresidual; (Turkish.) karst tepesi;(Yugoslavian.) hum.
karst lake. 1. Lakes on karst surface,frequently connected with ground water;lakes in subterranean hollows (caves andcaverns)[20]. 2. A large area of standingwater in extensive closed depression inlimestone[10]. Synonyms: (French.) lac dekarst; (German.) Karstsee; (Greek.)
karstiki limni; (Italian.) lago carsico;(Russian.) karstovoe ozero; (Spanish.)lago kãrstico; (Turkish.) karstik gölü;(Yugoslavian.) krško (krasko) jezero.
karst margin plain. A plain generally onlimestone between higher country oflimestone on one side and of less perviousrocks on the other, but having a cover ofimpervious detritus, which allows surfacedrainage[10].
karst noyé. (French.) See drowned karst.
karst nu. (French.) See exposed karst.
karst plain. 1. Large flat surface in karstformed by erosion and corrosion[20]. 2. Aplain on which closed depressions,subterranean drainage, and other karstfeatures may be developed. Also calledkarst plateau[10]. Synonyms: (French.)plateau karstique; (German.) Karstebene,Karstrandebene, Korrosionsfläche;(Greek.) karstikon pedhion; (Italian.)piano carsico; (Russian.) karstovajaravnina; (Spanish.) llanura kárstica;(Turkish.) karst ovas2; (Yugoslavian.)krs #ka zaravan, površ, kras #ki ravnik. Seealso marginal polje.
karst polje. See polje.
karst pond. Closed depression in a karstarea containing standing water[10].
karst river. 1. A river (or stream) flowingin a karstic area, either on the surface ofthe ground or through an undergroundcave system[20]. 2. A river that originatesfrom a karst spring[10]. Synonyms:(French.) rivière karstique; (German.)Karstfluß; (Greek.) karstikós potamós;
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(Italian.) corso d’acqua carsico;(Russian.) karstovaja reka; (Spanish.) ríokárstico; (Turkish.) karst nehiri;(Yugoslavian.) krs#ka rijeka, kraska reka.
karst seep. Place where karst ground wateroozes out at the surface of the ground;sometimes overgrown and then forming akarst fen[20]. Synonyms: (French.)suitement karstique; (German.)Karstgrundwaßer-Austritt; (Greek.)karstiki thiaroi; (Russian.) visacivaniekarstovih vod; (Spanish.) zona deabsorción; (Turkish.) karst s2z2nt2s2;(Yugoslavian.) mo…ilo.
karst shaft. A vertical or steeply-sidednatural opening a few tens to a fewhundred meters deep, formed by solutionor erosion of vertical or sub-verticalfractures or fissures by down flowingsurface water. Such a pit, formed fromabove, may connect with a chimneyformed from below. Synonyms: (French.)karst shaft; (German.) Schacht, Schaft;(Greek.) karstikós lákkos; (Italian.)voragine, inghiottitoio; (Russian.)karstovaja sahta; (Spanish.) sima;(Turkish.) karst bacas2; (Yugoslavian.)jama. Related to dolina, jama, obruk, pit.
karst sous-jacent. (French.) See interstratalkarst.
karst spring. See spring, karst.
karst topography. Topography dominatedby features of solutional origin[10]. Geomorphically, the dominant featuresusually but not always obviously present,are sinkholes and caves. In tropicalregions, karst towers (e.g. mogotes) mayalso dominate the landscape.
karst valley. 1. Valleys in karst arenormally distinctive due to the lack ofintegrated surface drainage. Most areeither blind (due to being closed wherethe drainage sinks underground), headlessor pocket (where a river emerges from aspring) or dry (where surface flow hasbeen lost due to underground capture). The exception is the allogenic valley,where a river completely traverses a karst,normally because underground conduitsat or below valley floor level areimmature. Fine examples of allogenickarst valleys are Dove Dale in the PeakDistrict and France’s Tarn Gorge[9]. 2.Elongated solution valley in limestone[20]. 3. Valley produced by collapse of acavern roof[10]. Synonyms: (French.)vallée karstique; (German.) Karsttal,Karstgaße; (Greek.) Karstik2 kilás;(Italian.) valle carsica; (Russian.)karstovaja dolina; (Spanish.) vallekárstico; (Turkish.) karst vadisi;(Yugoslavian.) krška (kraska) dolina.
karst vert. See subsoil karst.
karst water. Water discharged from karstsprings which posses characteristics,primarily that of calcium content,indicating solution during the passage ofthat water across and through karstlimestone. That part of karst spring waterwhich is derived from watercoursessinking into the rock (and thereforeoriginates mainly on impermeable rock) issaid to be allogenic; that which derivesfrom precipitation over the karst areaalone is said to be autochthonous - thedistinction between resurgence andexsurgence waters[19].
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karst well. Term applied to features thatresult from the solution enlargement androunding of joints (grikes) to producecylindrical pits[8]. See also grike; joint.
karst window. 1. Depression revealing apart of a subterranean river flowing acrossits floor, or an unroofed part of a cave. 2.A small natural bridge or arch which canbe seen through[10]. 3. A through openingin natural limestone walls, formed by thejoining of karst grottos as a result ofdissolution processes[20]. Synonyms:(French.) fenêtre karstique; (German.)Karstfenster; (Greek.) karstikonparathyron; (Italian.) finestra carsica;(Russian.) karstovoe okno; (Spanish.)dolina en ventana; (Turkish.) karstpenceresi; (Yugoslavian.) krsko (krasko)okno.
karstic. Occasionally used as the adjectiveform of karst[10] and pertaining to karstlandforms or processes[19].
karstification. 1. The processes of solutionand infiltration by water, mainly chemicalbut also mechanical, whereby the surfacefeatures and subterranean drainagenetwork of a karstland are developed toform a karst topography, including suchsurface features as dolines, karren, andmogotes and such subsurface features ascaves and shafts. An area currently orformerly undergoing karstification, andthus characterized by karst landforms, issaid to be karstified[19]. 2. The process bywhich karst is formed. The term has beengiven a wide range of meaning, fromalmost a synonym or corrosion of solublerocks by water to a term comprising allprocesses responsible for thedevelopment of karst features including,
besides corrosion, such phenomena asmechanical erosion, jointing, andfaulting[20]. Synonyms: (French.)karstification; (German.) Verkarstung;(Greek.) apokarstosis; (Italian.)carsificazione; (Russian.)karstoobrazovanie; (Spanish.)karstificación; (Turkish.) karstlaÕma;(Yugoslavian.) okršavanje, zakrasevanje,karstifikacija.
karstland. A region characterized by karsttopography[10].
Karstrandebene. (German.) See karstmargin plain.
katavothron. (Greek.) A closed depressionor swallow hole[10].
Kegelkarst. (German.) A general term usedto describe several types of tropicalhumid karst characterized by numerous,closely spaced cone-, hemispherical-, ortower-shaped hills having interveningclosed depressions and narrowsteep-walled karst valleys orpassageways[10]. See also cockpit karst;cone karst; Halbkugelkarst; tower karst.
keld. See rising.
kernmantel rope. A rope with a plaitedsheath around a core of parallel or twistedstrands[25].
krab. See carabiner.
keyhole passage; keyhole. 1. This verydescriptive name derives from the cross-sectional shape of a cave passage thatconsists of a phreatic tube with a vadosecanyon cut in its floor. It is the classic
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example of a two-phase cave passage thatoriginated and began its development inthe phreas and was then modified byvadose entrenchment. As this sequence isthe result of water table lowering bynormal surface erosion, keyholes arecommon. Some keyholes are so smallthat the lower slot is impassable and thecaver has to squeeze along the upper tube;others are very large. Spectacularly longis the 5km of keyhole forming theFissures in Castleguard Cave, Canada. Atube 6m in diameter tops an irregulartapering canyon 15m deep that must betraversed on sloping ledges at mid-level[9]. 2. A small passage or opening in a cave;in cross section, rounded at the top,constricted in the middle, and rectangularor flared out below[10]. They appear askeyholes when viewed in cross section. They are formed when undergroundstreams flowing in a tubular passagebegin downcutting to form a canyonpassage[15]. See also canyon passage;passage; tubular passage; vertical shaft.
klinkenberg effect. The slip of gasmolecules at the pore wall givingapparently higher permeability thanwould be obtained by liquidmeasurements[16].
Kluft. See aisle.
Kluftkarren. (German.) See grike.
knobstone. Speleothem, larger, morepronounced, and more widely separatedthan cave coral[10].
knots. Various methods of securing or tyingropes or webbing material together by
cavers[13]. See also prusik knot; prusiking.
kras; krš. A slavic word meaning bleak,waterless place, from which the termkarst is derived[10]. See also karst.
Kugelkarst. See Halbkugelkarst.
kunker. See caliche.
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L
laboratory coefficient of permeability,standard coefficient of permeability. Permeability defined for controlledtemperature conditions (60NF) as gallonsper day per square foot (gpd/ft2) under aunit gradient[16]. See also Meinzer unit.
labyrinth. See network; maze cave.
lacustrine formation. A sedimentaryformation of lacustrine origin.
ladder. In caving, a flexible, lightweightladder of galvanized or stainless steelwires and aluminium alloy rungs[25].
lag time. A time lapse between the onset ofa given event and the produced results[16].
lagoon. A body of relatively shallow waternear a sea shore, with or without a directconnection to the sea[16].
lake. 1. As used in speleology, a body ofstanding water too deep to walk across[10]. 2. In caving, a body of standing water in acave, but used for what would be called apond or pool on the surface[25]. 3. A bodyof fresh inland water[16].
laminar flow. Flow in which the head lossis proportional to the first power of thevelocity[22]. Water flowing in a laminarmanner will have streamlines that remaindistinct and the flow direction at everypoint remains unchanged with time. Synonymous with streamline flow,viscous flow.
lamination. The layering or very thinbedding of sedimentary rocks[16].
landfill. A general term indicating adisposal site for refuse, dirt fromexcavations, junk[6], and hazardouswastes.
land-form. A topographic feature of theearth’s surface[16].
land pan. An evaporation pan used tomeasure evaporation from a land surface;pan is usually mounted at the landsurface[16].
land subsidence. The subsidence of asurface due to a loss of support[16]. Oftenoccurs as a result of over pumpingunderlying aquifers or as a result ofmining activities. In karst terranes,subsidence can occur as a result of man-made changes to the natural hydrologicsystem (ground-water withdrawals orstorm-water injection) or as aconsequence of the natural dissolutionprocess. Subsidences may be sudden orprogress slowly over time.
land surface. That part of the lithosphereusually not covered by water[16].
land-use. A particular utilization of a landsurface especially with respect to itsinfluence on the hydrologic cycle[16].
landslide. The sliding down of earth androck on a slope[16].
lapiés. (French; sometimes spelled lapies orlapiaz.) Term for a region with outcropsof small regular pillars, cones, or blocksof carbonate rock[20]. Synonyms:(French.) lapies; (German.) Karren;(Greek.) lapiaz, lenar; (Italian.) lapia,solcato, carregiato; (Russian.) karri;
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(Spanish.) lenar; (Turkish.) erime olu—u,lapya; (Yugoslavian.) škrapa, griñine,bridine, ñlebici. See karren, rock-rill,grikes.
larva (plural larvae). An active immaturestage in an animal’s life history when itsform usually differs from the adult form,such as the grub stage in the developmentof a beetle or the tadpole stage in the lifehistory of a frog[23]. See alsometamorphosis; pupa.
lateral line system. A series of sensoryorgans, usually appearing in a line orseries of lines on the sides and heads offishes and larval amphibians. The systemenables the animal to sense vibrations inthe water[23]. See also cupula; neuromast.
lateral moraine. A glacial deposit at theflank of a glacier, often constituted bydebris from valley walls[16].
laterite. A tropical ferruginous clay soil[16].
lateritic soil. A red colored soil with highiron oxide content[16].
lava bed. A lava flow of considerable arealextent and relatively small thickness[16].
lava cave, lava tube. 1. A cave that formedin a partly cooled, broadly basaltic orphonolitic lava, not by erosion but bymolten material flowing away. In mostcases, an initial active lava conduit isformed when a flowing surface lavastream has a roof grow over it byaccretion of chilled solidified material. Insulated inside its conduit the lava cancontinue to flow and develop an airspaceabove it, which is preserved as an
explorable cave when completely cooled. Most lava caves are just very long tubes,though branching and multiple levels mayoccur as dictated by flow patterns and re-invasions of older tubes. On KilaueaVolcano, Hawaii, the Kazumura Cave is47km long and descends 888m, but itstubes, mostly 5m in diameter, lie less than20m beneath the sloping surface of thelava[9]. 2. A cave in a lava flow, generallyformed by gas blistering the surface or bylava flowing out from beneath a solidifiedcrust, forming a tube or tunnel[10]. 3. Anempty tubular supply channel from whichliquid lava has drained[16]. See also lavakarst; pseudokarst.
lava karst. A non-karst term. Subsurfaceopenings formed in lava flows due tooutflow of liquid lava from beneath asolidified crust or due to gas blisters. Tubes or tunnels are formed with suchpseudokarst features as lava stalactitesand also collapse structures and basins ofclosed drainage. Lava karst does not arisethrough solution of the rock by circulatingwater and thus is not a true karst[20]. Synonyms: (French.) pseudo-karst;(German.) (Vulkanischer Karst), Lava-Karst, Pseudokarst; (Greek.)pseudokarst; (Italian.) pseudocarsismovulcanico; (Spanish.) volcanokarst(general), tubo volcanico (tube, tunnel),jameo (collapse structure), malpaís(topographic feature similar to lapiés);(Turkish.) lav karst2, a ldat2c2 karst. Seealso lava cave; pseudokarst.
lay. The way in which strands of a rope orcable are twisted[25].
layer. A sheetlike deposit of sediment[16]. Bed or stratum of rock[16].
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leachate. 1. Materials removed by theprocess of leaching[22]. 2. A liquid thathas percolated through soil rock or wasteand has extracted dissolved or suspendedmaterials[22].
leaching. 1. The removal of materials insolution from soil, rock, or waste[22]. 2.Separation or dissolving out of solubleconstituents from a porous medium bypercolation of water[22].
lead. A passage noticed but as yetunexplored[25].
lead-acid cell. A rechargeable acid batteryfor use with an electric cap lamp[25].
leader. In caving, the person directing theactivities of a caving party, especiallywith regard to safety[25].
leak. An opening in an aquiclude thatpermits penetration of water from otherformations into the main aquifer[16].
leakage. 1. The flow of water from onehydrogeologic unit to another. Theleakage may be natural, as throughsemi-impervious confining layer, or man-made, as through an uncased well[22]. 2.The natural loss of water from artificialstructures as a result of hydrostaticpressure[22].
leakage factor. The factor describingleakage flow into or out of a leakyaquifer[16].
leakance. 1. The ratio K’/b’, in which K’and b’ are the vertical hydraulic con-ductivity and the thickness, respectively,of the confining beds[22]. 2. The rate of
flow across a unit (horizontal) area of asemipervious layer into (or out of) anaquifer under one unit of head differenceacross this layer. Synonymous withcoefficient of leakage[22].
leaky aquifer. Aquifers, whether artesianor water-table, that lose or gain waterthrough adjacent less permeable layers[22].
lecontite. A cave mineral —(NH4,K)Na(SO4)"2H2O[11].
leg. A part of a survey traverse between twosuccessive stations[25].
leucophor. One of a family of opticalbrightening agents that have been usedwith some degree of success in water-tracing experiments. It has no color, butis readily detected by its distinctivefluorescence under ultra-violent light[9].
levee. An artificial bank to preventoverbank flow of a river[16].
level. 1. Within a cave, a group of passagesdeveloped in the same horizontal plane[10]. 2. The altitudinal relation of a cave floorto an outside surface[10]. 3. The surface ofwater in a well or standing reservoir[16].
lift. The vertical pumping distance betweenthe water level in a well to the landsurface[16].
light hole. (Jamaican.) 1. A hole in the roofof a cave through which light enters;sometimes a nonfunctioning swallowhole[20]. 2. Fossil or abandoned swallowhole[10].
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lime. Calcium oxide, CaO; used loosely andincorrectly in referring to limestone[10].
lime sink. See sinkhole.
limestone. Sedimentary rock containing atleast 50% calcium carbonate by weight. The purer limestones consist almostentirely of calcite; less pure rocks may bereferred to as, for example, muddylimestone. Some limestones are porouswith diffuse permeability; these rarelybecome truly cavernous, though somefissure flow may occur. Where ground-water flow in less porous rocks isrestricted to bedding related fissures andsecondary fractures it can, even whenmoving very slowly, corrode the almostentirely soluble rock and lead to true cavedevelopment[9].
limestone pavement. 1. A level, or gentlyinclined, bare limestone surface scoredand fretted by karren. The stripping ofsoil or cover rocks to expose the barerock pavement is a glacial process, andthe development of the karren — both thedissolutional enlargement of the jointsand also the dissolutional carving ofrunnels — is largely post-glacial. Limestone pavements are characteristicfeatures of glaciokarst and occurextensively in the north of England, in theBurren of County Clare in Ireland and onmany high alpine limestones[9]. 2. A bareplane surface of limestone, parallel to thebedding, commonly divided into blocks(clints, Flachkarren) by solutionallywidened joints (grikes, Kluftkarren), andpitted by solution pans[10]. 3. Aglaciokarstic landform, produced on aglacially planed limestone surface whichhas subsequently become dissected into
blocks (clints or dalles) by solution-enlargement of vertical joints[19]. 3.Horizontal or sloping platforms of barelimestone whose surface usuallycoincides with bedding-plane partings ofthe rock; often eroded into clint andgrikes rock forms[20]. Synonyms:(French.) plateforme calcaire; (German.)Kalk Plattform, Limestone Pavement;(Greek.) karstikon lithostroton;(Spanish.) lapiaz entrecruzado; (Turkish.)kireçtaÕ2 döÕemesi. See also clints;grikes; Karrenfeld.
limestone sink. see sinkhole.
limnology. The study of lakes[16].
line of seepage. See seepage line.
lineation. The parallel orientation ofstructural features that are lines ratherthan planes. Some examples are parallelorientation of the long dimensions ofminerals, long axes of pebbles, striae onslickensides, and cleavage-bedding planeintersections.
lintel line. A line on the ground at a caveentrance perpendicularly beneath theouter edge of the rock above; may or maynot coincide with the dripline[25]. See alsodripline.
liquid. An incompressible or nearlyincompressible fluid.
liquid medium. Contains the aquaticcavernicoles[25].
lithologic factor. The factor influencingcomposition, texture, and sequence ofrock types[16].
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lithology. 1. The physical characteristic of arock, including composition, grain size,texture, degree of cementation (orlithification) and structure, that determinethe rock type[9]. 2. The physicalproperties and aspect of a rock[16].
lithosol. A rocky soil[16].
lithosphere. That part of the earth’s crustcontaining solid rocks[16].
lithostratigraphy. A formal naming systemthat allows the description of rocksuccessions in terms of recognizabledefined units on a local scale. The units,which comprise supergroups, groups,formations, members and beds indecreasing order of size, are described onthe basis of observable characteristics[9].
littoral zone. The coastal strip where rocksthat are above sea-level are in contactwith rocks that are generally below sea-level. Where suitable aquifer conditionsoccur across the littoral zone, notablyaround relatively young carbonate islands,fresh ground-water interfaces with salineground-water at the halocline anddissolutional processes are enhanced bymixing water and, possibly, by microbialeffects[9].
live cave. Cave in which there is riveraction or active deposition ofspeleothems. Compare active cave[10].
LNAPL. Abbreviation for light nonaqueousphase liquid. Liquids falling into thiscategory have specific gravities that areless than water (the specific gravity forwater is usually taken to be one), arerelatively immiscible with water, and tend
to migrate downwards through the vadoseand to float on top of the water table. Seealso LNAPL; immiscible; NAPL.
loam. Calcareous clay[16].
localized circulation. Circulation in karstaquifers in which the water moves incertain preferred zones and does notoccupy all or most of the openings belowthis level[10]. Synonyms: (French.)circulation préfèrentielle; (German.)Örtlich begrenzte Karstwaßer-Zirkulation; (Italian.) circolazionecarsica parziale; (Spanish.) circulaciónlocalizada; (Turkish.) yersel dolaÕim;(Yugoslavian.) lokalizirana (lokalna)cirkulacija. Compare diffuse circulation.
lodgement till. Glacial till deposited fromslowly melting ice at the base of aglacier[16].
loess. Fine-grained and poorly consolidatedwindblown sediment, mainly of silt. Great thicknesses of loess are found inareas marginal to hot and cold deserts,where the prevailing wind deposits finedust particles blown from the desertbasins or out of glaciofluvial sediments. Loess is a common allogenic componentof soils on limestones. Large numbers ofartificial caves have been excavated in thehillsides of soft loess in central China[9].
longitudinal fault. A fault having the samedirection of strike as the surroundingstrata[16].
longitudinal section; long section. Asection along the length of a cave passageor chamber or combination of these, oralong a survey traverse in a cave[25].
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loosest packing. The three-dimensionalarrangement of particles with the highestpossible void volume per unit cell[16].
losing stream. A stream or reach of astream in which water flows from thestream bed into the ground[22]. In karstterranes, losing streams may slowly sinkinto fractures or completely disappeardown a ponor. Synonym: influent stream. See also ponor; stream sink.
lost circulation. The result of drilling fluidescaping from a borehole into theformation by way of crevices within theformation[6]. It is a common occurrencein most karst aquifers due to the existenceof large subsurface voids that aresometimes intersected during a drillingprogram.
lost river. 1. A surface river or streamflowing onto or over karst that thendisappears completely undergroundthrough a swallow hole (ponor) andwhich may or may not rise again and flowas a resurgent surface river or stream[20]. 2. In a karst region, a surface stream thatenters an underground course[10]. Synonyms: (French.) perte de rivière;(German.) Flußversickerung,Flußchwinde; (Greek.) chanomenospotamos; (Russian.) iscezajuscaja reka;(Spanish.) rio sumente; (Turkish.) kay2pnehir; (Yugoslavian.) ponornica,ponikalnica. See also ponornica; sinkingstream. Compare intermittent river.
lower confining bed. An impermeable bedunderlying an aquifer[16].
lower course. The part of a water coursenear a discharge point[16].
low flow. The lowest sustaining flow duringbase runoff conditions of a river[16].
Lycopodium spores. 1. The spores of a clubmoss, with individual structures about0.03mm in diameter. Easily transportedby and almost indestructible in cavewater, the spores can be dyed a variety ofcolors, and offer a valuable water-tracingtechnique. Preparation and collection ofthe spores is very tedious, and the methodlacks the convenience of using simpledyes[9]. 2. Spores of Lycopodiumclavatum, which can be used in natural ordyed color as a label in studyingground-water movement in karst areas[10].
lysimeter. A device for measuringpercolation and leaching losses from acolumn of soil under controlledconditions[22].
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M
Ma. Internationally accepted abbreviationfor million years, commonly applied tomeasurements of geological time. Thisabbreviation is currently used inpreference to My[9].
macrokarst. Karst area with largemorphological features. The term is noteasily defined because it lacks limits[20]. Synonym; (Italian.) merocarsismo. Compare microkarst.
macropore. A pore with dimensions suchthat capillary forces become lessimportant during flow[16].
magnesian limestone. Common but loosesynonym for dolomitic limestone ordolomite rock. The magnesian limestoneof northern England is a rock sequence ofPermian age that includes a locallyvariable number of beds of dolomiticlimestone[9].
magnesite. A cave mineral — MgCO3[11].
magnetic north. The direction to the northmagnetic pole at a given place and time.This differs from the direction towardswhich the north end of a compass pointsby a small individual compass error andby the effect of any local magneticattraction[25].
malachite. A cave mineral —Cu2(CO3)(OH)2
[11].
mammals. The class of animals thatincludes bats, mice, man, and manyothers. They typically have a bodycovering of hair and give birth to living
young, which are nursed on milk from themother's breast[23].
manatial. (Spanish.) Spring. See alsospring.
Manning equation. An equation used tocompute the velocity of uniform flow inopen channel: V=1.486/n R2/3 S1/2, whereV is the mean velocity of flow (in cfsunits), R is the hydraulic radius in feet, Sis the slope of the channel or sine of theslope angle, and n is the Manningroughness coefficient[1]. See also Chézyequation; Froude number; Reynoldsnumber.
manometer. A pressure measuring devicefor determining the hydraulic headdeveloped by a flowing fluid[16].
mantled karst. Karst topography that iswholly or partly covered by a relativelythin veneer of post-karst rock or sedimentand is part of the contemporarylandscape[17]. See also buried karst;covered karst.
marble. 1. Metamorphosed andrecrystallized carbonate rock that isgenerally capable of supporting cavedevelopment. For example much of theAntro del Corchia in Italy and many cavesin the South Nordland area of Norwayhave formed in marble[9]. 2. Limestonerecrystallized and hardened by heat andpressure. 3. Commercially, any limestonethat will take a high polish[10].
marine relict. An animal whose presentlyextinct ancestors lived in salt water butbecame adapted to life in fresh water
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when an area formerly covered by the seabecame dry land[23].
marine water. Ocean water having invadedcoastal aquifers[16].
marginal polje. 1. Flat plain surrounded byhigher limestone country on all exceptone side which consists of impermeableridges or hills. Such a feature is normallyfound on the edge of a karst area orregion[20]. 2. Flat limestone plain which issurrounded by higher country but isbordered on one side by imperviousrock[10]. Synonyms: (French.) poljemarginal; (German.) Randpolje,Semipolje; (Greek.) perithoriakón ‘polje’;(Italian.) polje marginale; (Spanish.)polje marginal; (Turkish.) kenar gölova;(Yugoslavian.) rubno polje, robno polje. See Randpolje. Compare blind valley.
marker bed. A bed with characteristicfeatures that can be followed over largeareas for identification purposes[16].
marl. Unconsolidated sedimentary rockconsisting largely of calcium carbonateand clay; usage varies from calcareousclay to earthy limestone, and in someparts of the United States, the term hasbeen used for any unconsolidatedsedimentary rock containing fossilshells[10].
mass curve. A graph of cumulative valuesof a hydrological quantity against time[16].
mass density. Mass per unit volume of asubstance[16].
mass flowmeter. A measuring device formass flow rates[16].
massive structure. A homogenousstructure without any oriented features[16].
master cave. Best defined as a low leveltrunk streamway cave with manytributaries. The old concept of the mastercave being formed at the water tableshould be disregarded. The Leck FellMaster Cave, in the Yorkshire Dales, is2km long, partly a vadose canyon, partly adrained phreatic tube and partly asubmerged tube. Part of it therefore liesbelow the water table while elsewhere itspresence controls the water table. TheFrench equivalent, ‘collecteur’, is moredescriptive of the master cave’s true role. The depth to a currently active mastercave is dictated by interactions betweenlocal topography, stratigraphical factorsand geological structure. In the low hillkarst of England and Kentucky, activemaster caves lie at depths of around100m, but in Monte Canin, Italy, and theHautla Plateau, Mexico, they lie at depthsof 1000m. The collecteur of the GouffreBerger, France, is met just 250m downbut can be followed to a depth of over1000m, down the dipping limestone beds,thus emphasizing the local dominance ofstratigraphical over topographicalfactors[9].
match point. A common point in thesuperposition of a type curve overmeasured data in aquifer test analyses.
matric potential. The energy required toextract water from a porous medium toovercome the capillary and adsorptiveforces[22].
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matrix. The solid framework of a poroussystem[22].
maximum basin relief. The elevationdifference between basin mouth andhighest point within a basin perimeter[16].
maze cave. A cave with an essentiallyhorizontal network of interconnecting andmainly contemporaneous passage loops. Three broad types of maze cave havebeen described — anastomotic, networkand spongework — and these may besubdivided on the basis of how theydeveloped by slow-moving water,restricted to a confined, artesian aquifer,or by water that is ponded due tobackflooding. A mechanism ofpotentially great importance, particularlyin the context of the inception of networkmaze caves, is multiple, diffuse inputfrom adjacent, permeable but non-cavernous rocks. Spectacular joint-guided maze caves such as Knock FellCaverns and the Devis Hole MineCaverns occur in the thin Yoredalelimestones of the northern Pennines, butthe most extensive mazes are in the BlackHills of Dakota, USA (including JewelCave) and in the Ukrainian gypsum karst(including Optimisticeskaja)[9]. See alsomaze cave pattern.
maze cave pattern. A cave system whichconsists of a labyrinth of intersectingpassages of rather uniform character thatform closed loops. See also anastomoticcave pattern; maze cave; network cavepattern; spongework cave pattern.
mean deviation. A linear mean of absolutedeviations[16].
mean value. The statistical average ormeasure of central tendency[16].
meander. 1. Overdeveloped and self-exaggerated bend is a stream course eitheron the surface or underground, caused bymore erosion on the outside than on theinside of a bend due to natural wash ofthe flow. Undergound meanderscommonly originate within bedding planeguided elements of the phreas, where asingle dominant tube has gathereddrainage from the surrounding area. Following uplift and the onset of vadoseconditions any stream that utilizes themeandering tube incises rapidly and theimposed meander course is entrenchedinto the underlying rocks. Such incisionor entrenchment produces characteristictall, narrow, twisting vadose canyons, tosuch an extent that the French describethem as ‘meandres’. Canyons maymeander more at their lower levels, due toenlargement during incision[9]. 2. A loop-like bend in a river due to lateral erosionactivities[16]. 3. In a cave, an arcuatecurve in a channel formed by lateralshifting of a cave stream[10]. See ceilingmeander; meander niche.
meander belt. A zone within whichmeandering of a stream occurs[16].
meandering karren. These are smallgrooves cut directly into the rock surface,generally a few centimeters wide anddeep. Their size remains the same ordecreases downslope and usually exhibitsmall meanders with typical undercutslopes and slip-off slopes. Theyfrequently appear in the bottom of largergrooves such as rinnenkarren[3]. See also
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wall karren; humus-water grooves. Synonym: (German.) Mäanderkarren.
meander niche. A conical or crescent--shaped opening in the wall of a cave,formed by the downward and lateralerosion of a stream on the floor of apassage[10].
measuring flume. An artificial channelused for discharge measurements.
measuring weir. A device used to measureflow rates indirectly through a weir head.
mechanical ascender. A mechanical devicethat is the same as an ascender, but isused to clarify the use of a mechanicaldevice instead of a rope ascender knot[13]. See also ascender.
mechanical cover. A mechanical coveringof a free water surface to preventevaporation.
mechanical dispersion. The processwhereby solutes are mechanically mixedduring advective transport caused by thevelocity variations at the microscopiclevel. Synonymous with hydraulicdispersion[22].
mechanical dispersion, coefficient. Thecomponent of mass transport flux ofsolutes caused by velocity variations atthe microscopic level. Synonymous withconvective diffusion[22].
median. A value dividing frequency ofvarieties into two equal portions[16].
medicinal spring. See spring, medicinal.
medium sand. Grain particle with adiameter of 0.25 to o.5 mm[16].
Meinzer unit. A measure of hydraulicconductivity as gpd/ft2 under a unithydraulic gradient[16].
melanterite. A cave mineral —FeSO4"7H2O[11].
melting. The passage from the solid to theliquid state due to temperatureincreases[16].
melting point. The temperature at which asolid substance is transformed into itsliquid state[16].
meltwater. Water derived from the meltingof snow pack or of a glacier[16].
meniscus. A free surface or interfaceformed by liquid in a capillary tube[16].
mercury column. A cylindrical bore in amanometer filled with mercury[16].
mercury injection method. Ameasurement of porosity by mercuryinjection into a sample[16].
merokarst. 1. Defined by Cvijiƒ to indicateimperfect karst topography as found onthin, impure, or chalky limestone wheresurface drainage and dry valleys arepresent in addition to some karstic fea-tures[10]. 2. Karst developed in solublerocks retaining considerable surfacedrainage. Synonyms: (French.)merokarst; (Turkish.) yar2 karst. Contrast perfectly formed Holokarst. Compare causse.
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mesh. 1. An opening in a sieve screen[16]. 2.Number of openings per inch[16].
mesophyte. A plant growing underintermediate moisture conditions[16].
metabolic rate. The rate at which a livingthing transforms food into energy andbody tissue. The higher its metabolicrate, the more food it must consume. Most cave animals live at a reducedmetabolic rate[23].
metabolism. The sum of the chemicalactivities taking place in the cells of aliving thing; the sum of the processes bywhich a living thing transforms food intoenergy and living tissue[23].
metamorphosis. A change in the form of aliving thing as it matures, especially thedrastic transformation from a larva to anadult[23]. See also pupa.
meteoric water. Water recently involved inatmospheric circulation[16].
meteorology. The science dealing with allphysical phenomena occurring in theatmosphere[16].
mexican onyx. See onyx marble.
micrite. A microscopic texture. Anabbreviation of ‘microcrystalline calciteooze’ which refers to precipitated finelycrystalline carbonate sediments in grainsfrom 1 to 4 microns in diameter[20]. Synonyms: (French.) micrite; (Greek.)micrite; (Italian.) micrite; (Spanish.)micrita; (Turkish.) mikrit; (Yugoslavian.)mikrit. See biomicrite, peloid.
microclimate. "Little climate." Theenvironmental conditions, such astemperature; humidity, and air movement,in a very restricted area, such as asheltered nook in a cave wall[23].
microgour. Miniature rimstone dams withassociated tiny pools of the order of 1cmwide and deep on flowstone[25].
microhabitat. A miniature habitat within alarger one; a restricted area whereenvironmental conditions differ fromthose in the surrounding area. A shelterednook in a cave wall is an example of amicrohabitat within the cave[23].
microkarren. Very small dissolutionalchannels, commonly 1–3mm across;parallel, convergent or randomlyintersecting on a limestone surface. Though found in all climatic regions theyare most conspicuous in semi-arid andperiglacial environments, wheredissolutional processes are minimal andvery slow. The random patterns of somemicrokarren may be due to the effects ofcondensation water[9].
microkarst. 1. Karst area with smallmorphological features. Term is noteasily applied because it lacks limits[20]. 2. Karst topography in which all surficialfeatures are small; an area dominated byminor karst features[10]. Comparemacrokarst.
microspar. A microscopic texture. Mosaicof tiny (4 to 10 micron diameters) clearcalcite crystal[20]. Synonyms: (French.)microsparite; (Greek.) mikrosparítis(mikroskopikón, mosaikón kristállon);
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(Italian.) microsparite; (Spanish.)microesparita; (Turkish.) mikrospar.
middens. Accumulations of animaldroppings other than guano and oftenfound in caves; may be solidified[13]. Seealso cave guano; guano cave; coprolite.
migration. The movement of water,contaminants, or other fluids in thegeologic substratum, mostly by naturalcauses[16].
mine drainage. Waters coming from orpassing through surface or subsurfacemine workings[16].
mine water. Water accumulating in a mine.
minerals. Mineral components of a rock,often in macrocrystalline form[16].
mineral spring. See spring, mineral.
mining of ground water. The permanentdepletion of ground-water reserves[16].
minor karst features. See karren; rill;solution pan.
mirabilite. The natural white mineral formof hydrated sodium sulfate,Na2SO4"10H2O[9], which may grow ascave flowers or in various other formssimilar to those of gypsum.
Mischungskorrosion. (German.) Dissolution of calcite (and hence oflimestone) by ground water that is derivedfrom the mixing of two different watersthat were originally saturated with carbondioxide but had reached saturation underdiffering carbon dioxide partial pressures.
The resultant mixture is undersaturatedand capable of further calcite dissolution,because the relationship between calcitesolubility and carbon dioxide partialpressure is non-linear[9].
miscible. 1. Two or more liquids that aremutually soluble (i.e. they will dissolvein each other[22]. 2. The chemical propertyof two or more phases that, when broughttogether, have the ability to mix and formone phase[22].
miscible displacement. 1. The mutualmixing and movement of two fluids thatare soluble in each other[22]. 2. Thedisplacement of a fluid saturating aporous medium by another fluidcompletely miscible with the first fluid[16]. Synonymous with miscible-phasedisplacement.
mixing length. The length over whichmixing occurs, especially of momentumin turbulent flow[16].
mixture corrosion. SeeMischungskorrosion.
mode. The most frequently occurringvariate in a frequency distribution[16].
model. 1. A conceptual, mathematical, orphysical system obeying certain specifiedconditions, whose behavior is used tounderstand the physical system to whichit is analogous in someway[22]. 2. Aconceptual description and the associatedmathematical representation of a system,subsystem, components, or condition thatis used to predict chances from a baselinestate as a function of internal and/orexternal stimuli and as a function of time
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and space[22]. 3. A simplified systembearing some physical similarity to aprototype[16].
model technique. A method of solvingcomplex physical problems through theapplication of simplified models[16].
mogote. A steep-sided hill of limestone,generally surrounded by nearly flatalluviated plains: karst inselberg. Orig-inally used in Cuba in referring toresidual hills of folded limestone in theSierra de los Organos but now usedinternationally for karst residual hills inthe Tropics[10]. Differs from cone, cupola,pinnacle and tower karst in its shapewhich reflects its karstification history[20]. Synonyms: (French.) mogote; (German.)(Karstinselberg), Mogote; (Greek.)‘moghotis’ (apókrimnos, asvestólofosperikliómenos apó proschomatikaspediadas); (Italian.) mogote, rilievocarsico residuo; (Spanish.) mogote;(Turkish.) karst kal2nt2 tepesi;(Yugoslavian.) hum. See also hum; karstinselberg; pepino hill.
moisture content. 1. The ratio; expressedas a percentage, of either (a) the weight ofwater to the weight of solid particlesexpressed as moisture weight percentageor (b) the volume of water to the volumeof solid particles expressed as moisturevolume percentage in a given volume ofporous medium[22]. 2. The gravimetricwater vapor content of air[16]. See alsowater content.
moisture deficiency. The quantity of waterrequired to restore moisture to fieldcapacity in a desiccated soil[16].
moisture equivalent. The percentage ofwater retained in a soil sample 1 cm thickafter it has been saturated and subjectedto a centrifugal force 1000 times gravityfor 30 min. Centrifuge moistureequivalent is the water content of a soilafter it has been saturated with water andthen subjected for 1 hour to a force equalto 1000 times that of gravity[22].
moisture tension. The equivalent negativepressure of water in an unsaturated porousmedium equal to the pressure that must beapplied to the medium to bring the waterto hydraulic equilibrium through a porouspermeable material with a pool of waterof the same composition. Synonym:capillary tension[22].
moisture volume percentage. The ratio ofthe volume of water in a soil to the totalbulk volume of the soil[22].
moisture weight percentage. The moisturecontent expressed as a percentage of theoven-dry weight of a soil[22].
mold. A microscopic form of fungusresponsible for much food spoilage and,in caves, for conspicuous tufts quicklycovering scats, dead insects and bats, andeven wooden structures such asladders[23].
molecular diffusion (diffusion.) Theprocess whereby solutes are transported atthe microscopic level due to variations inthe solute concentrations within the fluidphases[22]. The kinetic energy generatedby the transport of ionic or molecularconstituents results in some dispersion ofa chemical.
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molecular diffusion, coefficient of. Thecomponent of mass transport flux ofsolutes (at the microscopic level) due tovariations in solute concentrations withinthe fluid phases. Synonymous withdiffusion coefficient[22].
molecule. A stable configuration of atomicnuclei and electrons bound together byelectrostatic and electromagnetic forces. It is the simplest structural unit thatdisplays the characteristic physical andchemical properties of a compound[6].
mollisol. A soil layer subject annualthawing and freezing, often becomingmobile upon thawing[16].
monetite. A cave mineral — CaHPO4[11].
monohydrocalcite. A cave mineral —CaCO3"H2O[11].
monomolecular film. A layer ofmonomolecular thickness of a polarsubstance spread over a free water surfaceto prevent evaporation.
montgomeryite. A cave mineral —Ca4MgAl4(PO4)6(OH)4"12H2O[11].
montmorillonite. A clay mineralcontaining magnesium oxide (MgO) in itsstructure[16].
moonmilk. 1. A white plastic calcareouscave deposit composed of calcite, huntite,or magnesite. From Swiss dialect moon-milch, elf’s milk. Corrupt spellingmondmilch is common[10]. 2. Depositsconsisting mainly of very fine particles ofcalcium and magnesium carbonateprecipitated from water in caves and
caverns. When in suspension, they givethe water the appearance of milk. Nameoriginated in 1714 by M. B. Valentini(Fénelon)[20]. 3. Moonmilk consists of avariety of hydrocarbonates some of whichare associated with particular species ofbacteria. A common mineral inmoonmilk from temperate caves ishydromagnesite; cold caves yieldmoonmilk of calcite after hydrocalcite[20]. Synonyms: (French.) mondmilch;(German.) Bergmilch, Montmilch;(Greek.) speleogala; (Italian.) latte dimonte; (Russian.) kamennce moloko;(Spanish.) mondmilch, leche de luna;(Turkish.) dik karstik kal2nt2;(Yugoslavian.) gorsko mlijeko (mleko). Also mountain milk.
moor. A wet peat bog[16].
moulin. The French word for ‘mil’, moulinhas been used to describe partiallydissolutional, partially scoured pocketscut in rock, particularly the potholesformed in the beds of surface andunderground streams. In some areassinkholes in the surface of glaciers, whichmay provide access to glacier caves, arealso referred to as moulins[9].
mountain milk. See moonmilk.
moraine. A mound, ridge, or other distinctaccumulation of unsorted, unstratifiedglacial drift, predominantly till, depositedchiefly by direct action of glacier ice[6].
morphometric analysis. A geodetic andgeometric description of basin and streamnetwork or to a sinkhole plain[16].
126
mud. Water saturated fine clayey earthmaterial[16].
mud crack. Desiccation cracks appearingin drying mud surfaces due toshrinkage[16].
mud pendulite. A pendulite with the knobcoated in mud[25].
mud stalagmite. 1. Stalagmitic columnmade of mud or clay with about 30%calcium carbonate cement. There may besome coarse noncalcareous detritus in thecore of such a column[20]. 2. Stalagmitecomposed principally of clay or sandyclay and commonly less than 30%calcium carbonate[10]. Synonyms:(French.) stalagmite d’argile; (German.)Stalagmit aus Tonschlamm; (Greek.)pilostagmitis; (Italian.) stalagmite difango; (Spanish.) ostalagmita de barro;(Turkish.) çamur dikiti. Related tostalagmite.
mudflow. A flow of water saturatedunconsolidated debris[16].
multiaquifer formation. A formation withseveral aquifers overlying each other[16].
multiaquifer well. A well completed andtapping several aquifers[16].
mutation. A sudden change in the geneticmaterial of an organism's germ cells,resulting in offspring that possesscharacteristics markedly different fromthose of either parent. Mutationsgenerally are harmful, but occasionallymay improve an organism’s chances forsurvival[23]. See also adaptation;evolution.
My. See Ma.
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N
Nackter karst. (German.) See exposedkarst.
Nacktkarst. (German.) See exposed karst.
naked karst, bare karst. Karst topographydeveloped beneath a temporary cover. Some naked karsts develop beneath atemporary cover of snow (nival karst) orwater[17]. Synonyms: (French.) karst nu;(German.) oberflächlicher nackter Karst;(Greek.) gymnon karst; (Italian.) carsonudo; (Russian.) goly0 karst or otkryty0karst; (Spanish.) karst desnudo;(Turkish.) ç2plak karst; (Yugoslavian.)goli krš. See also exposed karst.
NAPL. Abbreviation for nonaqueous phaseliquid. This term is used to describe thephysico- chemical that exist between abulk hydrocarbon and water which resultsin the two liquids being immiscible withone another (i.e. little or no mixing of thetwo liquids occurs.) The interface is aphysical dividing surface between thebulk phases of the two liquids. NAPLsare divided into two categories; LNAPLsand DNAPLs. See also DNAPL;immiscible; LNAPL.
nari. Term used in the countries borderingthe Eastern Mediterranean for caliche orhardpan[20]. See caliche, sabath.
narrow. A passage of restricted widthbetween two caves or hollows in the karstunderground; often not readilytraversable[20]. Synonyms: (French.)étroiture; (German.) Enge; (Greek.) stenoperasma; (Italian.) strettoia; (Russian.)laz; (Spanish.) laminador, gatera;
(Turkish.) a—iz geçit; (Yugoslavian.)sutjeska, klisura, soteska.
native ground water. Original groundwater[16].
natural arch. 1. A residual portion of theroof of a subsurface karst cavity whichhas not collapsed. Such a natural archmay occur as a surface topographicfeature, or as a part of a cave system[20]. 2. A rock arch or very short naturaltunnel; contrasted with natural bridge,which spans a ravine or valley[10]. Synonyms: (French.) arche naturelle;(German.) natürlisches Gewölbe,Naturbrücke, Felsfenster, Felsbrücke;(Greek.) physike apsitha; (Italian.) arconaturale; (Russian.) estestvennij arka;(Spanish.) arco natural; (Turkish.) do™alkemer; (Yugoslavian.) prirodni svod, luk,naravni obok. See also natural bridge.
natural bridge. 1. A residual portion of theroof of a subterranean stream which hasnot collapsed and is found bridging avalley. Normally a surface feature, butmay be used to describe a similaroccurrence in a cave system[20]. 2. A rockbridge spanning a ravine and not yeteroded away[10]. Synonyms: (French.)pont naturel; (German.) Naturbrücke,Felsbrücke; (Greek.) physiki gefyra;(Italian.) ponte naturale; (Russian.)estestvennij most; (Spanish.) puentenatural; (Turkish.) do™al köprü;(Yugoslavian.) prirodni most, naravnimost. See also natural arch.
natural levee. A river bank raised by theriver’s own depositions[16].
128
natural load. Sediment carried by a stablestream[16].
natural tunnel. A nearly horizontal caveopen at both ends, generally fairly straightin direction and fairly uniform in crosssection[10].
natural water. Water with a mineralcontent occurring under naturalconditions.
natural well. (Jamaican.) A vertical shaftin limestone, open to the surface andhaving water at the bottom; similar to acenote[10]. Synonym: (Italian.) pozzocarsico.
neck. A volcanic pipe filled with lava[16].
necrophage. A scavenger feeding onanimal carcasses (not prey)[25].
neomorphism. A microscopic texture. Acomplex of processes whereby a mosaicof finely crystalline carbonate is replacedby a coarser (sparry) mosaic without thedevelopment of visible porosity. Dominant reactions are the wettransformation of aragonite to calcite andrecrystallization. The process is‘porphyroid’ where some of theneomorphic crystals are conspicuouslylarger than those which surround them[20]. Synonyms: (French.) néomorphisme;(German.) Neomorphismus ?; (Greek.)neomorphismós; (Spanish.) neomorfismo;(Turkish.) neomorfizm.
neoteny. The condition of retaining larvalform and behavior even as a matureindividual. Certain salamanders inparticular are neotenic[23].
neptunian deposits. Younger sediment orsedimentary rock that infills pre-existingcavities, such as grikes, dolines or cavepassages, in older rocks. The mostcommon form is a fissure fill, known as aneptunian dike. Neptunian depositsoccupy voids in non-karstic as well askarstic rocks, and the combination of voidand fill may subsequently be buried bystill younger rocks. They may thusbecome part of a paleokarst[9].
nesquehonite. A cave mineral —Mg(HCO3)(OH)"2H2O[11].
nested sinkholes. (American.) See uvala.
net radiation. The sum of incident andreflected sun and sky shortwave radiationplus incident and reflected atmosphericlong-wave radiation[16].
network cave pattern. A type of mazecave characterized by a complex patternof repeatedly connected passages in acave system. In map view, this type ofmaze cave appears similar to a city streetmap. It is typically formed bysolutionally aggressive water infiltratingthrough fractures in an overlyinginsoluble cap-rock thus exhibiting a joint-controlled pattern. Synonym: labyrinth.
neutrality point. The separation pointbetween acid and basic solution with a pHof 7.0[16].
neuromast. One of the individual senseorgans that make up the lateral linesystems of fishes and amphibians[23]. Seealso cupula.
129
nife cell. A rechargeable alkaline battery foruse with an electric-cap lamp[25].
nip. An undercutting notch in rock,particularly limestone, along a seacoastbetween high and low tide levels alongsea coasts and produced by solution anderosion. Most common along coasts withlimited tidal variation[20]. Synonyms:(French.) resserrement, étranglement;(German.) Kliff ?, Brandungsmarke;(Greek.) káto engopí vráchou; (Italian.)solco di battigia; (Spanish.) socavaciónmarina; (Turkish.) dalga yar2™2 çenti™i.
nis####a. See aisle.
niter. A white orthorhombic mineral —KNO3. It is a soluble crystalline salt thatoccurs as a product of nitrification inmost arable soils in hot, dry regions, andin the loose earth forming the floors ofsome natural caves[1]. Synonyms:saltpeter; potassium nitrate.
nitrammite. A cave mineral — NH4NO3[11].
nitrocalcite. A cave mineral —Ca(NO3)2"4H2O[11].
nitromagnesite. A cave mineral —Mg(NO3)2"6H2O[11].
nival karst. Alpine karst[1].
nivo-karst. A karst-like topographyproduced by the differential chemicalweathering beneath snowbanks fromsnowmelt containing carbonic acid. It isfound mostly in periglacial areas[1].
node point. The intersection point on agrid[16].
nodule. A small, irregularly rounded knot,mass, or lump of a mineral or mineralaggregate, normally having a warty orknobby surface and no internal structure,and usually exhibiting a contrastingcomposition from the enclosing sedimentor rock matrix in which it is embedded(e.g. a chert nodule in limestone.) Mostnodules appear to be secondary structuresin sedimentary rocks they are primarilythe result of post depositionalreplacement of the rock and arecommonly elongated parallel to thebedding. Nodules can be separated asdiscrete masses from the host material[1].
noethphreatic flow. A type of conduit flowthat is always laminar[9].
nominal. Used to describe standard sizesfor pipe from 1/8 inch to 12 inches (3.2mm to 304 mm.) The nominal size isspecified on the basis of the insidediameter. Depending on the wallthickness, the inside diameter may be lessthan or greater than the numberindicated[6].
nongraded. An engineering term pertainingto a soil or an unconsolidated sedimentconsisting of particles of essentially thesame size[6].
non-point source. 1. Any source, otherthan a point source, which dischargespollutants into air or water[22]. 2. Sourceoriginating over broad areas, such as areasof fertilizer and pesticide application andleaking sewer systems, rather than fromdiscrete points[22].
non-recording gage. A standard rain gage(8 is standard in U.S.)[16].
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normal depth. The depth at which uniformflow occurs in an open channel[16].
normal fault. A fault in which the upperblock appears to have moved downwardrelative to the lower block.
Northing. 1. The distance of a point northof the point of origin of the grid of a map,or some abbreviation of it. 2. Thesouth-north component of a survey leg, orof a series of legs, or of a completetraverse; north is positive and south isnegative[25].
nothephreatic. Referring to water movingslowly in cavities in the phreatic zone[25].
numbering. Assigning an alphanumericindex to a cave entrance[25].
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O
oasis. A limited area in a desert suppliedwith water[16].
obruk. Turkish form for a vertical orsteepsided depression or shaft in karst,often formed by collapse of roof of anunderground cave or cavern. When thedepression contains a lake of pond, it isknown as ‘sulu obruk’ or ‘obruk gölü’. When it is dry, it is called ‘kuru obruk’ orjust ‘obruk’. Synonyms: (French.) obruk;(German.) Schlot; (Greek.) ‘obruk’(káthetos karstikós lákkos); (Italian.)pozzo carsico; (Spanish.) torca;(Turkish.) obruk; (Yugoslavian.) jama. See cenote, dolina, jama, pit, shaft,sinkhole.
obsequent river. A river flowing in adirection opposite to that of the dip of theunderlying strata[16].
observation well. A well drilled for thepurpose of observations such as waterlevel or pressure recordings[16].
oceanic water. Sea water with a total saltcontent of about 34,500 ppm[16].
ojo, ojo de agua. (Spanish.) An artesianspring in limestone regions, especiallyone forming a small pond; a vauclusianspring[10].
olivenite. A cave mineral —Cu2(AsO4)(OH)[11].
omnivore. An animal that habitually eatsboth plants and animals[23]. See alsocarnivore; herbivore; insectivore.
onyx marble. Translucent layers of calciumcarbonate from cave deposits, often calledMexican onyx or cave onyx; used as anornamental stone[10].
oolite. A type of limestone that is composedlargely or partly of ooliths. Also knownas oolitic limestone. The best knownexamples in Britain, within the Jurassiclimestone sequence of the Cotswolds, areof only moderate strength, very porousand only weakly cavernous. In contrast,oolites of early Carboniferous age havehosted extensive cave developmentbeneath Mymydd Llangattwg and in otherparts of South Wales[9].
oolith. A small ovoid to sphericalaccretionary particle, usually composed ofconcentric layers of calcium carbonate. Such ooliths, cemented together bycalcium carbonate, iron salts or otherminerals, are the major constituent ofoolite or oolitic limestone[9].
oolitic. Of spherical or ovoidal shape[16].
opal. A cave mineral — SiO2"nH2O[11].
open system. A system where matter andenergy may cross a system boundary[16].
open traverse. A traverse which does notclose onto a survey point of knowncoordinates and orientation or ontoitself[25].
Opferkessel. See solution pan.
optical brighteners. Material contained inlaundry detergents to make ‘whiteswhiter’ and used in environmental tracingstudies. Common types are, Tinopal
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CBS-X, Tinopal 5BM GX, and PhorwiteBBH Pure. Dye type: Stilbene. See alsofluorescent dyes.
ore karst. Formation of interstices, cavernscaves and other karst forms produced bysolution in water from thermal springsand ore-bearing solutions[20]. Synonyms:(French.) karst minier; (German.)Zwischenräume, Kavernen, Höhlen imKarst, gebildet durch Thermalwässeroder erzhaltige Lösungen; (Greek.)thermometallikon karst; (Italian.)carsismo per dissoluzione idrotermale;(Russian.) rudnij karst; (Spanish.) karsttermomineral; (Turkish.) cevher karst2;(Yugoslavian.) rudni krs# (kras).
organic. Pertaining to anything that is orever was alive or produced by a livingplant or animal. Organic material broughtinto the cave from outside is virtually theonly source of food for cave dwellers[23].
organic deposit. Deposits of calcareous andsiliceous remains of animals[16].
organic pollution. Contaminationoriginating from organic sources[16].
orientation. 1. The assignment orimposition of a definite direction inspace; the act of establishing the correctrelationship in direction, usually withreference to the points of the compass. Also, the of being in such relationship. 2.In describing crystal form and symmetry,the placing of the crystal so that itscrystallographic axes are in theconventional position. 3. The directionin which an aerial photograph is turnedwith respect to observer or map. A singlephoto is best oriented for study whenturned so that the shadows are cast toward
the observer. 4. Directional arrangementof nonspherical grains in a sandaggregate[16].
original dip. Dip due to deposition ofsediments[16].
original interstice. Interstice formed duringrock formation stage[16].
orographic precipitation. Precipitationdue to mechanical lifting of air over aground relief[16].
orthogonal. Perpendicular.
otkry0000 karst. (Russian.) See naked karst.
oulopholite. See cave flower.
outcrop. An open exposure of bedrock orotherwise buried material[16].
outflow cave. Cave from which streamflows out or formerly did so[10]. Synonym: effluent cave.
outlet cave. A cave developed at the pointof re-emergence of an underground karstwatercourse[19].
output point. A point where water existsfrom an underground drainage route oraquifer. An obvious output point is asurface resurgence or exsurgence, wheredrainage emerges from a conduit system. Less obvious are points where drainageleaves a carbonate aquifer and enters anadjacent non-carbonate bed, such as asandstone aquifer[9].
outwash. Stratified sand and gravelremoved or washed out from a glacier by
133
meltwater streams and deposited in frontof or beyond the end moraine or themargin of an active glacier. The coarsermaterial is deposited nearer to the ice[6].
outwash gravel. Glacial drift materialdeposited by streams from a glacier[16].
outwash plain. Plain in front of a glacierthat is composed of outwash material[16]. A broad, gently sloping sheet ofoutwash[6].
ouvala. (French.) See uvala.
oven-dry. The degree of dryness of aporous sample after drying in an oven at aspecified temperature[16].
overbank area. An area covered by floodwaters overtopping natural or artificialriver banks[16].
overburden. 1. The loose soil, sand, silt, orclay that overlies bedrock. In someusages it refers to all material overlyingthe point of interest. 2. The total cover ofsoil and rock overlying an undergroundexcavation.
overburden pressure. The pressure exertedby weight of the overburden column[16].
overflow spring. See spring, overflow.
overland flow. Surface runoff flowing overthe land surface towards a channel[16].
overthrust. Upthrust fault with a very lowangle of dip and a relatively large netdisplacement[16].
oxbow. Abandoned loop of a stream course,Original usage, applied to surface rivers,describes short-circuited meander loopsbut in caves the term is applied to dryloop passages of any shape and origin[9].
oxidation. The combining of an elementwith oxygen[6].
oxygen demand. The ability of substancesto utilize dissolved oxygen in water.
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P
packing. The three-dimensionalarrangement of particles[16].
pahoehoe. (Hawaiian.) Lava flows with asmooth or billowy surface in which lavatubes are found[13]. See also lava cave;pseudokarst.
paleokarst. 1. A karstified rock or area thathas been buried by later sediments; insome places, ancient caves have beencompletely filled by the latersediments[10]. 2. A decoupledcontemporary system that hasexperienced tectonic subsidence and lieunconformably beneath clastic coverrocks, occasionally becoming exhumedand re-integrated into the activesystem[17]. 3. A karst formed in the pastunder an earlier erosion cycle and often inremote geological times. The karst ispreserved by burial or suspension ofkarstification processes[20]. 4. A karstifiedsurface and the karst features associatedwith it, such as caves, that have beenburied by younger rocks. Paleokarsticfeatures at various scales may berecognized within most carbonatesuccessions. More rarely they may be re-exposed (exhumed) by the effects of lateruplift and erosion[9]. Synonyms: (French.)paléokarst; (German.) Paläokarst,foßiler Karst; (Greek.) paleokarst;(Italian.) paleocarsismo, carsismofossile; (Russian.) paleokarst; (Spanish.)paleokarst; (Turkish.) eski karst;(Yugoslavian.) paleokrÑ, paleokras,paleokarst. See also buried karst.
paleokarstic surface. A surface, preservedwithin a carbonate succession, that was
formed by the effects of karst erosion. The presence of a paleokarstic surfaceindicates that during the deposition of thefull rock sequence the young rocks wereexposed to the effects of surface (sub-aerial) erosion. During such a non-depositional and erosional phase a fullsuite of karst features, including caves,could develop[9].
paleomagnetism. Natural remanentmagnetization preserved in rocksequences. During rock depositionmagnetic minerals are aligned accordingto the direction and polarity of the earth’scontemporary magnetic field. Aftermovement of the magnetic poles, orperiodic reversals of polarity, theremanent magnetization is preserved inthe rocks and may be measured to aididentification of stratigraphical units andto assess their relative ages[9].
paleontology. The study of life in pastgeologic time, based fossil plants andanimals and including phylogeny, theirrelationships to existing plants, animals,and environments, and the chronology ofthe Earth’s history[1].
palette. In a cave, a more or less flatprotruding sheet of crystalline calciumcarbonate spared during solution of therock on each side of it[10]. See also blade;shield. Synonym: shield.
palygorskite. A cave mineral —(Mg,Al)2Si4O10(OH)"4H2O[11].
pan coefficient. Coefficient to correlate ahigh rate of evaporation in a pan to anevaporation rate from larger waterbodies[16].
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panhole. See solution pan.
paragenesis. A type of cave passagedevelopment in which erosion of thepassage floor is inhibited by the presenceof an armoring layer of sediment, suchthat any dissolutional enlargement isdominantly upwards[9]. Generally, anunproven and unsupported theory.
paragenetic cave. Cave passage, usually ofcanyon form, believed to be created byparagenesis. Passage formation byparagenesis is normally very difficult toprove, as later sediment removal leaves apassage that looks very similar to the farmore common vadose canyon. It isthought that some of the larger canyons inthe Flint Mammoth Cave System, USA,may have formed in this way[9].
.parahopeite. A cave mineral —
Zn3(PO4)2"4H2O[11].
paraphreatic. A paraphreatic passage hasan air surface under relatively low flowconditions, when drainage is within thecapacity of its downstream continuation,but reverts to being water-filled (phreatic)under conditions of high flow or when thedownstream drainage is temporarilyimpeded[9].
parent material. Material from which soilor sediment was formed[16].
parietal fauna. Pertaining to theinhabitants on the walls of the entranceand twilight zones of a cave[23].
park. (Arizona.) Shallow broad solutiondepression[10].
particle. The smallest individualconstituent of an aggregate[16].
particulate transport. The movement ofparticles in subsurface water[22].
parting. The separation of sedimentaryrock along bedding planes[16]. Synonyms:bedding-plane; bedding-plane parting. See also bedding plane.
partition. 1. A nearly vertical residual rockmass in a cave. 2. A continuous rockspan across a cave[10].
partitioning function. A mathematicalrelation describing the distribution of areactive solute between solution and otherphases[22].
parts per million. An expression ofconcentration (ppm.) The weight perweight of a solution[16].
passage. 1. Broadly, a passage is anynegotiable part of cave system, though theusage is commonly restricted to thoseelements that tend towards the horizontalrather than vertical or sub-verticalsections. Cave passages very in size andshape, with the latter relating to the modeof origin and providing evidence of thenature of cave development mechanisms. Perhaps the largest passage in the world isDeer Cave, which is up to 170m wide and120m high, in the Mulu karst ofSarawak[9]. 2. A comparatively smallunderground opening made alongfractures, fissures, and bedding-planepartings by running water but throughwhich it is possible to pass[20]. 3. In acave, the opening between rooms orchambers[10]. Synonyms: (French.)
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galerie; (German.) Gallerie, Stollen;(Greek.) ypohios thiothos; (Italian.)cunicolo, galleria; (Russian.) hod;(Spanish.) galeria; (Turkish.) geçit;(Yugoslavian.) galerija. See alsochamber; room.
pathogenic bacteria. Disease inducingbacteria[16].
pavement. See limestone pavement.
peat. Decomposed matter, mainlyvegetable[16].
pebble. A smooth rounded rockfragment[16].
Péclet number. 1. measure of the relativecontribution of mechanical dispersion anddiffusion to solute transport. It relates theeffectiveness of mass transport byadvection to the− = −
vxD
Cx
PCxe
∂∂
∂∂
effectiveness of mass transport by eitherdispersion or diffusion . PécletP C
xe =
∂∂
2
2
numbers below .0.4 indicatediffusion/dispersion control; 0.4–6.0suggest that diffusion/dispersion andadvection are in transition and thusapproximately equal to each other; and>6.0 indicate advection control. LargePéclet numbers indicate stronglyadvective systems. 2. A relationshipbetween the advective and diffusivecomponents of solute transport expressedas the ratio of the product of the averageinterstitial velocity, times thecharacteristic length, divided by thecoefficient of molecular diffusion. Smallvalues indicate diffusion dominance,large values indicate advectiondominance[22].
pearl. See cave pearl.
pediment. An inclined erosion surfacecovered with thin fluvial deposits[16].
pendulite. A kind of stalactite which hasbeen partly submerged[25].
and the submerged part covered withdog-tooth spar to give the appearance of adrumstick.
pellicular water. 1. The film of water leftaround each grain or fracture surface ofwater-bearing material after gravitydrainage[22]. 2. Water of-adhesion[22]. 3.Water that can be extracted by rootabsorption and evaporation but cannot bemoved by gravity or by the unbalancedfilm forces resulting from localizedevaporation and transpiration[22].
peloid. A microscopic texture. Asedimentary grain composed of micritecarbonate irrespective of origin[20]. Synonyms: (French.) peloïde; (German.)mikroskopisches, sedimentäres Gefüge;(Greek.) piloidís; (Italian.) peloide;(Spanish.) peloide; (Turkish.) peloit. See micrite, pelsparite.
pelsparite. A microscopic texture. Alimestone composed of pellets (peloids)in a matrix of cement[20]. Synonyms:(French.) pelsparite; (German.)Pelsarite, Kalkstein gefügt ausKügelchen ?; (Greek.) pelsparítis;(Italian.) pelsparite; (Spanish.)pelsparita; (Turkish.) pelsparit. Seepeloids.
pendant, rock pendant. One of a group ofisolated similarly proportioned
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projections surrounded by a complex ofconnected cavities in the bedrock ceilingof a cave[10]. Formed by the rapid,differential solution of the surroundingrock[19].
pendular regime. A saturation regimewhere a porous medium has the lowestpossible saturation in the form ofpendular rings at grain contacts[16].
peneplain. A degradation surface withoutrelief[16].
pen trace. Ink, magnetic, or photographicline traced on the drum of a recordinggage or meter[16].
pepino hill. (Puerto Rican.) 1. Rounded orconical-shaped hill resulting from tropicalhumid karst action. Term generallyreplaced in Puerto Rico by mogote. 2.Elongate hill or ridge capped bymogotes[10]. See mogote.
percent saturation. The ratio, expressed asa percentage, of (a) the volume of somefluid (water, gas, or oil) to (b) the totalvolume of intergranular space (voids) in agiven porous medium. Synonymous withdegree of saturation[22].
perched ground water. Ground waterseparated from an underlying body ofground water by an unsaturated zone[6]. See also ground water, perched.
perched karst spring. See spring, perchedkarst.
perched water table. Unconfined groundwater separated from an underlying bodyof ground water by unsaturated soil or
rock. It may be either temporary orpermanent.
percolate. To flow through saturated voidspace[16]. The act of water seeping orfiltering through soil or rock without adefinite channel[6].
percolation; percolation water. 1. Groundwater moving slowly through the micro-fissure network of a limestone, most ofwhich eventually joins a major caveconduit and flows more rapidly. In mostenvironments percolation water enters thelimestone through a soil cover. It istherefore high in carbon dioxide and has amajor influence on limestone dissolutionand later redeposition of calcitespeleothems. Percolation water accountsfor most of the storage in a limestoneaquifer, responds slowly to flooding incomparison to sinkhole water, and isnormally of high enough quality toprovide a drinking-water supply[9]. 2. Themovement in laminar flow underhydrostatic pressure of water through theinterconnected, saturated interstices ofrock or soil, excluding movement throughlarge openings such as caves and solutionchannels. 3. The downward movement ofwater through the unsaturated zone[22]. 4.The downward flow of water in saturatedor nearly saturated porous medium athydraulic gradients of the order of 1.0 orless[22]. 5. The movement of waterthrough saturated interior pore space[16]. Synonym: seepage water.
percolation water. Autochthonous karstwater which permeates directly throughkarst limestone without using a surfacewatercourse[19].
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perennial spring. See spring, perennial.
perennial yield. Sustained yield[16].
periodic spring. see spring, periodic.
perforation. Holes or openings in wellcasing to permit water inflow into awell[16].
permafrost. Ground that is perenniallybelow the freezing point of water[16].
permafrost karst. A nonkarst term. Apseudokarst developed in areas ofpermafrost due to melting of ice andfrozen ground in a manner superficiallysimilar to the solution of carbonatematerial in water. A general termembracing intrapermafrost karst,subpermafrost karst, and suprapermafrostkarst[20]. (French.) karst de permafrost;(German.) Permafrost Karst ?,Pseudokarst; (Greek.) karst monímoupaghtoú; (Italian.) pseudo-carsismo dipermafrost; (Spanish.) karst depermafrost; (Turkish.) aldat2c2 donkarst2; (Yugoslavian.) permafrost krs#(kras, karst).
permafrost table. The upper limit ofpermafrost[16].
permanent hardness. Noncarbonatehardness[16].
permanent wilting point. Saturation atwhich permanent wilting occurs[16].
permeability. See hydraulic conductivity;permeability, intrinsic .
permeability barrier. See barrier,permeability.
permeability coefficient. The rate of flowof water through a unit cross-sectionalarea under a unit hydraulic gradient at theprevailing temperature (field permeabilitycoefficient) or adjusted to a temperatureof 15NC[22].
permeability, effective. The observedpermeability of a porous medium to onefluid phase under conditions of physicalinteraction between this phase and otherfluid phases present[22].
permeability, intrinsic. 1. A measure ofthe ability of a medium to transmit a fluidthrough a porous medium. It is a functionof the medium only and is proportional tothe mean grain size diameter. 2. Ameasure of the relative ease with which aporous medium can transmit a fluid undera potential gradient and is a property ofthe medium alone[22]. 3. The property of aporous medium itself that expresses theease with which gases, liquids, or othersubstances can pass through it[22].
permeability, relative. 1. The ratio of theeffective permeability for a given flowphase to the intrinsic permeability of theporous medium[22]. 2. The ratio of theeffective and specific permeabilities[22]. 3. The ratio of permeability of oneimmiscible phase to intrinsic permeabilityin multiphase flow[16].
permeability, specific. The permeabilitymeasured when the rock contains onlyone fluid[22].
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permeability tensor. Permeability in ananisotropic medium[16].
permeability, transverse. Permeabilitymeasured perpendicular to the axis of acore sample[16].
permeameter. A device used to measurethe permeability of small samples[16].
pervious. Permitting fluids to pass[16].
petrography. The science of describing andidentifying rocks[16].
pH. A measure of the acidity or alkalinity ofa solution, numerically equal to 7 forneutral solutions, increasing withincreasing alkalinity and decreasing withincreasing acidity. Originally stood forthe words, potential of hydrogen[6].
phonolite. A type of volcanic rock,common as lava flows in some areas, thatis capable of supporting the formation ofextensive lava caves, including those onMount Suswa in Kenya[9].
photogeology. The interpretation of aerialphotographs for geological purposes[16].
photogrammetry. The preparation of mapsand measurements from stereoscopicaerial photographs[16].
photosynthesis. The process by whichgreen plants convert carbon dioxide andwater into simple sugar. Chlorophyll andsunlight are essential to the series ofcomplex chemical reactions involved inthe process[23].
phreas, phreatic water. (From the Greekword meaning well.) 1. The zone ofsaturated rock below the water table,within which all conduits and sub-conduits are water filled (sometimesreferred to as the flooded, phreatic orsaturated zone). Commonly the phreaticzone is considered as being subdividedinto an upper (shallow phreatic) zone anda lower stagnant phreatic zone[9]. 2.Water in the zone of saturation; waterbelow the water table[10]. See alsobathyphreatic, bathyphreatic zone, groundwater, phreas.
phreas, dynamic. A phreatic zone or partof a phreatic zone where water moves fastwith turbulence under hydrostaticpressure[25].
phreatic cave. 1. Cave conceived anddeveloped by dissolution, usually belowthe water table, where all voids are waterfilled within the phreas. Phreatic cavesmay include loops deep below the watertable, particularly in dipping limestonewith widely spaced bedding-relatedfissures. Higher fissure densities, sub-horizontal geological guidance, or greaterkarstic maturity encourage shallowphreatic development just below thewater table. Progressive abondonment ofphreatic caves is usually in a downwardsequence, as erosionally lowered valleyfloors intersect lower levels of the floodedsystem. Active phreatic cave segments,left perched for geological reasons after ageneral water-table lowering, arerelatively common. Characteristics ofphreatic caves are blind dissolutionpockets on walls and ceilings, branchingand looping of passages, and overallswitchback gradients as phreatic flow
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may be uphill under pressure. The mostcommon passage, and overall switchbackgradients as phreatic flow may be uphillunder pressure. The most commonpassage form is a tube, though cross-sectional shape reflects local geologicalfactors. A classic active phreatic cave isthat behind the Fontaine de Vaucluse inFrance, while Hölloch, Switzerland, is amajor system consisting mostly of relictphreatic passages[9]. 2. Cave passagedeveloped in the phreatic zone and stillactively forming. Passages often appearas tubes.
phreatic decline. The downwardmovement of the water table[16].
phreatic fluctuation. The fluctuation of thewater table[16].
phreatic lift. An active or abandonedphreatic conduit that carries or carriedwater upwards in a downstreamdirection[9].
phreatic line. See seepage line.
phreatic rise. The upward movement of thewater table[16].
phreatic surface. See water table.
phreatic water. That part of theunderground water in a karst limestonewhich lies within the zone of permanentlysaturated rock — the phreatic zone. Caves formed within this zone are knownas phreatic caves[19].
phreatic zone. 1. Those parts of the earth’scrust in which all voids are filled withwater under pressure greater than
atmospheric[22]. 2. That part of the earth’scrust beneath the regional water table inwhich all voids, large and small, areideally filled with water under pressuregreater than atmospheric[22]. Whendiscussing a karst setting, it is preferableto use the term, phreatic zone, so as toavoid confusion regarding chemicalsaturation. Synonym: saturated zone. See also zone of saturation.
phreatobia. An animal association found inwater separating grains of sand or finegravel[25].
phreatobite. An inhabitant of groundwater,often exhibiting troglomorphy, but notlimited to karst systems. Many examplesof amphipods and other crustaceansabound[23].
phreatophyte. Desert plants with deeplypenetrating roots reaching the water tablemainly along stream courses[16].
physiography. The science of the originand evolution of land forms[16].
phytometer. A device used to measure thetranspiration of plants embedded insoil[16].
piedmont plain. A plain extendingoutwards from the base of a mountainsystem[16].
piezometer. A devise used to measureground-water pressure head at a point inthe subsurface[22].
piezometric head. The sum of the pressureand elevation head[16].
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piezometric limit. The point within a givenflow path below which the flow directionis influenced by hydrostatic pressure. Incases where flow is confined to a planarstructure, the piezometric limit can beidentified as a point where the flow pathchanges from a dip-oriented to a strike-oriented trend. The piezometric limit isdetermined both by discharge rate andgeometry of the openings. Used todescribe karst aquifers with adiscontinuous piezometric surface[14].
piezometric surface. 1. The imaginary sur-face to which water from a given aquiferwill rise under its full static head[10]. 2.Defined by the elevation to which waterwill rise in artesian wells or wellspenetrating confined aquifers[16]. See alsopotentiometric surface.
pigment. A chemical substance that impartscolor to an object by reflecting ortransmitting only certain light rays andabsorbing all others. For example, asubstance that absorbs all but green raysappears green. An object that contains nopigment, on the other hand, appears whitebecause it reflects all light rays andabsorbs none. Many troglobites have lostall their pigment[23].
pillar. 1. Remnant of bedrock joining thecave floor and ceiling. Not to beconfused with a column, which is acalcite deposit. Pillars are common inphreatic caves, formed by complexlylooping ground-water flow, but may alsobe left as small oxbow cores of vadoseorigin. A spectacular group of pillarsoccurs in the ill-named Chamber ofColumns in the Sof Omar cave,Ethiopia[9]. 2. A column of rock
remaining after solution of thesurrounding rock. 3. A stalactite--stalagmite that reaches from roof to floorin a cave; more properly termed acolumn. 4. A tall thin stalagmite thatdoes not reach the roof of a cave[10]. Seecolumn; rock pillar.
pinnacle karst. 1. Tropical karstcharacterized by vertical rock bladesfretted sharped by dissolution. It ispractically indistinguishable from arêtekarst and tsingi, and includes the varietiesknown as shilin. The Pinnacles in theMulu karst of Saraway have rock bladesup to 50m high projecting through therain forest canopy[9]. 2. A tropicallandscape of bare reticulated saw-toppedridges having almost vertical slopes and arelief of as much as 120 meters. Theridges rise above forest-covereddepressions and corridors. Found in NewGuinea at elevations or around 2,000meters[20]. Synonyms: (French.) karst àpinacles; (German.) Pinnacle Karst;(Greek.) karst koriphón; (Italian.)carsismo a pinnacoli; (Turkish.)sivritepeli karst. Compare cone, cupola,tower karst.
pinnacles. These are a particularly matureform of karren. The side walls are grikeswith Rinnenkarren cutting across oneanother to form sharp edges and peaksthat can reach several meters in height. Generally, pinnacles need a long periodtime to form. They are common in thetropics and can attain great sizes[3]. Often,they are covered. See also debris karren.
pipe. 1. A generally small, sub-cylindrical,vertical hole developed in anunconsolidated sedimentary deposit by
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the washing away of all or part of its finescontent. Some pipes develop abovepoints on a carbonate-rock surface, suchas joint intersections, where ground-waterseepage is locally concentrated. Pipes inchalk include cylindrical and conicalmasses of clay and sand that areneptunian fills of dissolutional dolines,shafts and caves; all shapes and sizes arecommonly referred to as chalk pipes[9]. 2.Small cylindrical hole in unconsolidatedsediments, caused by removal of finematerial by water[10]. 3. A closed tubularconduit for fluid transport[16].
piping. 1. A process whereby a cavity orsmall conduit is developed in anunconsolidated soil due to progressivesediment removal by seepage water. Thecavity develops headwards, as the finesare removed first and the coarser materialis then washed out of the growingcavity[9]. Definition 1 is often incorrectlyapplied to the formation of sinkholedevelopment — the migration of smallerparticles through openings created bylarger particles is of no consequence interms of sinkhole development andshould not be confused as such. 2.Formation of a passage by water underpressure in the form of conduits throughpermeable materials when the hydraulichead exceeds a certain critical value[10]. 3.The mechanical washout of caves ingravels, soils, loess, etc., and showsevidence of associated collapse.
pisanite. A cave mineral —(Fe,Cu)SO4"7H2O[11].
pisolite, pisolith. See cave pearl.
pit. A deep hole, generally circular inoutline, having vertical or nearly verticalwalls[10]. See also jama; pothole(definition 2); shaft.
pitch. Vertical or sub-vertical shaft or cavewaterfall that normally requires rope,ladder or equipment to pass; a term usedby British cave explorers[9].
piton. 1. (French.) Limestone hill havingsharply pointed peak[10]. 2. A solid orfolded metal spike, of steel or other alloy,to be driven into a crack in the rock toform an anchor[25].
pitot tube. A device used to measure flowvelocity via pressure differences[16].
pitted plain. Plain having numerous smallclosely spaced closed depressions[10].
plan. A plot of the shape and details of acave projected vertically onto a horizontalplane at a reduced scale[25].
planarian. A flatworm. A relatively simplewormlike animal with a flattenedribbonlike body, a distinct head end, and amouth located more or less centrally onthe underside of the body[23].
plane of weakness. Surface or narrow zonewith a shear (or tensile) strength lowerthan that of the surrounding material.
planimeter. An instrument thatautomatically determines irregular areason a map[16].
plateau. An elevated level land surface[16].
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Pleistocene. An epoch of the Quaternaryperiod, after the Pliocene of the Tertiaryand before the Holocene; also thecorresponding worldwide series of rocks. It began two million years ago and lasteduntil the start of the Holocene some 8,000years ago[1].
plunge pool. A swirlhole, generally of largesize, occurring at the foot of a waterfall orrapid, on the surface or underground[25]. See also swirlhole.
pocket. Solution cavity in ceiling, floor, orwalls of a cave, shaped like the interior ofa round-bottomed kettle; unrelated tojoints or bedding[10]. See alsospongework.
pocket valley. 1. The reverse of a blindvalley, extending headwards into the footof a calcareous massif. The upstream endis terminated by a cliff, frequently lunate,from whose base emerges a subterraneankarst stream meandering across a flat,steep-sided valley below theresurgence[19]. 2. A valley that beginsabruptly and has no headwaters, havingformed from and below the site of aspring[9].
pocket storage. Water storage indepressions on the land surface[16].
podzol. A light colored soil, usually foundin forest regions[16].
point-bar deposit. Sedimentation on theinside of a meander loop of a river orstream channel[16].
point of inflection. The point where acurve changes slope[16].
point source. Any discernable, confined, ordiscrete conveyance from whichpollutants are or may be discharged,including, but not limited to, any pipe,ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well,container, rolling stock, concentratedanimal feeding operation, or vessel orother floating craft[22].
poise. A measure of viscosity.
pokryty0000 karst. (Russian.) See coveredkarst.
polarization. The migration and separationof ions to the electrodes in a direct currentelectrolyte process giving rise to higheroverall resistance[16].
polje. (Slavic word for field.) 1. A large,flat floored depression in karst limestone,whose long axis is developed parallel tomajor structural trends and can reach tensof kilometers in length. Superficialdeposits tend to accumulate on the floor. Drainage may be by either surfacewatercourses (when the polje is said to beopen) or swallow holes (a ‘closed’ polje.)Their development is encouraged by anyimpedance in the karst drainage[19]. 2.Polje or karst polje signifies the flat-bottomed lands of closed basins whichmay extend over large areas, as much as1,000 km2. The flat floor of the polje mayconsist of bare limestone, of a nonsolubleformation (and so with rollingtopography), or of soil. The polje willshow complex hydrogeologicalcharacteristics such as exsurgences,swallow holes, estavelles, and lost rivers. In colloquial use, the term polje is appliedto flat-bottomed lands which areovergrown or are under cultivation[20]. 3.
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Large flat-floored closed karst depression,with sharp slope breaks between thecommonly alluviated floor and themarginal limestone. Streams or springsdrain into poljes and outflow isunderground through ponors. Commonlythe ponors cannot transmit flood flows, somany poljes turn into wet-season lakes. The form of some poljes is related to thegeological structure, but others are purelythe projects of lateral dissolution andplanation. The Dinaric Karst has manypoljes; the Livansko polje is around 60kmlong and 7km wide. The word is Slovene(common also to other Slav languages)for a field, reflecting the agriculturalvalue of the alluvial polje floor soils[9].Synonym: interior valley; (French.) polje;(German.) Polje; (Greek.) polye;(Italian.) polje; (Russian.) polje;(Spanish.) polje; (Turkish.) gölova,polye; (Yugoslavian.) polje. See alsokarst polje.
pollutant or contaminant. Includes, but isnot limited to, any element, substance,compound. or mixture including diseasecausing agents, which after release intothe environment and upon exposure,ingestion, inhalation or assimilation intoany organism, either directly from theenvironment or indirectly by ingestingthrough food chains, will or mayreasonably be anticipated to cause death,disease, behavioral abnormalities, cancer,genetic mutation. Physiologicalmalfunctions (including malfunctions inreproduction or physical deformation insuch organisms or their offspring[22].
polluted water. Water that has becomecontaminated by sewage or other
contaminants such that the water qualityhas become severely degraded.
pollution. 1. Specific impairment of waterquality by agricultural, domestic, orindustrial wastes (including thermal andatomic wastes), to a degree that has anadverse effect upon any beneficial use ofwater[22]. 2. The addition to a stored bodyof water of any material which diminishesthe optimal economic use of the waterbody by the population which it serves,and has an adverse effect on thesurrounding environment[22].
pollution abatement. All measures takento prevent or to protect againstpollution[16].
polygonal karst. 1. A karst area where thesurface is completely pitted with closeddepressions, the divides of which form acrudely polygonal network. Especiallycommon in humid tropical cone-karstterrain, but also found in well-formedtemperate doline-karst terrain[10]. 2. Atype of karst in which numerous closeddepressions are separated by dividingridges that impose a crudely polygonalappearance upon the landscape[9].
pond. A small body of surface water[16].
ponded water. Water held in a depressionby a barrier[16], such as breakdown in acave system.
ponor. (Slavic.) 1. Hole or opening in thebottom or side of a depression where asurface stream or lake flows eitherpartially or completely underground intothe karst ground-water system. A sea-ponor is where sea-water flows or is
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drawn into an opening by a vacuum inkarstified rock[20]. 2. Hole in the bottomor side of a closed depression throughwhich water passes to or from anunderground channel[10]. Synonyms:(British.) swallet, swallow hole, streamsink; (French.) ponor, aven, gouffre,perte; (German.) Schlund, Saugloch,Schlinger, Ponor; (Greek.) katavothra;(Italian.) inghittitoio, capovento;(Russian.) ponor; (Spanish.) sumidero,ponor, pérdida; (Turkish.) su yutan;(Yugoslavian.) ponor, utok, poñiralnik,pivka. See also swallow hole.
ponornica. See lost river.
pool deposit. Crystalline material depositedin an isolated pool in a cave[10].
population. Individuals of a species in agiven locality which potentially form asingle interbreeding group separated byphysical barriers from other suchpopulations (e.g., populations of the samespecies in two quite separate caves)[25].
pore. Small void space in rock orunconsolidated material of soil particles. See also interstice[16].
pore deposit. Mineral matter deposited onthe interior of a cave from water enteringthe cave so slowly through pores andcracks that it does not form drops[10].
pore entry radius. The radius of a flowchannel at pore entry, usually smaller thanthe average pore radius[16].
pore pressure. The pressure of water inpores of a saturated medium[16].
pore space. 1. The total space not occupiedby solid soil or rock particles[22]. 2. Thespace occupied by voids containing gasesor liquids in soil or rock samples[16]. Seealso interstice; porosity; porosity,effective; porosity, primary; porosity,secondary.
pore velocity. See velocity, averageinterstitial.
porosimeter. A device used to measureporosity[16].
porosity. 1. The ratio of the aggregatevolume of interstices in a rock or soil toits total volume; generally stated as apercentage[10]. 2. The ratio, usuallyexpressed as a percentage, of the totalvolume of voids of a given porousmedium to the total volume of the porousmedium[22]. 3. The volume percentage ofthe total bulk not occupied by solidparticles[22]. See also porosity, effective;porosity, primary; porosity, secondary;porosity, tertiary.
porosity, absolute. Porosity established bytaking into account all interconnected andnonconnected or isolated void volumes[16].
porosity, effective. 1. The ratio, usuallyexpressed as a percentage of the totalvolume of voids available for fluidtransmission to the total volume of theporous medium[22]. 2. The ratio of thevolume of the voids of a soil or rock massthat can be drained by gravity to the totalvolume of the mass[22]. 3. The amount ofinterconnected pore space and fractureopenings available for the transmission offluids, expressed as the ratio of thevolume of interconnected pores and
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openings to the volume of rock. See alsoporosity; porosity, primary; porosity,secondary; porosity, tertiary.
porosity, primary. Porosity of somelithological material that developed whilethe rock was forming. See also interstice;pore; pore space; porosity; porosity,effective; porosity, secondary.
porosity, secondary. Porosity of somelithologic material that has developedafter the rock was initially formed, suchas joints and fractures, and may becapable of enlargement by dissolutionprocesses. See also pore; pore space;porosity, effective; porosity, primary;porosity, tertiary.
porosity, tertiary. Porosity caused bysolutional enlargement of secondaryporosity. See also pore; pore space;porosity; porosity, effective; porosity,primary; porosity, secondary.
porous. Having numerous interstices,whether connected or isolated.
porous medium. Any medium containinginterdispersed void space[16].
porthole. A nearly circular natural openingin a thin rock wall in a cave[10]. See alsowindow.
potable water. Water that is suitable forhuman consumption[22].
potamology. The study of streams.
potential. Any of several different scalarquantities, each of which involves energy
as a function of position or of condition;e.g., the fluid potential of ground water[22].
potential density. 1. The density of a unitof water after it is raised by an adiabaticprocess to the surface, i.e., determinedfrom in-situ salinity and potentialtemperature[22]. 2. Density that would bereached by a compressible fluid if it wereadiabatically compressed or expanded to astandard pressure[22].
potential drop. The difference in total headbetween two equipotential lines[22].
potential evapotranspiration Evapotran-spiration occurring under adequate soil-moisture supply at all times for giventemperature and humidity conditions[16].
potential flow. Irrotational flow occurringin a conservative force field or potentialfield[16].
potentiometer. An instrument used tomeasure voltage differences[16].
potentiometric field. As used in karsthydrology, a discontinuous highlyirregular surface representing the staticground-water head as indicated by thelevel to which water rises in a selectedpiezometer. In some piezometers, thewater-level rise will be greatly differentfrom other piezometers (either higher orlower) or may be non-existent alltogether.
potentiometric surface. An imaginarysurface representing the total static headof ground water and defined by the levelto which water will rise in a
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piezometer[22]. Replaces the termpiezometric surface.
pothole. 1. A single shaft, or an entire cavesystem that is dominantly vertical. It isalso used to describe a single erosionalbowl or moulin, rounded mainly by theswirling current, in a stream bed[9]. 2. Asmall rounded hole pipe worn into thebedrock of a streambed, or on the coast,or at a waterfall, by sand, gravel, andstones spun around by the current inevorsion or mill action[20]. 3. Term usedin England for vertical or steeply inclinedshaft in limestone[10]. Synonyms:(French.) marmite de géant, aven;(German.) Kolk, Strudelloch; (Greek.)strongíli opí is petróthi kítin révmatos;(Italian.) marmitta dei giganti;(Russian.) karstovaja sahta; (Spanish.)marmita de gigante, pilancón; (Turkish.)dev kazan2; (Yugoslavian.) erozionikotas. See also pit; shaft.
potholer. (British.) Explorer of openings inkarst formations with emphasis onvertical and steep openings; somewhat ofa slang term[20]. Synonyms: (French.)spéléologue; (German.) Speläologe,Höhlenforscher; (Greek.) erevnakarstikon engelon; (Italian.) speleologo;(Spanish.) espeleólogo, explorador desimas; (Turkish.) dev kazanc2;(Yugoslavian.) speleolog, jamar. Seespeleologist, caver.
potholing. 1. The process of scouring holesin rock in stream beds or near the strandline by rapid rotation of trapped pebblesor cobbles; evorsion[10]. 2. (British.) Seecaving.
pozo. (Spanish.) See sima.
preadapted. Possessing adaptations thatwould contribute to survival in a habitatother than the immediate one because ofsimilarities in living conditions in the twohabitats. Insects that live in leaf litter onthe forest floor, for example, may bepre-adapted to cave life[23].
precipitation. 1. Water precipitating inliquid or solid form from theatmosphere[16]. 2. The growth anddevelopment of crystals from solutionsthat are supersaturated with respect tovarious minerals.
precipitation excess. That part ofprecipitation that contributes directly torunoff[16].
precipitation gage. An instrument used tomeasure the amount of precipitation perunit area[16].
predator. An animal that lives by capturingother animals for food[23]. See also prey.
pressure. The force exerted across a real orimaginary surface divided by the area ofthat surface.
pressure cell. A pressure measuring andtransducing device[16].
pressure cell. The pressure differenceoccurring between two points along astream line in a flow system[16].
pressure flow tube. Gallery with waterflowing under pressure includingdifferential gravity head and artesianpressure[20]. Synonyms: (French.) galerieen conduite forcée; (German.)Druckströmungsröhre, Karstgerinne;
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(Greek.) ypoghion ytnatagogos,ypopiesin; (Italian.) condotta forzata;(Russian.) karstovij kanal s napornimivodami; (Spanish.) galería (o tubo)saturada; (Turkish.) bas2nçl2 su mecras2;(Yugoslavian.) kanal s vodom podtlakom. See also conduit; streamtube.
pressure head. Hydrostatic pressureexpressed as the height of a column ofwater that the pressure can support at thepoint of measurement[22]. See also head,static; pressure, hydrostatic.
pressure, hydrostatic. The pressureexerted by the weight of water at anygiven point in a body of water at rest[22].
prey. A living animal that is captured forfood by another animal[23]. See alsopredator.
prism storage. The storage of water in ariver channel or reservoir in prism abovethe original water level[16].
prismatic compass. A compass with aprism attached so that the compass cardcan be read at the same time as thecompass is directed into the line of sightto a distance point[25].
probe. A sensing instrument used to takemeasurements at the interior of arelatively unaccessible system[16].
producers. Green plants, the basic link inany food chain; by means ofphotosynthesis, green plants manufacturethe food on which all other living thingsultimately depend. They are available inthe cave community only in the twilightzone, or as debris that falls or washes in.
A few types of bacteria also manufacturefood from nonliving substances andtherefore serve as producers in some cavecommunities[23]. See also consumer.
projected section. The result of projectinga section composed of several parts withdiffering directions onto a single plane. Usually the plane is vertical along thegeneral trend of the cave. The horizontaldistance apart of points is not correct,only the vertical, so that slopes aredistorted[25].
proto-cave. Natural void that links apotential input point and an output pointwithin an aquifer, but which is still toosmall to be entered by man[9].
prusik knot. A knot tied by looping asmaller diameter rope around a largerstanding line (rope) that has the propertyof sliding with no load on the knot, butwill hold when it is loaded (e.g. when theweight of a caver is applied)[13]. See alsoascender; mechanical ascender; prusiking;standing line.
prusik sling. A sling fastened by a prusikknot to the rope[25].
prusiking. The art of ascending a standingline (rope) by a caver with prusik knots[13]
as opposed to the use of a mechanicalascender. See also ascender; knots;mechanical ascender; prusik knot;standing line.
pseudokarren. These are karren appearingfeatures that form mostly on insoluble,silicate rocks by means of weatheringprocesses. They appear as a rounded typeof Rinnenkarren and less frequently as an
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atypical form of solution pan[3]. See alsokarren; Rinnenkarren; solution pan.
pseudokarst. 1. Terrane with featuressimilar to karst but formed in nonsolublerocks, as by melting of permafrost orground ice, collapse after mining, and byoutflow of liquid lava from beneath itssolidified crust[20]. 2. Karst-like terraneproduced by a process other than thedissolving of rock, such as the roughsurface above a lava field, where theceilings of lava tubes have collapsed. Features of pseudokarst include lavatunnels, lava tubes, lava stalactites, andlava stalagmites[10]. 3. A landscapecontaining karst-like features such ascaves and dolines, but not formed bybedrock dissolution as in true karst. Pseudokarst embraces volcaniclandscapes with lava caves, cryokarst orthermokarst formed by ground-icemelting in a permafrost environment, andsituations where mechanical soil pipinghas occurred, producing depressions andpipes, as occur commonly in areas ofloess cover[9]. Synonyms: (French.)pseudokarst; (German.) Pseudokarst;(Greek.) psevthokarst; (Italian.)pseudocarsismo; (Russian.) psevdokarst;(Spanish.) pseudokarst; (Turkish.)aldat2c2 karst; (Yugoslavian.) pseudoks#,pseudokras, pseudokarst, navidezni kras. See lava cave, lava karst, pahoehoe.
pseudo-breccia. A type of limestoneresembling a breccia, in which angularlimestone fragments are cementedtogether by limestones of differentcomposition. Pseudo-breccias arecommon in many preserved limestonesequences and may owe their origin to thedissolutional removal of originallyinterbedded and interstitial sulfate
minerals followed by break-up andredistribution of the residual carbonatecomponent[9].
psychrometer. 1. An instrument used formeasuring relative humidity. Thesimplest sling psychrometers consist oftwo thermometers mounted on a rotatingframe. One thermometer's bulb is keptmoist, the other dry. By comparing the"wet bulb" and "dry bulb" readings of thetwo thermometers after they have beenwhirled in the air, one can determine therelative humidity. An electric fan is usedto ventilate the wet bulb in manypsychrometers[23]. 2. Apparatus designedto measure relative humidity indirectly[16]. See also hygrometer.
puddle. Water collecting in very smallsurface depressions[16].
pumping test. A test designed to determineaquifer characteristics by pumping a welland plotting the drawdown curves ofobservation wells for comparison withtheoretical curves.
pupa (plural pupae). The inactive stage inthe life history of certain insects duringwhich the larva undergoes a gradualreorganization of its tissues in the processof becoming an adult. See alsometamorphosis.
pycnometer. A bottle with an accuratelydetermined volume for densitydeterminations[16].
pyrite. Iron sulfide mineral (FeS2) alsoknown as iron pyrites and fool’s gold. Pyrite occurs in trace amounts in manysedimentary rocks. It may be locally
150
common in dark carbonaceous limestoneand in thin non-carbonate beds such asshales, coals and wayboards. Pyrite maybreak down spontaneously, with orwithout bacterial mediation, to formsulfates, particularly sulphuric acid, thatmay be involved in early speleogensis[9].
pyrrhotite. A cave mineral — FeS[11].
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Q
quagmire. A wet unstable land area[16].
quartz. A crystal form of silicon dioxide(SiO2)[16].
quiet reach. The reach of a river with nofeatures disturbing the flow pattern[16].
152
R
rabies. An infectious disease of the centralnervous system in mammals, caused by alyssavirus. Usually transferred by the biteof an infected animal, such as dogs,skunks, racoons, or rarely bats. Characterized by choking, convulsions,inability to swallow, etc. Differentgenetic strains are now recognized andcan be identified by tests. Transfer ofrabies from bats via aerosols to cagedanimals in a cave has been demonstrated,but has not been proven in humans[23].
radial flow. 1. Radial flow into or out of awell under ideal circular boundaryconditions[16]. 2. The flow of groundwater in all directions in response torecharge entering the subsurface at ornear the top of a ground-water plateau. This conditions occurs most oftenthrough point recharge entering thesubsurface via sinkholes in karst terranes.
radioactive tracer. A tracer used inhydrological direction and velocitydeterminations[16]. The two mostcommon types are tritium and deuterium.
radioactivity log. A log measuringradioactivity in a borehole[16].
radioisotope. An unstable isotope of anelement that decays or disintegratesspontaneously, emitting radiation[22].
radionuclide. A radioisotope[22].
radionuclide retardation. The process orprocesses that cause the time required fora given-radionuclide to move betweentwo locations to be greater than the
ground-water travel time, because ofphysical and chemical interactionsbetween the radionuclide and thegeohydrologic unit through which theradionuclide travels[22].
radius of influence. The radial distancefrom the center of a well bore to the pointwhere there is no lowering of the watertable or potentiometric surface (the edgeof its cone of depression)[6].
raft. A thin sheet of crystalline calcitesupported by surface tension on a cavepool or lake. The calcite is precipitatedmainly in response to evaporation of thepool water and rafts are therefore foundmainly in caves in arid regions or caveswith powerful through draughts.
rain. Liquid precipitation of atmosphericwater in the form of droplets[16].
rainfall excess. That portion of rain fall thatcontributes directly to runoff[16].
rainfall intensity. The volume or depth ofrainfall per unit time[16].
rain gage. An instrument used to measurethe height of rainfall[16].
rain gage network. An areal distribution ofrain gages[16].
rain intensity. The intensity of rain fallexpressed in depth per time (in/hr)[16].
randpolje. An enclosed plain at the edge ofa karst area receiving surface water fromthe nonkarstic area. The water drains outthrough underground passages in the karstarea. The plain is thus completely
153
enclosed by higher ground. Compareblind valley; karst margin plain[10].
rappel. The art of descending a rope usingsome sort of friction between the rope andthe rappeller to control the rate ofdescent[13]. Synonym: abseil. See alsoabseil; carabiner.
rappel rack. A long U-shaped steel bar thatholds several brake bars and is used forrappelling[13]. See also rappel.
rappel spool. One of the devices used tocreate friction between a rappeller and therope that consists of a spool on which therope can be wrapped around severaltimes[13]. See also rappel.
rapid. A stream section with a notablyhigher flow velocity than in adjoiningparts[16].
rapid flow. Open channel flow with aFroude number greater than unity[16]. Seealso Froude Number.
rate of draft. The rate at which water isrequired for use (demand)[16].
rate of infiltration. The maximum rate atwhich soil can absorb water[16].
rating curve. The graphic relationship ofstage to discharge[16].
rational formula. An equation relatingrunoff intensity and area to a runoffcoefficient[16].
ravine. A small erosional depression[16]. See chasm.
raw sewage. Untreated sewage.
raw water. Untreated water[16].
reaction path modeling. A simulationapproach to studying the chemicalevolution of a (natural) system[22].
rebelay. The reanchoring of a rope, usuallyto avoid rub points or split long pitches.
REDIRECTION Syn. deviation
rebound. An upward movement of soil as aconsequence of a decrease in effectivestress. In fine-grained soils, rebound isusually much less than the amount ofcompaction since compaction is mostlyirreversible[21].
receiver. That part of a remote measuringsystem that receives incoming data orimpulses[16].
receiving surface. A surface receivingprecipitation or radiation[16].
recessional moraine. A moraine depositedby a retreating glacier[16].
recession curve. The falling limb of ahydrograph curve[16].
recession flow. The flow that occurs afterrainfall has ended[16].
recession segment. That part of ahydrograph that represents the withdrawalof water from storage[16].
recharge. 1. The process of addition ofwater to the saturated zone[22]. 2. Theartificial replenishment of a depleted
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aquifer by injection or infiltration ofwater from the surface[16].
recharge, allogenic. Recharge derived fromrunoff of neighboring or overlying non-karst rocks that drains into a karst aquifer. Diffuse allogenic recharge is used todescribe the slow percolation of rechargewhen runoff into direct input points isreduced in magnitude while concentratedallogenic recharge is used to describe theconcentrated recharge that occurs byrunoff into large fractures, sinkholes, andsinking streams.
recharge area. An area in which waterreaches the zone of saturation by surfaceinfiltration[22]. See also intake area.
recharge, autogenic. Recharge derivedfrom precipitation directly onto the karstlandscape. Diffuse autogenic recharge isused to describe the slow percolation ofrecharge through a myriad of smallopenings while concentrated autogenicrecharge is used to describe theconcentrated recharge that occurs by flowinto large fractures, sinkholes, andsinking streams.
recharge capacity. The ability of the soilsand underlying materials to allowprecipitation and runoff to infiltrate andreach the phreatic zone[22].
recharge line. A series of recharge wellsarranged in linear fashion to approximatea line source[16].
recharge pit. A large diameter well or shaftfor recharge under gravity[16].
recharge water. Water used forreplenishment of a depleted aquifer[16].
recharge well, absorbing well, diffusionwell, inverted well. A well that is usedto recharge water back into an aquifer. Commonly used when aquifer depletion,saltwater intrusion, and contaminantmigration are problems.
recipient. A vessel receiving liquids involume measurements[16].
reclamation. To reclaim land after abusiveeffects such as strip mining.
recorder. An instrument designed tocontinuously or intermittently recordmeasurements[16].
recovery. The water-level rise in a welloccurring upon the cessation of dischargefrom that well or an observation well.
recovery method. A pumping test analysismethod in which both drawdown andrecovery of head after cessation ofpumping are observed and plotted for thesame observation well[16].
recrystallization. A new formation ofcrystals from solid rock material[16].
reculée. See pocket valley.
redirection. See deviation.
redox. A chemical reaction in which anatom or molecule loses electrons toanother atom or molecule. Also known asoxidation-reduction. Oxidation is the lossof electrons; reduction is the gain ofelectrons[6].
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redox potential (Eh.) Oxidation-reductionpotential[16].
reef. A dissected ridge of rocks totally orpartially submerged in sea water; often oforganic origin[16].
regelation. The melting of ice underpressure and subsequent freezing[16].
rigging. The process of establishing thebelays for SRT or laddering[25]. See alsosingle rope technique.
region of dispersed water. The diffuseinterface between freshwater and seawater caused by mixing in a coastalaquifer[16]. See also transition zone.
regolith. A general term for the layer offragmental and unconsolidated rockmaterial that nearly everywhere forms thesurface of the land and overlies or coversthe bedrock[6].
regosol. Dry sandy soil[16].
regression line. A curve fitted to all meanvalues of one variable[16].
rejuvenation. A process that interrupts anactive erosional or development cycle andinitiates a new cycle. Rejuvenation ismost commonly achieved in the karst andspeleogenesis context by erosional base-level changes caused by relative uplift (orsea-level fall) or by local water-tablechanges caused by downcutting of surfacevalleys intercepting deeper drainagelines[9].
relapsing fever. One type of Borreliosis,caused by various species of Borrelia
spirochaetes carried by several species oftick. Related to Lyme disease, but lesschronic and milder. An occupationaldisease of some cavers in Texas whocome in contact with the soft tickOrnithodoros turicatae, which carriesBorrelia turicatae and may live in caveentrances[23].
relative humidity of atmosphere. Theratio of absolute humidity to themaximum possible saturation at givenconditions[16].
relative permeability. See permeability,relative.
relict cave. Abandoned, inactive cavesegment, left when the water that formedit is diverted elsewhere, normally due torejuvenation, continuing cavedevelopment and increasing karsticmaturity. Relict unmodified phreaticpassage segments are abandoned in thevadose zone, where they may remain dry,retaining a typical phreatic morphology,or be invaded and modified to a keyholeprofile by new streams. Ages of relictcaves vary greatly and due to lack ofstream-flow breakdown and speleothemdeposition may become the dominantprocesses. Relict caves are commonlyreferred to incorrectly as fossil caves[9].
relict karst. A karst area that exists withinthe contemporary system, but has beenremoved from the situation in which theydeveloped, usually as a result of base-level changes.
relief. Elevation differences in topographyof a land surface[16].
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relief intensity. The average altitudedifference between the highest point of abasin and the valley bottom[16].
replenishment. The restoration of water ina depleted aquifer[16].
resequent river. A river flowing accordingto a consequent drainage pattern but at alower level than the original slope[16].
reservoir. 1. A recipient for the collectionof small amounts of liquid[16]. 2. Asurface water impoundment[16].
reservoir evaporation. Evaporation fromthe free surface of impounded waterbodies[16].
reservoir lake. A lake obtained by theimpoundment of water for storagepurposes[16].
residual clay. Clay or sandy clay remainingon a rock surface after removal ofcalcium carbonate by solution. Compareterra rossa[10].
residual drawdown. The rise in water levelin a well in response to cessation ofpumping.
residual hill. See emergence.
residue. Solids remaining afterevaporation[16].
resurgence. 1. Re-emergence of karstground water a part or all of whose watersare derived from surface inflow intoponors at higher levels[20]. Point at whichan underground stream reaches thesurface and becomes a surface stream. In
European literature, the term is reservedfor the re-emergence of a stream that hasearlier sunk upstream; the termexsurgence is applied to a stream withoutknown surface headwaters[10]. Synonyms:(French.) résurgence; (German.)Karstquelle; (Greek.) kephalari;(Italian.) risorgenza; (Russian.) vihodkarstovih vod; (Spanish.) resurgencia;(Turkish.) suç2kan; (Yugoslavian.) krs#kiizvor (vrelo), obrh. See emergence. Compare exsurgence.
retardation factor. The ratio of the averagelinear velocity of ground water to thevelocity of the retarded constituent atC/Co=0.5[22].
retention. 1. The detention of water onsurface depressions or in subsurface voidspace. 2. the retention of water in poresagainst gravity[16].
reverse fault. A fault where relativemovement of the hanging wall hasoccurred in the upward direction[16].
Reynolds number. A numerical quantityused as an index to characterize the typeof flow in a hydraulic structure in whichresistance to motion depends on theviscosity of the liquid in conjunction withthe resisting force of inertia. It is the ratioof inertia forces to viscous forces, and isequal to the product of a characteristicvelocity of the system (e.g. the mean,surface, or maximum velocity) and acharacteristic linear dimension, such asdiameter or depth, divided by thekinematic viscosity of the liquid; allexpressed in consistent units in order thatthe combinations will be dimensionless. The number is chiefly applicable toclosed systems of flow, such as pipes or
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conduits where there is a free watersurface, or to bodies fully immersed in thefluid so the free surface need not beconsidered[1]. See also Chézy equation;Froude number; Manning equation.
rhodamine dye, sulpho rhodamine dye. Orange dyes used in environmentaltracing studies that fluoresce red whenheld under a black light. See alsofluorescent dyes.
rice paddy. In a cave, a terraced rimstonepool[10].
ridge. An elongated narrow elevation[16].
rift. 1. A cave passage that is relatively highand narrow. Generally rifts are straight ornearly so, reflecting that they arecommonly guided by, and developedalong, vertical or sub-vertical fissures,joints and faults[9]. 2. A long narrow highcave passage controlled by joints orfaults[10].
rift valley. A surface depression due to theformation of graben block faulting[16].
rill. 1. Small solution groove on surface ex-posures of limestone; most common inarid or semiarid areas[10]. 2. Smallchannel cut by flowing water in the floor,wall, or ceiling of a cave[20]. 3. Thesmallest category of stream in anyterrane[20]. Synonyms: (French.) traces deruissellement; (German.) Rinne, Kerbe;(Greek.) riákion; (Italian.) solchi diruscellamento; (Spanish.) arroyuelo;(Turkish.) küçük dere, oluk, ark.
Rillenkarren. (German.) Solution flutesthat occur only in places where fresh
unspent precipitation is active and endwhere the water attains too high a contentof lime or where water is added. Theirlength increases with slope, temperature,and rainfall; eventually reaching 1 m andmore in the tropics, up to 50 cm, and asan exception, 100 cm in the Alps. Theirwidth extends from 1 to 3 cm. They lietogether in rows with no space between,with sharp intermediary ridges of no morethan 1 cm in height. They increase at allfreely exposed peaks and ridges wherefresh rainwater alone is at work. Thegrooves gradually flatten out to a smoothsurface. Their theory of origin isunknown.[3]. Synonyms: (German.)Kannelierungen; solution flutes; andfirstkarren.
Rillenstein. (German.) Microsolutiongrooves and pitting on rock surface[10].
rimstone. 1. A wall-shaped deposit aroundsprings and below cascades whichimpounds water in pools. Its formation isdue to precipitation from saturatedbicarbonate waters[20]. 2. Calcareousdeposits formed around the rims ofoverflowing basins, especially in caves[10]. Synonyms: (French.) gour; (German.)Sinterbecken; (Greek.) frágma,epiphliomatos; (Italian.) vasched’incrostazione; (Russian.) natecnajaplotina; (Spanish.) dique travertínico;(Turkish.) sedde, kenartaÕ2. Seeconstructive waterfall, rimstone barrage,rimstone pool.
rimstone barrage, rimstone barrier, rim-stone dam. A wall-shaped deposit thatimpounds pools of water in caves, aroundsprings, and in cascades of streamssaturated with calcium bicarbonate[10].
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Synonym: (French.) gour. See alsorimstone; rimstone pool.
rimstone pool. A pool sited on a cavernfloor and enclosed by a rim of carbonatereprecipitated from the karst water in thepool at points locally favoring the releaseof carbon dioxide[19]. See also rimstone;rimstone barrage.
Rinnenkarren. (German.) Solution groovesthat form where runoff water is collectedin streams. If the whole surface ismoistened, the amount of water increasesdownwards with the result that thegrooves are widened and deepened at thebottom. This distinguishes them fromother similar forms. When the slope isslight they are coiled, but becomestraighter with increasing inclination. They are sometimes interpreted to besubcutaneous forms that develop belowsoil cover, but this is believed to be a rare occurrence. They are found in allclimates. In arid zones, they exist asrelics of the past when the climate wasdamper[3].
ripple mark. A wavelike sculpture onwater covered sand surfaces obtained bywave action[16].
rise. (Jamaican.) Spring rising fromfractures in limestone. Point at which anunderground stream comes to thesurface[10].
rise pit. An artesian spring rising upthrough alluvium accumulated in anearlier surface valley phase and oftenfringed, except on the outlet side, by aminor levee deposited as the force of the
vertical discharge dissipates at thesurface[19].
riser. A pipe through which liquid rises in awell[16].
riser pipe. A pipe through which water israised in a production well[16].
rising. 1. The resurgence of an undergroundwatercourse, usually at the base margin ofthe calcareous massif, although in theinstance of a blind valley the rising haseroded headwards for some distance. Each rising accounts for the collectivedischarge of several sinks and in this wayhas a relatively high discharge as the soledrainage outlet for a large area. If thewater issues freely, the rising is said to befree-flowing, but if it issues underpressure, the terms artesian, forced, orvauclusian spring are used (after the type-example of the resurgence of the Sorgueriver at Vaucluse in France)[19]. 2. Anissue of water from massive limestonewhich cannot be classed with certainty aseither a resurgence or a spring[20]. Synonyms: (French.) émergence;(German.) Ausflußtelle, Karstquelle;(Greek.) kephalari; (Italian.) sorgente;(Russian.) vihod karstovih vod;(Spanish.) emergencia; (Turkish.)yüzeye yükseliÕ; (Yugoslavian.) krs #kovrelo, krs #ki izvor, obrh. See alsoemergence; exsurgence; resurgence.
rising segment. That part of a hydrographcurve that represents a rise in water levelas a result of precipitation[16].
river. A natural water course through whichrunoff reaches the sea[16].
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river bed. The channel of a river coveredby water[16].
river reach. A particular segment of ariver[16].
river swamp. A swamp in lowlandsadjoining a river[16].
river system. The system of a main riverthat includes all its branches andtributaries[16].
river terrace. A level land terrace formedin a valley by fluviatile erosion oraggradation[16].
rivulet. A very small stream[16].
rock. Consolidated mineral matter ofigneous, sedimentary, or metamorphicorigin[16].
rock fall. See cave breakdown.
rock formation. A lithologically orstructurally distinct part of thelithosphere[16].
rock-hill. See karren, rill.
rock milk. Less common synonym formoonmilk[9]. See moonmilk.
rock pendant. See pendant.
rock pillar. A residual isolated mass ofbedrock linking the roof or overhangingwall and floor of a cave, in contrast with acolumn, which to composed of dripstoneor flowstone[10]. See column; pillar.
rock pinnacle. A tall sharp projection ofbedrock rising from the floor of a cave[10].
rock shelter. 1. Shallow cave under anoverhanging rock ledge. Many sea cavesare rock shelters. Also found in limestoneand other rock types where streams haveundercut their banks at bends, or wherethere has been abrasion by blowing sand. Common in tropical areas at places wherea secondarily hardened layer of limestoneforms a ledge that projects overunindurated limestone[10]. 2. A wide butshallow cavity in any rock; in carbonaterock often formed below a noncarbonatelayer[20]. Synonyms: (French.) abri sousroche, balme, baume; (German.)Halbhöhle, weite aber flache Höhle;(Greek.) kataphyion; (Italian.) riparosotto roccia, androne; (Spanish.) abrigo,balma; (Turkish.) kaya si™ina™i;(Yugoslavian.) potkapina, okapina,polupeƒina, spodmol, zijalka.
rock system. Rocks deposited during agiven geological time period[16].
rock terrace. A terrace formed by erosionalaction and denudation[16].
rock texture. The geometrical aspects andarrangement of the component particles ofa rock[16].
rockhole. A shallow, small hole in rockoutcrops, often rounded in form andholding water after rains. Well known onthe Nullarbor Plain, Australia[25].
rockpile. A heap of blocks in a cave,roughly conical or part-conical inshape[25].
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rockfall. The falling of bedrock from a cliffor steep slope[16].
romanechite. A cave mineral —BaMn9O16(OH)4
[11].
roof crust. Flowstone deposited on ceilingsof caves from thin films of water, whichhave crept over the rock from pore orcrack sources[10].
roof drainage. Precipitation runoff fromroofs.
roof pocket. Blind upward extension intothe ceiling of a cave passage, commonlyenlarged by dissolution along a transversefracture, and less extensive than an avenor chimney[9].
roof slab. See ceiling slab.
room. A part of a cave system that is widerthan a passage[10]. Synonym: (British.)chamber.
root karren. These are small, relatively flatkarren that are formed beneath compactsoils where roots etch into thelimestone[3]. See also covered karren;wave karren.
root zone. The zone in a soil profilepenetrated by plant roots[16].
rope protector. A length of heavy fabric orplastic hose placed around a rope where itmay rub against rock[25].
rotating meter. A stream velocity meterthat transforms stream momentum intoangular momentum by vanes and rotor[16].
roughness. An unevenness of surfacesgiving rise to high flow resistances[16].
roughness coefficient. A coefficient thatdescribes roughness of a channel bed[16].
round karren. See Rundkarren.
roundness. The degree to which a sandgrain approaches spherical shape[16].
rout, to. The action of predicting anddirecting of flood waves through achannel system[16].
run dry, to. The cessation of flow from awell or spring[16].
Rundkarren. (German.) 1. Karren formswith rounded edges; formed by soil waterthan cannot flow freely due to thetightness of soil pores and thus corrodesaway all edges and points. The smallkarren forms disappear, grooves andgrikes are widened and deepened. One ortwo centuries after being laid bare, theearlier rounded edge is only justrecognizable so round karren and theirremains provide evidence of an earliersoil covering[3]. 2. Karren formcomprising rounded channels, commonly50–500mm deep and wide and separatedby rounded ridges. Rundkarren are thecharacteristic dissolutional form createdbeneath superficial material such as sandytill, peat or other soil, or beneath a coverof plants or lichen[9]. Synonym: roundkarren. See also Karren.
runoff. 1. The discharge of water throughthe surface streams of a drainage basin[16]. 2. The sum of surface runoff and ground-water flow that reaches a stream[16].
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runoff coefficient. A dimensionlesscoefficient to estimate runoff as a certainpercentage of storm rainfall[16].
rupture. That stage in the development of afracture where instability occurs. It is notrecommended that the term rupture beused in rock mechanics as a synonym forfracture.
162
S
sabath. See hardpan, nari.
safe yield. The amount of water that can besafely withdrawn from an aquifer withoutcausing undue effects such as aquiferdepletion.
safe yield of stream. The lowest dryweather flow of a stream[16].
safety line. A safety rope attached to acaver climbing on a ladder or negotiatinga difficult situation and held by a manabove[25].
saline spring. See spring, saline.
saline water. Water that generally isconsidered unsuitable for humanconsumption or for irrigation because ofits high content of dissolved solids. Generally expressed as milligrams perliter (mg/L) of dissolved solids, with35,000 mg/L defined as sea water,slightly saline is 1,000-3,000 mg/L,moderately saline is 3,000-10,000 mg/L,very saline is 10,000-35,000 mg/L, andbrine has more than 35,000 mg/L[22].
salinity stratification. The stratification ofwater in estuaries due to salinity-densitydifferences[16].
salt dome. A dome-like intrusion of amobile salt core into sedimentary rock[16].
salt karst. Areas in which karst landformsare developed upon halite or halite-richrock, which are generally small andlimited to arid regions, are referred to assalt karst. Except in desert regions,
dissolution of rock salt occurs in buried,interstratal, situations, and the effects ofsuch dissolution at the surface includesubsidence pipes or wider subsidenceareas, such as those represented by themeres and ‘flashes’ in the Cheshire Plain,England[9].
salt lake. A lake containing high saltconcentrations and usually not having anyoutflow[16].
salt tolerance. The resistance of crops tosalt concentration[16].
salt weathering. Detachment of particles ofvarious sizes from a rock surface by thegrowth of crystals from salt solutions.Forms substantial features in NullarborPlain caves[25].
saltation. Solid matter transported by astream by the action of leaping movementover the stream bed. See also saltationload.
saltation load. The solid matter transportedby streams[16].
saltwater intrusion. The movement of saltwater into fresh water aquifers[22].
sampling. The taking of small quantities ofwater or porous media for analysis[16].
sand. Unconsolidated detrital rockmaterial[16].
sand pipe. See solution pipe.
sand stalagmite. A stalagmite formed onsand and made of calcite-cementedsandstone[10].
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sandstone caves. Most natural sandstonecaves are surface river-cut notches at thefoot of rock cliffs, or left part way up thecliff due to later downcutting. This originaccounts for most of the caves onceinhabited by the Pueblo Indians in thesandstone cliffs of the western USA. Truecaves do occur in sandstone and some ofthese appear to be at least partially ofdissolutional origin. Their existenceprobably reflects matrix leaching byground water moving through zones ofespecially high primary porosity andpermeability. Though sandstones with acalcite matrix cement are more prone tosuch development, even siliceous cement,which has a very low solubility in water,may be removed during a sufficientlylong time span. The sandstone caves ofthe Sarisarinama Plateau, Venezuela maybe a special case of this type ofdevelopment. These include shafts 300min diameter and 200m deep, and passagesup to 500m long. They were probably cutin the quartz sandstone by undergroundstreams, after early leaching of the cementby hydrothermal solutions, and the shaftshave been modified by later collapse[9].
saprophage. A scavenger feeding ondecaying organic material[25].
saturated. 1. Referring to rock withwater-filled voids. 2. Referring to waterwhich has dissolved as much limestone orother karst rock as it can under normalconditions[25].
saturated flow. Single phase flow when allvoids are filled[16]. Not to be confusedwith chemical saturation.
saturated water. Water which is inchemical equilibrium with its enclosingmedia and is thus nonagressive. Water, atabout 25"C, in contact with calcite andthe normal atmosphere, will containapproximately 30 to 50 ppm of Ca whensaturated, variations being mainly due todiffering pH. Determination of thesaturation point of natural waters iscomplex[20]. Synonyms: (French.) eausaturée; (German.) gesättigtes Waßer;(Greek.) koresménon ýdor; (Italian.)acqua satura; (Spanish.) agua saturada;(Turkish.) doygun su; (Yugoslavian.)zasiƒena voda.
saturated zone. See phreatic zone and zoneof saturation.
saturation regime. A flow regime incompletely saturated porous medium[16].
saturation, zone of. See phreatic zone andzone of saturation.
scale. 1. A very thin and flat rockfragment[16]. 2. The accumulation ofprecipitated solid material. 3. The ratio ofprototype to model dimensions. 4. Theratio of the length between any two pointson a map, plan or section to the actualdistance between the same points on theground or in a cave[25].
scaling chip. A thin small rather irregularpiece of limestone, commonly crumbly,which has fallen from the ceiling or wallof a cave. A form of cave breakdown[10].
scaling factor. The ratio of characteristicsof a model to those of the prototype[16].
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scaling plate. A small flat piece of rock ofrectangular or polygonal shape, that hasfallen to the floor of a cave. A form ofcave breakdown in thin-bedded impurelimestone cut by closely spaced joints[10].
scaling poles. A lightweight metal alloypole, in short sections for transport andfastened together where used, to raise aladder to points inaccessible byclimbing[25].
scallop. 1. A spoon-shaped hollow carvedin a cave wall, floor or ceiling due toerosion by eddies in flowing water. Scallops are commonly closely packed,leaving sharp ridges at the intersects. They range from 10mm to 1m in lengthand as a general rule the smaller they arethen the faster flowing was the water thatcarved them. The scallops are generallyasymmetrical, with their upstream endsteeper than the downstream end — auseful indicator of paleo-flow direction inabandoned passages[9]. 2. Oval hollowhaving an asymmetric cross section alongits main axis. Scallops form patterns onthe walls of caves and in streambeds andmay be used to determine direction offlow of turbulent water, since they aresteeper on the upstream side. Commonlycalled flutes in America[10]. Synonyms:(French.) cannelure, vague d’érosion;(German.) in Fließrichtung des Waßersausgezogener Kolk; (Greek.) kílon o-oïthés; (Spanish.) huella de corriente;(Turkish.) de™irmi, tarak. See also flute.
scar. (Northern England.) Steep rock cliffin limestone country often indicatingoutcrop of relatively bare and massivelybedded limestone[20]. Synonyms:(French.) cicatrice, griffure; (German.)
Klippe; (Greek.) oulí; (Spanish.) ceja (incentral Spain); (Turkish.) kireçtaÕ2 dikyar2.
scats. Animal droppings, an importantsource of food in caves[23].
scavenger. An animal that eats the deadremains and wastes of other animals andplants[23]. See also predator.
Schichtfugenkarren. (German.) Seebedding grike.
scholzite. A cave mineral —CaZn2(PO4)2"2H2O[11].
scour. The erosive action of running waterin streams[16].
screen, screen pipe. Slotted well casingthat is positioned within the producinghorizon to prevent the inflow of detritalparticles into a well while allowing theinflow of water. See also well screen.
sea cave. 1. A cave cut in any rock typewhere a geological weakness is exploitedby the highly selective erosion power ofwave action. Fingal’s Cave, cut in thebasalt of Staffa, Scotland, is a famousexample. True sea caves should not beconfused with dissolutional caves thatpre-dated the wave action but were thenintersected and revealed as a cliff line waseroded back such as caves in the Chalk atBeachy Head in south-east England. Insome young tropical islands, dissolutionalvoids have formed below sea-level in themixing zone between fresh and salineground water. Some have subsequentlybeen tectonically uplifted into a shorelineposition, to give the misleading
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impression of having developed due towaver action. Caves of this type on thecoast of Tongatapu, Tonga, have poolsthat connect with active dissolutionalcavities below sea-level that might berelated to the mixing zone[9]. 2. A cave orcleft in a sea cliff or coastal karst outcroperoded by waves or currents or dissolvedby circulating ground water[20]. Synonyms: (French.) grotte marine;(German.) Küstenhöhle, Meereshöhle;(Greek.) thalassion spelson - paraktionspeleon; (Italian.) grotta marina;(Russian.) morskaja pescera; (Spanish.)cueva marina; (Turkish.) denizma—aras2; (Yugoslavian.) morskapeƒina (spilja). See cave. Compare nip. See also littoral zone.
sea estavelle. Submarine or sea-shoreopening in karst formations which at oneseason or period discharges round water(fresh or brackish) from the aquifer intothe sea-bed and at another season orperiod draws seawater into the aquifer bya vacuum[20]. Synonyms: (French.)estavelle marine; (German.) submarineEstavelle; (Greek.) estavelle thalassia(estavella); (Italian.) Estavellasottomarina, sorgente sottomarina aflusso alterno; (Spanish.) estavelamarina; (Turkish.) sahil batar ç2kar2.
sea level. The average height of the surfaceof the sea used as a datum forelevations[16].
sea-mill. A mill whose motive power isderived from the flow of water into (orpossibly out of) a sea estavelle; theclassical example is on the VinariaPeninsulas, at Argostolion,Kephallinia[20]. Synonyms: (French.)moulin de la mer, moulin d’Argostoli;
(German.) Meermühle; (Greek.)thalassomylos; (Spanish.) molino demar; (Turkish.) deniz suyu de™irmeni;(Yugoslavian.) morska vodenica. Seesea estavelle.
sea ponor. A submarine opening in karstformations where seawater flows or isdrawn by a vacuum into the aquifer[20]. Synonyms: (French.) perte sous-marine;(German.) submariner Ponor; (Greek.)ypothalassia katavothra; (Italian.)inghiottitoio sottomarino; (Spanish.)sumidero marino; (Turkish.) denizaltesuyutan2; (Yugoslavian.) morskavodenica, morski ponor. See ponor.
sea water intrusion. See saltwaterintrusion.
sealing-grout, grout. Cement groutinjected between a well casing and theborehole wall (annular space) to seal offan aquifer from external contamination.
secondary interstices. Voids formed in arock after the rock had been formed[16].
secondary porosity. Porosity created afterrock formation due to fracturing,leaching, etc.
section. A plot of the shape and details of acave in a particular intersecting plane,called the section plane, which is usuallyvertical[25].
sediment. Material recently deposited bywater, ice or wind, or precipitated fromwater[25].
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sedimentation. The deposition of soliddisintegrated rock material by water,wind, or gravity transport[16].
sediment transport. The transport oferoded rock material by moving water orwind[16].
seep. 1. An area, generally small, wherewater or oil percolates slowly to the landsurface. See seepage and spring[22]. 2. Tomove slowly through small openings of aporous material[22].
seepage. 1. The infiltration or percolation ofwater through rock or soil to or from thesurface and usually restricted to the veryslow movement of ground water. 2. Thefluid discharged at a seep[22]. 3. Theamount of fluid discharged at a seep[22]. 4. The slow flow of water through aporous medium. 5. The movement ofwater in unsaturated soil[16].
seepage water. See percolation.
seepage face. A boundary between thesaturated flow field and the atmospherealong which ground water discharges,either by evaporation or movement‘downhill’ along the land surface or in awell as a thin film in response to the forceof gravity[22].
seepage force. The frictional drag of waterflowing through voids or interstices inrock causing an increase in theintergranular pressure (i.e. the hydraulicforce per unit volume of rock or soilwhich results from the flow of water andwhich acts in the direction of flow).
seepage line. 1. The uppermost level atwhich flowing water emerges along aseepage face[22]. 2. The upper free watersurface of the zone of seepage. Synonymous with line of seepage,phreatic line[22].
seepage path. The trajectory of fluidparticles in seepage flow[16].
seepage rate. The rate of seepage flow[16].
seepage spring; filtration spring. Seespring, seepage.
seepage surface. The outflow surfacebetween water level and the intersectionof the phreatic surface in a well[16].
seepage velocity. See specific discharge.
selenite. Blade-like crystals of gypsum[9].
self-cleaning capacity. The capacity of ariver to clean its water of pollutants over agiven length of water course[16].
selenite needles. A sulfate speleothemhaving the shape of a needle that growsfrom gypsiferous cave soils[13]. See alsospeleothem.
semiconfined aquifer. See leaky aquifer.
sepiolite. A cave mineral —Mg4Si6O15(OH)2"6H2O[11].
series. A subdivision of rock according toage at which they were laid down in ageologic epoch[16].
setting of cement. The process ofhardening of cement[16].
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settling basin. A basin used for the settlingout of solids from suspension[16].
settling velocity. The terminal velocity atwhich a particle will fall through afluid[16].
sewage. Domestic and municipal wastes[16].
shaft. 1. Vertical, or steeply inclined,sections of a cave passage, of enormouslyvaried size. The world’s deepest knownshaft is the entrance shaft of Brezno podVelbom on the Kanin plateau, Slovenia; itis 501m deep, with no ledges. Muchdebate surrounds statistics on the depthsof fully underground shafts, which maybe broken by ledges, but among thedeepest is a shaft about 430m deep inItaly’s Abisso di Monte Novegno[9]. 2. Acylindrical tube generally steep sided, thatforms by solution and (or) collapse[10]. 3.A vertical passage in a cave[10]. 4. Avertical and usually large diameter holepenetrating geologic formations foraccess of subsurface points[16]. See jama,karst shaft. See also pit; pothole(definition 2.).
shake; shakehole. (England; sometimesspelled shackhole.) 1. Term used mainlyby cavers to indicate a doline, especiallyone formed by subsidence. 2. Holeformed by solution, subsidence, andcompaction in loose drift or alluviumoverlying beds of limestone[10]. 3. Smallsubsidence or suffosion doline formed inthe glacial till overlying limestones in thenorthern Pennies. See jama.
shall sand. Sand containing considerableamounts of clay and shale[16].
shawl. Simple triangular-shaped curtain[10].
shear plane. A plane along which failure ofmaterial occurs by shearing.
shear stress. See stress, shear.
sheet. A thin coating of calcium carbonateformed on walls, shelves, benches, andterraces by trickling water[10].
sheet erosion. Erosion occurring overwidespread tabular sedimentary oreffusive rock[16].
sheet jointing. Fracturing of tensilecharacter, mostly in granitoid rocks,parallel to the land surface. Sheet jointingis developed either by load release ortemperature differences.
shield; cave shield. 1. A thin circular discof calcite projecting from a cave wall atany upward inclination, commonly ameter or more in diameter and with theunderside draped with stalactites andcurtains. The shield is actually a doubledisc with a thin central crack that acts asthe continuation of a wallrock fracture. Itgrows by water moving up the crackunder pressure and depositing calcite onboth sides of its outer rim. Shields arerare, but Lehman Cave, Nevada, has morethan a hundred of them[9]. 2. Adisk-shaped speleothem standingedgewise at a high angle[10]. 3. Ageologically stable and undisturbedcontinental block[16].
shilin. A type of pinnacle karst formed onlow plateau of gently dipping limestone;it is distinguished by densely packedpinnacles up to 25m high, fluted by sharp
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Rillenkarren. Known only in southernChina, shilin (pronounced sherlin)translates as stone forest[9].
shore. The zone of separation between landand moving water[16].
show cave. A cave that has been madeaccessible to the public for guidedvisits[25].
sieve analysis. The determination of theparticle-size distribution of a soil,sediment, or rock by measuring thepercentage of the particles that will passthrough standard sieves of various sizes[6].
sieve opening. The opening between themesh wires of a sieve[16].
sieve retention. The material retained on asieve[16].
silicate rock. Rock containing silica inpredominant proportions[16].
silicic acid. H4SiO4 monomeric acid[16].
silicon dioxide. Silica (SiO2.) See alsoquartz.
Silikatkarren. (German.) Granites andrelated rocks that possess small outcropsculpturing such as rounded runnels. They are best developed in the humidtropics such as Malaysia[8].
silt. A grain particle with a diameter thatranges between 0.005 to 0.05 mm[16].
silting. The deposition of silt in wells,caves, or reservoirs[16].
sima. (Spanish.) Natural well that hasvertical sides[10].
similarity criteria. The conditionsindicating under what circumstances amodel and prototype are similar[16].
simple hydrograph. A single peakedhydrograph[16].
single outlet. A stream cutting through adivide (tributary basin) or outflow to thesea (major basin)[16].
single rope technique. The practice ofclimbing up and down ropes with the helpof ascenders and descenders. Abbreviation: SRT.
sink; sinkhole. (American.) 1. A pointwhere a stream or river disappearsunderground. The sinking water mayfilter through a choke that excludescavers, or may flow into an openhorizontal cave or vertical shaft, andwhile active all of these may be termedsinkholes. The flow of water may be verysmall, but in full flood many sinkholesswallow flows of tens of cubic meters persecond. The character of sink water (orswallet water, as it is commonly termedby hydrologists), flowing directly andrapidly into an open cave, distinguishes itfrom percolation water[9]. 2. Generalterms for closed depressions. They maybe basin, funnel, or cylindrical shaped[10]. See also closed depression; doline; ponor;stream sink; sumidero; swallet; swallowhole.
sinkhole plain. (American.) Plain on whichmost of the local relief is due to closed
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depressions and nearly all drainage issubterranean[10].
sinkhole pond. (American.) Small lake inclosed depression in limestone, due to animpervious clay floor or to intersection ofdepression with the water table[10]. Seedoline lake.
sinking river, sinking stream. A smallstream that disappears underground[10]. See also lost river; doline; ponor; sink;sinkhole; stream sink; sumidero; swallet;swallow hole.
sinter. 1. A rock or deposit formed byprecipitation from natural water, oftenfrom a hot or cold spring. Calcareoussinter is calcium carbonate and is alsoknown as tufa, travertine, and onyxmarble. Siliceous sinter is silica and isalso known as geyserite and fiorite[20]. 2.A mineral precipitate deposited by amineral spring, either hot or cold. Siliceous sinter, consisting of silica, maybe called geyserite and fluorite; cal-careous sinter, consisting of calciumcarbonate, may be called tufa, travertine,and onyx marble[10]. Synonyms: (French.)concrétion; (German.) Sinter, Kalktuff,Travertin; (Greek.) asvestolithikostoffos; (Italian.) concrezione; (Russian.)otlozenija istocnikov; (Spanish.)concreción; (Turkish.) kaynak tüfü;(Yugoslavian.) travertin, sedra, bigar,lehnjak. Related to travertine.
siphon. 1. Synonym for a sump, or a sectionof flooded cave passage, in commonparlance. True siphons, where waterflows first up and then down are rare incaves, as the fractures in limestone tendto disrupt the required hydraulics. Theyare, however, the origin of such
intermittent springs as the Fontestorbesspring in France, and the Ebbing andFlowing Well at Giggleswick Yorkshire. Both flow in regular pulses when thesiphon is full and working, only to ceasewhen the siphon input is broken by air, asthe upstream reservoir level drops. Theiroperation depends on critical flows andboth operate only in favorable weatherconditions[9]. 2. Gallery in form of aninverted ‘U’ with water moving onlyunder pressure when the siphon hascompletely filled up; the water head at theinput end being higher than at thedrainage point[20]. 3. In speleology, a cavepassage in which the ceiling dips below awater surface[10]. Synonyms: (French.)siphon; (German.) Siphon; (Greek.)siphon; (Italian.) sifone; (Russian.) sifon;(Spanish.) sifon; (Turkish.) sifon;(Yugoslavian.) sifon, smrk. See alsowater trap.
site characterization. Means the programof exploration and research, both in thelaboratory and in the field, undertaken toestablish the geologic conditions and theranges of those parameters relevant to aparticular site. Site characterizationincludes borings, surface excavations,excavation of exploratory shafts, limitedsubsurface lateral excavations andborings, and in situ testing at depthneeded to determine the suitability of thesite for a geologic repository, but does notinclude preliminary borings andgeophysical testing needed to decidewhether site characterization should beundertaken[22].
skin effect. The effect of the zone ofreduced permeability immediately around
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the borehole on transient flow phenomenain pumping tests[16].
skryty0000 karst, zakryty0000 karst. (Russian.)See closed karst.
skylight. A hole in the roof of a cavepassage through to the ground surface. Itmay be an inlet shaft, a section ofcollapse or a breach due to surfacelowering[9].
slickenside. 1. A polished, commonlystriated rock surface within a fault plane,produced due to friction during faultmovement. The striae give an indicationof the fault movement direction[9]. 2. Apolished fault plane with grooves due torelative motion of fault blocks[16].
sliding. 1. The relative displacement of twobodies along a surface, without loss ofcontact between the bodies. 2. Thedownslope movement of rock and earthmaterial[16].
sling. A joined loop of rope or tape[25].
slocker. Local term used in the easternMendip Hills, England for a swallet orstream sink[9].
slope. The inclination of a surface[16].
slump pit. A hollow in the clay fill of acave floor caused by erosion beneath thefill[10].
smithsonite. A cave mineral — ZnCO3[11].
snow. Solid crystalline form of water[16].
snow cover; snowpack. The accumulatedheight of snow covering a given area[16].
snow line. A line connecting elevationsabove which snowpack remainsthroughout the year[16].
snow sampler. A tube used for the takingof cylindrical snow samples through asnow profile[16].
snowdrift. Snow accumulation due to windtransport[16].
sod. Root system in a soil[16].
soda straw. 1. Proto-stalactite in whichwater flow down through the center of thestraw. Upon entering a vadose cavepassage, the change in the partial pressureof carbon dioxide cause CO2 degassingand the slow precipitation of CaCO3. Thestraw grows downwards as a result; wateralso flows down the outside of the strawcausing the stalactite to grow outwardsaround the straw. 2. American name forstraw stalactite[9].
soddy karst. See subsoil karst.
sodium. A naturally occurring element(Na).
soil aggregate. Loosely cemented cluster ofsoil particles[16].
soil air. The air that fills soil and rockinterstices above the zone of saturation[10].
soil bulk density. The mass of dry soil perunit bulk soil[22].
soil-covered karst. See subsoil karst.
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soil mechanics. The science of dealing withthe mechanical properties of soils[16].
soil moisture. Subsurface liquid water inthe unsaturated zone expressed as afraction of the total porous mediumvolume occupied by water. It is less thanor equal to the porosity[22].
soil-moisture meter. A device used torecord soil moisture in situ[16].
soil-moisture suction. The negative porepressure exerted by capillary forces[16].
soil profile. A vertical section of the soilmantle usually with distinguishable soilhorizons[16].
soil sample. A sample of soil on which soilproperties are to be determined[16].
soil swelling. The volume increase of soildue to swelling of unsaturated clayparticles when in contact with water[16].
soil water. See soil moisture.
soil-water pressure. The pressure (positiveor negative), in relation to the externalgas pressure on the soil water, to which asolution identical in composition with thesoil water must be subjected in order tobe in equilibrium through a porouspermeable wall with the soil water[22].
soilcover. A layer of soil material coveringbedrock[16].
soilwater zone. The upper portion of thezone of aeration containing soil water[16].
solid matrix. An assembly ofinterconnected solid mineral grainssurrounded by voids[16].
solid volume. The volume of solid particlesin a porous sample[16].
solifluction. The slow flowage of mudstreams in arctic regions.
solubility. The total amount of solutespecies that will remain indefinitely in asolution maintained at constanttemperature and pressure in contact withthe solid crystals from which the soluteswere derived[22].
solum. The top layers of a soil profile[16].
solute. The substance present in a solutionin the smaller amount. For convenience,water is generally considered the solventeven in ‘concentrated’ solutions withwater molecules in the minority[22].
solute transport. The net flux of solutethrough a hydrogeologic unit controlledby the flow of subsurface water andtransport mechanisms[22].
solution. 1. Synonym for dissolution,except that the product of the solution (ordissolution) process, is also termed asolution, this being a combination ofliquid and non-liquid (solid or gaseous)components that exists as a liquid[9]. 2. Ahomogeneous mixture of two or morecomponents. In ideal solutions, themovement of molecules in chargedspecies are independent of each other; inaqueous solutions charged species interacteven at very low concentrations,decreasing the activity of the solutes[22].
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4. The change of matter from a solid orgaseous state to a liquid state bycombination with a liquid[10]. 5. Theresult of such change; a liquidcombination of a liquid and a nonliquidsubstance[10]. See corrosion.
solution breccia. A mass of rock composedof angular to rounded fragments of rockthat have accumulated by solution ofsurrounding or underlying carbonate. Seealso collapse breccia.
solution flutes. See rillenkarren.
solution lake. A lake whose origin isattributed largely to solution of under-lying rock.
solution notch. These form whereverhumic soil borders on a very steep orvertical limestone surface. The rockbecomes undercut by water rich inbiogenic CO2. In the cone karst of thehumid tropics, foot caves occur which areover-sized enlargements of solutionnotches[3].
solution pan. Shallow solution basin orclosed depression formed on barelimestone, generally characterized by flatbottom and overhanging sides[10]. Theinitial form is a closed hollow created bya humus patch. It may have over-hangingside walls and a flat floor covered byalgae and small pieces or broken rock. Diameters are rarely greater than 15 cm[3]. Synonyms: (German.) Kamenitza orKamenica, opferkeßel; (British.) panhole;(Spanish.) tinajita. See Kamenica.
solution pipe. A vertical cylindrical holeattributable to solution, often without
surface expression, filled with debris,such as sand, clay, rock chips, andbones[10]. Synonym: sand pipe. See alsogeologic organ.
solution runnel. See Rinnenkarren.
solution scarp. Escarpment formed bymore active solution of lower area or bycorrosional undercutting of the base of theescarpment[10].
solution subsidence. 1. Any subsidencedue to solution of underlying rock butparticularly the subsidence of parts of aformation into hollows or pockets of animmediately underlying solubleformation[10]. 2. A crater-like doline inrock other than karst limestone, formedby surface subsidence above solutionallyenlarged fissures in a sub-surface karstlimestone stratum[19]. Synonyms:(French.) affaissement par dissolution;(German.) Lösungstaschen,Lösungstrichter; (Greek.) katakáthismathiá thialíseos; (Italian.) subsidenza perdissoluzione, subsidenza persuberosione; (Russian.) prosedanievsledstvie rastvorenija; (Spanish.)subsidencia por disolucion; (Turkish.)erime alçal2m2; (Yugoslavian.)korozivno urus#avanje.
sonar. A system for detecting obstacles byemitting sound and intercepting andinterpreting echoes that bounce back. It isused by bats and also by oilbirds andsome swiftlets when they fly in thedarkness of caves[23].
sorption. 1. A general term used toencompass the process of absorption andadsorption[22]. 2. All processes whichremove solutes from the fluid phase and
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concentrate then on the solid phase of themedium[22].
sótano. (Spanish for cellar or basement.)Term used in Mexico for deep verticalshafts in limestone, which may or maynot lead to a cave[10].
spangolite. A cave mineral —Cu6Al(SO4)(OH)12"3H2O[11].
species (singular or plural). A group ofplants or animals whose members breednaturally only with each other andresemble each other more closely thanthey resemble members of any similargroup[23].
specific capacity. The rate of discharge ofwater from a well per unit of drawdown. It is commonly expressed as gpm/ft orm3/day/m and varies with pumping testduration[6].
specific conductance. A measure of theability of water to conduct an electricalcurrent expressed in micromhos percentimeter at 25°C[22].
specific discharge. The rate of discharge ofground water per unit area of a porousmedium measured at right angle to thedirection of flow. Synonyms: Darcyvelocity; seepage velocity.
specific drawdown. The amount ofdrawdown per unit discharge in a well[16].
specific gravity. The weight of a particularvolume of water that a given body of rockor soil will hold against the pull of gravityto the volume of the body itself. It isusually expressed as a percentage[6].
specific retention, water retainingcapacity. The ration of the volume ofwater that a given body of rock or soilwill hold against the pull of gravity to thevolume of the body itself. It is usuallyexpressed as a percentage[6].
specific storage. The volume of waterreleased from or taken into storage perunit volume of the porous medium perunit change in head[6].
specific surface. The ratio of grain particlesurface to the volume of grain particles[16].
specific yield. The ratio of the volume ofwater that a given mass of saturated rockor soil will yield by gravity to the volumeof that mass. This ratio is stated as apercentage[6].
spelean. Of, pertaining to, or related tocaves[10].
speleogen. A secondary cave structureformed by dissolving, such as a dome pitor a scallop[10].
speleogenesis. Although the term literallymeans the birth, origin or mode offormation of caves, the full extent ofspeleogenesis includes all the changesthat take place between the inception andthe eventual destruction of anunderground drainage system. It includesdevelopment phases during which the active drainage voids are too small to beconsidered caves as normally defined, aswell as phases when the cave no longerfunctions as a drain, is enlarging only bycollapse and, eventually, is being totallyremoved[9].
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speleogenetics. The totality of all processeswhich effect the creation anddevelopment of natural undergroundcavities. These comprise corrosion,erosion, and incasion, but are alsoinfluenced by lithology, tectonics, andclimate.
speleologist. 1. A scientist engaged in thestudy and exploration of caves, theirenvironment, and their biota[10]. 2.Explorer of caves, caverns, and otherunderground openings especially in karst. Caver and potholer are slang terms[20]. Synonyms: (French.) spéléologue;(German.) Höhlenforscher, Speläologe;(Greek.) speleologos; (Italian.)speleologo; (Russian.) speleolog;(Spanish.) espeleólogo; (Turkish.)speleolo, ma™arabilimci; (Yugoslavian.)speleolog, spiljar, jamar.
speleology. 1. Scientific study of caves,including aspects of sciences, such asgeomorphology, geology, hydrology,chemistry and biology, and also the manytechniques of cave exploration[9]. 2. Thescientific study, exploration, anddescription of caves, cave organisms, andrelated features[10]. 3. The branch ofknowledge dealing with the study andexploration of underground caves[20]. 4.Study, exploration, and description ofcaves, caverns, and other undergroundcavities in karst and rarely in lavas orice[20]. Synonyms: (French.) spéléologie;(German.) Höhlenforschung,Höhlenkunde; (Greek.) speleologhia;(Italian.) speleologia; (Russian.)speleologija; (Spanish.) espeleología;(Turkish.) speleoloji, ma™arabilim;(Yugoslavian.) speleologija,peƒinarstvo, jamarstvo.
speleothem. 1. General term for all cavemineral deposits, embracing allstalactites, flowstone, flowers, etc. Mostare formed of calcite whose precipitationprocesses, related mainly to carbondioxide levels in the water, are the directreverse of the dissolution of limestone. Climatic influences on dissolutionprocesses ensure that speleothems aregenerally larger and more abundant in thecaves of the wet tropics, which aretypified by thick stalactites and massivestalagmites, in contrast to the straws andflowstones of alpine caves[9]. 2. Generalterm for stalactites, stalagmites,moonmilk, helictites, and other secondarymineral deposits in caves and caverns[20]. 3. A secondary mineral deposit formed incaves, such as stalactite or stalagmite[10]. Synonyms: (French.) concrétionscavernicoles; (German.)Höhlenformation; (Greek.)speleolithoma; (Italian.) concrezione;(Russian.) natecnia obrazovanija;(Spanish.) concreción (estalagmítica oestalactítica); (Turkish.) magaraoluÕu™u; (Yugoslavian.) sige. See alsocave formation.
spelunker. See caver.
spelunking. See caving.
spencerite. A cave mineral —Zn4(PO4)2(OH)2"3H2O[11].
sphalerite. A cave mineral — ZnS[11].
spillway. A device that allows for theescape of excess water[16].
Spitzkarren. (German.) These are isolatedprojections that may be of a beehive form
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or may be sharply pointed and tend to liebetween grikes and the strike ribs ofbedding grikes[8]. See also grike; beddinggrike; clint.
Spitzkegelkarst. (German.) Tropical karsttopography containing sharply pointedresidual limestone hills[10].
splash cup. The shallow concavity in thetop of a stalagmite[10].
spongework. 1. Randomly shaped cavitiescreated by undirected phreatic dissolutionin a massive, essentially homogeneouslimestone. Fine examples occur inCarlsbad Caverns, New Mexico[9]. 2. Anarrangement of partitioned depressionsfound in cave ceilings and walls, andattributed to the differential solution ofsubmerged karst limestones. Larger andmore isolated hollows are known as‘pockets’[19].
spongework cave pattern. A complexmaze cave pattern consisting of irregularinterconnecting cavities with intricateperforation of the rock. The cavities maybe large or small. All spongeworkpatterns are non-branching indevelopment and contain profusetravertine. In map view, these caves oftenappear as an irregular ink blot.
spontaneous potential. See self-potential.
spore tracer. Dyes spores of the fern,Lycopodium clavatum, used to labelground water in karstic terranes. Synonyms: (French.) traceur marqueur;(German.) Sporenmarkierung; (Greek.)lycopodium ichnithetis; (Italian.)tracciante vegetale; (Spanish.) trazador
de esporas; (Turkish.) spor izleyici. Seeisotope tracer, Lycopodium spores.
spring. 1. Point where underground wateremerges on to the surface, not exclusiveto limestone, but generally larger incavernous rocks. The image of a trickleof water springing from a hillside hardlymatches that of a vast cave pouring fortha river, but both are called springs. Among the world’s largest is the Dumanlispring, Turkey, with a mean flow of over50 cubic meters per second. Springs maybe exsurgences or resurgences, dependingupon the source of their water, and alsomay be vauclusian in character[9]. 2. Anatural outflow of water (or other liquidor gas) at the surface of the land or intosurface water. In some usages. `spring’ isrestricted to the water which outflows, inother usages the word can refer to thewater, the outlet, or to the locality of theoutflow[20]. 3. Any natural discharge ofwater from rock or soil onto the surface ofthe land or into a body of surface water[10]. 4. A discrete place where ground waterflows naturally from a rock or the soilonto the land surface or into a body ofsurface water[22]. Synonyms: (French.)source; (German.) Quelle; (Greek.) pighi;(Italian.) sorgente; (Russian.) istocnik;(Spanish.) fuente; (Turkish.) kynak. Seealso seep.
spring, artesian. Water flowing underartesian pressure with the potentiometricsurface above the land surface[16].
spring, barrier. A subsurface barrierforcing water to rise to ground surfaceand discharge as a spring[16].
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spring, boiling. 1. An uncommon type ofvauclusian spring, where the flow is largeenough in a constricted site to formturbulence on the surface of theresurgence pool[9]. 2. (Jamaican.) A.variable-discharge artesian spring inwhich hydrostatic pressure is greatenough to cause a turbulent or evenfountain-like discharge[19]. See also bluehole.
spring, boundary. A spring located at theboundary between a permeable formationoverlying an impermeable substratum[16].
spring, cave. A spring rising in a cave[10].
spring, contact. A spring formed at theintersection of the land surface and apermeable water-bearing formationoverlying a less permeable formation[16].
spring, depression. A spring originating atthe intersection of the land surface withthe water table[16].
spring, drowned. A spring which continuesto function as a spring after it has becomesubmerged by rising sea or lake levels orby subsidence of the ground[20]. Synonyms: (French.) source sous-aquatique, source noyé; (German.)submarine Quelle, sublacustre Quelle;(Greek.) vethisthesa pigi; (Italian.)sorgente sommersa; (Russian.)subakvaljnij istoƒnik; (Spanish.) fuentesubacuática; (Turkish.) bat2k kaynak;(Yugoslavian.) potopljen izvor,potopljeno vrelo, potopljen izvir (vrelec). Related to spring, sublacustrine, spring,submarine.
spring, ebb-and-flow; ebbing-and-flowingwell. A spring (flowing well or borehole)exhibiting periodic variation in volume offlow; this variation, which may be regularor irregular, is often attributed in karstregions to siphonic action. Ebb-and-flowsprings differ from intermittent springsbecause the latter can be related toseasonal variations in rainfall[20]. Synonyms: (French.) source intermittente;(German.) intermittierende Quelle;(Greek.) pighí ambótidos kai palírrias;(Italian.) sorgente carsica intermittente;(Russian.) sifonnij istocnik; (Spanish.)manatial intermittente, fuenteintermittente; (Turkish.) so™ultkan kaynak;(Yugoslavian.) periodicni ixvor, periodic#ni izvir. See also spring, periodic. Related
to intermittent spring.
spring, drowned. A spring which continuesto function as a spring after it has beensubmerged by rising sea or lake levels orby subsidence of the ground[20]. Synonyms: (French.) source sous-aquatique, source noyé; (German.)submarine Quelle, sublacustre Quelle;(Greek.) vethisthesa pigi; (Italian.)sorgente sommersa; (Russian.)subakvaljnij istoƒnik; (Spanish.) fuentesubacuática; (Turkish.) batik kaynak;(Yugoslavian.) potopljen izvor, potopljenovrelo, potopljen izvir (vrelec). Related tosublacustrine spring, submarine spring.
spring, fracture. A spring with its outflowopenings consisting of fractures[16].
spring, fullflow. A spring that is the soledrain of an area.
spring, gravity. A spring flowing as aresult of gravity[16].
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spring head alcove. The arcuate cliffsurrounding many risings, formed byprogressive headward sapping and caverncollapse. The rapidity of their formationis increased by the cliff-line whichfrequently exists already at the lowermargin of the karst area[19].
spring, intermittent. 1. A karst spring witha pulsating flow, caused by the presencewithin the rock of cavities and siphonsfed by a subterranean watercourse. Whenthe cavity is full, the siphon is completeand causes a pulse of water to issue fromthe spring. This diminishes or emptiesthe water supply in the cavity and nofurther water is discharged from thespring until the system is reactivated. Thedischarge is said to be a reciprocatingspring when a reduced level of flow ismaintained between pulses[19]. 2. Aspring flowing at irregular intervals[16]. Synonyms: (French.) source temporaire,source intermittente; (German.)intermittierende Quelle, periodischeQuelle; (Greek.) thialepousa pege;(Italian.) sorgente temporanea, sorgenteintermittente; (Russian.)peremezajuscijsja istoƒnik; (Spanish.)fuente intermitente, fuente temporal;(Turkish.) kesintili kaynak;(Yugoslavian.) periodicko vrelo,potajnica, obdobni izvir. Related tospring, ebb-and-flow; spring, periodic.
spring, karst. A spring emerging fromkarstified limestone[10]. See alsoemergence; exsurgence; resurgence; rise.
spring, medicinal. A spring with healingproperties[16].
spring, mineral. A spring having a highmineral content.
spring, overflow. A spring that is part of adistributary but which drains only at thelevel above base flow.
spring, perched karst. The emergence ofunderground water some where above thebasement of a calcareous massif causedby the interbedding of an impermeable orintermittent perched water table byrestricting the vertical movement ofwater, which instead issues from thecontact[19].
spring, perennial. Stream flowing aboveland surface throughout the year[16].
spring, periodic. A spring that showsvariation in flow that is either regular orirregular. It may be due to siphonicaction[20]. Synonyms: (French.) sourcepériodique; (German.) PeriodischeQuelle, intermittierende Quelle; (Greek.)periodhiki piyi; (Italian.) sorgenteperiodica; (Spanish.) fuente periódica;(Turkish.) periyodik kaynak;(Yugoslavian.) periodic #ini izvor (izvir). See ebb-and-flow spring. Related tointermittent spring.
spring, saline. Spring water having a highsalt content[16].
spring, seepage. A spring where surfacedischarge occurs from numerous smallopenings[16]. Synonym: filtration spring.
spring, subaqueous. A spring thatdischarges below the surface of a waterbody (e.g. ocean, lake, river, or stream)[16].
spring, sublacustrine. A spring emergingin the bed of a lake predominantly in karstareas[20]. Synonyms: (French.) source
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sous lacustre; (German.)Unterwaßerquelle, sublacustre Quelle;(Greek.) ypovrichios pighi; (Italian.)sorgente sublacustre; (Russian.) istocnikna dne ozera; (Spanish.) fuentesublacustre; (Turkish.) gölalti kayna™2. See spring, drowned.
spring, submarine. 1. A spring emergingin a sea or lagoon predominantly in karstterranes. This is a descriptive termgenerally corresponding to the geneticterm `drowned spring[20].’ 2. Largeoffshore emergence, generally fromcavernous limestone, but in some areasfrom beds of lava[10]. Synonyms:(French.) source sous marine; (German.)Untermeeresquelle, Grundquelle,submarine Quelle; (Greek.) ypothalassiapighi; (Italian.) sorgente sottomarina;(Russian.) submarinnij istocnik;(Spanish.) fuente submarina; (Turkish.)denizalti kayna™2; (Yugoslavian.) vrulja. See spring, drowned.
spring, thermal. A spring with temperatureof the spring water above the averagetemperature of superficial rock[16].
spring, tubular. A spring issuing from around channel such as a tubularpassage[16].
spring, unconformity. A spring issuing atthe contact of an aquifer with anunconformity.
spring, underflow. A spring that is part ofa distributary but which is at lowerelevation and preferentially drains baseflow. Between it and an overflow springthere may be several underflow-overflowsprings.
spring, valley. Springs occurring at valleysides where the water table intersects theland surface.
spring, vauclusian; rising, vauclusian. 1.A type of rising or spring where directdrainage from the phreas flows up aflooded cave passage under pressure toemerge in daylight. The term is bestapplied where water rises from a verticalor very steep bedrock passage. Suchrisings are named after the Fontaine deVaucluse in southern France. The RiverSorgue rises from the Fontaine with amean flow of 26 cubic meters per second. Its upper part is steeply inclined, but adepth it is vertical. A diver has reached adepth of –200m, and a robot reached–243m, below which the flooded shaftcontinues[9]. 2. Large karst spring (nameby Fournet, after la Sorgue en Vaucluse,France) characterized by a stream surgingup as from a siphon. Also applied tokarst springs with artesiancharacteristics[20]. 3. A large spring orexsurgence of an underground river, gen-erally from limestone, that varies greatlyin output and is impenetrable except withdiving apparatus[10]. Synonym:(American.) gushing spring; (French.)source vauclusienne, bouillidou (Southof France); (German.) Vauclusequelle,(Riesenquelle); (Greek.)kephalari/vauclusiana pighi; (Italian.)sorgente valchiusana; (Russian.)vokljuz; (Spanish.) fuente vauclusiana,ojo, heryidero; (Turkish.) bas2nçcl2kaynak; (Yugoslavian.) voklisko vrelo,obrh. See also gushing spring.
squeeze. A narrow passage or opening justpassable with effort. Differs fromflattener in that there is little spare spacein any direction[10].
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staff gage. A fixed graduated scale[16].
stage. Water surface elevation at a pointalong a stream, river, lake, etc., above anarbitrary datum[16].
stage-discharge relation. See rating curve.
stage hydrograph. The elevation of stageplotted against time[16].
stage record. Stage discharge relationspresented in tabulated form[16].
stagmalite. A general term including sta-lactite and stalagmite. Superseded bydripstone[10].
stagnation point. The foremost point on astreamline dividing an area of pumpingdepression from a zone of influence in atilted aquifer being pumped by a well[16].
stalactite. 1. Speleothem, generally ofcalcite, formed by dripping water andhanging from a cave roof. Stalactitesembrace an enormous variety of sizes andshapes. They form where percolationwater seeps from a cave ceiling andbecomes saturated with respect to calcitedue to loss of carbon dioxide into thecave air. Calcite is precipitated round therim of the water droplet and continueddeposition creates a hollow tubular strawstalactite (soda straw). Additionaldeposition of calcite on the outside of theinitial cylinder creates an ordinarytapering stalactite. Almost infinitevariation in shape may be influenced bychanges in water flow, cave air chemistry,evaporation, temperature or dissolvedimpurities, and by crystal growthblocking flow paths. They are the most
common speleothem. Though the single7m long stalactite in Ireland’s Poll anIonain is not the world’s longest, it isuniquely spectacular against the darkchamber walls[9]. 2. Conical deposit ofcalcite or aragonite often with a hollowcenter hanging from the roof of a cave orcavern formed by precipitation ofcarbonate due to escape of CO2 fromhanging water beads and to evaporationof part of the water[20]. 3. A cylindrical orconical deposit of minerals, generallycalcite, formed by dripping water,hanging from the roof of a cave, generallyhaving a hollow tube at its center. FromGreek word meaning exude drops[10]. Synonyms: (French.) stalactite;(German.) Tropfstein, Stalaktit; (Greek.)stalaktitis; (Italian.) stalattite; (Russian.)stalaktit; (Spanish.) estalactita;(Turkish.) sark2t (Yugoslavian.) mosur,viseci kapnik, stalaktit.
stalagmite. 1. Speleothem, normally ofcalcite, formed by upward growth from acave floor, and therefore the complementof a stalactite. Stalagmites form whendripwater that is still saturated falls froma cave roof or stalactite and, when or afterit lands, loses more carbon dioxide to thecave air, causing precipitation of calcite. They vary in size and shape, from tall thintowers to wide domes that grade intoflowstone, the main controls being driprate and height, and saturation levels ofthe water. The stalagmites of AvenArmand, France, are of the multiplesplash-cup variety while being notablyslender and up to 30m tall. Spectacularlymassive stalagmites occur in the Carlsbadand Cottonwood Caves of New Mexico[9]. 2. Columnar or partly irregular deposit ofcalcite or aragonite on the floor of a caveor cavern formed by the precipitation of
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carbonates due to escape of CO2 fromwater dripping from the roof[20]. 3. Adeposit of calcium carbonate rising fromthe floor of a limestone cave, formed byprecipitation from a bicarbonate solutionthrough loss of CO2. The water drops onthe stalagmite from above. From Greekword meaning drip[10]. Synonyms:(French.) stalagmite; (German.)Bodenzapfen, Stalagmit; (Greek.)stalagmitis; (Italian.) stalagmite;(Russian.) stalagmit; (Spanish.)estalagmita; (Turkish.) dikit;(Yugoslavian.) óulak, stoje…i kapnik,stalagmit. See also dripstone.
stalagmite, capillary. See capillarystalagmite.
standard deviation. A measure ofvariability of the square of individualdeviations from their mean[16].
standing line. A rope of approximately0.4375 inches or 11 mm in diameter thatis tied to a solid anchor and is used fordescending and ascending[13]. See alsoascender; knot; mechanical ascender;prusik knot; prusiking.
state of solution. The degree to which amineral or rock has gone into solution[16].
static head. See head, static.
static water level. The level of water in awell that is not being affected bywithdrawal of ground water[6].
station. A survey point in a chain of suchpoints in a survey[25].
steady flow. Flow where the velocity at apoint remains constant with respect totime[16].
steam hole. An opening from a cavitythrough which a current of air chargedwith vapor blows upwards and condensesat the orifice to appear as steam. Suchopenings are an occasional feature inkarst terranes[20]. Synonyms: (French.)puits à vapeur, puits fumant; (German.)Dampfschlot; (Greek.) atmotrypa;(Spanish.) cavidad fumante; (Turkish.)buhar deli™i.
steep. The property of inclination with avery steep gradient[16].
steephead. A deeply cut valley, generallyshort, terminating at its upslope end in anamphitheater, at the foot of which astream may emerge[10].
stegamite. A speleothem projectingupwards from a cave floor in the form ofa calcite ridge. A medial crack appearsalong the top of the ridge where water isthought to be forced from the speleothemunder capillary action[25].
stemflow. Rain water flowing down thestem of plants[16].
stereo aerial photographs. Aerialphotographs shot in sequence over alandscape so that when adjoining photosare viewed at the proper interpupillaryspacing, features may be seen in three-dimensions.
stereogram. A block diagram or three-dimensional diagram[16].
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stilling well. A well connected to a flowingstream or spring through a bottom conduitpermitting elevation measures to be takenin quiescent water[16].
stomatal transpiration. The transpirationby escape of water through pores(stomata) of leaves[16].
stone forest. See shilin.
stoping. The upward migration of theceiling in a passage or room by the actionof slabs falling[13].
storage capacity. 1. The ability of anaquifer to store water[16]. 2. The capacityof rivers to store water in their ownchannel[16].
storage coefficient. 1. The volume of wateran aquifer releases from or takes intostorage per unit surface area of the aquiferper unit change in head[22]. In a confinedaquifer, the water is derived from storagewith decline in head resulting from anexpansion of the water and compressionof the aquifer. Similarly, water added tostorage with a rise in head isaccommodated partly by compression ofthe water and partly by expansion of theaquifer. In an unconfined aquifer, theamount of water so released or acceptedis generally negligible compared to theamount involved in gravity drainage orfilling of pores, hence, in an unconfinedaquifer, the storage coefficient is virtuallyequal to the specific yield. 2. The volumeof water an aquifer releases from or takesinto storage per unit surface area of theaquifer per unit change in head (virtuallyequal to the specific yield in anunconfined aquifer.) 3. The volume of
water a confined hydrogeologic unitreleases from or takes into storage perunit subsurface area of the hydrogeologicunit per unit change in head.
storage gage. A precipitation gage forcollecting and storing the total amount ofinflowing water to be read at longintervals[16].
storage in depressions. Water retention insurface depressions[16].
storativity. See storage coefficient.
storm. 1. A disturbance of averagemeteorological conditions and usuallyconnected with precipitation[16]. 2. Aperiod of precipitation over a specificdrainage basin[16].
strath terrace. An erosional remnant of anelevated broad river valley[16].
stratification. 1. A depositional structure ofsedimentary rocks in beds and layers[16]. 2. The separation into non-discrete layersof water as a result of chemical, saline, ortemperature differences which in turncreate density differences in the water.
stratigraphic column. A graphic means ofrepresenting the various rock types of anarea in a geologic report[13].
stratigraphic sequence. The sequence ofrock types in an area[13].
stratum. A sedimentary bed or layer[16].
straw stalactite; straw. 1. The simplestform of stalactite — a fragile, thin walledtube, normally of calcite, which is the
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diameter of the drops of water that hangfrom its end and continue its growth. Though only about5mm in diameter,straw stalactites (or straws) may grow togreat length in clusters of spectacularlydense profusion, more commonly in cavesof cooler climates. The length recordmay be held by a 6m straw in EasterCave, Western Australia. Also known asstraw stalactite or soda straw[9]. 2. Thintubular stalactite, generally less than acentimeter in diameter and of very greatlength (examples as long as 4 meters);also called soda straw[10]. See also sodastraw; stalactite.
stream. A body of flowing water[16].
stream bed. The bottom of a streamcovered by water[16].
stream development. The ratio of actualtortuous stream length between twopoints on a straight line connecting thesepoints[16].
stream flow. The total runoff confined in astream and its’ channel[16].
stream frequency. Channel frequency; thenumber of stream segments per unitarea[16].
stream order. The hierarchic order ofstream segments according totributaries[16].
stream profile. The elevation of the mainstream bed as a function of distance fromoutflow.
stream sink, streamsink. Point at which asurface stream sinks into the ground[10].
See also doline; ponor; sink; sinkhole;sumidero; swallet; swallow hole.
stream tube. 1. A cave passage completelyfilled, now or in the past, with fast-moving water and whose ceiling andwalls normally show scallops[10]. 2. Theimaginary space formed between twoadjacent streamlines in which flow isconstant (assuming steady flowconditions). Synonyms: (French.)conduite forcée; (German.)Druckflußrohr; (Greek.) ypóghiossíranx; (Italian.) condotta forzata;(Spanish.) tubo (o conducto) fréatico;(Turkish.) akarsu mecras2. See conduit,pressure flow tube.
streamline. A curve that is everywheretangent to the specific discharge vectorand indicates the direction of flow atevery point in a flow domain.
streamtube. A cave passage completelyfilled, or formerly filled, with fast-movingwater and whose ceiling and wallsnormally possess scallops[10].
strength. The maximum stress which amaterial can resist without failing for anygiven type of loading.
stress. The force acting across a givensurface element divided by the area of theelement.
stress, applied. The downward stressimposed at an aquifer boundary. It differsfrom effective stress in that it defines onlythe external stress tending to compact adeposit rather than the grain-to-grainstress at any depth within a compactingdeposit[21].
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stress, effective. Stress (pressure) that isborne by and transmitted through thegrain-to-grain contacts of a deposit, andthus affects its porosity or void ratio andother physical properties. In one-dimensional compression, effective stressis the average grain-to-grain load per unitarea in a plane normal to the appliedstress. At any given depth, the effectivestress is the weight (per unit area) ofsediments and moisture above the watertable, plus the submerged weight (per unitarea) of sediments between the watertable and the specified depth, plus orminus the seepage stress (hydrodynamicdrag) produced by downward or upwardcomponents, respectively, of watermovement through the saturatedsediments above the specified depth. Thus, effective stress may be regarded asthe algebraic sum of the two bodystresses, gravitational stress, and seepagestress. Effective stress mal also beregarded as the difference betweengeostatic and neutral stress[21].
stress, geostatic. The total load per unitarea of sediments and water above someplane of reference. It is the sum of (1) theeffective stress, and (2) the neutralstress[21].
stress, neutral. Fluid pressure exertedequally in all directions at a point in asaturated deposit by the head of water. Neutral pressure is transmitted to the baseof the deposit through the pore water, anddoes not have a measurable influence onthe void ratio or on any other mechanicalproperty of the deposits[21].
stress, preconsolidation. The maximumantecedent effective stress to which a
deposit has been subjected, and which itcan withstand without undergoingadditional permanent deformation. Stresschanges in the range less than thepreconsolidation stress produce elasticdeformations of small magnitude. In fine-grained materials, stress increases beyondthe preconsolidation stress produce muchlarger deformations that are principallyinelastic (nonrecoverable)[21].
stress, seepage. When water flows througha porous medium, force is transferredfrom the water to the medium by viscousfriction. The force transferred to themedium is equal to the loss of hydraulichead. This force, called seepage force, isexerted in the direction of flow[21].
stress, shear. Stress directed parallel(tangential) to the surface element acrosswhich it acts.
strike. The direction or azimuth of ahorizontal line in the plane of an inclinedstratum, joint, cleavage plane or otherplanar feature within a rock mass.
strike valley. A valley following the strikeof underlying strata[16].
structure. One of the larger features of arock mass (e.g., bedding, foliation,jointing, cleavage, brecciation, etc.). Alsothe sum total of such features ascontrasted with texture. In a broadersense, it refers to the structural features ofan area such as anticlines or synclines.
structural factor. Features modifying orinterrupting the continuity of rocktypes[16].
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structural geology. That part of geologydealing with structures formed inrocks[16].
struga. (Slavic.) A corridor formed along abedding plane in karst country[10].
stygobite. An aquatic troglobite[23].
stygophile. An aquatic troglophile[23].
stygoxene. An aquatic trogloxene[23].
stylolite. An irregular suture-like boundarydeveloped along some bedding planes inlimestones, probably caused bydissolution under pressure and possiblyrelated in some cases to subsequentinception of speleogenesis[9[.
subaqueous spring. See spring,subaqueous.
subaqueous karst. A karst terrane that iscovered by a discrete body of water[17]. See also drowned karst; subfluvial karst;submarine karst.
subartesian well. An artesian well withinsufficient head to raise water above theland surface[16].
sub-conduit. Any void, whether of tectonicor dissolutional origin, that is smallerthan the accepted defined size of aconduit. Sub-conduits originate underinception conditions and enlarge duringgestation, but many fail to achieve largerdimensions when drainage later becomesconcentrated along preferred routes. Inmost cases, however, they will continueto function as part of the micro-fissure, orpercolation, system within the rock mass.
Sub-conduits are an essential part of acontinuum of void sizes that extendsbetween microscopic discontinuities andthe largest tube passages[9].
subcutaneous drain. Discrete percolationdrains contained within the epikarst zoneand leading to the transitions zone. Seealso epikarst zone; subcutaneous flow;subcutaneous zone; transition zone.
subcutaneous flow. Lateral and verticalflow that occurs within the epikarst zoneunder saturated conditions. Lateral flowdistances can exceed hundreds of metersand several meters per day while verticalwithin discrete percolation drains(subcutaneous drains) may allow flowrates in excess of several hundred metersper hour. See also epikarst zone;subcutaneous drain; subcutaneous zone;transition zone.
subcutaneous zone. Synonym for epikarstzone. See epikarstic zone.
subfluvial karst. Karst topographydeveloped beneath a river. See alsosubaqueous karst.
subjacent karst. Karst landscape in non-carbonate rocks due to presence ofkarstified rocks beneath the surfaceformation[10]. Synonyms: (French.) karstsous-jacent; (German.) unterirdischesKarstphänomen; (Greek.) ypokímenonkarst; (Russian.) pokritij karst; (Spanish.)karst subyacente; (Turkish.) gizli karst;(Yugoslavian.) pokriven krs# (kras). Seealso interstratal karst.
subkutan karst. See subsoil karst.
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sublacustrine spring. See spring,sublacustrine.
sublimation. The direct conversion ofwater from its solid state to the vaporphase[16].
submarine karst. Karst topographydeveloped below the tidal zone. See alsosubaqueous karst.
submarine spring. See spring, submarine.
subpermafrost karst. Underground karstin areas of permafrost. Karstification isdue to the solvent action of subpermafrost(or intrapermafrost) water[20]. Synonyms:(French.) karst sous-permafrost;(German.) Pseudokarst; (Greek.) karstypomonímou paghetoú; (Italian.)carsismo di subpermafrost; (Russian.)podmerzlonij karst, mezmerzlotnij karst;(Spanish.) karst de subpermafrost, karstde intrapermafrost; (Turkish.) don alan2yeralt2 karst2. See permafrost karst. Seealso intrapermafrost karst.
subpermafrost water. Ground water belowthe permafrost[16].
subsequent river. 1. A river flowing alongthe strike of a weak formation[16]. 2. Atributary to a consequent river[16].
subsidence. Lowering of the surface of theground because of removal of support. Caused in karst areas by subterraneansolution or collapse of caves[10].
subsidence doline. A closed karstdepression formed due to localsubsidence of the surface rocks and/orsoil into cavities formed by widespread
dissolution or local collapse of caves. The type of subsidence doline formed bydownwashing of the soil cover is betterdescribed as a suffosion doline[9]. Alsoknown as sinkhole.
subsidence/head-decline ratio. The ratiobetween land subsidence and hydraulichead decline in the coarse-grained beds ofthe compacting aquifer system[21].
subsoil karst. Karst covered by soil,usually residual soil[17]. Synonyms:(British.) soddy karst; (French.) karst vert,karst subcutané; (German.) bedeckterKarst, bodenbedeckter Karst, grükarst,subkutan karst; (Greek.) ypethaphikonkarst; (Russian.) zadernovanny0 karst;(Spanish.) karst subcutáneo; (Turkish.)toprakalt2 karst2; (Yugoslavian.)pokriveni krs# (kras). See also coveredkarst.
subsurface divide. See undergrounddivide.
subsurface flow. See subsurface runoff.
subsurface runoff, storm seepage,subsurface flow, subsurface storm flow. Runoff due to infiltrated precipitationmoving laterally under the surface.
subsurface water. All water that occursbelow the land surface[22].
subterranean. Beneath the land surface[16].
subterranean cut-off. The diversionunderground of a surface watercoursebeneath a surface meander neck, markedby a swallow hole on the upstream side
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and a spring on the downstream side[19]. See also stream piracy.
subterranean river, subterranean stream. Underground stream of flowing water incaves and caverns, but not necessarilylarge[10]. See also underground stream.
suction. See moisture tension.
suffosion. Undermining through removal ofsediment by mechanical and corrosionalaction of underground water[20]. Synonyms: (French.) soutirage karstique;(German.) Anzapfung; (Greek.)ypoghion thiavrosis; (Russian.)suffozija; (Spanish.) sufosión; (Turkish.)karstik yeralt2suyu kaz2mas2;(Yugoslavian.) sufozija.
suffosion doline. More accurate synonymfor a type of subsidence doline, indicatingformation by the suffosion, ordownwashing, of the soil into anunderlying fissure[9]. Also known asshakehole.
sulfate. A mineral compound characterizedby the sulfate radical SO4
2–. Anhydroussulfates, such as barite, BaSO4, havedivalent cations linked to the sulfateradical; hydrous and basic sulfates, suchas gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O, contain watermolecules[1].
sulfate minerals. Minerals containing the SO4
2– radical, formed by precipitationfrom water. The most common are theanhydrous and hydrated calcium sulfates,anhydrite (CaSO4) and gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O). Sulfates are deposited asa generally minor component of mostcarbonate successions, but due to their
high solubility they may not survivesubsequent dissolution by ground water. Even if they survive subsequentdissolution by ground water. Even if theysurvive at depth, they tend to dissolve asthey are raised nearer to the surfacefollowing uplift and erosion ofoverburden. Removal of sulfates bydissolution may contribute to the earlyestablishment of secondary permeabilityin limestone sequences. Sulfate solutionshave a limited corrosional effect uponcalcium carbonate, but may also beoxidized to produce sulphuric acid, whichis highly corrosive of limestone.
sulfate-reduction karst. Karst topographydeveloped in the subsurface wheresolution of bedrock is chiefly a result ofsulfate reduction by petroleumhydrocarbons aided by bacterial processesthat oxidize hydrocarbons to yield carbondioxide. Little, if any of the water thatdissolves the rock is meteoric[17].
sulfide. A mineral compound characterizedby the linkage of sulfur with a metal orsemimetal, such as galena, PbS, or pyrite,FeS2
[1]. See also gypsum and pyrite.
sulfide minerals. Minerals that arecomposed of one or more metalscombined with sulphur. The mostcommon is pyrite. They are believed tobe produced by the metabolic action ofmicro-organisms, and are found in manysedimentary rocks, usually in traceamounts.
sumidero. (Spanish.) 1. A swallow hole. 2.In Latin America, any closed depressioncaused by solution[10].
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summation curve. A curve of cumulatedvalues[16].
summit. The highest point of aphysiographic feature[16].
sump. 1. In caves a sump is a section offlooded passage. This may be a perchedsump, probably quite short, within avadose cave and created by a local reversepassage gradient. Alternatively it may bea major feature, where a cave passagedescends below the regional water tableinto the phreas, as is common at the lowerend of many cave systems. Some shortsumps can be dived without the use ofbreathing apparatus, but most arerestricted to exploration by cave divers. Logistics are a barrier to endless sumppenetrations, but some have now beenexplored for many kilometers in length,notable in Cocklebiddy Cave, Australia,the Nohoch Nah Chich and other greatflooded systems in Mexico’s Yucatan,and behind Keld Head in Yorkshire[9]. 2.A pool of underground water or point onan underground stream that has asubmerged extension, the nature of whichhas not been determined[10]. 3. A placewhere the ceiling of a passage drops toand below water level in a cave, leavingno air space with the cave passagecontinuing underwater[13]. 4. A watertrap.
sulfuric acid. An acid (H2SO4).
sunken pan. An evaporation pan buried inthe ground for equal elevation of thewater surface with the ground surface[16].
superimposed valley. A valley establishedon the land surface with a pattern that isindependent of the underlying rockstructure.
supersaturated. Referring to water that hasmore limestone or other karst rock insolution than the maximumcorresponding to normal conditions[25].
supersaturation. A liquid that is oversaturated with respect to whateverparticles may be contained in the fluid.
suprapermafrost karst. Surface karst inareas or permafrost. Karstification is dueto the solvent action of suprapermafrostwater[20]. Synonyms: (French.) karstsuprapermafrost; (German.)Pseudokarst; (Greek.) karst epimonímou paghetoú; (Italian.) carsismosuperficiale di permafrost; (Russian.)nadmerzlotnij karst; (Spanish.) karst desuprapermafrost; (Turkish.) don alan2yüzey karst2. See also permafrost karst.
suprapermafrost water. Ground waterabove permafrost[16].
surf karren. Surf karren form along marinelimestone and dolomite coasts where thesurf sprays water onto abrasion surfacesthat lie slightly above normal sea level. They are a result of corrosion caused bythe mixing of sea- and rainwater, but donot exist under the sea surface as seawateris not limestone-corrosive. Beyond thesplashwater zone the karren are much lesssharp[3].
surfactant. A substance capable ofreducing the surface tension of a liquid inwhich it is dissolved. Used in air-based
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drilling fluids to produce foam, andduring well development to disaggregateclays[6]. Surfactants are now beingconsidered for the purpose of aquiferremediation by helping disperseimmiscible contaminants.
surface detention. Sheet flow of water inoverland flow before a channel isreached[16].
surface entry. An opening immediately atthe land surface that permits infiltration totake place[16].
surface film. A monomolecular film oforganic compounds forming on water orgrain surfaces[16].
surface mapping. The topographic andgeodetic mapping of an area[16].
surface mine. Strip mine[16].
surface retention. Water held on landsurface[16].
surface runoff. That part of runofftraveling over the ground surface andthrough channels[16].
surface seepage. Surface discharge ofground water not important enough toform a rivulet[16].
surface spreading. A method of artificialrecharge of water to an aquifer byspreading on a surface[16].
surface tension. The free specific surfaceenergy occurring at the interface betweena liquid and its own vapor phase[16].
surface water. Water obtained from surfacesupplies[16].
survey. In caving, the measurement ofdirections and distances between surveypoints and of cave details from them, andthe plotting of cave plans and sectionsfrom these measurements eithergraphically or after computation ofcoordinates[25].
susica. Yugoslavian term for intermittentstream or river in a karst terrane in whichthe water diverts and soaks gradually intothe karst ground-water system[20]. Seealso intermittent river.
suspended load. Detrital matter beingtransported in suspension by a movingstream[16].
suspended matter. Solid matter smallenough to be held in suspension bymoving or stagnant water[16].
suspended water. See vadose water.
sustained yield. The rate at which watercan be withdrawn from an aquifer withoutdepleting the supply[16].
suunto clinometer®. A small, handheldpendulum clinometer commonly used incave survey[25].
suunto compass®. A small, handheldsighting compass commonly used in cavesurvey[25].
swale. A marshy depression or depressionin a ground moraine[16].
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swallet, swallow hole. (British.) A placewhere water disappears underground in alimestone region. A swallow holegenerally implies water loss in a closeddepression or blind valley, whereas aswallet may refer to water loss intoalluvium at a streambed, even thoughthere is no depression[10]. See also doline;ponor; sink; sinkhole; stream sink;sumidero.
swelling. The volume increase due to intakeand absorption of water, especiallyclays[16].
swelling rate. The time rate of volumeincrease[16].
swirlhole. A hole in rock in a streambederoded by eddying water, with or withoutsand or pebble tools[25].
synclinal valley. A valley following theaxis of a syncline[16].
syncline. Downfolded stratum[16].
syngenetic karst. 1. Karst developedcontemporaneously with the lithificationof the formation, as in eolian calcarenitewhere lithification and karstification ofdune sands may proceedsimultaneously[10]. 2. Karst landformsthat developed upon young, porouscarbonate rocks, such as aeolianites, asthey underwent lithification[9]. Synonyms: (French.) karst syngénétique;(German.) Syngenetischer Karst;(Greek.) synegeticon karst; (Italian.)carsismo singenetico; (Spanish.) karstsingenético; (Turkish.) eÕtürümlü karst;(Yugoslavian.) singenetski krs# (kras).
syngenite. A cave mineral —K2Ca(SO4)2"H2O[11].
synoptic network. A network of first orderstations permitting the regular observationof weather for all points at the sametime[16].
synthetic unit hydrograph. A unithydrograph constructed by assuming thereaction of a drainage basin will be basedon its physical characteristics[16].
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T
table mountain. A flat topped mountain(mesa)[16].
tafoni. Roughly hemispherical hollowsweathered in rock either at the surface orin caves[25].
tagging. Affixing a metal tag bearing a cavenumber near its entrance, normally by meansof rock drill and a small nail[25].
tailwater. The lower course of a river withrespect to a given point of structure[16].
talus cone. A cone-like collection ofdisintegrated rock material originatingfrom and adjacent to a steeper slope[16].
tape. 1. In survey, a graduated tape of steel,plastic, wire-reinforced cloth, orfibreglass, used for measuring distance. 2. Strips of woven synthetic fibre used forslings and waist bands[25].
taranakite. A cave mineral —KAl3(PO4)3(OH)"9H2O[11].
tarbuttite. A cave mineral —Zn2(PO4)(OH)[11].
taylorite. A cave mineral —(K,NH4)2SO4
[11].
tectokarst. Karst formed under the stronginfluence of tectonic disturbances. Theterm is indefinite and its use is notgenerally recommended[20]. Synonyms:(French.) tectokarst; (German.)Tektonischer Karst; (Greek.) tektonikonkarst; (Russian.) karst zon tektoniceskihrazlomov; (Spanish.) tectokarst;
(Turkish.) tektonik karst; (Yugoslavian.)tektokrs#, tektokras, tektokarst.
tectonic. Pertaining to structural featuresdue to the deformation of the crust[16].
tectonic cave. A cave formed by some formof ground movement. The most commonis due to landsliding in a jointed rock,leaving an open fissure cave parallel tothe line of the hillside along the back ofthe slipped block. Tectonic caves canform in any rock, as they do not dependon dissolution. Well known examples arethe windypit fissures of north-eastYorkshire, England some of which arehundreds of meters long and up to 60mdeep[9].
tectonic valley. A valley formed by tectonicforces[16].
temperature efficiency. An efficiencyfactor defined by Thornthwaite fordifferent climates. See alsoThornthwaite.
temperature log. A recording curve ofground-water temperature in a well[16].
temporary hardness. See carbonatehardness.
tenorite. A cave mineral — CuO[11].
tensiometer. A device used to measure themoisture tension in the unsaturatedzone[22].
terminal moraine. A glacial depositaccumulated in front of a glacier[16].
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terra rossa. 1. Reddish-brown soilmantling limestone bedrock; may beresidual in some places[10]. 2. Insolubleresiduum of a reddish-brown color leftbehind when carbonate rocks weatherunder Mediterranean or allied climaticalconditions[20]. Synonyms: (French.) terrarossa; (German.) Kalksteinroterde;(Greek.) erythroghi; (Italian.) terrarossa; (Russian.) terra-rossa; (Spanish.)terra rossa; (Turkish.) k2z2l toprak,terrarosa; (Yugoslavian.) crvenica,jerina, jerovica.
terrace. A flat surface bounded by steplikesteep slopes[16].
terraced flowstone. Shallow rimstonepools on outward-sloping walls[10]. Seealso rimstone barrage; rimstone barrier;rimstone dam; constructive waterfall.
terrain. An area with some specificcharacteristics. Reserved for surficialfeatures only. Contrast with terrane.
terrane. An area with some specificcharacteristics[16]. Includes both surfaceand subsurface features. Contrast withterrain.
terrestrial. Living on land. Not to beconfused with "epigean." Terrestrial caveanimals include blind beetles, rnillipedes,spiders, and crickets[23]. See also aquatic.
tertiary porosity. See porosity, tertiary.
test hole. A hole to test the depth of groundwater, water quality, or geologicalconditions[16].
texture. The arrangement in space of thecomponents of a rock body and of theboundaries between these components[16].
thalweg. A line of maximum depth ofstream cross section[16].
Theis equation. The nonequilibriumequation of radial flow towards a well[16].
thenardite. A cave mineral — Na2SO4[11].
thermal spring. See spring, thermal.
thermal stratification. The stratification ofwater in reservoirs due to thermal-densitydifferences[16].
thermocline. An intermediate layer instratified water[16].
thermocouple. A temperature measuringdevice based on the proportionalitybetween thermoelectric current andtemperature difference betweenthermojunctions[16].
thermokarst. 1. A pitted periglacial orformer periglacial surface in superficialdeposits, produced by settling or cavingof the ground after melting of groundice[10]. 2. A term applied to topographicdepressions in karstic terranes resultingfrom the thawing of ice. See cryokarst.
thermokarst pit. Steep-walled depressionformed by thermokarst processes[10].
thickness. The perpendicular distancebetween bounding surfaces such asbedding or foliation planes of a rock.
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thief zone. The zone through which drillingfluid is lost into a formation through theborehole wall[16].
Thiem equation. The equation thatdescribes steady-state equilibrium radialflow into a well[16].
thixotropy. The property of a gel tobecome fluid under application of shearstresses[16].
thread. A natural hole through a rope, tapeor wire can be passed to create ananchor[25].
threshold. That part of a cave system towhich light penetrates in some degree[10].
threshold saturation. Saturation belowwhich no flow occurs[16].
through cave. Cave through which astream runs from entrance to exit orformerly did so[10]. Synonym: (German).Durchgangshöhle.
throughfall. A part of precipitation thatreaches ground by falling throughvegetative cover[16].
throw. The vertical displacement of stratumalong a fault plane[16].
thrust; thrust fault. A generally gentlydipping or subhorizontal fault planewhere the relative movement has beenessentially horizontal, with one rocksequence being pushed across and aboveanother. Some cave development in theTraligill area of north-west Scotland hasbeen guided by thrust planes[9].
tidal river. A river strongly influenced andsubject to tidal currents[16].
tidewell. See spring, ebb-and-flow.
tightest packing. An arrangement ofparticles allowing only minimum voidspace a unit cell of a sample[16].
till. Predominantly unsorted and unstratifieddrift, generally unconsolidated, depositeddirectly by and underneath a glacierwithout subsequent reworking bymeltwater, and consisting of aheterogeneous mixture of clay, silt, sand,gravel, and boulders ranging widely insize and shape[6].
tilted aquifer. A dipping aquifer[16].
time base. The sum of storm duration timeand concentration time in ahydrograph[16].
time-drawdown curve. A plot ofdrawdown variation with time[16].
time lag. The time elapsed between theonset of a certain event and the reaction tothis event[16].
time of concentration. The time requiredfor surface runoff produced in the farthestpart of a basin to reach a concentrationpoint under consideration[16].
time of rise. The time between the firstarrival of runoff and arrival of the peakflow[16].
tinajita. (Spanish.) See solution pan.
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tinticite. A cave mineral —Fe6(PO4)4(OH)6"7H2O[11].
toadstone. Local term in the Peak District,England for lavas, tuffs and igneousintrusions within the local Carboniferouscarbonate sequence.
topofil. A mechanical cave survey devicethat uses a roll of thread and a distancecounter, a protractor to measureinclination and a compass to measure thebearing[25].
topographic divide. A crest line dividingone drainage basin from another[16]. Seealso divide.
topographic map. A map representing theland surface via the use of contour lineswhich are lines of equal elevation on theearth’s surface. Synonym: topo map.
topography. The physical features of ageographical area[16].
topsoil. The topmost portion of a soilprofile[16].
torca. (Spanish.) Large closed depression,more or less circular; a doline[10].
torricellian chamber. A submerged air--filled chamber of a cave at a pressurebelow atmospheric pressure, sealed bywater, having an air-water surface abovethat of adjacent free air-water surfaces[10].
tortuosity. The ratio of actual length ofpore channel to over all length of sample. The sinuosity of actual flow path in aporous medium[16].
total dissolved solids, TDS. 1. The totalconcentration of dissolved constituents insolution, usually expressed in milligramsper liter[22]. 2. The total concentration ofdissolved material in water [as] ordinarilydetermined from the weight of the dryresidue remaining after evaporation of thevolatile portion of an aliquot of the watersample[22].
total hydraulic head. See head, total.
total pore space. The sum ofinterconnected and noninterconnectedpore space[16].
total runoff. The sum of all components ofrunoff into a stream[16].
total soil-water potential. The sum of theenergy-related components of a soil-watersystem; i.e., the sum of the gravitational,matric, and osmotic components[22].
tourelle. (French.) A little tower; applied tosmall flat-topped buttes of limestone inkarst areas. Contrasted with pitons,which have pointed tops, and withcoupoles, which have rounded tops[10].
tower karst, towerkarst, turmkarst. 1. Aspectacular variety of karst landscapedominated by steep or vertical sidedlimestone towers each 30–300m high. Byfar the most extensive and best developedtower karst is the Guangxi province ofsouthern China. Towers originate asresidual cones and are then steepened bywater table undercutting from surroundalluviated plains. Tectonic uplift matchedby karst erosion then increases towerheights, but if uplift exceeds surfacelowering the towers are raised to hillside
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locations and the landscape is rejuvenatedto form a new generation of dolines andcone karst. Many towers are riddled withrelict caves at high levels, and with activecaves through their bases[9]. 2. Karsttopography characterized by isolatedresidual limestone hills displayingnumerous shapes (e.g., cone shaped,steep-sided) separated by areas of allu-vium or other detrital sand; towers aregenerally forest-covered hills, and manyhave flat tops. They may form as isolatedhills or in groups. 3. A type of karsttopography, common in the tropics, inwhich the residual hills rise in steep-sidedbut flat-topped mounds (resemblingtowers) from intervening depressions ordolinas (sinkholes)[20]. Synonyms:(French.) karst à tourelles, karst à tours;(German.) Turmkarst, Kegelkarst;(Italian.) carsismo con forme residuali atorre; (Spanish.) karst de torres;(Turkish.) kuleli karst. See also conekarst; cupola karst; pinnacle karst;fengcong; fenglin.
trace. A short length of wire with fastenersused for attaching ladders and ropes to ananchor[25].
tracers. Materials, such as chemicals, dyes,radioactive salts, and light insolublesolids introduced into underground watersto determine points of egress of the waterand its velocity[10].
tracer-flow method. A method ofdetermining flow velocities and directionsby introducing tracers or indicators intoground water[16].
tracer gaging. Determining streamdischarge by inserting a known quantity
of dye and measuring its concentrationafter mixing[25]. Consists of either thetracer-dilution method or the tracer-velocity method (salt-velocity method). Synonym: dye gaging.
traction load. See bed load.
tranquil flow. Open channel flow withFroude number smaller than unity[16].
transgression. The spreading of the seaover level areas[16].
transient. A pulse dampened oscillation orother temporary phenomena occurring ina system prior to reaching a steady-statecondition[22]. See flow, unsteady.
transition zone. 1. Portion of bedrock inthe vadose zone that is between theepikarst zone and the phreatic zone, isrelatively waterless and unfractured, butis locally breached by discrete percolationpoints (vadose shafts.) 2. The zone inwhich the properties of two adjacent unitschange gradually (freshwater/saltwater). See also epikarst zone; subcutaneousdrain; subcutaneous flow; subcutaneouszone; vadose caves; vadose shafts.
transit time; travel time. The travel timeof a sonic impulse through a given lengthof rock[16].
transmission capacity. The property of aporous medium to conduct fluid[16].
transmissibility coefficient. The use of theterm transmissibility has been replaced bytransmissivity[22]. See transmissivity.
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transmissivity. The rate at which water ofthe prevailing kinematic viscosity istransmitted through a unit width of anaquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient[6]. Though spoken of as a property of theaquifer, it embodies the saturatedthickness and the properties of thecontained liquid as well. It is equal to anintegration of the hydraulic conductivitiesacross the saturated part of the aquiferperpendicular to the flow paths[22].
transpiration. The process by which waterabsorbed by plants, usually through theroots, is evaporated into the atmospherefrom the plant surface[6].
transpiration depth. The depth of waterconsumed annually by plants[16].
transpiration ratio. The ratio of waterweight transpired to weight of dry matterproduced[16].
transport. Conveyance of solutes andparticulates in flow systems. See alsosolute transport; particulate transport[22].
transportational process. All processescontributing to the transport of erodedmaterial[16].
transverse permeability. See permeability,transverse.
transverse wave. A wave generated byshearing displacement where wavemotion is perpendicular to direction ofpropagation[16].
trap. See siphon; sump; water trap.
traverse. 1. The commonest form of cavesurvey in which direction, distance andvertical angle between successive pointsare measured. 2. A way along ledgesabove the floor of a cave. 3. To movealong such a way[25].
travertine. 1. Hard calcareous mineraldeposited by flowing water, that is thesame as the calcareous variety of sinterand comparable to the softer tufa. Theterm is normally used only for depositsformed outside caves, where plants andalgae cause the precipitation by extractingcarbon dioxide from the water and givetravertine its porous structure. Travertineforms most commonly on waterfalls thatbuild up like gour dams. Famousexamples include those at Plitvice inCroatia, Dunn’s River Falls in Jamaica,and, largest of all, Band-I-Amir inAfghanistan[9]. 2. Calcium carbonate,CaCO3, light in color and generallyconcretionary and compact, depositedfrom solution in ground and surfacewaters. Extremely porous or cellularvarieties are known as calcareous tufa,calcareous sinter, or spring deposit. Compact banded varieties, capable oftaking a polish, are called onyx marble orcave onyx[10]. 3. Generally compactcalcium carbonate rock formed byprecipitation of soluble bicarbonateswhen equilibrium is lost due to changes intemperature and chemical characteristics. Soft, porous variety is called calcareoustufa[20]. Synonyms: (French.) travertin;(German.) Kalktuff, Sinter, Travertin;(Greek.) travertinis/asvestolithikostoffos; (Italian.) travertino; (Russian.)travertin; (Spanish.) travertino, toba;(Turkish.) traverten, sutaÕ2;(Yugoslavian.) sedra, travertin, bigar,lehnjak. Related to sinter and tufa.
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travertine terraces. Terraces and relatedforms covered or composed of carbonatesprecipitated from water. Suchprecipitation is usually from saturatedbicarbonate waters (as from karst) whenthey enter a zone of turbulent flow[20]. Synonyms: (French.) terrasse detravertin; (German.) Travertin-Terraße;(Greek.) anavathmos travertinou;(Italian.) spianata di travertino;(Spanish.) terrazas travertínicas;(Turkish.) sutaÕ2 traçalar2;(Yugoslavian.) slapovi. See alsoconstructive waterfall.
trellis. A geometrical arrangement of aninterwoven pattern[16].
trellis drainage pattern. A arrangement ofstream and tributaries in a rectangularfashion[16].
tributary. A stream contributing its watersto another stream of higher order[16].
tributary river. A smaller stream enteringand contributing to the flow of a largerriver[16].
tributary valley. A less important valleyjoining a larger valley[16].
tri-cam. A metalic devise placed in holes orcracks for use as an anchor[25]. Comparechock
triple point. A point at which the solid,liquid, and vapor phases are inequilibrium[16].
tripoly. A very fine grained silica sand[16].
tritium. A short-lived isotope of hydrogen(8 = 12.43 y) that is directly incorporatedinto the water molecule as 1H3HO or1HTO [24]. Commonly used for tracingground water and for age dating of groundwater[16]. See also radioisotope;radioactive tracer; tracers.
Trittkarren. (German.) These are bestdescribed as heel-print karren becausethey resemble the imprint of a heel. Theyare nearly connected with subhorizontal,adjacent, flat plains and migrate upslopeby cutting ‘steps’ through the process ofretrogressive corrosion. The semi-circular form is preserved by the‘horseshoe falls effect’ whichconcentrates the main amount of water onthe innermost part of the heel-print. Atthe upper rim the water gain speed. Thethickness of the film of water is indirectlyproportional to the speed of the flow. Ahigher rate of flow results in a greatereffectiveness of fresh precipitation addedto the flow on the ground, but it alsocauses the diffusion of atmospheric CO2and more extensive corrosion. MostTrittkarren originate at the rim of a grikelying below and have moved upward tothe surface through retrogressivecorrosion. At the base of steep slopeswhere snow collects, nearly funnel-shaped Trittkarren appear and are ofsubnival origin. They are common in theAlps[3]. Synonym: heel-print karren.
trough. A depression usually on the landsurface, but can be found to occur inground water.
troglobite. 1. An animal living permanentlyunderground in the dark zone of cavesand only accidentally leaving it[10]. 2. A
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creature that is fully adapted to life intotal darkness and can only complete itslife cycle underground[13]. 3. A creaturethat lives permanently undergroundbeyond the daylight zone of a cave. Many troglobitic species are adapted insome way to living in a totally darkenvironment. Synonyms: (French.)troglobie; (German.) Troglobiont;(Greek.) troglothitis; (Italian.) troglobio;(Russian.) troglobiont; (Spanish.)troglobio; (Turkish.) troglobit, kör bal2k.
troglodyte. A human cave-dweller[10]. Examples would be early ‘cave man’.
troglomorphy. The physical characteristicsof a troglobite or stygobite; e.g., reducedeyes and pigment, elongated appendages,well-developed tactile and olfactoryorgans, etc[23].
troglophile. 1. "Cave lover." An animalthat can complete its life cycle in caves,but may also do so in suitable habitatsoutside caves[23].
troglophobe. An animal or person unablephysically or psychologically to enter thedark zone of a cave or other undergroundarea[10].
trogloxene. 1. "Cave visitor." An animalthat habitually enters caves, but mustreturn periodically to the surface forcertain of its living requirements, usuallyfood[23].
trophic levels. Feeding levels in a foodchain, such as producers, herbivores, andso on. Most food chains include amaximum of four or five trophic levels[23].
true velocity. Ground-water flow velocityin porous interstice or cavernousopening[16].
True North. The direction of thegeographical north pole at a place[25].
truncation. A horizontal or vertical cleancut through a topographic feature[16].
tsingi. Type of pinnacle karst found onlimestone in Madagascar[9].
tube, lava. See lava cave.
tubular passage; tube; tube passage. 1.Cave passage formed by approximatelyequal dissolution all round when full offlowing water within the phreas. Relicttubes, abandoned as the water table waslowered, are common in old caves, andmay be partially filled by sediment,breakdown or stalagmite, or entrenched toform keyhole passages. Tube sizes rangeto over 15m in diameter, but the largerones are rarely of uniform section. PeakCavern in Derbyshire is well known forits fine circular phreatic tubes. Some ofthe trunk passages of Mammoth Cave,Kentucky, are spectacular tubes ofelliptical section, formed by dissolutionrates that were higher along the beddingthan across[9]. 2. These are nearlyhorizontal cave passages (tunnels) withround or elliptical cross sections and areeither straight or winding. At MammothCave they vary in size up to 30 feet highand nearly 100 feet wide. They areformed while completely filled withflowing water. Whereas they are typicallywider than high as a result of dissolutionalong horizontal cracks and bedding-plane partings, they may also form as
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high, narrow, straight fissures alongmajor vertical or near vertical fractures[15]. See also canyon passage; keyholepassage; passage; vertical shaft.
tubular spring. See spring, tubular.
tufa. Soft, porous concretions of carbonatereprecipitated from saturated karst water,often around plants[22]. See also sinter;travertine.
tunnel. See natural tunnel.
turanite. A cave mineral —Cu5(VO4)2(OH)4
[11].
turbidity. A diminishing of lightpenetration through a water sample due tosuspended and colloidal materials.
turbulence. An irregular motion of fluidparticles in an inertia dominated flowregimen[16].
turbulent flow. 1. Type of flow that beginsto develop in a dissolutional sub-conduitas its diameter increases to the pointwhere differences between flow velocityat the bounding wall (slowed due tofriction and adhesion) and the maximumvelocity in the tube’s center are sufficientto cause development of eddies within theflowing water[9]. 2. The flow condition inwhich inertial forces predominate overviscous forces and in which head loss isnot linearly related to velocity[22]. It istypical of flow in surface-water bodiesand subsurface conduits in karst terranesprovided that the conduits have aminimum diameter of approximately2–5mm although some research hassuggested that 5–15 mm may be more
appropriate. See also laminar flow;Reynolds Number; turbulent threshold.
turbulent threshold. The limiting value ofsub-conduit size, below which water flowis essentially laminar and above whichwater flow includes a significant turbulentcomponent. Sub-conduit diametersbetween 5mm and 15mm have beensuggested as the minimum for turbulentflow, but the value depends upon avariety of factors, including the flowvelocity; at low flow velocities laminarflow conditions may persist in tubes up to500mm in diameter[9]. See also laminarflow; Reynolds Number; turbulent flow.
turlough. (Irish.) 1. A karst depression thatmay be dry or flooded according to seasonor prevailing weather conditions; derivedfrom the Irish term for ‘dry lake’. Oscillations in the general ground-waterlevel, including variations in response tolocal or more distant tidal effects are theprobable mechanism for water levelchanges in the true turloughs. Effects thatappear similar can be produced by highsurface runoff into a closed depressionwith only restricted capacity for thedrainage to sink underground[9]. 2. Adepression in limestone or in glacial driftover limestone that is liable to floodeither from excess surface runoff or fromrising ground water. From the Irishwords tuar loch, meaning dry lake[10].
Turmkarst. (German.) See tower karst.
twilight zone. The area of a cave wherelight penetrating through the entrance issufficient to permit human vision[23]. Seealso zonation.
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type curve. A plot of the theoretical wellfunction verses the lower limit of theintegral in Theis’ graphical solutionmethod[16]. Numerous variations ofTheis’ original work have been developedfor which type curves readily exist.
tyuyamunite. A cave mineral —Ca(UO2)2(VO4)2"nH2O[11].
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U
unaltered rock. Rock that has notexperienced physical or chemicalerosion[16].
unconfined. A condition in which theupper surface of the zone of saturationforms a water table under atmosphericpressure[22].
unconfined aquifer. An aquifer where thewater table is exposed to the atmospherethrough openings in the overlyingmaterials.
unconfined flow. Ground-water flowdisplaying a free surface[16].
unconfined water. Ground water verticallyin direct contact with the atmosphere[16].
unconformity. A fossil land surfacerepresenting the absence of a sequence ofsediments[16].
unconformity spring. See spring,unconformity.
uncontaminated zone. In electrical loggingpractice, the zone around a borehole thathas not become contaminated by mudfiltrate[16].
undercut karren. These are Rinnenkarren(solution grooves) that have beentransformed by humus filling and by theirside walls having been hollowed under bybiogenic CO2
[3].
underflow spring. See spring, underflow.
underdrainage. The drainage from under ahydrologic feature such as a river, barrier,lake, etc.
underfit stream. A small stream that flowsalong a cave passage that was enlarged toits current size by an earlier, largerstream. Commonly underfit streams arefound flowing under vadose conditionsalong the floors of drained phreatic tubes,long abandoned by the phreatic flow thatenlarged them. Underfit streams may alsooccur if the major flow in a vadosestreamway is captured to lower levels bythe opening of a new shaft. The mainflow no longer uses the downstreampassages, leaving any tributaries toamalgamate as an underfit stream[9].
underflow. Deep phreatic flow within anaquifer, along flow lines that are largelyunrelated to the more obvious flow athigher levels. Underflow drainage maybe slower than that in shallower systems,and may travel towards more distantand/or unrelated springs[9].
underground divide. Subsurfacewatershed between two catchment areasin karst; often with incongruent with thesurface topography of the area[20]. Synonyms: (French.) ligne de partage deseaux souterraines, limit souterrainne;(German.) unterirdische Waßerscheide;(Greek.) ypoghios ythroketis; (Italian.)spartiacque sotterraneo; (Russian.)vodorazdel podzemnih vod; (Spanish.)divisoria subterránea; (Turkish.) yeralt2su bölümü; (Yugoslavian.) podzemnarazvodnica, podzemna vododelnica. Seealso subsurface divide.
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underground river, underground stream. Water flowing in channels through caves,caverns, and larger galleries in karstterranes[20]. Synonyms: (French.) rivièresouterraine; (German.) Höhlenfluß,unterirdischer Fluß; (Greek.) ypoghiosroe, potamos; (Italian.) fiumesotterraneo; (Russian.) podzemnajareka; (Spanish.) río subterráneo;(Turkish.) yeralt2 nehri, deresi;(Yugoslavian.) podzemni tok, podzemnarijka, podzemna reka. See subterraneanriver.
underground waters. All subsurfacewaters[16]. Not to be confused withground water which specifically refers towater within the phreatic zone.
uniaxial (unconfined) compression. Compression caused by the application ofnormal stress in a single direction.
uniaxial state of stress. The state of stressin which two of the three principlesstresses are zero.
uniform flow. Flow with constant velocityat all points and at all times[16].
uniformity coefficient. A numericalexpression of the variety in particle sizesin mixed natural soils, defined as the ratioof the sieve size on which 40% (byweight) of the material is retained to thesieve size on which 90% of the material isretained[6].
unit-hydrograph. A hypothetical dischargehydrograph for a given point resultingfrom unit rainfall which produces unitrunoff[16].
unsaturated coefficient of permeability. The apparent coefficient of permeabilityin flow through an unsaturatedmedium[16].
unsaturated flow. 1. The movement ofwater in a porous medium in which thepore spaces are not filled to capacity withwater[22]. 2. Two phase flow throughpores only partially filled with water andair[16].
unsaturated zone. See vadose zone andzone of aeration.
unsteady flow. Flow with a finite localacceleration term and streamlines thatvary with time[16].
unterirdische karst. See interstratal karst.
upconing. Process by which saline waterunderlying freshwater in an aquifer risesupward into the freshwater zone as aresult of pumping water from thefreshwater zone[22].
uplift. 1. The hydrostatic force of waterexerted on or underneath a structuretending to cause a displacement of thestructure. 2. The relative upwardmovement of a part of the earth’s crust[16].
upper confining bed. An impermeable bedoverlying an aquifer[16].
upside-down channel. See ceiling channel.
urkarst. See buried karst.
uvala. 1. A multi-coned closed depression;now little-used term of Croat, Serb orBulgarian origin. The term was
202
introduced to describe features assumedto be the second step in a 3-stage processof polje development, in which dolineswere supposed to coalesce into uvalas. This mechanism is no longer acceptedand the term uvala has fallen intodisuse[9]. 2. Large closed depressionformed by the coalescence of severaldolines which have enlarged towards eachother. Typically, the floor is irregular,being a combination of doline floors anddegraded slopes of the individualhollows[19]. 3. A Yugoslavian term for anelongated closed depression in karst thatis commonly dry or with periodical smallsinking streams or inundations. They aregenerally a few hundred meters long andmay be considered as a small polje[20]. Synonyms: (American.) compounddoline; (French.) cuvala; (German.)Uvala; (Greek.) ouvala; (Italian.)avvalamento carsico, uvala; (Russian.)uvala; (Spanish.) uvala; (Turkish.)koyak; kokurdan; (Yugoslavian.) draga. See also canyon; karst valley; valley sink. Related to polje.
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V
vadose cave. 1. A cave that underwent mostof its development above the water table. Within the vadose zone, drainage is free-flowing under gravity, and cave passagestherefore have air above any watersurface. The gravitational control ofvadose flow means that all vadose cavepassages drain downslope, they exist inthe upper part of a karst aquifer, and theyultimately drain into the phreatic zone orout to the surface. Active stream caves,explorable by non-diving cavers, are bydefinition vadose (though they generallyhave phreatic origins). Characteristics ofvadose caves are uneroded ceilings(except for immature phreatic featurespre-dating the vadose conditions) andcontinuous downhill gradients (unlessinterrupted by short perched sumps). Themain passage forms are canyons, withmeanders and potholes, broken by sub-cylindrical, spray-corroded shafts thatmay demonstrate waterfall retreat. Someof the caves of Monte Canin, Italy, arespectacularly long and deep vadosesystems[9]. 2. Older, higher cave passagesfound in the vadose zone; usually vadosecaves have been abandoned by the groundwater except in times of extreme aquiferrecharge. Passages are usually appear ascanyons and keyholes.
vadose flow. Water flowing in free-surfacestreams in caves[25].
vadose seepage. See percolation,percolation water.
vadose shaft. A vertical tube in the vadosezone that may be a few inches to severalfeet in diameter and may be a few feet
deep to hundreds and over a thousand offeet deep. They commonly occur ascomplexes. A drain hole is usuallyevident at their base. See also verticalshaft.
vadose water. 1. That part of theunderground water in a karst limestonewhich circulates freely under gravityabove the level of saturation - the vadosezone. Caves formed by flowing water aresaid to be vadose caves[19]. 2. Water in thezone of aeration; water above the zone ofsaturation[10].
vadose zone. 1. The zone between the landsurface and the water table[22]. 2. Thezone between the land surface and thedeepest water table which includes thecapillary fringe. Generally, water in thiszone is under less than atmosphericpressure, and some of the voids may con-tain air or other gases at atmosphericpressure. Beneath flooded areas or inperched water bodies the water pressurelocally may be greater thanatmospheric[22]. When discussing a karstsetting, it is preferable to use the term,vadose zone, so as to avoid confusionregarding chemical saturation. Synonym:unsaturated zone. See also zone ofaeration.
valley fill. Unconsolidated debrisaccumulated on a valley bottom[16].
valley sink. (American.) An elongatedclosed depression or series ofinterconnecting depressions forming avalley-like depression. Compare karstvalley; uvala[10].
valley spring. See spring, valley.
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vanadinite. A cave mineral —Pb5(VO4)3Cl[11].
vaporization. The process by which liquidor solid water changes into the gaseousstate[16].
variable-temperature zone. The area of acave where air temperature fluctuateswith the seasons. See also zonation.
variance. The square of the standarddeviation[16].
variscite. A cave mineral —AlPO4"2H2O[11].
varve. The alternating of coarse and finegrained layers in glacial lakesediments[16].
vasque. A large, shallow solution panformed in the intertidal zone of warm seasby the action of brine and marineorganisms[19].
vauclusian spring; vauclusian rising. Seespring, vauclusian.
vegetation cover. The cover livingvegetation on top of the upper soilhorizon[16].
vein. A mineral filled fracture cuttingthrough a host rock. The mineral fillingmay be derived from the host rock, as isthe case with many calcite veins inlimestone (e.g. at Marble Showers inOgof Ffynnon Ddu) or derived fromother, generally deeper, sources, such asthe many veins containing lead and zincore minerals in the Derbyshire PeakDistrict, England[9].
velocity, average interstitial. The averagerate of ground-water flow in intersticesexpressed as the product of hydraulicconductivity and hydraulic gradientdivided by the effective porosity. Synonymous with average linearground-water velocity or effectivevelocity.
vermiculation. Pattern of thin,worm-shaped coatings of clay or silt oncave surfaces[25].
vertebrate. An animal with a backbone. The group includes fishes, amphibians,reptiles, birds, and mammals. Someamphibians and fishes live permanently incaves. See also invertebrate.
vertical angle. The angle in a vertical planebetween a line of sight and the horizontal,positive above the horizontal and negativebelow[25].
vertical cave. A vertical passage within acave system, formed along joints bywhich underground watercourses aretransferred from a higher to a lowerbedding plane[19]. They may becometransformed into vertical shafts bysufficiently uniform dissolution as tocreate a rounded vertical passage. Seealso fissure cave; vertical shaft.
vertical shaft. These are formed byunderground water dripping of flowingstraight downward through the limestonealong vertical cracks. Uniformlydistributed dissolution of the rock resultsin a silo- or well-shaped passage so thatmost of them appear roughly circular incross section when viewed straight up and
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down. They form above active tubularpassages although they may intersect alimited number of passages along theirlength. At Mammoth Cave, they range insize from 30 feet across to 200 feet fromtop to bottom[15]. Synonym: dome-pit. See also canyon passage; fissure cave;keyhole passage; passage; tubularpassage; vadose shaft; vertical cave.
vertical caver. A caver who enjoys and iscompetent doing vertical caving[13]. Seealso vertical caving.
vertical caving. Caving that includes a lotof ascending and descending[13]. See alsovertical caver.
very fine sand. Grain particles withdiameters ranging from 0.05 to 0.1mm[16].
vesicular. Containing small circularcavities[16].
victor tube. The single phreatic sub-conduitamong the many that potentially exist ona given bedding plane (or fracture plane)that is the first to reach a diametercapable of establishing turbulent-flowconditions. Following this breakthroughthe victor tube tends to enlarge morerapidly than other branching or sub-parallel alternatives and eventuallycaptures much of the drainage within itsfield of influence[9].
virgin flow. Flow unaffected by artificialdiversions, impoundments, or channels[16].
virgin passage. A cave passage that has notpreviously been entered; a newdiscovery[13].
viscosity. 1. The resistance of liquid toflow[16]. 2. The property of a real fluidcreating shear forces between two fluidelements and giving rise to fluidfriction[16]. Specifically, it is the ratio ofthe shear stress to the rate of shearstrain[6].
void. See interstice.
void ratio. The ratio of (a) the volume ofvoid space to (b) the volume of solidparticles in a given soil mass[22].
volatiles. Substances with relatively largevapor pressures. Many organicsubstances are almost insoluble in waterso that they occur primarily in a gas phasein contact with water, even though theirvapor pressure may be very small[22].
volumetric flowmeter. Apparatus designedto measure a volume flow rate[16].
volumetric moisture content. Theconcentration of water in soil byvolume[16].
vrulje. (Yugoslavian.) See submarinespring.
vug. A small cavity in rock usually linedwith crystals. Adjective, vuggy[10]. Seealso geode.
vugular pore space. Void space due tosolution cavities of small size[16].
vulcanokarst. An area comprised of tubularcaves within lava flows and showsevidence of mechanical collapse of theroof into them. See also lava cave;pseudokarst.
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W
wading measurement. Dischargemeasurement during which ahydrographer takes readings whilestanding in a river[16].
wall block. A roughly cubical joint-con-trolled large block of limestone or dolo-mite, which has rotated outward from acave wall[10]. See also cave breakdown;wall slab.
wall karren. These are found on verticalwalls as a result of water flowing downthe walls without any area-widemoistening although area-wide sprinklingoccasionally influences theirdevelopment[3]. See also meanderingkarren; humus-water grooves.
wall pocket. See pocket.
wall slab. A thin but large block of rock,which has fallen outward from the wall ofa cave in limestone in which the dip isnearly vertical[10]. See also cavebreakdown.
wang. (Malaysian.) Polje[10].
wash. A small ravine due to outwash byflow in desert regions[16].
wash load. The incoming load ofsuspended sediment passing through ariver network without deposition[16].
waste load. The content of wastes byweight of volume transported by ordischarged into a river[16].
waste water. Water containing sewage andwaste products[16].
water-balance. An instrument designed tomeasure evaporation by gravimetry[16].
water-bearing. Containing water[16].
water-borne disease. Disease spread byorganic contaminants contained in thewater supply[16].
water budget. The quantitative accountingof water volumes involved in thehydrologic cycle[16].
water catchment. The intake of water froman aquifer or a surface reservoir[16].
water conservation. All measures toreduce the quantitative of qualitativespoilage of water[16].
water content. The amount of water lostfrom the soil after drying it to constantweight at 105NC, expressed either as theweight of water per unit weight of dry soilor as the volume of water per unit bulkvolume of soil[22]. See moisture content.
water course. Any channel conveyingwater[16].
water equivalent. The depth of waterresulting from the melting of snow[16].
water hammer. An abnormally highpressure rise in a pipe when suddenchanges in flow occur[16].
water-holding capacity. See specificretention.
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water invasion. The sudden invasion ofwater into a well or borehole[16].
water level. The level of free surface of awater body or water column[16].
water logged. Water saturated[16].
water logging. Water accumulation on topof soil where the water table and groundsurface coincide[16].
water of constitution. Chemically boundwater[16].
water of crystallization. Water embodiedin crystal structure[16].
water of dehydration. Water freed fromhydrous minerals by chemical changes[16].
water pot. See kamenica, solution pan.
water quality. The physical, chemical, andbiological characteristics of water[16].
water requirement. The quantity of waterneeded for crops regardless of thesource[16].
water resources. The total supply ofsurface, ground, and reclaimed water thatcan be used[16].
water stage. The height of the waterlevel[16].
water table. 1. The top surface of a body ofslowly moving ground water that fills thepore spaces within a rock mass. Above itlies the freely draining vadose zone, andbelow it lies the permanently saturatedphreas. In uniform aquifers, such as
sandstone, the water table is a smoothlycontoured surface intersecting the groundat rivers and lakes, but in limestone it ismore complex. Individual cave conduitsmay be above or below the water table,and therefore either vadose or phreatic,and the water table cannot normally berelated to them. The water table conceptdoes, however, apply to the diffusedrainage of percolation water in themicro-fissure network of limestone, butits detailed structure may be complicatedby the presence of conduits. The water-table slope (hydraulic gradient) is low inlimestone due to the high permeability,and the level is controlled by outletsprings or local geological features. Highflows create steeper hydraulic gradientsand hence rises in the water level awayfrom the spring. In France’s Grotte de laLuire, the water level in the cave (andtherefore the local water table) fluctuatesby 450m[9]. 2. The upper surface of azone of saturation except where thatsurface is formed by a confining unit[22]. 3. The upper surface of the zone ofsaturation on which the water pressure inthe porous medium equals atmosphericpressure[22]. 4. The upper boundary of anunconfined zone of saturation, alongwhich the hydrostatic pressure is equal tothe atmospheric pressure[10]. See alsopotentiometric surface.
water-table aquifer. See unconfinedaquifer.
water-table cave. In theory the water tableoffers the prime environment for cavedevelopment as it provides the shortestroute through the phreas and is potentiallymore active chemically due to thepresence of the air/water interface.
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However, geological factors determinethe details of cave inception andenlargement, and passages mostcommonly form just below the watertable as a shallow phreatic variety of cavedevelopment. Development of this typeis believed to be responsible for the‘levels’ of cave passage found in someareas, as in the flint Mammoth CaveSystem, Kentucky. True water-tablecaves are rare except on a limited scale asextensions to cliff foot notches marginedto tropical swamps. Also under theseconditions, the water table may adjustdown to the level of a mature phreaticcave and then modify the passage withhorizontal dissolution notches — as iscommon in the caves of Mulu and Niah,Sarawak[9].
water-table divide. See divide.
water-table map. A map showing theupper surface of the phreatic zone of awater-table aquifer by means of contourlines[1]. See also phreatic zone;potentiometric-surface map; water-tableaquifer.
water tracing. Underground drainage linksthrough unexplored caves confirmed bylabeling input water and identifying it atpoints downstream. The commonlabeling techniques involve the use offluorescent dyes (fluorescein, rhodamine,leucophor, pyranine etc.), lycopodiumspores, or chemicals such as commonsalt. Detection of dye downstream maybe purely visual, but if the dye is used at asubvisible (environmentally acceptable)dilution, suitable detectors must be placedin all potential risings and collected forsubsequent fluorometric examination
(although water samples are moredesirable and beneficial). Lycopodiumspores are usually collected in fine nets,along with other stream-borne sediment,and must then be identified under themicroscope. If chemical tracers are used,regular water samples must be collectedfor subsequent analysis, or the resurgentwaters must be monitored with suitableelectronic detectors and recorders. Flowpaths can also be confirmed bytransmission of artificial or natural floodpulses, which provide additional data onthe nature of conduits, as a pulse istransmitted instantaneously throughflooded passages. The longest successfulwater trace was from Beysehir Golu to theManavgat springs, in Turkey, over adistance of 130km; 390kg of fluoresceinwas used and the dye reappeared after 366days[9].
water trap, watertrap. A place where theroof of a chamber or passage of a cavedips under water but lifts again fartheron[10]. Synonym: trap.
water works. A plant where water istreated and prepared for municipalconsumption[16].
water year. A 12 month period forstreamflow computation[16].
waterlogged. Water saturated.
waterlogging. Water accumulation on topof soil where the water table and groundsurface coincide.
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watershed. 1. A drainage basin[16]. 2. Adivide separating one drainage basin fromanother[16].
waterway. An artificial or naturalwatercourse fit for navigation.
wave karren. Wavy karren surfaces thatappear similar to corrugated tin. Whendenuded they are a disposition for theformation of Rinnenkarren[3]. See alsocovered karren; Rinnenkarren; rootkarren.
wayboard. One of many thin beds ofvolcanic clay that occur at intervalswithin the Carboniferous carbonatesuccession of the Peak District, England;a term formerly used by lead miners (seetoadstone). Wayboards have potentialsignificance during speleogenesis whenthey may act as local aquicludes,inception horizons or providers of strongacid formed by oxidation of sulfideminerals[9].
weathering. The process of disintegrationand decomposition as a consequence ofexposure to the atmosphere, to chemicalaction and to the action of frost, water andheat.
wedge storage. 1. Water storage in theform of a wedge overlying a prism[16]. 2.storage in a flooded river segment[16].
weir. A dam across a water course tocontrol, raise, or measure water flow[16].
weir coefficient. A coefficient used intransforming water depths into dischargevolumes in weir measurements[16].
well. 1. A shaft or hole sunk into the earthto obtain water, oil, gas, or minerals[10]. 2.A deep vertical rounded hole or shaft inthe floor of a cave or at the bottom of aclosed depression[10]. 3. A bored, drilledor driven shaft, or a dug hole, whosedepth is greater than the largest surfacedimension[22].
well function. An exponential integral asused in Theis’ nonequilibriumequation[16].
well hydrograph. A graph of water levelfluctuations in a well[16].
well loss. Head loss caused by flow througha screen and inside a well[16].
well-sorted grains. An assortment of grainshaving the same diameter[16].
well yield. The volume of water dischargedfrom a well in gallons per minute or cubicmeters per day.
wet line. That portion of line of submergedunder water in stream measurements[16].
wet suit. A diving garment of foamneoprene designed to insulate the diverfrom the cold but which allows a thin filmof water to penetrate between the suit andthe body[25].
wetland. A general term used for a group ofwet habitats, in common use byspecialists in wildlife management. Itincludes areas that are permanently wetand/or intermittently water-covered,especially coastal marshes, tidal swampsand flats, and associated pools, sloughs,and bayous[1].
210
wettability. The property of a solidsubstance to be wetted by a liquid such aswater[16].
wetted area. The cross sectional area ofthat portion of a channel that is filled withwater[16].
wetted perimeter. The perimeter overwhich flowing water is in actual contactwith the channel walls and bottom[16].
wetting period. The period of contactbetween a liquid and a solid surfaceduring which wetting occurs[16].
whaletail. A descender consisting of analuminium block with slots, knobs and asafety gate[25].
whitlockite. A cave mineral —Ca9(Mg,Fe)H(PO4)7
[11].
width of contribution. The width of thecontributing region between the ground-water divide from which water enters awell. This usually occurs with aninclined piezometric surface[16].
wilt, to. The shrinking of cell walls due toloss in turgor as a result of waterdeficiency in the plant[16].
wilting coefficient, wilting point. The soilmoisture content at which plants wilt[16].
wind factor. The factor containing amonthly mean wind velocity inevaporation[16].
wind field. The air velocity field aboveground due to wind action[16].
window. 1. In speleology, a natural openingabove the floor of a passage or a room,giving access to an adjoining cavity or tothe surface; larger and less symmetricalthan a porthole. 2. The opening under thearch of a small natural bridge[10]. Seekarst window.
windypit. Open fissure, widened bylandslip, common in valley side situationswhere limestone overlies weaker rockssuch as clays or shales. The term iscommonly used to describe gulls andtectonic caves in the Jurassic limestonesof north-east Yorkshire, England[9].
withdraw, to. To draw water from anaquifer or reservoir[16].
workover. The reworking of a well that hasdeclined in yield[16].
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Y
yield. The quantity of water dischargedfrom an aquifer[16] (e.g spring or well.)See also well yield.
212
Z
zadernovanny0000 karst. (Russian.) Seesubsoil karst.
zakryty0000 karst, skryty0000 karst. (Russian.)See closed karst.
zanjón. (Spanish.) In Puerto Rico, solutiontrench in limestone. Zanjónes range froma few centimeters to about 8 meters inwidth and from about 1 to 4 meters indepth. Apparently they form by thewidening and deepening of joints bysolution[10]. See also bogaz; corridor;struga.
zero adjustment. The adjustment of a scaleor a measuring circuit to an original pointof departure[16].
zonal soil profile. The normal horizontaldistribution of soil zone[16].
zonation. The organization of a habitat intoa more or less orderly series of distinctiveplant and animal associations as a resultof variations in environmental conditions. Zones in a cave are the twilight zone, thevariable-temperature zone, and theconstant-temperature zone[23].
zone of accumulation. The second horizonof a soil profile (B), usually the zone ofclay accumulation subjacent to zone(A)[16].
zone of aeration. The zone in permeablesoil or rock that is above the zonesaturated with water; the zone of vadosewater[10]. See also vadose zone.
zone of investigation. The zone over whicha given measuring device is able to obtaininformation[16].
zone of leaching. The top horizon of a soilprofile (A) that is most intenselyweathered[16].
zone of saturation. The zone in permeablesoil or rock that is saturated with water;the phreatic zone[10]. See also phreaticzone.
zones of karstification. Cviji… (1926, 1960)distinguishes three zones of karstification:(1) dry zone in the upper part of the karstwith caves almost completely dry; (2)transition zone where water flowsdownstream almost permanently; and (3)deep zone with slow downstream flowand local siphons[20]. Synonyms:(French.) zones de karstification;(German.) Zone der Verkarstung;(Greek.) zoni karstikopiiseos; (Italian.)zone idrogeologiche; (Spanish.) zona dekarstificación; (Turkish.) karstlaÕmakuÕa™2; (Yugoslavian.) zonekarstifikacije.
Zwischenhöhle. (German.) Cave in whicha river passage, or former river passage, isentered from above or laterally and whichcan be followed upstream anddownstream some distance but not todaylight[10].
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REFERENCES
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2. Bear, J. 1979. Hydraulics of Groundwater.McGraw-Hill Inc. New York, NY. 569pp.
3. Bögli, A. 1980. Karst Hydrology andPhysical Speleology. Springer-Verlag.Berlin, West Germany. 284 pp.
4. Daoxian, Y. 1985. New Observations onTower Karst. Paper presented at the 1stInternational Conference onGeomorphology (Manchester, England).14 pp.
5. Dreybrodt, W. 1988. Processes in KarstSystems: Physics, Chemistry, andGeology. Springer-Verlag. New York,N.Y. 288 pp.
6. Driscoll, F. G. 1986. Groundwater andWells. Johnson Division. St. Paul, Minn.1089 pp.
7. Ford, D. C. and P. W. Williams. 1989.Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology.Unwin Hyman Inc. Lakeland, Fla. 601 pp.
8. Jennings, J. N. 1985. KarstGeomorphology. Basil Blackwell Inc.New York, N.Y. 293 pp.
9. Lowe, D. and T. Waltham. 1995. ADictionary of Karst and Caves: A BriefGuide to the Terminology and Conceptsof Cave and Karst Science. Cave Studies
Series Number 6. British Cave ResearchAssociation. London, Britain. 41 pp.
10. Monroe, W. H. (Compiler). 1970. AGlossary of Karst Terminology.Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper1899-K. U.S. Geological Survey. U.S.Government Printing Office. Washington,D.C. 26 pp.
11. Moore, G. W. and G. N. Sullivan. 1978.Speleology: The Study of Caves. CaveBooks. 2nd Edition. St. Louis, Missouri.150 pp.
12. Mylroie, J. E. 1984. Hydrologicclassification of caves and karst.Groundwater as a Geomorphic Agent. R.G. LaFleur, Editor. Allen & Unwin. Inc.Boston, Mass. pp. 157–172.
13. NSS. 1982. Glossary of caving termsused in this manual. Caving Basics. J.Hassemer, Editor. National SpeleologicalSociety. Huntsville, Ala. pp. 124–125.
14. Palmer, A. N. 1972. Dynamics of asinking stream system: OnesquethawCave, New York. National SpeleologicalSociety Bulletin. 34. pp. 89–110.
15. Palmer, A. N. 1981. A Geological Guideto Mammoth Cave National Park.Zephyrus Press. Teaneck, N.J. 196 pp.
16. Pfannkuch, H. O. 1971. Elsevier’sDictionary of Hydrogeology. AmericanElsevier Publishing Company. Inc. NewYork, N.Y. 168 pp.
17. Quinlan, J. F. 1978. Types of Karst withEmphasis on Cover Beds in theirClassification and Development.
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Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. TheUniversity of Texas at Austin. 323 pp.
18. Quinlan, J. F., P. L. Smart, G. M.Schindel, E. C. Alexander, A. J. Edwards,and A. Richard Smith. 1991.Recommended administrative/regulatorydefinition of karst aquifer, principles forclassification of carbonate aquifers,practical evaluation of vulnerability ofkarst aquifers, and determination ofoptimum sampling frequency at springs.Hydrology. Ecology. Monitoring. andManagement of Ground Water in KarstTerranes Conference (3rd. Nashville.Tenn. 1991). J. F. Quinlan and A.Stanley, Editors. National Ground WaterAssociation. Dublin, Ohio. pp. 573–635.
19. Sweeting, M. M. 1973. KarstLandforms. Selected Glossary. Compiledby K. Addison. Columbia UniversityPress. New York, N.Y. 362 pp.
20. UNESCO. 1972. Glossary andMultilingual Equivalents of Karst Terms.United Nations Educational. Scientific.and Cultural Organization. Paris, France.72 pp.
21. UNESCO. 1984. Guidebook to Studiesof Land Subsidence due to Ground-Waterwithdrawal. Prepared for the InternationalHydrological Programme. WorkingGroup 8.4. J. F. Poland, Editor. UnitedNations Education. Scientific andCultural Organization. Paris, France. 305pp. (plus appendices).
22. USGS. (date ?). Federal Glossary ofSelected Terms: Subsurface-Water Flowand Solute Transport. Prepared by theSubsurface-Water Glossary Working
Group. Ground-Water Subcommittee.Interagency Advisory Committee onWater Data. Dept. of the Interior. U.S.Geological Survey. Office of Water DataCoordination. 38 pp.
23. William R. Elliott, Ph.D. of the NaturalHistory Division of the MissouriDepartment of Conservation. The list ofdefinitions were obtained directly fromthe Biospeleology web site:
www.utexas.edu/depts/tnhc/.www/biospeleology
which is based on The Life of the Cave byCharles E. Mohr and Thomas L. Poulson(1966, McGraw-Hill) with additions fromDr. Elliott.
24. Clark, I. and P. Fritz. 1997.Environmental Isotopes in Hydrology.Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Fla. p.174.
25. Australian Speleological Federation.1996. Cave and Karst Terminology. Thelist of definitions were obtained directlyfrom the Western Australia Speleologyweb site:
http://wasg.iinet.net.au/terminol.html
which contains a listing of terminologycommonly used in Australia.