glaxo smith kline research paper for siemens

KUDZU’S EFFECTS ON HYDRATION, PAIN, AND ALCOHOLIC TOLERANCE IN

DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER

INTRODUCTION

The kudzu plant (pueraria lobata) is an invasive vine originating in Asia that

grows abundantly in the southeastern United States. The plant has a variety of uses in

textiles, food, beverage, and medicine. Kudzu is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in

Traditional Chinese Medicine often utilized to treat tinnitus, vertigo, and Wei syndrome

(“Kudzu,” 2008). Some studies suggest that kudzu reduces the physical desire for alcohol

consumption and may even prevent alcohol hangover (Lukas et al., 2005). Other studies

refute the latter suggesting that kudzu inhibits ALDH2, a gene that catalyzes the chemical

transformation from ethanol to acetic acid thus quickening the lasting effects of alcoholic

consumption (McGregor 2007).

The toxin acetaldehyde is produced in the liver when alcohol enters the body and

the natural enzymes ADH (Alcohol dehydrogenase) as well as glutathione form acetate

that break down the acetaldehyde. When only a few drinks are consumed over time, the

ADH and glutathione can sustain the breaking down of acetaldehyde and therefore

minimal damage and subsequent effects (exhibited in hangover) occurs. However, when

more drinks are consumed the acetaldehyde builds up and the acetate cannot break it

down fast enough, therefore damage of the liver and surrounding tissues as well as

alcoholic hangover occurs (McGregor, 2007). Some studies suggest that pueraria flos

(kudzu flower) eliminates acetaldehyde in the body at a higher rate than normal therefore

preventing hangover (Yamazaki et al., 2002).

Alcohol hangover is due to dehydration in the body, suggesting that if kudzu does

prevent alcohol hangover, it could have protective effects against dehydration (Eggleton,

1942). This study examines the kudzu leaf and its hydrating ability, effects on alcohol

tolerance, and potential to inhibit pain.

HYDRATION IN DROSOPHILA

BACKGROUND

Literature suggests that drosophila pupae demonstrate levels of hydration

depending on how far they pupate from prepared medium (Johnson and Carder, 2012).

With this information, a preliminary experiment was conducted to prove that concept.

MATERIALS AND METHODS (1)

20 25mm clean, plastic vials were separated into 4 groups of 5. Groups were

labeled, “3mL,” “6mL,” “9mL,” and “12mL.” 12mL of instant drosophila medium was

measured using a graduated cylinder and added to each vial. Group labeled 3mL had

3mL of water added to the 12mL of medium. Group labeled 6mL had 6mL of water

added to the 12mL of medium. This method was continued, but water amounts were

changed to their respective vial labels. 0.08g of active dry yeast was added on top of the

medium in each vial. 5 larger sized wild-type drosophila larvae were placed in each

prepared vial and closed with a foam stopper. Vials were stored in a Percival at 21°C.

After several days the larvae pupated. Once drosophilae entered into the pupae stage the

distance from medium to each pupa was recorded. Distance of pupae on surface of

medium equaled 0cm.

Kudzu’s Effects on Hydration, Pain, and Alcohol Tolerance 2

RESULTS (1)

These results portray several ideas that

support the concept of hydration levels in drosophila pupae. Assuming that any

drosophilae not seen in each vial means they are below the surface of the medium and

therefore less hydrated, the different groups are fairly consistent with the concept of

hydration in drosophilae. For example, groups containing 3mL of water, which has a 1:4

ratio of water to medium, had an average of 3.4 pupae not seen in each vial, whereas

groups containing 12mL of water, which has a 1:1 ratio of water to medium, only had and

average of 1 not seen in each vial. For 6mL and 9mL of water added, the average amount

of drosophilae not seen in each vial was practically the same in each group (1.6 and 1.8

respectively). Additionally, the amount of drosophilae on the surface acted inversely to

the number not seen. For instance, 12mL of water added had a higher average amount of

drosophilae recorded on the surface and a lower average amount not seen, whereas 3mL

Kudzu’s Effects on Hydration, Pain, and Alcohol Tolerance

Dead Not Seen Surface 0<0

1

2

3

4

6mL of Water Added

Status of Pupae

Ave

rage

# o

f Pu

pae

in E

ach

T

rial


1

2

3

4

3mL of Water Added

Status of Pupae

Ave

rage

# o

f Pu

pae

in E

ach

T

rial


1

2

3

4

9mL of Water Added

Status of PupaeA

vera

ge #

of P

up

ae in

Eac

h

Tri

al


1

2

3

4

12mL of Water Added

Status of Pupae

Ave

rage

# o

f Pu

pae

in E

ach

T

rial

3

had fewer average number of drosophilae on the surface and many more not seen on

average.

The drosophilae most likely stayed on the surface of the medium or lower because

that is where there was the most saturation of water. A few strayed up higher perhaps to

look for water or maybe because they were more hydrated than the rest of the larvae

when first introduced into the new dehydrated environment. Furthermore the death of

some larvae in each group shows the difficulty in surviving in such a dehydrated

environment.

While this data displays decent evidence of hydration levels in drosophilae, the

lack of drosophilae not higher than the surface of the medium makes it difficult to fully

prove that hydration in drosophilae depends on their distance to the medium. In order to

gain more substantial data to prove the preceding concept another test was conducted.

METHODS AND MATERIALS (2)

30 25mm clean, plastic vials were separated into 6 different groups labeled

“4mL,” “6mL,” “8mL,” “10mL,” “12mL,” “14mL.” 6mL of instant drosophila medium

was measured using a graduated cylinder and placed into each vial. The respective

amount of water was added to the correspondingly labeled vial (i.e. 4mL of water in the

vial labeled “4mL”). 0.07g of active dry yeast was sprinkled on top of the prepared

medium in each vial. A worm hook was made with a small (about 0.1mm) wire flattened

with a hammer fused to a glass tube using a propane torch. The worm hook was used to

transfer 10 large larvae (larvae close to pupating) to each prepared vial. The vials were

closed with foam toppers and stored at room temperature until larvae pupated. Once


pupae were evident, the distances from each pupae to the medium were observed and

recorded.

RESULTS (2)

2/3 (3mL) 1 (6mL) 4/3 (8mL) 5/3 (10mL)

2 (12mL) 7/3 (14mL)

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

Average Heights of Drosophila Pupae at Each Ratio of Water to Medium

Ratio of Water to Medium

Ave

rage

Hie

igh

ts o

f Pu

pae

(cm

)

There is clear support of the hydration levels in drosophilae relating to distance to

medium from this experiment. All of the different ratios of water to medium are

consistent with the concept that the larger the distance is from medium to where

drosophilae pupate the more hydrated they are. However, the 3mL group is slightly

higher than the 6mL and the 8mL group perhaps because the dehydrated environment

caused the drosophilae to look for water and venture higher up the vial.

With proof of the preceding concept, kudzu’s possible hydrating effects could

then be examined by looking at distance from pupae to food using drosophila eggs and

larvae that were raised in varying amounts of kudzu.


KUDZU’S HYDRATING EFFECTS

BACKGROUND

Kudzu’s historical position in Traditional Chinese Medicine as well as supporting

literature suggests that kudzu has a large potential for medicinal purposes. Some studies

suggest that kudzu flower prevents alcoholic hangover by the heightened rate of removal

of acetaldehyde in the body (Yamazaki et al., 2002). Since symptoms of alcoholic

hangover are mostly due to dehydration in the body, it may be true that kudzu has

potential hydrating effects (Eggleton, 1942).

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Approximately 30 drosophilae were transferred to each of 4 clean 25mm plastic

vials with prepared medium (0.5oz of water 0.5oz of medium and 0.08g active dry yeast).

Within several days the adult drosophilae had laid eggs. 10 large kudzu leaves were dried

in a fisher scientific drier and crushed into a semi-fine powder. 3 groups of 5 vials were

labeled: “none,” “1.0mL,” and “0.5mL.” 60mL of instant drosophila medium and 5.0mL

of kudzu powder were measured in a graduated cylinder and placed in a mortar to be

crushed and mixed using a pestle. The mixture was re-measured and evenly divided into

the 5 vials labeled “1.0mL.” Equal parts of water were added to the mixture in the 5 vials.

60mL of medium were crushed and mixed with 2.5mL of kudzu powder. The mixture

was re-measured and evenly divided into the 5 vials labeled “0.5mL.” Equal parts of

water to medium were added to the mixture. 12mL of medium and 12mL of water was

measured and placed in each of the remaining vials. 0.08g of active dry yeast was added

on top of the medium in each vial. Adult drosophilae were removed from 4 vials from the


beginning of the procedure and medium was carefully taken out of one of the 4 vials so

that the top of the medium was completely intact. Medium was then placed on a petri

dish to look for drosophila eggs under a microscope. A worm hook (used in the previous

procedure) was dipped in water and a drosophila egg was picked up from the petri dish.

Once the egg was on the hook a micro-dropper was used to envelop the egg in water. The

drop was held over one of the 15 prepared vials and several more drops were added to

“help” the enveloped egg drop into the medium of the vial. The hook was checked to

ensure that the egg was not still on the hook. 10 eggs were placed in each vial. Once eggs

reached pupae stage the distance to medium was measured and recorded.

RESULTS

None 0.5mL 1.0mL0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

Average Heights of Drosophila Pupae Raised in Varying Amounts of Kudzu

Amount of Kudzu Added to Medium

Ave

rage

Hei

ghts

of P

up

ae (

cm)

It is clear from the results displayed above that kudzu increases the pupation

heights of drosophilae. Because drosophilae pupate farther away from medium if they are

more hydrated and this particular experiment only changed amount of kudzu in the


medium (which stayed constant in each group), the data suggests that kudzu leaves may

have hydrating effects in drosophilae.

KUDZU AS A PAIN INHIBITOR

BACKGROUND

In traditional Chinese Medicine, kudzu root is used to treat alcoholic hangover as

well as a variety of other ailments. Does the kudzu root alleviate symptoms of hangover

(upset stomach, headache, dizziness), or prevent alcoholic hangover altogether? With

suggestion of kudzu leaf as a hydrator it would appear that the root most likely prevents

the alcoholic hangover by keeping the body hydrated. However, the leaf could not only

have hydrating effects, but it could also be a pain inhibitor.

Studying pain is extremely subjective and therefore very difficult. However, for

this experiment, the work of Johnson and Carder was used as an aid. Their experiment

determined that drosophila larvae prefer to climb a wet surface (such as wet filter paper)

rather than a dry surface (such as the sides of a plastic vial) because dry surfaces are

painful for the larvae to move on. Additionally, the larvae will pupate further from the

medium when they have a wet surface to climb up (Johnson and Carder, 2012). The

procedure from Johnson and Carder’s experiment could be recreated, but with slight

variation to determine if kudzu is a pain inhibitor.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The following materials and methods were adapted from the protocol in Johnson

and Carder’s 2012 study, “Drosophila Nociceptors Mediate Larval Aversion to Dry


Surface Environments Utilizing Both the Painless TRP Channel and the DEG/ENaC

Subunit, PPK1.” 20 vials were prepared with half labeled “Kudzu” and the other half

labeled “Water.” Kudzu vials were prepared with 0.5oz of medium and 0.5oz of “kudzu

juice,” made by blending 6 kudzu leaves and 12 ounces of water in a standard blender

and straining the mixture until a homogenous green mixture appears. Water vials were

prepared with 0.5oz of medium and 0.5oz of water. Supported filters were created by

individually covering 2 rectangular glass slides with Whatman’s #1 filter paper and duct

taping the two slides together. A supported filter was vertically placed in a central

position in each prepared vial. 0.07g of active dry yeast was evenly spread on the top of

the medium in each vial. Finally using a pipette, 6mL of additional water in each vial was

evenly distributed. 10 wild type ADH+ drosophila larvae (small-medium size at

beginning of larval stage) were placed in each vial. Once the drosophilae pupated the

number of drosophilae on sides of glass versus filter paper was recorded as well as

heights of each pupa (distance from medium to pupa).

RESULTS

Surface Average number of pupae on surface in each vial

Glass Sides 10Filter Paper 0


Kudzu H2O0

1

2

3

4

Average Distance of Pupae to Medium

Substance Medium Prepared With

Ave

rage

Dis

tan

ce t

o M

ediu

m (

cm)

All larvae pupated on the filter paper demonstrating that kudzu leaf had no effect

on the pain receptors of the larvae and therefore none of the larvae would travel up the

sides of the vial because it would be a painful process. Furthermore, the graph above

demonstrates the small variation of average pupation heights between drosophila larvae

in medium prepared with kudzu leaf versus water (3.74 cm and 3.89 cm respectively).

The minimal variation in pupation heights of the drosophila in different mediums further

suggests that kudzu leaf is not a pain inhibitor.

Additionally, this data is not consistent with prior data that suggests kudzu has

protective effects against dehydration. The reason for this is most likely do to a stressed

versus non-stressed environment. When drosophila larvae are in an environment where

the only option is to climb up the dry plastic sides of a vial to pupate, it is considered a

stressed environment because the larvae engage pain receptors to preform basic function

and the kudzu leaf appears to be a hydrator. However, in a non-stressed environment,

where larvae have the option to pupate on the plastic sides of a vial or the much preferred

and pain-free, wet filter paper, kudzu leaf does not appear to be a hydrator. Therefore the


two studies suggest that kudzu leaf has hydrating effects in drosophilae in stressed

environments.

KUDZU’S EFFECT ON ALCOHOL TOLERANCE

BACKGROUND

Some studies suggest that kudzu root may prevent or even treat alcoholism by

behavior modification because it increases blood alcohol levels in the body therefore

increasing the effects of alcohol with less substance (“Got a Drinking Problem? Try

Kudzu,” 2013). Other studies suggest that kudzu flower increases the rate of removal of

acetaldehyde in the body thus lessening the effects of alcoholic intake (Yamazaki et al.,

2002). This study examines the kudzu leaf’s effect on alcoholic tolerance in drosophilae

(2). A preliminary study was conducted to determine behavioral responses/alcohol

tolerance in ADH+ drosophila and ADH- drosophila (1).


4 25mm vials labeled “ADH- Alcohol,” “ADH+ Alcohol,” “ADH- Water,”

“ADH+ Water” were prepared. A cotton ball was stuffed into the bottom of each vial. A

10% alcohol solution was produced by mixing 1mL of ethanol with 9mL of distilled

water. 5mL of the solution was measured and poured in the vial labeled “ADH- Alcohol”

so that the cotton ball was soaked. The other 5mL was poured over the cotton ball in vial

labeled “ADH+ Alcohol.” The other two vials had 5mL of distilled water soaking each

cotton ball. Live ADH+ and ADH- drosophilae were transferred into respectively labeled

vials by tapping their original vial on a flat hard surface so they fell to the bottom of the


vial, the foam stopper was quickly removed and one of the prepared cotton ball vials was

stacked on top so that drosophilae could not escape. The two vials were inverted so that

the cotton ball vial was on top and the drosophilae would climb upwards. The stacked

vials were then flipped upside down so that the cotton ball vial was on the bottom and

tapped on a hard, flat surface so that remaining drosophilae fell from the original vial into

the cotton ball vial. The original vial was quickly removed from the top and the cotton

ball vial was closed with a foam stopper. The original vial stopper was replaced as well.

This was done with the remaining prepared cotton ball vials. Each vial was observed at

15 minutes, 30 minutes, 60 minutes, 2 hours, 3 hours, 4 hours, 8 hours, and 24 hours and

observations were recorded.

RESULTS (1) Average behavior observations for ADH- drosophilae exposed to 10% alcohol solution

Average behavior observations for ADH+ drosophilae exposed to 10% alcohol solution

The first experiment was simply to determine normal behaviors of ADH- versus

ADH+ drosophilae when exposed to alcohol and water. It was very clear that ADH-


Time 15min 30min 1h 2h 3h 4h 8h 22hObservations

Normal Normal Some difficulty flying/relatively spastic in movement

Lethargic Lethargic Lethargic Normal, One dead

Normal, One dead

Time 15min 30min 1h 2h 3h 4h 8h 22hObservations

Difficulty flying/Spastic in movement





Difficulty flying/Lethargic

Some dead, All others lethargic

Almost all Dead, All others are normal

drosophilae exposed to alcohol appeared to be “drunk” much quicker than the ADH+

drosophilae. Their drunkenness was described by lack of function in flying as well as

spastic/twitchy movement and later, lethargic mobility. This was an expected result

because ADH- drosophilae lack alcohol dehydrogenase, the enzyme in the body, which

removes acetaldehyde produced by alcohol that causes drunken effects.

Additionally, ADH+ drosophilae seemed to metabolize the alcohol quicker than

ADH- drosophilae, where time of inebriation was instant in ADH- drosophilae and about

an hour delayed in ADH+ drosophilae. Also, most ADH- drosophilae died within a 22

hour time period whereas ADH+ drosophilae returned to normal after 8 hours of

exposure and all but one drosophilae remained alive, further showing the ability of

ADH+ drosophilae to metabolize alcohol at a quicker rate than ADH- drosophilae.

Furthermore, a majority of ADH- drosophilae in alcohol tended to remain on the

cotton ball for most of the time period suggesting lack of judgment once impaired,

meaning continuous consumption of alcohol regardless of negative physical effects

including fatality. ADH+ drosophilae tended to remain on the top of the foam stopper in

the vial for the 22 hour time period.

A final indication of loss of physical function in ADH- drosophilae compared to

ADH+ drosophilae exposed to alcohol was the ongoing openness of the wings in ADH-

drosophilae. In all other vials, both types of drosophilae closed their wings upon landing

on a surface, however ADH- drosophilae exposed to alcohol continued to leave their

wings open once they landed, which further suggests loss of physical function due to

alcohol exposure.


Overall, unlike ADH+ drosophilae, ADH- drosophilae are unable to consume

alcohol, remove acetaldehyde, metabolize leftover acetaldehyde, and resume to normal

function because they do not have alcohol dehydrogenase, which would explain the

instant intoxication and ultimate death of the ADH- drosophilae in this study.

Average behavior observations for ADH- drosophilae exposed to waterTime 15min 30min 1h 2h 3h 4h 8h 22hObservations

Normal* Normal* Normal* Normal* Normal* Normal* 4 out of 16 dead, All others normal*

4 out of 16 dead, All others normal*

*ADH- drosophilae tended to be slightly twitchier than ADH+ drosophilae in general

Average behavior observations for ADH+ drosophilae exposed to waterTime 15min 30min 1h 2h 3h 4h 8h 22hObservations Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal 5 out of

17 dead,All others normal

5 out of 17 dead, All others normal

Despite the fact that ADH- drosophilae tended to be slightly twitchier than ADH+

drosophilae, in general, the two strains of drosophilae exhibited normal behavior when

exposed to water. After 22 hours, both ADH- and ADH+ drosophilae appeared normal,

though some had died (4/16 and 5/17 respectively). The ratio of dead drosophilae after

22h in ADH- and ADH+ drosophilae exposed to alcohol was 20/28 and 1/26 respectively.

These observations are most likely due to the fact that ADH+ drosophilae are more adept

to protecting themselves against the negative effects of alcohol, but can still get the

nutrients they need from the alcohol, whereas ADH+ and ADH- drosophilae exposed to

water do not have any nutrients with which to thrive from, and ADH- drosophilae

exposed to alcohol are easily subject to the negative effects of alcohol. Overall, it shows

that water does not contain enough nutrients for the survival of drosophilae.



“Kudzu juice” was made by blending 6 kudzu leaves and 12 ounces of water in a

standard blender. This mixture was strained until a homogenous green mixture appeared.

2 vials were labeled with “Kudzu” and “Water.” 12mL of instant drosophila medium was

put into each vial. 12mL of water was added to the vial labeled “Water” and 12mL of

“kudzu juice” was added to the vial labeled “Kudzu.” 0.08g of yeast was added on top of

the medium in each vial. ADH- drosophilae were transferred using the same method

described in the previous procedure and left to reproduce (approx. 3 days). During this

time the drosophilae in each vial laid eggs so that the alcohol tolerance of ADH-

drosophilae born and raised, feeding off of kudzu could be studied. ADH- drosophilae

were used because of extremely low tolerance for alcohol with apparent effects of

inebriation. At this time 2 identical vials were prepared; one labeled “Kudzu Alcohol”

and the other labeled “Water Alcohol,” with cotton balls soaked in 5mL of the 10%

ethanol solution described in the previous procedure. Live, adult, ADH- drosophilae were

transferred to corresponding vials. The drosophilae were observed at 1 hour, 2 hours, 3

hours, 6 hours, and 24 hours.

RESULTS (2)


15 30 60 120 180 240 480 14400

20

40

60

80

100

Percentage of Dead Adult ADH- Drosophila After Alcohol Exposure with Varying Pre-Environments

NormalKudzu

Minutes Passed

Per

cen

t D

ead

Tolerance in context of alcohol is defined as “the capacity of the body to endure

or become less responsive to a substance” (“Tolerance” 2013). In this particular study,

the substance was a 10% alcohol solution. A blended kudzu leaf mixture was used to

study any change in the alcoholic tolerance of drosophilae.

As shown in the previous study, after 24 hours, almost all ADH- drosophilae

exposed to alcohol were dead most likely caused by alcohol poisoning. Prior to death, the

ADH- drosophilae exhibited extreme effects of alcoholic inebriation such as loss of

function and judgment followed by lethargy. In this study, all ADH- drosophilae

exhibited those intoxicated effects, however, drosophilae raised in normal medium

prepared with water showed these effects much faster than those raised in medium

prepared with kudzu leaf juice.

Additionally, it is clear from the above graph that ADH- drosophilae raised in

medium prepared with kudzu leaf juice showed a delayed response to the ultimate

alcoholic poisoning effects (death). Kudzu drosophilae demonstrated a higher percent

dead for the first hour because one drosophila died from drowning in a drop of alcohol.


After 2 hours, however, the percentage of dead normal drosophilae increased rapidly

from just 4.55% to 75% between hours 2 and 3 where all were dead after 6 hours of

alcohol exposure. Kudzu drosophila showed a delayed reaction to death, where the main

spike in percent dead was between 4 and 6 hours and all were dead after 24 hours.

There is no doubt that this study suggests an increase in alcohol tolerance in

ADH- drosophilae born, raised, exposed, and feeding off of medium prepared with kudzu

leaf compared to regularly prepared medium.

FUTURE WORK

While this entire study showed multiple significant findings about kudzu’s

abilities, there is still much more to learn about the invasive vine. There are many

questions such as: Why does kudzu leaf appear to be a hydrator in a stressed

environment? Why does the kudzu leaf appear to increase the alcohol tolerance? Do other

parts of the kudzu plant have similar or even adverse effects? And most importantly: can

we translate these experiments into human models that exhibit similar results?

While the kudzu leaf’s hydrating abilities and effects on alcoholic tolerance in

drosophilae are a significant finding, there is a lot more work to be done on whether

kudzu leaf can translate these effects to humans. The most apparent difference between

humans and drosophilae is sheer size. The quantity of consumption of the kudzu leaf by

humans would have to be much larger than that of the drosophilae. Additionally,

drosophilae are less complex than humans and have different biological and anatomical

processes, which would change how kudzu affects the two different organisms. Overall, a


clinical trial using human subjects would benefit the knowledge of potential effects of

kudzu leaf on humans.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated the unique abilities of the leaves from the kudzu vine to

hydrate and increase alcohol tolerance in drosophilae. These findings are important, so

that research may progress to similar studies using human subjects. If the kudzu leaf is a

hydrator in humans, new drugs can be created to treat severe cases of dehydration, kudzu

can be utilized in hydrating sports drinks, and ultimately kudzu could play an important

role in prevention of alcoholic hangovers. Furthermore, if the kudzu leaf has similar

effects on the alcoholic tolerance of humans, an individual who is ADH- can enjoy

drinking more without the effects of intoxication.

Kudzu occupies over 2 million acres of land in the southeast United States alone,

inhibiting the growth of other important species of plants, which causes disruption in

animal habitats (Cain et al., 2011). In total, an alternative use for kudzu would promote

the removal of the dominating invasive species from precious land thus preventing

ecological imbalances as well as serve as a fiscally cheap medicinal herb.

REFERENCES

Cain, Michael L.; Bowman, William D.; Hacker, Sally D. (2011). Ecology. Sinauer

Associates, Inc. p. 246.


Carai MA, Agabio R, Bombardelli E, Bourov I, Gessa GL, Lobina C, Morazzoni P, Pani

M, Reali R, Vacca G, and Colombo G. (2007). Potential use of medicinal plants

in the treatment of alcoholism. Fetoterapia, 71 (1), S38-S42.

Eggleton MG. (1942). The diuretic action of alcohol in man. Journal of Physiology, 101,

172-191

"Got a Drinking Problem? Try Kudzu." Msnbc.com. Msnbc, n.d. Web. 02 May 2013.

<http://www.nbcnews.com/id/7884540/>.

Johnson WA, Carder JW. (2012). Drosophila Nociceptors Mediate Larval Aversion to

Dry Surface Environments Utilizing Both the Painless TRP Channel and the

DEG/ENaC Subunit, PPK1. PLoS ONE. 7(3)

"Kudzu." Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine. AltMD, n.d. Web. 02 May 2013.

<http://www.altmd.com/Articles/Kudzu--Encyclopedia-of-Alternative-

Medicine>.

Lukas SE, Penetar D, Berko J, Vicens L, Palmer C, Mallya G, Macklin EA, and Lee DY.

(2005). An extract of the Chinese herbal root kudzu reduces alcohol drinking by

heavy drinkers in a naturalistic setting. Alcohol Clin Exp Res., 29 (5), 756-762.

McGregor NR. (2007). Pueraria lobata (Kudzu root) hangover remedies and

acetaldehyde-associated neoplasm risk. Alcohol, 41 (7), 469-478.

Overstreet DH, Keung WM, Rezvani AH, Massi M, and Lee DY. (2003). Herbal

remedies for alcoholism: promises and possible pitfalls. Alcohol Clin Exp Res., 27

(2), 177-185.


Perry L. (2004). "How Hangovers Work" HowStuffWorks.com. How Studd Works, n.d.

Web. 19 June 2013.

<http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/human-biology/hangover.htm>

Tolerance. 2013. In Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved August 6, 2011, from

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/tolerance

Yamazaki T, Hosono T, Matsushita Y, Kawashima K, Someya M, Nakajima Y, Narui K,

Hibi Y, Ishizaki M, Kinjo J, and Nohara T. (2002). Pharmacological studies on

Puerariae Flos. IV: Effects of Pueraria thomsonii dried flower extracts on blood

ethanol and acetaldehyde levels in humans. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res., 22(1), 23-

28.


glaxo smith kline research paper for siemens

Documents